Chapter 9 Directional Drilling

OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION MANUAL
ABERCROMBIE & ASSOCIATES

CHAPTER
Page
IX
Contents
9. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING.................................................................9.1
9.1 General..................................................................................................... 9.1
9.1.1 Definitions........................................................................................ 9.1
9.2 Conventional Directional Drilling..............................................................9.3
9.2.1 Kicking of......................................................................................... 9.3
9.2.2 Angle building...................................................................................9.3
9.2.3 Angle holding....................................................................................9.4
9.2.4 Angle dropping.................................................................................9.4
9.2.5 Factors which afect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies in
directional rotary assemblies...............................................................9.4
9.2.6 Dogleg and dogleg severity..............................................................9.6
9.2.7 Directional control with rotary assemblies........................................9.6
9.2.8 Non-magnetic Drill Collars................................................................9.9
9.2.9 Short drill collars, extension subs.....................................................9.9
9.2.10 Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions....9.10
9.2.11 Selection of stabiliser type............................................................9.10
9.2.12 Types of directional patterns.........................................................9.11
9.2.13 Kick-of point and build-up rate.....................................................9.13
9.2.14 Factors afecting trajectory control of rotary assemblies..............9.13
9.2.15 Deviation control on vertical holes................................................9.14
9.2.16 Kicking of..................................................................................... 9.14
9.2.17 Using the mud motor for drilling and trajectory change...............9.15
9.2.18 Adjustable bent housing...............................................................9.18
9.2.19 Reaming........................................................................................ 9.18
9.2.20 Fatigue in directional drilling.........................................................9.18
9.2.21 Fishing in directional drilling.........................................................9.19
9.2.22 Tool face orientation......................................................................9.19
9.3 Horizontal Drilling................................................................................... 9.20
9.3.1 Horizontal drilling pattern...............................................................9.20
9.3.2 BHA weight and weight on bit........................................................9.21
9.4 Survey Equipment and Procedures.........................................................9.21
9.4.1 Drift surveys................................................................................... 9.22
9.4.2 Magnetic surveys............................................................................9.22
9.4.3 Magnetic single-shot surveys - unloading, developing and reading the
film......................................................................................................... 9.24
9.4.4 Azimuth reference systems............................................................9.27
9.4.5 Gyroscopic surveys.........................................................................9.30
9.4.6 Measurement while drilling (MWD).................................................9.30
9.4.7 Directional survey calculations.......................................................9.32
9.4.8 Magnetic declination correction......................................................9.32
9.4.9 Magnetic interference and instrument spacing..............................9.34
9.4.10 Surveying inaccuracy....................................................................9.36
Date
: May 2003
Revision
: 2.0. A. R. A. SIMPSON

CHAPTER
Page
IX
9.5 Recommended Bottomhole Assemblies............................................9.36

9.5.1 General........................................................................................... 9.36
9.5.2 Drill collar size election...................................................................9.37
9.5.3 String weights.................................................................................9.37
9.5.4 Problem Holes................................................................................. 9.37
9.5.5 Deviated hole................................................................................. 9.37
9.5.6 Key Seating..................................................................................... 9.37
9.5.7 Float subs....................................................................................... 9.38
9.5.8 Static method................................................................................. 9.38
9.5.9 Dynamic method............................................................................9.38
9.5.10 Circulating Subs............................................................................ 9.38
9.5.11 Vibration control (shock subs).......................................................9.39
9.5.12 Drilling Jars.................................................................................... 9.39
9.5.13 Drillpipe strainers..........................................................................9.39
9.5.14 Straight hole BHA's.......................................................................9.39
9.5.15 Stif (packed hole) assembly.........................................................9.40
9.5.16 Kick-of and deviation assemblies.................................................9.40
9.5.17 Bottomhole assemblies tangent assemblies (Navri-drill System/DTU)
.......................................................................................................... 9.41
9.5.18 Angle-build rotary assembly.........................................................9.42
9.5.19 Tangent rotary assembly...............................................................9.43
9.5.20 Check trips assemblies.................................................................9.43
9.5.21 Check trip assemblies for after DTU runs......................................9.44
9.5.22 Accelerator position......................................................................9.45
9.6 Sidetracking........................................................................................... 9.45
9.6.1 Reasons for Sidetracking in open hole............................................9.46
9.6.2 Sidetracking procedures in open hole.............................................9.46
Illustrations
Figure 9.1 Fulcrum principle................................................................................9.7
Figure 9.2 Pendulum principle.............................................................................9.8
Figure 9.3 Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions (no hole
curvature)............................................................................................... 9.10
Figure 9.4 Directional drilling terminology........................................................9.11
Figure 9.5 Build and hold pattern......................................................................9.12
Figure 9.6 S type well pattern...........................................................................9.12
Figure 9.7 Moineau motor configuration...........................................................9.16
Figure 9.8 High side of the wellbore..................................................................9.19
Figure 9.9 Horizontal drilling pattern................................................................9.21
Figure 9.10 Angle unit....................................................................................... 9.24
Figure 9.11 Single shot instrument...................................................................9.25
Figure 9.12 Degree angle unit (0-10 degree)....................................................9.26
Figure 9.13 Degree angle unit (0-90 degree)....................................................9.27
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: May 2003
Revision

CHAPTER
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IX
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
Azimuth.......................................................................................... 9.28
Quadrant bearings.........................................................................9.29
Azimuth-quadrant conversion........................................................9.30
Magnetic declination correction.....................................................9.33
East magnetic declination correction.............................................9.34
Source of magnetic interference....................................................9.35
Magnetic interference and instrument spacing..............................9.36
Date
: May 2003
Revision
9.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
9.1
General
The following deals with drilling wells which are substantially deviated from vertical. These
situations will normally arise because of:
Strong deviation tendencies in the area (i.e., severely dipped formations) or,
Surface problems which will not allow rig placement directly above the bottom hole
target.
The former case involves controlling natural deviation tendencies by the use of various bottom
hole assemblies in order to hit the desired target area.
The latter case involves planning a well bore trajectory which is intentionally "kicked off" from
the vertical, taking the smoothest possible path to the target.
The following provides only general comments on directional drilling. Well specific, and more
detailed information will be given in the directional drilling programme.
Directional drilling operations in the North Sea will be performed by a qualified directional
drilling contractor. The contractor will supply the specific plot for the well. Normally the
contractor will also deliver the directional drilling tools as part of the package.
9.1.1 Definitions
Average Angle: The average between drift angles taken from any two consecutive survey
points.
Azimuth: The azimuth of a borehole at a point is the direction of the borehole on the
horizontal plane, measured as a clockwise angle ( 0 to 360 degrees).
BHO Sub: Bottom hole orienting sub - any sub designated to force the survey instrument
into a predetermined relationship with the Bottom Hole Assembly. Example: Mule Shoe
Orienting sub.
Course Deviation: Distance horizontally between the surface location and target location,
along a straight line in a specified direction.
Directional Drilling: The science of directing a wellbore along a predetermined trajectory to
intersect a subsurface target.
Direction of Closure: The direction or azimuth of a line drawn from the surface location to
the downhole target or survey station.
Drift Angle or Inclination: The angle of the wellbore in relation to vertical.
Dogleg Severity: A measure of the amount of change in inclination and/or direction of a
wellbore, expressed in 30 degrees/metre.
Kick-off Point: Depth at which wellbore deviation from vertical is initiated.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Intentionally deflected wells: Those that increase the hole angle by one of several means
in order to reach a subsurface target that could not be intersected through natural deviation.
Measured Depth: The actual length of the borehole from the ORT (pipe tally depth) to any
specified station.
Mule Shoe: A cam in the shape of a mule shoe which converts downward motion to rotation
and downward motion. It is used to align a single shot survey tool to the high side of a mud
motor.
Mule Shoe Orienting Sub: A sub bored out to accept a mule shoe sleeve.
Mule Shoe Method of Orientation: A means of orienting tools, after they have been run into
the hole in any random direction. In this method, a Mule Shoe Assembly is attached to the
protective barrel of a survey instrument in such a way that a known relationship exists
between the mule shoe slot and a scribe line on the survey record. When the instrument is
lowered into the drill string, the key of the mule shoe sub forces the mule shoe assembly to
rotate until the mule shoe slot locks on the key. The key has a known relationship to the BHA
allowing the survey instrument to record its orientation.
Naturally Deviated Wells: Those which build angle due to the presence of dipped formation
bedding planes. The approximate hole angle versus depth that is expected from the
formation dip can be used to determine the expected distance that the well bore will
terminate laterally from the wellbore at surface. This distance is known as the horizontal
displacement. If the direction of natural deviation is known, the surface location for the rig
can then be selected in the opposite direction at a distance roughly equivalent to the
anticipated horizontal displacement. Normal drift direction is updip to bedding planes.
Station: Any point at which a survey is run.
Subsurface targets: The target is specified by the geologist, who will define a certain point
as the target and also specify the acceptable tolerance having the target as its centre.
Subsurface targets may be circular, rectangular or virtually any other shape.
Target Location: A predetermined position at a specified distance and direction from the
surface location.
Telltale: A lead plug held in the upper end of the mule shoe slot. When the mule shoe seats
over the key, the telltale is mashed by the key.
Tool Face: The direction the drillstem will face is the tool face direction. The orientation of
the high side of the motor. Always measured in degrees to the left or to the right of high side
of the bent housing on the motor.
Tool Face Orientation: The rotational position of a downhole motor relative to the high side.
Vertical Depth: The difference in vertical depth between two Stations.
Vertical Section: The distance on the horizontal plane from one station to the next station.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
9.2
Conventional Directional Drilling

