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org/

The waveequation
By ENDERS ROBINSON and DEAN CLARK

he foundation of seismologyis the theory of wave motion,

a complicatedconceptthat is still - after centuriesof experiments and speculationsby many of the very greatestscientists
- an area of active researchin many disciplines.Even simple
forms of wave motion are difficult to describeverbally; but,
ironically, the simplest type of wave is remarkably easy to
describe(and subsequentlyanalyze) mathematically.
This is one of thoseareaswhere,in the wordsof Nobel Prize
physicistStevenWeinberg,mathematicshas a spooky correlation to the physicalworld. Although somenaturally occurring
crystalshaveperfectgeometricshapes,right trianglesare a purely
mathematical concept.They exist outside our ordinary experienceof the physicalworld. Have you everfound a perfectlyrighttriangular rock, or blade of grassor leaf in your back yard or
on a field trip? Yet we rememberfrom elementarytrigonometry
(the mathematical analysisof the propertiesof triangles) that
the graph of the sine function - nothing more than the ratio
of two sidesof a right triangle - perfectly representscertain
periodicmotions,suchasthe (small) oscillationsof a pendulum.
This type of sinusoidalmotion is calledsimpleharmonicmotion.
The pure sine curve, u = sin x, is quite restricted.The value
of u can never be greater than 1 or lessthan -1 and x must
traversea distanceof 2t radians before one cycleof motion is
completed.Theselimitations are, however,not serious.The sine
function is easily tailored to representany regularly repeating
motion no matter what its height/depth (or amplitude), its frequency of oscillation, or its value when it crossesa starting
point (often the x = 0 line). Such an all-purpose sine function
can be written, supposingu to be the disturbancecausedby the
motion. as
u = A sin 27r ?x

c
T

>
wherex is distanceand I is time Five graphsof u vs.x are shown
in Figure 1. The number A (chosento be positive) represents
the amplitude;the distancebetweenconsecutivecrestsis X (called
the wavelength);the quantity T is the period or the time it takes
the waveto completeone cycle.The crestof the wave movesa
distanceX in time T Since X is a distance and T a time the
quotient X/T equals the waves velocity - almost always ex-

14

GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPIGRATION

JULY 1987

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pressedsimply as V. Therefore, it.k 1~t1xt.dand I I\ allowed to

tary, a wave crest sweepspast the fixed poml with a propagation velocity given by 1:
In seismic work we usually plot wave motion as a function
of time for fixed value of x and varying values of 1. This results
in sine curves with a vertical (see Figure 2) orientation, rather
than horizontal as in Figure 1.
There are other useful ways in which we can write a sine function to representwavemotion. Instead of wavelengthand period,
we can use wavenumber (k) and frequency (w) where

and then the sinusoidal wave may be expressed

u = A sin (kx -

Figure 3. Illustration of f(x - vt).

wt)

which representsa simple harmonic progressivewave. We can

also write this curve as

k = Zax.

u = A sin k(x -

vt)

because v = h/T = w/k.

The quantity w (which is expressedin units of radians per second) representsangular frequency. It is related to cyclical frequencyf(expressed in Hertz) by the equation w = 27rf. Likewise

I q
37

-_-_

----

We can generalizethis result without much difficulty. We note

that the quantity x - vt reproducesitself when t becomesI + t
and x becomes x + vt' because
x + vt ~ vf t+ 1) =x

- vt.

Therefore any function of x - vt can be said to representa wave.

An effective way to illustrate this is to imagine a taut string
lying on the x axis. If the string is displaced in any way perpendicular to the x axis, then the shape of the resulting curve can
be written u = f(x). If the displacements alter in such a way
that the pulse travels with velocity v in the positive x direction
without change of shape, the equation representing the pulse
at any time t will still be u = f(x) . . . . . provided that we move
the origin a distance vt in the positive direction (see Figure 3).
In referenceto the old origin, the equation of the pulse will have
x replaced by x - vt or u = f(x-vt).
We can therefore state that this is the general equation of a
wavewith constant shapetraveling in the positive direction with
velocity v. Furthermore, everywaveof this type must be expressible in this form. Similarly, a wavegoing in the oppositedirection
(i.e. negative x) is representedby a function u = g(x + vt).

