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61363TECHNICAL
$R~7INFOQRMATION Lt8KRA~Y
M5APRL
HANDBOOK
-'.1
1*.~.OF
ENV'IRONMENTA4L
NN
,E.
CJTheiss
F. Egan
H. Mileaf
McGRAW.HE001
AehronauWrtical
COPN,
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.4!
FOREWORD
W,V
purpose of this 1>60k is. to provide a convenient reference grurce in the f ield of env iron menotal
Jcotains un-to-date acientific and teivhnieal Information~ and projects the state-of thean; fair as possiible Into the futare. The book is Intended for use by p'-rsonnel of the United States
-materials application,
Anr For-cc and SupportiTY, industry in the areas of: preliminary vehlcledfsign;
ernv'ronmental
coinpnnr'vn1, equipment and SUbsystem Oeslgn and dcveloprnent; and eceliability
and univer~itt1n.. with
tustjilf,. A secondiary purpose '-j to provide a general text for use by colleges
j.
t ho hopp that at lea~'t one course in environmental enginee ring-will be giveti, and fha.. z-7ntitaliy
will 1)'- 4fecred in this field. It Is Maio hoped that this book will inltppI1Z the ti,3vbel..
ccrck.a n citife
i-n(,nr of texts in each of the varlouri areas covered.
Depuity
This report wan sponsored by the Environmental Division, Engineering Tept Directorate, Ohio
as
for I Pst and Suppo~rt, Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright- Patterson Air V'orce Base.
No. 61565, under Coli~rwAe No. AF33(616)-6252. The report was 'published
1lroj,:ct Nv. 13iY-,'Twsk
,Q(4
Nnverniw). 1961 -S ASD Tiechn~cal Hepurt TR 61-363.
'I,(
tto'
CTIih)e2n~
Q,4
-I
%J
1),rirjig the preparation of the report., E. C. Theiss, of the Environirentpl Division, Engivieerin~y1
'lest D;). f*cturate, Deputy for Test and Support.7 Aeroflauticaf. Nyatems Division, acted as Chief Project.
Mileaf of the Techiiicai Writing Service Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Eiccatilr!
N;
1
'c
:C L 'Mia'igl'
eFr0J
V Ii:
McGraw-Hill Book Company D. Cohen, F. Egan and

iiin
evc
rtn
F-or the 'technicar
and helpf ul
W. Mrnactc't as At;soclate Editors. Throughout the project, thie editors had the active
Upper At?'n.osphre P1'VsiRtr.~ R~. Hankey. Chief. 'i
A*J~,
~ it' ~ ~ .. ..~ ''''
Vtk-I
p~nu
~
v~onnit~ ii
DI~ J. R~. Mliron," Nuclar Engineering Physicist, eacli witk h
(riivria Uoit.
tire followingpersolrnelof Aeronautical SystemsDivision reviewed znd cominented ont
sion). hIndiin
c
rtiuiis of the hiandboot- as it was developed: C. W. Douglas W. S. Osborna, C. '?ersi;
i,v'ari;
.E. Vince, V. C. Nenna~rd. CW.,
Dr
A. Tole F. R. Ebrbh
Y-. U. Monroie, C.. A. GoukE
G thardt, D~r. .1. 1:. Allen, M. P. Ornstein, D. L. Earls, and C. E. Thomas,
()!i
>
-.
ivause ci spacet. lini itadions, it is impossible to credit by name all of the individuals and organirrith;that, rupprlied material or iniormation. However, in cases where the editors drew extensively
Ge
f Mn individlial or organization, specific credit 1.3 given.I
01,3
Camn0' irarticular %alUte was the miaterial sr..pllec by the following expert consultants: Johnbike,
o;K.A
Je
Poe
rn:L-1t;1 and Johln Re 1garzi, Arnia Division; G. Chernowitz, AmriI
(%r~i
Atroou is;and -Charles Eiwen, American Machine and Foundry Co. ;Tr. Ehricke supplied
the iP !,.'l c11att for the Mlission Profile portions of Chapter 2, Mr. Eiwen th- '-ta for the Environkarul;sLs section of 'Thapter 4. Mr. Chernowitz the data for the Operational Analysis sectioa
'r, .-ti
q
1.
r
,.
%*
4 and the Tlest Procedures section of Chapter 6, and Messrs. Cornmat-ata andi regazzi Inu
Sfor 0Is? 'ie:t nicilul ies secr-tion of Chapter 6.
!>i a
COPYRIGHT CR~EDITS2
near
1'-krn 1-t1 I lfv~s of tire handbook arc, copyrighted by oz'ganizatio-as listc-i :.nder PEFERErICES
I;elript'.r and akt .&eproduced with permit;siorr of the. respective ccpyright ownovs. Any(1' CA
(if thus nrr'tecrial may not be made without the pez'missiour of the holders ofei
,)on.~t~t
r
.)( 0
-s2
pVV
A..
Aq flirlit vehicle syst'ms and their ground support equipr.,cnt ibecoi.e increatiingly complex, the nevd for envirtanim :Aal engineerL'g Rt all levels uf svstemn design becomes
miore Rcute. New environmbnttd are being encountered, and
sniinfewcrOn~ew~ll be coming more tirob ei1cn-' aE more
advanced flight vehicies are developed. As a restlIt, an
understannding of environments and environmentsil en~gineerIng is mnandatory' for the design of reliable equipment.
..
fh Is handbock presents to the designer the many facets of