9.2.1
Kicking off
Getting "kicked off" from vertical can be achieved in a number of ways but is most efficiently
done with the use of a mud motor and a bent sub or motor with a bent housing. Adjustable bent
housings are most efficient because they can be readily changed from 0 to 2 in 1/4
increments.
Choices of positive displacement type mud motors will vary from low speed/high torque types to
high speed/low torque types. The exact type of motor used should be chosen while
programming, considering the type of formation to be drilled and motor performance history in
the area. Turbines have very limited application as they are very high speed and must be used
with diamond bits.
At the beginning of the kick-off the motor/bent sub combination can be used to build the desired
inclination and azimuth. Very often, left hand lead must be built into the starting azimuth to
compensate for right hand bit walk expected later while rotary drilling. The desired starting
azimuth should be achieved as soon after kick off as possible. Simultaneous change of azimuth
and inclination should be minimised. This can lead to severe doglegs.
9.2.2 Angle building
It is very often most efficient to continue drilling after kick-off with the motor/bent sub
combination until the bit must be pulled. This point may be in the build section, the hold section,
or possibly TD in the case of very shallow wells. Economics may, however, dictate that a
conventional rotary assembly be used to complete the angle building portion of the hole. In
either case angle building should not be planned in excess of 3/30 meters. Doglegs should not
exceed 5/30 meters in shallow wells (less than 1500 m) or as specified in the programme on
deeper wells.
9.2.3 Angle holding

Angle holding is usually more difficult than changing angle. Most assemblies will have a
tendency to either build or drop angle. The purpose of holding angle is to minimise the
curvature effects and spread them over as long an interval as possible.
If a desirable trajectory has been achieved, change drilling parameters as little as possible.
Weight changes are most significant in the directional tendency of a particular bottom hole
assembly. If weight changes must be made, make them slowly. Abrupt weight changes can
cause severe doglegs. The following applies for the range of directionally drilled wells; not all
apply to a given well.
Problem
Solution
Insufficient Bit Walk

Too Much Bit Walk
Insufficient Angle Build
Insufficient Angle Build
Increase WOB/Decrease RPM

Decrease WOB/Increase RPM
Increase WOB
Decrease WOB/Increase RPM
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Bits should not be run to a very dull condition as this may increase dogleg tendencies. Bits
chosen for angle holding should not have a high degree of offset. Bits with high offset may
increase bit walk or deviation tendencies. PDC bits are recommended. It is very important when
trying to hold angle or controlling deviation, not to overreact. Apply only minimum changes
necessary to correct a problem, but react in time and check the actual performance on the plot
immediately.
9.2.4 Angle dropping
Angle dropping can also be achieved by means of conventional rotary assemblies using
stabiliser placement. This is generally achieved by the pendulum effect of the drill collars below
one or more stabilisers. Dropping angle is usually more easily achieved when drilling at high
inclination angles than when the inclination is low. Attempts should not be made to drop angle
at rates faster than 1-1/2/30 metres. The slowest change possible to achieve the objective is
usually the best.
9.2.5Factors which affect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies in
directional rotary assemblies
1. Increase in distance from near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser - is the
main design feature of a fulcrum assembly affecting the build rate. The build rate
increases as this distance is increased because a longer fulcrum section will bend
more which will increase the fulcrum effect and the side force on high side. There is a
limit, however. Once the upper stabiliser is more than 40 metres from the near-bit
stabiliser (depending on hole size, collar OD, etc.), the collars are contacting the low
side of the hole and any further increase in this distance will have no additional effect
on the build rate.
1. Increase in hole inclination - the build rate of a fulcrum assembly increases as the
inclination increases because there is a larger component of the collars own weight,
causing them to bend.
1. Reduction of drill collar diameter - A small reduction in the OD of the drill collars
used in the fulcrum section considerably increases their limberness, and hence the
build rate. There is a tendency to bend the drill string near the bottom of the hole due
to the weight on the bit. In harder formations, this can cause deviation problems or
unwanted directional tendencies. The stiffer the collars, the more deviation control.
The stiffness is a non-linear function of diameter, e.g., a 7 drill collar is approximately
twice as stiff as a 6 drill collar.
1. Increase in weight on bit - Increasing the weight on bit will bend the drill collars
behind the near-bit stabiliser more, so the build rate will increase.
1. Reduction in rotary speed - A higher rotary speed will tend to straighten the drill
collars and reduce the build rate. Low rotary speeds (70-100RPM) are generally used
with fulcrum assemblies.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
1. Reduction in flow rate ( in soft formations) - In soft formations, a high flow rate
can lead to washing out the formation ahead of the bit which reduces the build
tendency.
1. Formation Dip - The effective dip angle is the angle at which the bit strikes the
bedding planes. At formation dips less than 45 degrees, the bit will tend to build angle
to become perpendicular to the bedding planes of the formation. At dips greater than
45 degrees, the bit will tend to slide along the strike or drop down the dip. The effect
of formation dip is normally not serious, except in areas where the beds are hard, lay
at significant angles, and are of different composition from layer to layer.
1. Bit Types - The longer the tooth or inset on a bit, the more responsive it is to a
formation. Dulled bits can reduce drilling assembly response. Bits with the least offset
or skew should be used on wells experiencing deviation control problems. Bits with
enhanced gauge protection are normally recommended for directional/horizontal
drilling work. Conventional three-cone rock bits cause right-hand walk in normal
rotary drilling. Long tooth bits drilling soft to medium hardness formation give a
greater right walk tendency than short tooth bits drilling a hard formation. The
gouging/scraping action of soft formation bits creates a tendency to change direction
to the right; also, long-toothed soft formation bits have a greater cone offset which
increases the effect. When rotary drilling with PDC bits, it has been found that almost
no "walk" occurs. The gauge length of a PDC bit may significantly affect the build rate
in a rotary assembly. A PDC with a short gauge length may result in a build rate
greater than that which would be expected with a tri-cone bit. A longer gauge
stabilises the bit, tending to reduce the build rate. The low WOB used with PDC bits
may also reduce the build rate, as collar flexure decreases with decreasing WOB.
When used with packed assemblies in tangent section drilling, longer gauged PDC
bits seem to aid in maintaining inclination and direction due to the increased
stabilisation at the bit. When used with angle drop assemblies, PDC bits may reduce
the drop rate previously obtained with a tri-cone bit. The longer the gauge length of
the PDC bit, the lower the drop rate obtained because the bit gauge acts similar to a
full gauge near-bit stabiliser. Short gauge length PDCs can be used effectively for
dropping angle. When such a suitable PDC bit is used in a rotary pendulum
assembly, the low WOB and high RPM, typical PDC bit applications, should assist in
dropping angle.
1. Formation Hardness - In soft to medium soft formations, the rock has little influence
on directional response. In medium to hard sedimentary rocks which have dissimilar
properties in all directions, directional tendencies can be significantly affected by the
formation. In very soft formations, the formation may be eroded by the drilling mud
exiting from the bit nozzles creating an overgauge hole. This can make it hard to
build angle, even with a strong build assembly. If this problem is anticipated, then
fairly large nozzles should be used. If it occurs while drilling, then the pump rate
should be reduced, and prior to making each connection, increase the flow rate to
clean the hole with the bit one joint off bottom. Hole washing or enlargement in soft
Date
: May 2003
Revision
formations may also cause packed assemblies to give a dropping tendency at high
inclinations. This may be counteracted by increasing WOB and reducing flow rate. If
anticipated beforehand, a possible solution would be to run a mild build assembly.
The main directional problem encountered in hard formations is getting a pendulum
assembly to drop angle. The harder the formation, the longer it takes a dropping
assembly to respond. There may also be a conflict between the need to reduce WOB
to get the dropping trend established, and the need for high WOB to maintain an
acceptable penetration rate. When a drop section must be drilled in hard formation,
the use of large diameter, heavy collars is recommended.
9.2.6 Dogleg and dogleg severity
Dogleg (DL) is the overall change in inclination and azimuth of the wellbore between two
points. Dogleg severity (DLS) is the total change in the angle of the hole per 30 metres. After
the kick-off point, the angle is changed under control, however any abrupt dogleg is a
potential danger, and the concept of dogleg severity is useful in grading the dogleg in order
to establish safe limits.
When orientating a deflection tool, it is necessary to estimate the expected dogleg value for
the section about to be drilled. The expected DLS will depend on the angle of the bent
component within the motor. Other factors such as motor size, formations drilled, and length
and hole size greatly effect DLS.
The worst complication of a dogleg is the creation of a key seat. This is a continuous hazard
that has to be avoided or eliminated whenever it occurs.
9.2.7 Directional control with rotary assemblies
Rotary BHAs can be designed to drill a planned trajectory. It is possible to control the angle
(inclination) of directional wells during rotary drilling by correct assembly design. Control of
hole direction is more difficult. See 9.2.5 for details of the main factors which effect
directional behaviour of rotary assemblies.
Stabilised assemblies can be used to directionally drill wells. The trajectory is controlled by a
side force imposed at the bit. This side force is accomplished with combinations of drill
collars and stabilisers, varying the points of tangency (where the assembly touches the
wellbore) along the assembly.
The following are the basic directional control principles:
The Fulcrum Principle.
The fulcrum principle is used to build angle. This assembly uses a near-bit stabiliser and
collars. The collars above the near-bit stabiliser bend, partly due to their own weight, and
partly because of applied WOB. The near-bit stabiliser acts as the pivot or fulcrum of a
lever and the bit is pushed to the high side of the hole. The bit therefore drills a path
which gradually builds angle. See Figure 9.1.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Placement of some MWD systems between the near bit stabiliser and the first string
stabiliser could result in the increased possibility of MWD failure. This is because some
collar mounted MWD systems have a lower equivalent bending stiffness than drill collars
with the ID, and as a result may be the most flexible part of the BHA. Proper placement
of such MWD systems above the first string stabiliser can reduce the frequency of
stress-related failure.
Figure 9.1 Fulcrum principle