The first great insight into the mathematical analysisof waves

Figure 1. Sinusoidal wave motion as a function of distancex.

the quantity k (expressedin radians per meter) is the angular

wavenumber, related to cyclical wavenumber x by the equation

*x

b-4

Figure 2. Sinusoidal wave motion as a function of time t.

was made by the legendary Greek mathematician and religious

leader Pythagoras who is believed to have died about 500 BC.
He discoveredthat the pitch of a sound from a plucked string
depends upon the strings length, and that harmonious sounds
are given off by strings whose lengths are in the ratio of whole
numbers. However, significant additional progresswas impossible until the invention of calculus, more than 2000 years later,
permitted the English mathematician Brook l&ylor to make the
first productive attempt at the quantification of wave motion.
Consider a stretchedstring with initial shapef(x). According
to basic differential calculus,the slope of the tangent line at any
point representsthe rate of changeof the functionf with respect
to x. This rate of change is the first derivative of fwith respect
tox; in turn, the rate of changeof the slope (or secondderivative
off with respect to x) representsthe curvature of the function.
Now consider the motion of any particular point on the
string. We have seen that the traveling wave can be represented
asf(x - vt) which at the point x = 0 becomesmerelyf(-vt). That
point is moving up and down approximately at right anglesto
the x axis. Back to basic calculus. The points up-and-down
velocity is given by the first derivative offwith respectto t and
the points acceleration is given by the second derivative off
with respect to t.
When the string is in its equilibrium position (horizontal along
the x axis), there is no net vertical force acting on any point on
the string. However, when the string is curved, the tension
in the string exerts a restoring force which attempts to move it
back to its equilibrium position. The more the curvature, the

GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1987 I5

1 he \+l~~c
., cquatlor I< arrequation m spaceand time coordinates

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1V,K;and 1) whereagthe related dispersion equation is an equa-

Large
CrYafre
means
large
resfarlng
force

Small ~wvaturemeans
small restoring force

Figure 4. Force is proportional

to curvature of string.

Nearlystratght
t,mepath
meanssmall acceleration

Strongly curved tome path

meant large acceleralion

Figure 5. Acceleration proportional to the amount of bend in

the time path of a point on the string.

greater this restoring force (Figure 4). Taylor noted this and
reasoned that the restoring force is proportional to curvature
and, as a student of Sir Isaac Newton, he knew that force is
proportional to acceleration (Figure 5). Thus he wrote the
equation
curvature = (Y acceleration
where 01is a constant of proportionality. Taylor could not fully
develop the properties of this equation because he had no
knowledge of partial derivatives. But after they were invented,
his speculation was confirmed. It also turned out that the constant of proportionality was 1/v2. In modern mathematical
notation, this equation is written

ah
-=-2
a2

flkjn in wavenumber and tfrequencycoordinates (k,, k,, k,, and

2). C;eophysicistsusually want to look at the data in the familiar
\pace-time display: but it is often advantageous to transform
the data mto the wavenumber-frequencydomain for computer
procc~slng.The basisfor the transformation from one domain
to the other is the mathematical operation known as the Fourier
transform.
(One of the best treatments of the Fourier transform, as it
relatesto exploration geophysics,is given on pages 10.6and 10.7
of Roy Lindseths book Digital ProcessingofGeophysical
Data:
A Review Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9 are adapted from this book.)
The Fourier transform allows us to separate a seismic trace
into its individual frequency components. If many traces were
thus broken down , we could createseismicsectionscomposed
of traces of only one, identical, frequency. Let us now assume
that we have done this and examine three situations, in each of
which we will let frequency (w) be constant,
As everygeophysicistknows, a wavefront is a curveof constant
phase. If one follows the samecrestof wavemotion, the line connecting these points makes up a wavefront. In each of the three
following examples, the wavefront will be a straight line but in
each case with a different angle to the horizontal. When a
wavefront strikes a horizontal line, the movement in the horizontal direction gives rise to the apparent horizontal velocity.
If the wavefront is perfectly horizontal, then all points on it strike
the horizontal surfacesimultaneouslyso the apparent horizontal
velocity is infinite. A geophysicalexamplewould be a deepreflection approachingthe surfacevertically from depth. On the other
hand, if the wavefront makes an angle to the horizontal, then
the apparent horizontal velocity would be finite.
In the first case,our section is flat, i.e. the wavefront parallels
the .u-axis(no dip is present), which means each trace is identical ( Figure 6 ). As a result, any waveprofile in the x direction
would be a constant. If we measurethe amplitudes of the wave
along any horizontal time line and then plot them againstvalues
of .Y (see the top of Figure), our graph would be a perfectly
straight horizontal line. Since there are no oscillations.the wave-

I a%
lJ* at

and it is known as the one-dimensional wave equation. When

generalized to three dimensions, it governs the melodies of
Pythagoras,the propagation of seismicenergythrough the earth,
and all other wave motion. The three dimensional waveequation
is

a54
a%
ak
--+x+az=vat
8x2

a%

If we now go back to one of our original equations for simple

harmonic motion- u = A sin (kx- wt) - and take secondpartial derivativeswith respectto x and t, and then substitutethese
secondderivatives into the one-dimensional wave equation, we
obtain
-Ak2

sin(kx- tit) =

i
Figure 6.

(- Ati2) sin (kx - wf).