eui1vironnental engineering as applied to flight vehicle systens, and t~ielr support equipment. The entire gamut o( env.1rzments, both natural and induced, as well as their effeettj and methods of protecting against them are discussed
in detail. The environments are considered both Separately,
and, where the prerent state of, the art permits, in various
conmb~iatioflB. The importance of an environmental and fan
-atioua.l analysis during preliminary system design are
alsu covered..A
t
k"-
PUBLICATION REVIEW
V
th
-0
VV- L do-3r not Coaitlltute 'pzv-uv'
T~p~A~U1or
by Lim Air Force of the findinge or conclusions contained
hereii. It is published only for the exchange and stimulatia-i
of ideas.
This report has been reviewed and Di approkved.

FREPAKED BY.
E.C. THEISS
Projezct EnIF eer
CQNCURRED IN:
LOUIS SCHAFFEI
CoonelUSAF
r! rectorate of Engineering Test
Deputy for Test and-Support
A I
:LIP'
-N-1
)Director
~I$ncal
CONCURRtED IN:
Deputy for Test and Support
AIiROVz)
EBY:f4i,
Colonel, USAF
Ass'k Deputy Commander/Test
anrd Support
~A
,.~~
v
A-
,~~~~~
*
~~
.-
..
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.---
i.
7
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1 .,.-
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"
PREFACE
It
For many years there has been an urgent need for an

authoritative ref erence t-ource In the fileld of Environmental
Science. As the field b' ts prrogressed from an undisciplined
testing activity to a well documented science, 2 wep.th of
in:o~a,o n. its various f~cets has been develoiped by both
".i~irary and civilian activities. Unfortuwately, this infor-L
mation has been contained !n widely scattered reports,V
symposia and proceedings. The t~dsk 3'Lbringing this Wnormation together into one source bas been wnder-taken and
performed by this handbo~ok. The Institute off Enivironmental..
Sciences has reviewed the material presented, and Is ca6rtain that it will perform a much needed service in the field
ot Environmental Science.
'
.4.
William L. Vandal
President 1960-1961
Institute of Enviror-mental Sciences
H. C. Jones
'President 1 g5g-1960
Institute of Environmuenta&l Sciences
Rlaymond G. Yaeger
Publications Vice President
Institute of Environmental Sciences
VV
IM"
a.
r-
1-
-l
'_
"-.".k
OF CONTENT11S
*TABLE
Chapter 1. Intr:oduction
Page
tif;to ,y of
r.uvironmenial F4nginecrirg
'QA
Tomperature Trst'ng .
I.
TX .
,St
I T. ;.
E~i ,snr e
Tlt oo, ca|
. .
....
.-.
. . .
.
.
..
..
...
. .
..
..
. .
.
. ..
..
............
.
....
......
lvpy 'r Environments .
..
I-.
...
1-
. .
.
. .
.1
.
t ....
. . . ..
Pquiprncrt Evaluation and Qualification
1-10-io3..-. .
.
...
1-10
1-1...................
12
.
.
..................
........
1..............
2
...
and-%ro',s
-at
h;Ar2 Asrryta
1-12
......
p',.raitional Use
.7_
..........
7.,"
.. .
""
."- .~a
". .
. .
. .
.,
.'.
. .
. .i
".
.............
...
..
.
.
.
.Z
. .
.i
..
... .
2-20
........
............
-.
-----.
2 , .. .
.
_--
..
. .,
i".
.--
.".22
..
........................
, ,,pturl and P'ito_

t m.l qiu
.,
. ...
......
......
. .-...........
1,
'",l.
."k'
-,".
"R............................................
;!..
:.
...................
Pri diction Samplicg Tests ......