Packed Hole Principle - (Locked in Assembly)
If restrictions to bending the drill collars are run in the string, there would be no building
effect and it would not be possible to build the angle. It will tend to maintain the angle.
This principle is that if there are three stabilisers in quick succession behind the bit,
separated by short, stiff drill collar sections, then the three stabilisers will resist going
round a curve and force the bit to drill a reasonably straight path. The first of the three
stabilisers should be immediately behind the bit (a near-bit stabiliser), and should be full
gauge.
Stiff or packed hole assemblies are used to drill the tangent sections of directional wells,
maintaining angle and direction. The sizes of the top stabilisers are not necessarily full
gauge, but in some cases must be undergauged to counteract the pendulum effect which
is intended to drop the angle.
Pendulum Effect
The pendulum effect provides controlled drop-off of the vertical angle. The portion of the
assembly from the bit to the first string stabiliser "hangs like a pendulum" and because of
its own weight, presses the bit to the low side of the hole. The major design feature of a
pendulum assembly is that here there is either no near-bit stabiliser or an undergauge
near-bit stabiliser. The length of collars from the bit to the first string stabiliser must not
be allowed to bend too much towards the low side of the hole. See Figure 9.2.
The following are to be considered, if using a pendulum assembly:
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Omit the near-bit stabiliser when azimuth control is not a concern or when drilling with
a PDC bit. When drilling with a roller cone bit, use an under-gauge near-bit stabiliser
if azimuth control is a consideration.
The assembly should have two string stabilisers with the second stabiliser not more
than 10 metres above the first.
Initially use low WOB until the dropping tendency is established, then gradually
increase bit weight until an acceptable penetration rate is achieved.
Use high rotary speed, depending on bit type. If possible, do not plan drop sections in
hard formations.
Figure 9.2 Pendulum principle

9.2.8
Non-magnetic Drill Collars
In order to eliminate any magnetic interference around the single shot instrument, a K Monel
or a stainless steel drill collar is used. In doing so, the compass is influenced only by the
earths magnetism, thus giving a true magnetic reading.
The length of a non-magnetic drill collar required to avoid interference from the drilling string
is a function of both the direction and inclination of the hole. More non-magnetic material
may be required for wells which have more inclination or bearings which deviate much from
North or South. Stabilisers placed between non-magnetic drill collars must be made of nonmagnetic material. The direction drilling program should specify the amount and placement
of non-magnetic material in the bottom hole assembly.
A single Monel drill collar may be used when directionally monitoring a vertical well.
9.2.9
Short drill collars, extension subs
These are tools that help to change the distance between the stabilisers, or between bit and
stabilisers, in order to change the stiffness of the BHA.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
9.2.10
Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions
Figure 9.3 Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions

(no hole curvature)
9.2.11
Selection of stabiliser type
Geology is the most important consideration when choosing the right stabiliser for a well.
Economics and convenience also frequently influence the selection of one stabiliser type
over another. In order for a bottomhole to maintain a straight course or build or drop angle at
planned rates, stabiliser blades must maintain the desired gauge while they are in the hole.
Excessive wear (undergauge) on stabilisers severely decreases the stiffness of the
bottomhole assembly and will cause unwanted angle change. A small variance in gauge can
result in unsatisfactory BHA in directional wells. Durability is the key in stabiliser design, and
geology is the most important factor in selecting stabilisers for long wear life. In general, the
harder and more abrasive a formation is, the more durable the drill string stabilisation tools
have to be. Choosing hardfacing material for blades is determined by formation hardness.
Use only integral blade stabilisers. Long blades provide better stiffness in packed hole
assemblies.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Avoid cross-over subs whenever possible. Any connection makes an assembly more limber
and adds a potential failure area.
Reamers should not replace stabilisers except in very hard formations, or when stabiliser
torque becomes excessive.
Figure 9.4 Directional drilling terminology

9.2.12
Types of directional patterns
Most directional wells are still planned using the traditional patterns which have been in use
for many years (see Figure 9.4). The following are the most common patterns used:
1. Build and Hold (see Figure 9.5).
1. S Type Well (see Figure 9.6).
1. Deep Kick-off and Build.
1. Horizontal.
1. Sidetracking.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Figure 9.5 Build and hold pattern
Figure 9.6 S type well pattern

9.2.13
Kick-off point and build-up rate
The higher the kick-off point selected, the lower the maximum required hole angle, but the
earlier the directional drilling comes into effect. Other considerations when utilising a
relatively high kick-off point include:
Potentially greater chances of forming a key seat in the build-up section due to a
longer period of exposure and typically being located within a softer formation.
Reduced chances of differential sticking adjacent to the porous intervals downhole due
to lower hold angle.
Generally greater difficulty in building angle in the softer formation.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Reduced likelihood of unstable wellbore conditions resulting from drilling sensitive

layered formations at high hole angles.
The selection of both the kick-off point and the build-up rate depend on many factors,
including the hole pattern selected, the casing program, the mud program, the required
horizontal displacement, and the maximum tolerable inclination. Choice of kick-off point may
be severely limited by the requirement to keep the well path at a safe distance from existing
wells.
Hole angles much less than 10 degrees are undesirable as angle holding assemblies are
relatively unpredictable at this angle. Hole angles much greater than 30 degrees are
undesirable due to the increased risk of hole problems. Maximum build is generally 2.5/30
metres.
9.2.14
Factors affecting trajectory control of rotary assemblies
Rotary BHAs can be designed to drill a planned trajectory. It is possible to control the angle
(inclination) of directional wells during rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly for the
drilling parameters. Control of hole direction is more difficult. The following are the main
factors which affect directional behaviour of rotary assemblies:
1. Formation dip.
1.
Bending characteristics of the drill string.
1.
Formation hardness.
1.
Bit types.
1.
Weight on bit.
1.
Rotary speed.
1.
Flow rate.
1.
Rate of penetration.
1.
Gauge and placement of stabilisers.
9.2.15
Deviation control on vertical holes
The general deviation control guidelines are:

Attempt to control deviation below 1 degree on surface hole to prevent future surface
casing wear.
Attempt to control deviation below 3 degrees on intermediate and main hole with a
maximum change of 1 degree/30m.
Deviation control can be costly due to slow penetration rates and extra trip time. The
following methods may be used to control deviation:
Date
: May 2003
Revision
1. Controlled Weight on Bit. By reducing the WOB, the bending characteristics of the
drillstring are changed and the hole will tend to drill straighter. The downside of using
this method is that penetration rates are usually significantly reduced. The amount of
WOB reduction required will vary for any given area.
1. Pendulum Assembly. Another method to reduce deviation is to use a single stabiliser,
placed 9 - 18m from the bit. This will impact a negative side force at the bit, and the
hole will tend to drop angle.
1. Stiff Assembly. The simplest stiff assembly is to increase the size of the drill collars
being used, which is especially applicable for the surface hole. Stabilised packed
hole assemblies are a solution for deviation problems in the main hole. Although this
assembly may prevent the angle from continuing to build, it will have a tendency to
maintain the angle already in the well.
If uphole deviation has been a problem and a considerable amount of hole is being drilled
below the problem area, consideration should be given to running a key seat wiper in the drill
string to reduce the chance of developing and getting stuck in a key seated area.
9.2.16
Kicking off
The typical directional well is first drilled vertically, then "kicked off" with a deflection device
(i.e., a bent housing and mud motor) to initiate a build inhole inclination. Once sufficient
angle is attained, the desired well path is drilled using the following types of rotary
assemblies:
Fulcrum.
Packed hole.
Pendulum.
Getting "kicked off" from vertical can be achieved in a number of ways, but is most efficiently
done using a mud motor with a bent housing. Adjustable bent housing can be readily
changed from 0 to 2 degrees in 1/4 degree increments.
Choices of positive displacement type mud motors will vary from low speed/high torque
types to high speed/low torque types. The exact type of motor used should be chosen while
programming, considering the type of formation to be drilled and motor performance history
in the area.
At the beginning of the kick-off the motor with bent housing can be used to build the desired
inclination and azimuth. Very often left hand lead must be built into the starting azimuth to
compensate for right hand bit walk expected later while rotary drilling. The desired starting
azimuth should be achieved as soon after kick-off as possible. Simultaneous change of
azimuth and inclination should be minimised. This can lead to severe doglegs.
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9.2.17
Using the mud motor for drilling and trajectory change
The surface standpipe pressure reflects the PDM torque. As the motor torque increases, the
standpipe pressure increases; as the motor torque decreases, the standpipe pressure also
decreases. The standpipe pressure or a downhole torque indicator should be used as a
primary output indicator to advance the bit.
The torque the PDM experiences is:
The torque required to overcome the off-bottom torque so that the rotor can rotate
against the stator and against the friction of the bearings.
The torque required to drill a given formation with a specific bit, bit diameter, bit speed,
and WOB.
Positive Displacement Motors (PDM)
The most common mud motor used is the positive displacement motor (PDM). These
motors are available in 1/2 lobe configurations for high-speed or multi-lobe configurations
for low speed/high torque applications, see Figure 9.7. A 1/2 lobe motor means that the
rotor has one lobe or tooth and the stator has two lobes or teeth. Motor torque increases
as the number of lobes increases, with a proportionate decrease in bit speed. Either
configuration is available with an adjustable bent housing located between the motor and
bearing assembly. The bent housing is easily rig adjustable from zero to a two degree
bend in quarter degree increments. The adjustable bent housing being located close to
the bit provides easier control of angle build rate and also allows the motor to be rotated
in the hole during straight hole drilling.
Figure 9.7 Moineau motor configuration