After canceling common factors, we discover that

k2 =

-,f_

which is called the dispersionequation for the one-dimensional

wave equation. It relates wavenumber and frequency. When
extended to three dimensions, this equation becomes
k: + k: + kl

where k = Jk: + k: + kf is the wavenumberand k,, k,,, k, are

the wavenumbercomponents in the three coordinate directions.

Figure 7.

16 GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1987

length is infinite and the correspondtngw,l\cnt:lnt)r.l (h) I, ~et,~,

This wave motion is representedon the uavenumber-flequeni:!
domain by the single point (k,o) = (0,~) becausek z 0 and
d represents our constant frequent!

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Next consider a section of traces with the \ame constant frequency (w) but where the wavefront has a \mall amount otdip
The motion along the horizontal time line w*ould
look quite different from that of the flat-wavefront section. Each
of the vertical tracesis now slightly out of phasewith its adjoining traces.As a result, motion in the x-direction is not constant,
but will have a low-wavenumber sinusoidal character. The corresponding low wavenumber is paired with the frequency and
becomes a single point (k,w) on the graph.
If the amount of wavefront dip is increasedand the frequency
remains the same as in the precedingtwo cases,the wavenumber
increases (Figure 8). Evidently, for any given frequency, the
wavenumber is related directly to the amount of dip of the
wavefront.
Our x-t graphs representtime sections;that is they are plots
of time vs. distance.Since the ratio of distanceto time produces
velocity, it is seen that the slope of the wavefront line (time/
distance) is the reciprocal of velocity. Thus any sinusoidal wave
motion which has the same wavefront dip will have the same
apparent horizontal velocity.
In a fourth example, the wavefront dip is held constant for
any chosen wavenumber(k). Since we are holding the wavefront
dip constant, it follows that we are holding the velocity (v) constant. As we know, the frequency (w) is specified by the dispersion equation, w = kv. Now let us look at the plot of LLvs.
k for a constant velocity ( Figure 9 ).
The dispersionequation
saysthat this plot is a straight line with slope v. That is if we
change W, we see that the wavenumber (k) falls on a straight
line as shown in the figure.
This allows us to do some startling things in data processing.
All the wavefronts with a given velocity are spread all over the
routine seismictime section. In other words, each wavefront has
a different intercept with the horizontal (x) axis. However, if we
transform this data into the frequency-wavenumberdomain, all

( Figure 7 ).

+
,
Figure 8.

(a)Seismic
sectionwithhigh-velocity
reflectionsand low-velocityground
roll.

(d) Seismic section without the

ground1011.

(b) Fouriertransformwith the two

dispersionlines.
Zeroingout
B
groundmll
I dispersionline

(c) Fourier translorm with the

ground-rolldispersionline zeroed
out.

Figure 10. Pie-slice filtering.

of the wavefronts are transformed into a single dispersion line
which goes through the origin in the w-k plane. Thus if we want
to wipe out all the waveswith this apparent velocity, all we have
to do is zero-out the appropriate dispersionline. This is the basis
of velocity filtering, which is also called pie sliceor fan filtering.
In Figure IO, we seefour diagrams (a), (b), (c), and(d) which
are connected in a clockwise fashion by operations A, B, and
C. Diagram (a) showsa seismicsectionwith two reflected events
and three ground-roll events. These events criss-crossand that
would make separation difficult in the x vs. I form. However,
let us now exploit the fact that the reflected events have high
apparent horizontal velocity, while the ground-roll eventshave
low velocity. With (a) as input, the Fourier transform A gives
us (b) as outTut. In (b) the two reflected events appear as one
dispersion line through the origin, whereas the three groundroll events appear as a separate dispersion line through the
origin. The fact that dispersionlines alwaysgo through the origin
means that the two types of eventshave been separated.That is,
diagram (b) has the appearanceof a fan, or a sliced-uppie, where
one pie slice contains the reflected events and another pie slice
the ground-roll events. In operation B, we let the computer eat
up (i.e. erase) the pie slice containing the ground-roll dispersion line, thereby giving diagram (c). With (c) as input, the
inverse Fourier transform operator C gives us (d) as output.
As expected, the unwanted ground-roll events do not appear
in diagram (d), and we are left with only the desired reflections.
he use of frequency-wavenumberanalysis is one of the most
T
powerful tools of seismic data processing. As we have seen,

Figure 9.

measurementof wavenumberas a function of frequencyprovides

a reliablemeansof separatingand measuringthe variousvelocity
components on a seismicsection. Other important seismicprocessingoperations (including dip moveout as well as migration)
can make use of w-k analysis. All these processingmethods are
tied physically to the dispersionequation, which in turn follows
from Taylors inspired insight (in 1715) - spatial curvature is
proportional to temporal acceleration- that led to the original
formulation of the wave equation. &

GEOPHYSICS:

THE LEADING

EDGE OF EXPLORATION

JULY 1987 17