"C;:,,-for;*I Fl1jtit Test ................
1.
.,n .
.-
............................
E:lecti o,,e Components E!valuation.... .,.
S"{il~.......
. ..
. .
... .......
.....
Compondensi-_aluavton
.,ittP.i1..
u~t.s'
P,..-.
-.
1-.
. .
; 0 .........................
,I n sophy
NicneniE
1-6
. . . ...
. .
"!,
1--
.......
.-
1-3
.'nvi,-om ,ontal "'estingjor Aeronautital Equ1bfrent

Combined Eivironninntal Testing .
"
1-1
...
.<,,;
1-1.
..
........
.
2-2...
-'
2-23
VII
S....
:
. .
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.-
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'rADLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
.,tujii
"i";h.,
,
ata
Missiori Pro_;lcs
Mi-:1dS...
.n
......
"
.s. .h-... .
. tatc,.
S~z,:. .
Vehh'|es
..
.. .
.
.
...
.............
.
..........
....
...
..
Ierirlanctary Vehicles ........
.............
"Poptiry Er.vironments
..
.
.
.. .
.
. .7 .
..
...
..
j
.- 27
..
..
," .
2-31
2-34
d L."2-a4
. .-
............
...........
. 2.
2-27
. ....... ..........
2-2.
., .
....
..
.
.
..
.",
...
....
.... .
.
(Continued)
'..V
'
..
*,.
2-35
.... .
....
..
.2-5
"
..
.
.
..................
. atel~cs
I. ,&~h
;,,Llmor
Indoci-i En,,romne.ts . .
,.
Chapter 2. Astrophys'-cal Facti and Envlronmaer.t
"N:,,..iy,
'w:',
9'9-,-'
.... ...
"Chapter
3. Environmental Factors and Effects

nt.
...,.
rln; rtuFre ..................

,,2
...
. . .........
' . .
is
'
...
. . . .. .
. ... ............
SI
Anbit nt Air Pr,-cre
A
.
1.':
..
..
...........
.. avid Vibiaion
.............
.,.
.Effects
..
..
..
........
.
.
.
.
.
....
I".....
.orites
..
..........
.. .
-avity ...
1:1::
-oat, s, lint
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....................
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Sii.4L
.,
...
. .
..
,r',o ........
. .... .
... ..
.......
.... ..
..
..
m';.
..........................
Flfects ........
... ..
"
;,,3-281
53-2B
.3-29
. .. .
.
.
....
33-9
. .
3-40
-tn'
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3-26
3-28
............................
.... .
';
.4
. -
.....
'." - .
3-.27
.....
"
................
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3-25
-25
....................
' :vi,,
...
...
.......
1.
3-I
3-22
"
3-1
........................
. . . ...
.....
ol
3-26
..
9
S w
. ..
..
'- i,-,lar HliatlonT
SC,
..
3-1
.......
.......
(-lar
"" i.Radi:'ion .
-''' ,
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Ar;-,*m ,;;eic 1:1, c".iicity ..................

Aj:.,.
..
.
.
...
.
.- .
....
..
i.:-c:- Atntvl
Ow re ...
.....
.........
3-4!
...
................
....
...
i1
3-41
3-42
.................
3-52
"AILE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Chanter 4.
Environmental Requirements
Page
"*',crri(atiins nSU'
St,2rds
. -.......
Ei. irnncrn'al Ana!ysis ..........
.....
........
. .
..............
4-2
..
........
ii: o r'F nil al Desitn Crtcrlia . ....................

.....
.
E,'vi r.mrirnthl Test Cri!terla.
4-6
-,
.................
oT
-i Eavironmeuiiai Analysis .....................
1k'It &
j!;'nvi~ricnricrtal
T,(
Analys~s
..
"'c
:),taii.c. Atv
,,
. .............
.
..
l. .;t.. ......
.
,tiit.on
..
.y .
..
..
4.
-. .
..
4-....412
...
..
.4-13
........................
(Operations Anialysls in Environment.aLEngineering
Mission
fctivn-.............................4-14
4-14
4-15
of Oji'ra*ions Analycis Participation.. ..............