The PDM consists of helicoid motor section, a dump valve, a connecting rod assembly
and a bearing and shaft assembly. The helicoid motor has a rubber-lined spiral cavity
with an elliptical cross-section which houses a sinusoidal steel rotor. As the mud is
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pumped under pressure from above, it is force downwards between the rotor and stator.
In order for the drilling mud to progress through the motor section, it must force the rotor
to turn. The bottom of the rotor moves in an ellipse and this eccentric motion is converted
to true concentric drive shaft rotation by the connecting rod assembly.
By-pass valve
The by-pass valve allows fluid to fill the drill string while tripping in the hole and drain
while tripping out or making a connection. While mud is being pumped, the valve closes
to cause fluid to move through the tool. The valve consists of a sliding piston, or throat,
a coilspring, a sleeve seat and external ports. When there is no fluid circulation, the
spring holds the piston in the up position. This opens the external ports and allows fluid
entry and exit through the sides of the valve body. When fluid is pumped through the drill
string, the piston is forced down, which closes the external ports. This directs all fluid
into the motor. When pumping ceases, the spring returns the piston to the up position.
Motor section
The motor section consists of a rubber stator and coated steel rotor.
The stator tube forms the outer body of the motor assembly. When the motor is
assembled, there is a continuous seal along its length between the rubber stator and the
matching contact points on the spiral rotor shaft. As drilling fluid is pumped through the
cavities between the rotor and stator, the hydraulic pressure causes the shaft to rotate
within the stator. As mud is pumped through the motor, it fills the cavities between the
dissimilar shapes of the rotor and stator. The rotor is forced to give way by turning. It is
the rotation of the rotor shaft which is eventually transmitted to the bit.
Connecting rod assemblies
Since the rotor is spiral shaped it does not rotate concentrically, rather it traces a back
and forth motion. This motion must be converted back to concentric motion to be
transmitted to the bit via the drive sub. A flexible connecting rod, attached to the lower
end of the rotor, transmits the torque to the drive shaft assembly. The connecting rod
converts the eccentric rotary motion of the rotor to true concentric drive shaft rotation.
Flexibility in the connecting rod assembly is achieved with two opposing lobes which act
as universal joints.
Bearing section
A bearing-supported drive shaft transmits the motor's rotational and thrust power to the
drilling bit. The assembly has three main bearing sub-assemblies. The only externally
rotating portion of the motor is the bit sub, which is actually the lower part of the drive
shaft.
The output drive shaft is supported by radial roller bearings and three spherical roller
thrust bearings. The axial compressive force of the bit is evenly distributed over two of
the thrust bearings, while the third thrust bearing carries the axial extension forces.
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General guidelines for PDM motor usage

Each mud motor has a recommended range of flow rates and subsequent RPM
ranges. The mud motor should be operated within the published ranges for optimal
results and prevention of damage.
Monitoring surface pressure is necessary in determining how the motor is performing.
Each motor has a recommended differential pressure (difference between off bottom
and on bottom pressures) and motors should be operated near this pressure. A
further increase in surface pressure is an indication that the motor is stalling. The
RPM of a motor is controlled by the flow rate. Increasing torque (by WOB) does not
significantly affect the RPM of a motor unless it is stalled. Torque is directly
proportional to pressure differential across the motor. More weight on the bit (thus an
increase of torque requirement) means higher surface fluid flow pressure. As the bit
drills off, this pressure decreases. Therefore, the mud system pressure gauge can be
used as an accurate weight and torque indicator. The instant the motor experiences a
load change, the pressure gauge reflects a proportional change.
High speed motors exhibit low torque and, therefore, cannot accommodate high
WOB's. Low speed motors, which can develop high torque, should be used where
increased WOB is desirable.
All positive displacement motors exhibit left-hand torque when on bottom. Therefore,
allowance for this torque is necessary when orienting the motor. The amount of
allowance is dependent on the type of mud motor and formation. The high torque of
a low-speed motor can cause significant problems in orientation control, and it
therefore may be desirable to utilise a measurement while drilling system (MWD) to
continuously monitor the tool face.
If a motor is rotated 20-30 RPM on the drillstring at the surface, than this is all that is
normally required.
Most mud motors are equipped with a dump valve assembly which will allow fluid to
drain while coming out of the hole.
9.2.18
Adjustable bent housing
Bent housing is a patented device which is easily field adjusted from zero to two degrees by
quarter degree increments.
The housing consists of a mandrel and a sub, each having an offset axis. Rotating the sub
about the mandrel produces the desired bend in the housing. The bend is positively locked
in position by simply engaging the toothed dog clutch and tightening the lock nut.
The adjustable bent housing is located between the bearing and motor assemblies which
places the bend point close to the bit. This provides easier control of angle build and allows
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the motor to be rotated in the hole to continue drilling the tangent section until a directional
correction is required. Rotation of the drillstring is then stopped, the tool face is oriented in
the required direction, and the correction is made using the motor only. Following the
correction, rotation of the drillstring is resumed and drilling continues.
For medium and short radius drilling, a second adjustable bent housing can be fitted
between the motor section and the by-pass sub. This housing also includes an orientation
sub which can be easily adjusted to align the bends of the upper and lower bent housings.
To adjust housing:
1. Back off lock nut and disengage dog clutch.
1. Rotate to match numbers of desired angle.
1. Re-engage dog clutch and torque lock nut.
9.2.19
Reaming
When it is necessary to ream the directional hole the reaming BHA must be stabilised
properly, not too stiff on the bottom, and the string reamers and stabilisers should be placed
properly, in order to ream the minimum possible. The biggest danger in reaming is to
undercut the well and sidetrack it at the low side of the hole.
9.2.20
Fatigue in directional drilling
An abrupt dogleg can cause stress on the drilling assembly components, raising the
possibility of failures by fatigue.
High tension on the drillpipe, because of a heavy BHA, is the factor that should be checked
when a drillpipe failure occurs. The BHA should not normally contain more than 10 or 15%
more weight than the drilling weight required. Fatigue failures are bound to be present,
especially when a heavy drilling set-up is used for reaming. This is because reaming is done
without weight on the bit and tension on the drillpipe is at its maximum.
9.2.21
Fishing in directional drilling
When a fishing job is necessary in a deviated hole, the fishing operations to follow are the
same as the ones in a straight hole, with the advantage that the top of the fish will always be
laying at the low side of the hole, so catching the fish will not be too difficult as long as the
hole is not washed out.
In a directional well, it is good practice to work the pipe whenever the drilling is stopped and
keep the hole filled. Due to the inclination of the hole, the danger of differential sticking is
higher than in a vertical well.
9.2.22
Tool face orientation
Once the desired direction the tool should be facing is determined, the next step is to
actually face the tool in that direction, in order to drill the predetermined course.
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When kicking off a well, there must be a change in the direction plane or the inclination
plane. Some method must be used to force the bit in the desired direction. The magnitude
of the deflection is controlled by the departure from the centre line of the deflecting tool (the
bent housing).
All settings are to high side or to the left or right of high side. They are called "high side tool
face" settings (see Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8 High side of the wellbore

The precise result obtained from a particular tool face setting will vary in different situations,
and is affected by the formation and by other factors such as hole size and drilling
parameters.
Whatever the inclination of the well, the effect of setting tool face on high side, i.e., in hole
direction, is to build angle and keep direction constant; conversely, setting the tool face on
low side will always give the maximum possible drop rate while holding direction.
There are several methods available for remotely aiming the direction of the bent-housing
motor during directional drilling operations.
Mule Shoe Orientation:
This method uses a direct mechanical alignment of tool face and instrument package. This
requires the use of either a mule-shoe mandrel and bottom-hole orienting sub. The muleshoe orienting sleeve is positioned in the mule-shoe orienting sub to line up with the bent
housing knee. The single shot tool has a mule-shoe mandrel on the bottom that is shaped to
go in the orienting sleeve, only in the direction of the tool face.
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A key, located in the drilling assembly, is locked into exact alignment with the true face
direction of the deflection device. The lower end of the survey instrument assembly has a
complimentary keyway (shaped like a mule's shoe) that slides onto the key and aligns the
single-shot survey instrument with the tool face. A survey picture taken with this system
provides hole direction and inclination angle, as well as the tool face or orientation.
9.3
Horizontal Drilling
9.3.1
Horizontal drilling pattern
Figure 9.9 Horizontal drilling pattern

9.3.2
BHA weight and weight on bit
The bottom hole assembly should provide the desired weight on bit. It has long been
standard practice when drilling vertical wells to avoid running ordinary drill pipe in
compression. This practice was also adopted on low-angle directional wells.
In highly deviated wells, when high WOB is required, then a long and expensive BHA is
required for the drillpipe to be in compression because only the along-hole component of
the weight of BHA elements contributes to the weight on bit. Drillpipe is run in compression
because researchers have shown that it can tolerate significant levels of compression in
small-diameter, high-angle holes because of the support provided by the low side of the
hole. When drilling horizontal wells drillpipe is commonly run in compression, apparently
without causing damage to the pipe.
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9.4
Survey Equipment and Procedures
The trajectory of a wellbore is determined by the measurement of the inclination and

direction at various depths. This section presents the various measurement tools, the
principles of operation, and the necessary corrections:
1. Drift Measurements.
1. Magnetic Surveys.
1. Azimuth Reference Systems.
1. Gyroscopic Survey Tools.
1. Measurement While Drilling (MWD).
1. Directional Survey Calculations.
1. Magnetic Declination Correction.
1. Magnetic Interference and Instrument Spacing.
1. Magnetic Single Shot Surveys - Unloading, Developing and Reading the Film.
1. Surveying Inaccuracy.
9.4.1
Drift surveys
The inclination of a borehole is the angle between the borehole axis and the vertical axis.
Drift surveys provide only inclination information with no indication of wellbore direction. Drift
surveys are used frequently in the vertical section of the hole above the kick off point.
As the direction of deviation is not known, uncertainty is created which can be calculated by
assuming the deviation is an all-in-one direction, and then rotating this potential horizontal
displacement versus depth around the well bore axis to create the uncertainty limits in any
direction.
This tool is run on wireline and needs approximately one to two minutes of stopped rotation
and circulation to obtain a survey. It is Coparex company practice to take surveys every 30
m on surface hole, and every 100m on main hole.
9.4.2
Magnetic surveys
Magnetic surveys can only be run in open hole. This is due to the disruption of the magnetic
signal that would occur if the survey were run inside the casing. Magnetic surveys are
usually run in the drillstring and must be located adjacent to non-magnetic drill collars. These
types of collars are required to allow the survey instrument compass to locate magnetic
north.
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The azimuth of a borehole at a point is the direction of the borehole on the horizontal plane,
measured as a clockwise angle (0 - 360 degrees).
Hole direction is measured with respect to magnetic north. The correction to true north must
be made for the specific area. The size of the correction depends on the location of the well,
and may be only a few degrees to 45 degrees or more in northerly areas.
There are two types of magnetic surveys:
Magnetic Single-Shot Surveys.
The magnetic single-shot survey tool records one inclination and direction per run. The
tool is run on wireline and uses either a motion sensor, a Monel sensor or electronic
timer to activate the camera and film disk. While the surveying picture is being taken
using the motion sensor method, the pipe must not be moving and the circulation must
be suspended. Using the timer method, timers on the survey instrument are present to
allow sufficient time for the survey to reach bottom before the shot is taken. The nonmagnetic collar sensor can also be used instead of the electronic timer. It will cause the
single shot camera to take a survey picture after the instrument has been in a nonmagnetic drill collar for 60 seconds. It eliminates the need to guess the time for the tool
to reach bottom. It is not sensitive to downhole vibration which can prevent the motion
sensor from taking a picture. The survey units come in various angle ranges and the
most accurate scale for a given hole angle should be used.
The normal procedure for magnetic single shots taken is to drop the tool to "free fall"
through the mud to bottom prior to a bit trip. The tool is usually recovered with an
overshot after all the drillpipe has been tripped out. Single shot magnetic surveying is
slow, but is the least expensive system. However, MWD systems can be more economic
if very frequent surveys are required, such as during angle building or when penetration
rates are high.
Electrical power is furnished by batteries. The electrical circuit is controlled by a timer
which closes the circuit and causes the lamps to illuminate at the pre-set time. The
inclination and direction of inclination indicated by the compass-angle unit are recorded
on a film disc. This instrument can be used to make orientation surveys for any deflecting
tool being used.
There are four basic components which make a magnetic single shot instrument:
Compass/angle unit (see Figure 9.10).
Camera.
Timing device.
Battery pack.
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All these angle units contain a magnetic compass card which aligns itself to magnetic North
and provides the direction reference. The low ranges have a plumb bob unit which hangs
above the compass card from a single suspension point. The plumb bob will always hang
vertically, regardless of the inclination angle to which the instrument is tilted. When the
instruments are vertical, the point of intersection of the cross hairs on the plumb bob is
directly above the centre of the compass card. If the angle unit is tilted over at an angle, the
intersection of the cross hairs will be vertically above some point displaced outwards from
the centre of the compass card. The compass card is calibrated with concentric rings which
represent increments in inclination. Since the plumb bob always hangs vertically, a straight
line through the centre of the compass card and the point of intersection of the cross hairs
will indicate hole direction on the compass scale. The only correction which has to be
applied to the single shot reading is the magnetic declination correction.
Figure 9.10 Angle unit

Magnetic Multi-shot Surveys.
Multi-shot magnetic surveys are able to record the magnetic direction and inclination of
an uncased hole on a film strip at multiple stations with a single loading by using a reel of
film which is advanced by a present timer. The tool is normally dropped down the hole
prior to a trip out of the hole. The downhole tool is positioned in a non-magnetic drill
collar so that the magnetic compass is spaced as far as possible from any magnetised
steel. Care must be taken to accurately record the depth of each stand or single where
surveys have been recorded.
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The electronic magnetic multi-shot (EMS) uses a sensor array of accelerometers and
magnetometers housed in an electronics probe. The data is recorded downhole on a
memory chip and then transferred to a computer disc for processing when the tool is
retrieved at surface.
9.4.3 Magnetic single-shot surveys - unloading, developing and reading the film
Unloading and Developing the Film
1. Recover the instruments and unscrew the camera/angle unit assembly from the
timer. DO NOT separate the camera from the angle unit at this stage or the film will
be exposed.
1. Pull the bottom of the developing tank off. Make sure the tank's light trap operates
freely (normally firm). Fill the bottom of the tank with 1 mm of developing fluid. Push
the top of the tank completely into its bottom cup.
1. Place the tank on a firm surface and open the light trap.
1. Place the camera/angle unit over the tank and mate the lips of the tank with the film
gate notch in the camera. Press the camera's film gate button. Shut the tank's light
gate.
1. Allow the film to develop for four minutes, agitating the tank occasionally. If the fluid
is cold, develop the film for 8 to 10 minutes.
Figure 9.11 Single shot instrument

Reading the film
0-10 and 0-20 disks - Line up the readers cross hair so that it intersects the centre of
the disk and the centre of the plumb bob cross hair. Read the directions where the
readers cross hair intersects with the compass card. Read inclination from where
plumb bob cross hair intersects concentric inclination circles. The third piece of
directional information read from the disc is the tool face orientation. This is only of
interest when the single-shot is being used to orient downhole deflecting tools. The
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tool face line is the heavy black line extending from the outer edge of the disc
inward . The tool face reading is obtained by the relationship of the tool face line to
the scale on the disc viewer. See Figure 9.12.
Figure 9.12 Degree angle unit (0-10 degree)

15-90 disks - When reading the high inclination picture, the disc is oriented so that all
alphanumerics are right side up. Read the inclination at the intersection of disk's
centre horizontal cross hair and vertical scale. The azimuth is read from the
intersection of the vertical line and the respective point of the compass. The tool face
line is the heavy black line extending from the outer edge of the film disc inward. The
tool face, when using the single shot to orient downhole tools, is read from the
relationship of the tool face line to the scale on the viewer. See Figure 9.13.
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Figure 9.13 Degree angle unit (0-90 degree)

9.4.4
Azimuth reference systems
For directional surveying there are two azimuth reference systems:

1. Magnetic North.
1. True (Geographic) North.
Magnetic type tools initially give an azimuth (hole direction) reading referenced to magnetic
north. The final calculated co-ordinates are always referenced to either true north or grid
north.
True (geographic north) is the direction of the geographic north pole which lies on the axis of
rotation of the earth. This direction is shown on maps by the meridians of longitude.
Survey tools measure the direction of the wellbore on the horizontal plane with respect to the
north reference, whether it be true or grid north. There are two systems used:
1. Azimuth - In the azimuth system, directions are expressed as a clockwise angle form
0 to 359.99 degrees, with north being 0 degrees (see Figure 9.14).
1. Quadrant Bearings - In the quadrant system, the directions are expressed as angles
from 0 - 90 degrees, measured from north in the northern quadrants and from south
in the southern quadrants (see Figure 9.15). Figure 9.16 illustrates how to convert
between the azimuth and quadrant bearing system.
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Figure 9.14 Azimuth
Figure 9.15 Quadrant bearings
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Figure 9.16 Azimuth-quadrant conversion

9.4.5
Gyroscopic surveys
Gyroscopic surveys can be run in either cased or open hole and do not require the use of
non-magnetic drill collars. Gyroscopic survey tools rely on a motor-driven gyroscopic (highspeed rotating disks).
The gyroscope systems are aligned to a suitable datum point at surface, usually before the
tool is run. It operates like the magnetic single shot, taking a picture of the direction of the
bore hole, related to the gyro orientation. A pendulum gives the inclination of the hole.
Gyroscopic surveys are most commonly used as multi-shot instruments run inside casing.
9.4.6
Measurement while drilling (MWD)
MWD systems have been designed and used as a means of improving the efficiency of the
drilling operation by minimising lost time due to time consuming activities such as borehole
surveying and wireline logging (steering tool). An MWD system can be used to transmit a
variety of measurement data from downhole to surface, without the complexities of an
electric wireline. All MWD systems use sensors located in the bottomhole assembly to
monitor drilling parameters and/or formation characteristics. At the surface, the signals are
received by a pressure transducer and transmitted to a computer that processes and
converts the data to inclination, direction, and tool face orientation. This information is
transmitted to a terminal, which prints it, and to a rig-floor display which displays inclination,
direction, and tool face orientation.
A basic MWD system contains these essential components:
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Downhole sensor package