:;:vi rjinrntsi Spycificat ions ............
...
.........
4-15
4-15
................
Use ,of E:n ririnwetal Dava ................................
-HtSJ'
Ix
....
'ofFEnovionmental Plan .........

'
. -..
--.....
' .)f E-nvironmentai Progr..m CFbulllient.
u'tr'
ry Tactir,
Stir
. .
.
'
Pan Fulfiliment
,nvi
:,lronmnentai N
C,5<-.',t
of R,
"s .q .
t":,
..
....
. .A.
.9...0
................
..........
.
.
,,
..
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4-22
.. .
5-1
5-2
.................................
.
. . . .. .
.,
'
5-2
.
of
4-91
En'ironireratal Protection
,'
,"'
4.' ,
4-19
l
'rcit,,tien.......................................
I.
. .
ivu.rnital Operations Research ......
Chnipter 5,
4 - 1.
4-I8
........................
lto.
u. L3(1.i
.1-18
......
.
. .
'..
.."4-16
A Not, or Statistical Trthnljue ..............................
"A
'A4
4-4..
of Mission Effectivereus and Trade-ts.......

ot
Us'*at~sl~it;:h.
4-i4
......................
n ,.f R(esult.
4-13
......................
"I1"Ple,,
ttit-a.'
of 'Ucertanities in Operations Aitrmlyals ...................
C'unstc.kraio
cn'
4-6
Nio.l.l
:t
4-6
" " c ?.
.
...
....
..
.
...
...
. .
.
.. .
..
..
.
.
.. .2,
................
.
.
5-7
F12
'
%'
*.....
._
z22
.. ,,.
.,A
......
-.
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Environmentil Protection (Continund)
Chapter b.
Fage
.
Low-Tcmjt atwire Prote cticn ...........
S.iu-ck
..
..
................
.
azA Viiratton Piofection ..................

of Elcct:oic Compen.nts ............
'l'c01oo
:;!ic:tinn
('T(iign (
.-.
...
,,iderationS
. ..............
Of Couliponjrt..
,'lC,.ti
Isolators
ofr
Sazvi
solator.
.
. ..
.................
..
r ,..
.
.....................
.........
..................
'Ill!.".! . oteCti .
qa !"',n
ot'c i . .
..
. .
..
..
. ...
....
......
. .
5-36
5-39
.
.5-42
..
.......................
.....
5-66
.....................
5-67
..
................
......
.
..
...
..
.. .
'
5-67
5-70
5-7G....-7
.......
. . .
. . .
..
"
5-4
..
5-4
..................
...
..........
.
...
...
,-.trf,'-."lf'T-ri,"
F,.rtricity Protection ...........
lt- nL.....
. .
.........
.......
Anti-icig
Atno ;jWrrIc P:essure Ilrotection .
lr
5-"
5-44
..
.dri.nr,)ut Protection ....
,,.rjfi-,i
5-27
...............................
I'Ot-tr.in ...................
Deicio.z zrJ
.5-t
.........
.......
....................
.....................
]-oI alur %!icmt!ng Systems ...

'.1oi-turC'-
...
.
Ptotective Isolation Systn..

VX ,catiA
.................
t s
,."tion
-.
of
q,
..
5-7
5- 7/6
'.
I.)
Chapter 6.
Test l
iirn, s.......
.....
Environmental TeLttng
....
.............
,.n'.1 i, an.,ntatlest ln4truimenutatton ..............

}]iC'It Test Istau
..........
ttio
II,.m," t cr(ei Pata 11cc-rding
.'\irboi',c I?. (01
,,n,
:"o
..............
'
"
,* l N U, ir'i,,
I linghFt T(.st In.trumenat.on

i'i"" .d
Facilities ...........
,l
.t "(sti,..
;i
...........
..
.......
.
..
...........................
6-2
......
and Processiog ........