Surface computer to receive data and convert it to a useable format
Uphole or surface sensor (for reception of data signal from downhole)
Downhole power source
Method to transmit data from downhole to surface and/or to record data
Downhole computer (microprocessor and electronics for controlling and monitoring the
downhole system).
Different MWD systems now available offer a growing selection of downhole sensor
packages able to monitor various downhole parameters. These parameters can be sorted
into three broad categories of information. Directional information comprises wellbore
inclination, azimuth and tool face orientation. Formation evaluation MWD initially included
only gamma ray and receptivity. More recently, neutron and density measurements are
possible. Engineering information can include true downhole weight and torque at the bit,
annular temperature and pressure.
Description of Mud Pulse Telemetry
Mud pulse telemetry has the ability to transmit continuously while drilling without
interrupting the normal productive drilling program. Interfacing to the rigs mud
circulating system is simple (no modifications to the existing equipment are required).
Information encoded in a binary format is transmitted to the surface by either a positive
or negative pressure pulse generated in the drilling fluid. Positive pulse systems use
some type of internal restriction to produce a pressure pulse above ambient pressure. It
has the advantage of better signal reception over negative pulse. Negative pulse
systems use a bypass valve to vent flow from the inside of the tool into the annulus,
thereby creating a pressure pulse below ambient pressure. An advantage of negative
pulse telemetry is ease of flow due to minimal flow restriction. As a result, erosion is less
of a problem and pumping of lost circulation materials and cement plugs is more easily
achieved.
Downhole Power
Turbine generated power is dependent on an adequate flow rate, and is prone to
erosion, but is less prone to temperature or time limitations than battery packages.
Turbines can also provide longer and higher rates of power transmission. As more
sensors are added to MWD downhole systems, increased availability of power becomes
a necessity. Drillpipe mud screens are necessary when using turbine powered MWD
systems.
Retrievable probe versus collar mounted systems
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Sensors contained within a retrievable probe restrict flow and are prone to erosion. The
retrievable based MWD can be advantageous in situations involving drillstring sticking;
whereby the probe can be retrieved, lessening the overall lost-in-hole costs. The
downhole probe can be repaired or module modified rather than tripping the entire BHA
out of the hole. Retrievable and free hanging/standing probes have the advantage of
being able to withstand much greater build rates than collar mounted systems.
Collar mounted systems can usually withstand greater stresses from shock and
vibration, and can be more easily configured for high flow environments.
Formation Evaluation (Logging While Drilling - LWD)
The object of resistivity measurements is to examine the properties of the formations
natural fluids and determine the content. Oil, water and salt water all have different
abilities to conduct electricity. Since drilling fluids tend to permeate out into the formation,
measuring the resistivity beyond the zone invaded by the drilling fluids is necessary.
Formation evaluation MWD has the advantage of measuring resistivity soon after the
formation is drilled, and prior to full invasion of the drilling fluids into the formation.
Transmitting formation evaluation information (measurements must be related to given
depths) has led to the development of downhole memory capabilities where formation
evaluation data is not transmitted, but stored for downloading at surface.
9.4.7
Directional survey calculations
The normal method for determining the well path is to determine the co-ordinates by using
some type of surveying instrument to measure the inclination and direction at various depths
(stations) and then to calculate the trajectory.
Trajectory path surveys are taken at stations. At each station, inclination and direction angles
are measured, as well as the course length between stations. Each direction angle obtained
by a magnetic type of survey must be corrected to true north, and each gyroscopic must be
corrected for drift prior to calculating. MWD readings are corrected for magnetic declination
by computer at surface.
The following are the three most popular methods of calculating directional survey
information:
1. Average Angle - Most popular calculation for hand held calculators.
1. Radius of Curvature
1. Minimum Curvature.
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9.4.8
Magnetic declination correction
The amount of correction required can be found on the directional plan provided by the
directional company. See Figure 9.17 for adding or subtracting this correction from each and
every survey.
Figure 9.17 Magnetic declination correction

Surveying instruments that are used to measure the wellbore direction on the basis of the
earths magnetic field must be corrected for the difference between true north and magnetic
north. Declination is the angle between magnetic north and true north. The compass reacts
to the horizontal component of the magnetic field; the reaction decreases when the compass
is moved northward.
When magnetic north lies to the west of true north, this gives a WEST DECLINATION
CORRECTION. Since any magnetic survey is referenced to magnetic north, the observed
azimuth is greater than the true azimuth. Therefore, the declination correction is subtracted
from the observed azimuth.
If magnetic north lies to the east of true north, this gives an EAST DECLINATION
CORRECTION (see Figure 9.18). The observed azimuth is less than the true azimuth.
Therefore, the declination correction is added to the observed azimuth.
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Figure 9.18 East magnetic declination correction

9.4.9
Magnetic interference and instrument spacing
The sensors in magnetic survey tools detect the earths magnetic field. However, if there are
other sources of magnetic fields (see Figure 9.19) nearby, these will also affect the sensors.
The readings are affected by magnetic interference. There are numerous possible causes of
interference, including:
Drillstring magnetisation.
Nearby cased wells.
Nearby fish: if the well has been sidetracked.
Magnetic deposits in the formation.
Magnetic storms.
At shallow depths, the platform structure itself.
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Figure 9.19 Source of magnetic interference

The Effect of Drillstring Magnetisation
As the drilling assembly is rotated in a borehole, the steel components become magnetised.
Non-magnetic drill collars do not become magnetised and are used to space magnetic-type
survey instruments as far as possible from magnetised steel. Downhole, the survey tool lies
inside one of the Monel collars.
The number of Monels required depends on various factors: the horizontal component of the
earths magnetic field, the inclination and the azimuth of the well. For example, high angle
wells require more Monels in general, and more Monels are required when drilling east.
Figure 9.20 is a guideline to the length of non-magnetic collars required for the different
directional scenarios. Care should be taken to ensure that all crossovers, stabilisers, etc.,
placed within the non-magnetic collar string are also non-magnetic.
Rule of Thumb for Spacing
The spacing of the angle unit compasses is given as a percentage of the total length of
Monel in the BHA. The spacing is the height of the compass above the bottom of the entire
Monel section.
Consider how much steel there is below the non-magnetic section. Less than a 3
metre section is considered minimum; 3 - 6 metres is the intermediate case; greater
than 6 metres is the maximum, particularly if a downhole motor is being used.
Minimum steel below Monels space at 33% approx.
Intermediate case space at 35% - 45%
Maximum steel below Monels space at 45 - 50%
Do not position the compasses within 3 metres of any tool joint.
Do not position the compasses within 1.5 metres of a non-magnetic stabiliser.
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Figure 9.20 Magnetic interference and instrument spacing

9.4.10
Surveying inaccuracy
Both magnetic and gyroscopic survey instruments can be inaccurate. Magnetic compasses
are subject to magnetic interference by the surrounding drillstring, and are effected by the
earth position of the survey. The conventional gyroscope has a drift error because of the
earth spin, and the earth position of the survey. Along with the major measuring problems
there may be errors caused by magnetic storms (which can change the north reading),
declination variation, hot spots on the non-magnetic collars, or inaccurate readings.
All the inaccuracies can be shown to be systematic and can be related to five major
categories: compass reference, compass instrument, inclination, misalignment, and depth
errors.
9.5
Recommended Bottomhole Assemblies
9.5.1
General
The assemblies provided in the following sections are based upon North Sea experience.
The assemblies are a general guide only. BHA characteristics will change with varying
formation characteristics.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
9.5.2
Drill collar size election
Drill collar size selection should be made after careful consideration of weight on bit
requirements, hole deviation, ease of make up and break down, handling safety and hole
size and conditions.
The use of 9 1/2" drill collars should be considered for larger hole sizes, when practical.
9.5.3 String weights
Drill collar string weights (in mud) should exceed the required weight on bit by at least 10
percent.
Drillpipe, jar and heavy weight drillpipe should be run in tension wherever possible.
In vertical holes where the hole diameter exceeds the heavy weight drillpipe tool joint
diameter by more than 4", the heavy weight pipe must always be run in tension.
9.5.4 Problem Holes
If the potential for stuck pipe exists, run the minimum number of drill collars possible.
If the potential for differential sticking exists, run a short, well stabilised BHA with
spiral drill collars.
Increase the number of heavy weight drill pipe to give the required weight on bit, if practical.
9.5.5
Deviated hole
If deviated hole is to be drilled, the deviation contractor will generally advise what BHA
structure is the most appropriate.
9.5.6 Key Seating
If key seats develop (or may develop), an under gauge stabiliser or key seat wiper should be
run between the top drill collar and the heavy weight drill pipe.
The difference between key seat wiper size and drill collar size should be substantial in larger
hole sizes. A full gauge stabiliser is generally run for an 8-1/2" hole and smaller.
e.g.,
9-5/8" stabiliser on 8" drill collars in 12-1/4" hole.

12-1/4" stabiliser on 8" or 9-1/2" drill collars in 17-1/2" hole.
9.5.7 Float subs

A float sub should be considered when drilling a 24/26 diameter hole. It should be positioned
above the near bit stabiliser. This will avoid the possibility of bit plugging and to allow surveys to
be taken without backflow.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
After making up the BHA, fill up the string and break circulation to check that the float is
operating satisfactorily.
Run in the hole slowly to avoid pressure surges and fill the string at least every 5 stands to
reduce the pressure differential across the float.
The float must not be held in the open position when tripping.
CAUTION:
If the well kicks with a float sub in the string, the shut-in drillpipe pressure may be wrong.
Several methods can be utilised to open the float so that the shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP)
can be determined. The two most widely applied methods are described in 9.5.8 and 9.5.9.
9.5.8 Static method
Pump slowly down the drillpipe with the annulus shut-in. Closely monitor the shut-in casing
pressure (SICP).
When the casing pressure begins to rise shut off the pumps and record the drillpipe
pressure. This will be equivalent to the SIDPP.
9.5.9
Dynamic method
Pump down the drillpipe slowly bringing pump rate up to kill speed while holding casing
pressure constant (subtract choke line friction loss if known). When kill speed has been
reached, read the DP circulating pressure.
Subtract slow circulation rate pressure from DP circulating pressure. This will be equivalent
to the SIDPP.
9.5.10
Circulating Subs
They are generally used when drilling smaller diameter holes (8-1/2" or less) but may be
advantageous, in some cases, in larger hole sizes. It is activated by dropping a ball down the
string and pressuring up. If one is to be run, ensure that the ball will pass through all string
components.
9.5.11
Vibration control (shock subs)
If an excessive drillstring vibration is anticipated a shock sub should be included in the BHA.
Placement should be as close as practical to the bit.
9.5.12
Drilling Jars
Although drilling jars are included in the recommended drilling assemblies, consideration should
be given to omitting them from the BHA in 24" and 16" hole sizes, if hole problems are not
anticipated:
Offshore rigs are to have at least one jar on board from spud.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
When harsh drilling conditions are expected (e.g., long chalk intervals) the larger and
more robust drilling jars should be considered, such as the 8.5" heavy duty jars,
rather than the normal 8" size.
When drilling through formations which generate sever string vibrations (e.g., chalk) 81/2 " heavy duty jars should be used.
Where practical, the use of 9-1/2" jars should be considered for larger hole sizes.
Rotating and jarring hours are to be recorded and the details provided to the service
company.
The service company should be consulted for advice on jar (and accelerator)
placement.
If jars are used in KMg mud they have to be ordered with a special coating on the
mandels.
9.5.13
Drillpipe strainers
Drillpipe strainers are not to be used.

9.5.14
Straight hole BHA's
Pendulum Assemblies (Rotary)

Care should be exercised when using PDC bits on pendulum BHA's. The low weight
on bit values may not be sufficient to overcome formation walk tendencies and the
longer gauge of the bit may act as a near bit stabiliser. Packed hole assemblies
should be considered.
Recommended Pendulum Assemblies:
24" - 16" Holes
12-1/4" Holes
BIT
3 x DC
STAB
2 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
BIT
2-3 x DC
STAB
1-2 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
8-3/8" Holes
5-7/8" Holes
Date
: May 2003
Revision
BIT
2 x DC
STAB
1 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
BIT
1 x DC
STAB
SDC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
9.5.15
Stiff (packed hole) assembly
The following assembly structure can be used irrespective of hole size:

Bit
NBSTAB
SDC
STAB
1 x DC
STAB
1 x DC
STAB
DC's
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
9.5.16
Kick-off and deviation assemblies
Kick-off and Side Track (with bent-sub)

24" Hole
Bit
11-1/4 MM
BS (2 deg)
2 x NMDC
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
12-1/4" Hole
Bit
8 MM
BS (2 deg)
16" Hole
Bit
9-1/2 MM
BG (2 deg)
2 x NMDC
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
8-3/8" Hole
Bit
6 3/4 MM
BS (1-1/2 deg)
Date
: May 2003
Revision
2 x NMDC
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
2 x NMDC
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
5-7/8" Hole
Bit
4 3/4 MM
BS (1 deg)
2 x NMDC
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
NOTE:
These assemblies can be used for correcting hole direction. The choice of
bent sub angle will be effected by various factors. Choice can be influenced
by formation type, length of side track window, top of hole obstructions, size of
hole and the need to move quickly away from the old course. Past failures
have shown that it may be better to select a higher angle bent sub and aim to
achieve a short, positive kick-off. This should then be followed by a reaming
trip then a DTU or drilling assembly.
9.5.17 Bottomhole assemblies tangent assemblies (Navri-drill

System/DTU)
24" Hole
Bit
11-1/4 DTU
UGSTAB (23, 24)
2 x NMDC
UGSTAB (22, 23)
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
16"Hole
Bit
11-1/4 DTU
UGSTAB (15-1/2, 16)
2 x NMDC
UGSTAB (15-1/4, 15-3/4)
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
12-1/4" Hole
8-1/2" Hole
Bit
Bit
9-1/2 DTU
6-3/4 DTU
UGSTAB (11-3/4, 12-1/4)
UGSTAB (8, 8-1/4)
2 x NMDC
2 x NMDC
UGSTAB (11-1/2, 12)
UGSTAB (7-3/4, 8)
Date
: May 2003
Revision
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
5-7/8" Hole
Bit
4-3/4 DTU
UGSTAB (5-1/2, 5-3/4)
2 x NMDC
UGSTAB (5-1/4, 5-1/2)
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
Recommended stabiliser sizes are shown. The first mentioned size is for tangent or
build-up sections, the seconds mentioned will change the BHA's into angle dropping
assemblies.
The AKO (adjustable kick-off) sub can be considered as a replacement for the above
mentioned systems. The AKO is a motor with a variable angle sub attached to the
bottom. At low angles (angle dependent on AKO size), the drillstring can be rotated
and the BHA used as a steerable system.
Include the angle of the DTU housing on the BHA Sheet.
9.5.18
Angle-build rotary assembly
24" - 16" Holes

Bit
NBSTAB
SDC (< 3m)
UGSTAB
3 x DC
STAB
2 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
12-1/4" Holes
Bit
NBSTAB
SDC (< 3m)
UGSTAB
2 x DC
STAB
1 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
8-1/2" Holes
5-7/8" Holes
Date
: May 2003
Revision
Bit
NBSTAB
SDC (< 3m)
UGSTAB
1 x DC
SDC (5m)
STAB
1 x DC
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
9.5.19
Bit
NBSTAB
SDC (< 3m)
UGSTAB
1 x DC
SDC (5m) perhaps
STAB
SDC (5m)
SDC (5m) perhaps
STAB
DCs
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
Tangent rotary assembly
Bit
NBSTAB
SDC
UGSTAB
1 x DC
UGSTAB
1 x DC
STAB
DC's
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
To change the above assembly to an angle dropping assembly, make up the BHA
using full gauge rather than under gauge stabilisers.
9.5.20
Check trips assemblies
Standard Check Trip Assembly:

Bit
NBSTAB
2 x DC
STAB
2 x DC
Jar
1 x DC
HWDP
Date
: May 2003
Revision
For the larger hole size (16" and 24") and in problematic holes (sloughing shales,
ledges), the following check trip assembly should be considered:
Bit
NBSTAB
DC
STAB
2 x DC
STAB
2 x DC
JAR
1 x DC
HWDP
The following check trip assembly should be considered for holes with numerous
doglegs or course corrections, (particularly in softer formations). A check trip, using
the standard check trip assembly, should be made first, to avoid beginning a new
hole. This assembly is also recommended for hole sections in which "tighter" casing
schemes will be run:
Bit
NBSTAB
SDC (3-5m)
STAB
2XDC
STAB
2XDC
JAR
1XDC
HWDP
As particular circumstances dictate, the use of undergauge stabilisers may be
considered.
9.5.21
Check trip assemblies for after DTU runs
After kick-off, hole correction or normal drilling operation with a DTU or mud motor in 12- 1/4"
hole or smaller, a stiff (locked) BHA must not be run.
If it is necessary to follow a DTU/mud motor, run in 12-1/4" hole or smaller with a stiff BHA or
casing. A wiper trip should first be made with the BHA described in 9.6.20 (standard check trip
assembly).
Surface Deviated Holes
Date
: May 2003
Revision
With kick-off points as shallow as +/- 150m, inclination of up to 50 deg and dogleg
severitys of up to 2 de/10m in the build-up section, a check trip may be necessary prior
to running casing. The BHA described in 9.6.20 (standard check trip assembly) should
be used.
Intermediate Deviated Section
If the deviated section is to be drilled (with DTU) and then followed by a tangent section
using a rotary, a check trip should be made using the BHA described in 9.6.20 (standard
check trip assembly prior to RIH with the tangent assembly. This is to smoothen the well
bore prior to the stiff BHA run.
As long reaming runs are often required when running through shale or soft clay
sections, the inclusion of an MWD collar in the BHA should be considered to avoid
inadvertently sidetracking the hole.
If an MWD collar is not included in the BHA, use low WOB, RPM and pump rates.
9.5.22
Accelerator position
During Drilling
An accelerator is recommended when difficult drilling conditions are foreseen, and it is
felt that the jar will not sufficiently impact by themselves. Generally, optimum placement
is 3 drill collars above the jar (Hydra Jar/ Magnum Accelerator combination), but the
service company should be consulted for advice.
An alternative to this assembly is to place the accelerator 1 drill collar, plus heavy weight
drill pipe (sufficient to be equivalent in weight to 2 drill collars) above the jar.
The recommended accelerator is the dual acting type for difficult conditions. It is
available in 8.5" and 9.5" sizes.
During Fishing
Dependent on the length and nature of the fish. Fishing contractor should be consulted
for advice on optimum placement of the accelerator.
9.6
Sidetracking
Sidetracking is also known as "whipstocking" or "kicking off", and can be defined as the
operation of purposely drilling a new hole beginning at some predetermined point in an
existing wellbore which by-passes the original hole. It is normally done after a wellbore has
been plugged back. Sidetracking can be done in open hole or out of casing. Sidetracking out
of casing involves either:
1. Milling a section out of the casing and then kicking off a cement plug, or
Date
: May 2003
Revision
1. Setting a permanent whipstock in the casing and then milling a "window" out of the
casing.
Sidetracking in open hole basically involves abandoning a length of hole and setting a
cement whipstock plug across the area in which the old wellbore is to be departed from. A
kick-off assembly is then used to deviate from the plug and the old wellbore in much the
same way as kicking off any directionally drilled well.
9.6.1
Reasons for Sidetracking in open hole
1. Change in target - A change in target area of a well can occur while drilling a well or
after the well has reached total depth. A possible occurrence is that after the planned
total depth has been achieved, geological evaluation indicates that the prospective
formation has either been missed or has not been penetrated at an acceptable
structural location. In this case, it is often economical to plug back and kick-off the
well rather than re-drill it.
1. Fish in the Hole - Perhaps the most common cause of having to plug back and
sidetrack a well is the loss of down-hole equipment in the hole which cannot be
recovered or for which economics dictate that it is more economical to plug back and
sidetrack than attempting to recover the fish.
1. Hole Conditions - Hole conditions may sometimes be solved by a plug back and
sidetracking operation. Where a bad dogleg or key seat has occurred, it may not be
possible to drill ahead without risking getting stuck or twisting off, and a plug back
and sidetrack may be required. Sometimes where lost circulation or high pressure
has been encountered, the well may be plugged back, additional casing run, and the
well sidetracked to avoid possible problems in the old hole.
9.6.2
Sidetracking procedures in open hole
The following outline is a guideline in preparing and undertaking a sidetracking operation.

1. Abandon any lower zones as may be necessary in the usual fashion. After the hole
and mud are conditioned, trip out of the hole with drillpipe.
1. Select a section of the hole, if possible, for sidetracking that is in gauge or near
gauge and which does not contain any doglegs or key seats.
1. Trip in the hole open-ended to the point of the bottom of the plug. It is usually
desirable to run a stinger on the bottom of the drillpipe, i.e, an 31/2 stinger on 5
drillpipe. Enough stinger should be run such that the top of the stinger is above the
calculated top of the cement after the cement has been displaced.
1. A minimum of 60 metres cement plug should be set. A typical plug consists of the
following:
water wash - usually 3m3
Date
: May 2003
Revision
a lead slurry of neat cement

1. Pull out of cement a minimum of 150 metres above cement and circulate out any
excess cement. Continue circulating and WOC.
1. WOC depends on the recipe of the cement. Remember that the hydrostatic head
gets lost over the hardening cement section.
1. Trip in the hole with bit, drill collars, and drillpipe and clean out excess cement. The
penetration rate must be carefully monitored when drilling the cement above the
sidetrack point. If the cement has not reached adequate strength, it may be
necessary to stop drilling and WOC. Trip in the hole slowly to avoid excessive
hydraulic surges.
1. As a guideline, the cement is near enough if the penetration rate is about two
minutes per 30 centimetres, with 5 tons of weight on bit (WOB) and 50 revolutions
per minute (rpm) table speed. The directional driller should monitor the drilling rate.
1. After the plug has been polished off, trip out of the hole with the drilling assembly and
trip in the hole with the sidetrack assembly. Usually the sidetrack assembly consists
of mud motor with bent housing.
Precautions
1. The crews should be cautioned to slow down while going into the hole or coming out
of the hole through the kick off point. If trouble is encountered in getting into the
sidetrack hole on a normal trip, do not permit the crew to drill or rotate in an attempt
to get into the sidetrack hole. If this occurs, picking up and turning the drillstring a
quarter of a turn at a time should enable you to get back into the sidetracked hole
with very little difficulty. A crippled bit has often proved successful in locating the
sidetracked hole.
1. If difficulty is encountered on trips while pulling out through the kick-off point, it may
desirable to run a string reamer through this section periodically. While working the
reamer through the kick-off point, ensure the bit is in the sidetrack hole.
1. Caution should be observed while surveying or making connections, and the pipe
should be kept moving as much as possible, because a deviated hole is more
conducive to wall sticking than a straight hole.
1. If a key seat wiper is run on top of the drill collars, the cutters should be a maximum
of 1/4 to a minimum of 1/8 larger than the top drill collar. For a tapered string, a
stabiliser can be run at the drill collar size and change position as well.
1. It is usually better and easier to get away from the old hole, by making the turn
between 90 and 120 degrees from the direction of the old hole.
Sidetracking Procedures in Cased Hole

Date
: May 2003
Revision
The following procedure is only to be referred to as a generic example. Site specific

programs will be provided by drilling engineering for any particular operation.
Running procedure for wireline set whipstock packer and milling operations.
1. Prior to any wireline operations it is highly recommended that a casing scraper is run
with several passes across packer setting depth.
1. Run gauge ring ensuring gauge ring is maximum OD of packer and junk basket.
1. Make up adapter kit and packer on setting tool. Check oil level in setting tool
reservoir.
1. Run in hole with CCL and packer (set on wireline).
1. Correlate casing collars with production logs.
1. Set packer approximately 1m above the collar.
1. RIH with mule shoe and gyro survey tool .
1. Make up orientation stinger to packer type whipstock and orientate using compass
card. Compass card numerals are viewed looking up hole from the end of the stinger.
1. Attach starting mill to whipstock weight shear bolt. Use double lock nut or method to
ensure the nut cannot back off.
1. RIH with whipstock assembly slowly. Do not rotate string while running in the hole.
1. One to two metres above the packer work the string and check drag.
1. Lower stinger into the packer. Alignment of anchor and packer alignment lug will
occur automatically.
1. Lower drill string and set down 2.5T to latch anchor assembly.
1. To ensure anchor is latched pull 3.0T dan above string weight and drag.
1. Shear the bolt on the starting mill with 6-8T overpull.
Window Milling Procedure

1. Lower the string while rotating. Torque should occur approximately 1m below the
shear bolt alignment. Continue milling until sufficient depth has been made to ensure
milling off the carrying lug on the whipstock.
1. Trip out with starting mill and make up window mill, watermelon mill and drill pipe
RIH.
1. Start milling where the starting mill left off and continue milling until completely
outside of casing and 2-3 metres of formation have been drilled.
1. Trip out of the hole. Make up new window mill, watermelon mill and string reamer
and RIH.
Date
: May 2003
Revision
1. Work and ream assembly through window section until it may be pulled through
window into the casing with no overpull.
1. Trip out of the hole to pickup motor and bit.
Date
: May 2003
Revision

Chapter 9 Directional Drilling

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Chapter 9 Directional Drilling

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OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION MANUAL

ABERCROMBIE & ASSOCIATES

OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION MANUAL

9.5 Recommended Bottomhole Assemblies............................................9.36

OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION MANUAL

Conventional Directional Drilling

9.2.3 Angle holding

Insufficient Bit Walk

Increase WOB/Decrease RPM

Figure 9.1 Fulcrum principle

Figure 9.2 Pendulum principle

Non-magnetic Drill Collars

Short drill collars, extension subs

Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions

Figure 9.3 Bottomhole assemblies with responses under ideal conditions

Selection of stabiliser type

Figure 9.4 Directional drilling terminology

Types of directional patterns

Figure 9.5 Build and hold pattern

Figure 9.6 S type well pattern

Kick-off point and build-up rate

Reduced likelihood of unstable wellbore conditions resulting from drilling sensitive

Factors affecting trajectory control of rotary assemblies

Bending characteristics of the drill string.

Gauge and placement of stabilisers.

Deviation control on vertical holes

The general deviation control guidelines are:

Using the mud motor for drilling and trajectory change

Figure 9.7 Moineau motor configuration

General guidelines for PDM motor usage

Adjustable bent housing

Fatigue in directional drilling

Fishing in directional drilling

Tool face orientation

Figure 9.8 High side of the wellbore

Horizontal drilling pattern

Figure 9.9 Horizontal drilling pattern

BHA weight and weight on bit

Survey Equipment and Procedures

The trajectory of a wellbore is determined by the measurement of the inclination and

Figure 9.10 Angle unit

Figure 9.11 Single shot instrument

Figure 9.12 Degree angle unit (0-10 degree)

Figure 9.13 Degree angle unit (0-90 degree)

Azimuth reference systems

For directional surveying there are two azimuth reference systems:

Figure 9.14 Azimuth

Figure 9.15 Quadrant bearings

Figure 9.16 Azimuth-quadrant conversion

Measurement while drilling (MWD)

Downhole sensor package

Directional survey calculations

Magnetic declination correction

Figure 9.17 Magnetic declination correction

Figure 9.18 East magnetic declination correction

Magnetic interference and instrument spacing

Figure 9.19 Source of magnetic interference

Figure 9.20 Magnetic interference and instrument spacing

Recommended Bottomhole Assemblies

Drill collar size election

9-5/8" stabiliser on 8" drill collars in 12-1/4" hole.

9.5.7 Float subs

Vibration control (shock subs)

Drillpipe strainers are not to be used.