..................
. . ..
. . . ,
__' . . ..............
.
..
..
................
..
.
.
.
.........
Iiig..
id. .
.
.
Ch lnit rumentation ..........
ei
-, i'-0(-
. ....
........ 6-3
6-3
.. ...
."
66-5
....
6-7
...............
..
r"
...........
..
C-8
6-9
.
6-9
O...................
n--12
..
TAT)LB OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Chapter 6. Environmental resting (Cortinued)
C.,nbhrind Environment Testing
..
...n.
..
Fi,H~ (Iolhrd:l
Fi'1.,"I
..
.
.
.;i-Aroimtnri
1
..
.
..
.
. . . . .
... .n............
..
.
.
. .
...
. .
...........
...
...
13
.-..
.
. .
. .. .
.......
t- 1.4
.. 6b
6-36
I'rulilntn=ary T".t Procedure Development .
6-37
dardiztt'o:c
A;:,.i'
.-
..
..
. Equitmn('nt Clvss Definitions and Examples ...
rnd.: P. Uoihr. ard Terms
6-."'
...........
of Envirormental Testing
.--
36
"'"
-- Co,.A,1r'cd Environmental Testing ..
"3
6-36
.-
....................
.
6-31
.................
c tv
.11 and Tactics of Environmental Testing .
Proceturei r..
"
6-14
...
al iesting Goals .................
S( lectiv'i of "L'r
,,
..
.
ot Facilities ..............
.n.rn'.dS-lcction
i Proccd'.r.s .
..
..
.
Corretlaton of Actual to Tes. Environments
.
.
...
.
.
.........
t39
45
..
,
Al
.....
..
..........
"J
p.'
.'
unuu
.q n t: '
" .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
3.
1-3
2-1
-I
'rrends in ratural and induced environments. ...........

110 olar fysitem.......................
..
..
~~~2-2
...............
.... .... ..
1-11
........-
Meteor orbit.............................................-
22
Temiperature ora spinning ophere as function of itB solar

(histawhrv arid surface radiation characteri(s e...........................2-3
2-4
Solar intensity distri~ianic
2-5
Atino~spi'cric zones..................................................2-4
2-C
Vrtical distribyution of major atmospheric constituents
2-7
Latitliriiai variation (Atozone concentration
outside Earthi's atmosphere.............2-4
..
-.
c'.C.050fli variatlori 01 ozone concentration at Flagstaff, Arizona,.

2-19
-.
Thcatiai diffe-nce between Earth anid atmos~phere.

`wisnity 1,; function ofheight..................
2-6
..
11u
r)idly clImafle extremes 4f temperature.............................2-11
2-14
Temperature vs altitude tor hot, cold, polar and

tropical 2tnospheres .................
)-15
it',rnprr~atin as func,,tion of height from sea level to

500kin.....................................................2-13
2-7
2.3
2-
?'r!-surv ar, function of height................
.... ..
..
...
2-14
Avexafge wind :,p!ed vs altitude during winter and srummer

in middle latitudes......................
.
..
. ..
2-1
M~tirnumi wind ispeed and s~hears exceeded 1%, 20% and 50%
a1 the ie.....................................................
.... . . . ......
i
2-15
di!tribtwiton of Bypecific hurnidity..........-...

I t'.imai dis;tribution of relative humidity.............................216
2f
I.e?:tudinal
Itwil.in
-jct
run- on logarithrmic scale................................2-17?
Soia) inicr~i.......
.
.
.
.
(-mic
C-
~ ~
)i
(TI1'
1.1
...
riys ponetratinfg Earth's geomagnretic field .....................

'irivr~S nounticied In aerodynamic flightrgm
2-103
ri
2-27
.i n~rr itiscnciri.rtcred In super-acrcadynarnice flight

P~~~~~~~~
......................
.......................
11 1 1,7, 1 T
up to 420
2-29
ies......................................2-30
xill
-. TWI~I4~,,~
'WU4'W-f~7
2-13
2-17
'
wr
Wind direcrtion as function of altitude dulring Y.Iriwr

anJrni2..................................
'-'22
21
.
..
1'.'
1r
2-6
Dai ly variation bf atmosphe.ic potential gradlent for locations

wIit difff rvnt altitudes above sea level. ..............................
2-10
I.:-i
2-5
. . . . . . .
~~
r'"777
.'~
LIST OF TILSTRATIONS (Conitinued)
.122
rr~ra
-211s
. .
preslitd.;',Iglit paths of lunar vehicles
3?
...
.95.
.*.2
3-1
..
.o ,
Acrotfyiarnic heating as a findlion of shape
Va~i at ion 01l decelerat Ion wi[th altlttuWe, reentry angle and
q,,jparameter....................................................2-36
Temlixiature versus speed to Mach 10..................................32
2-Z0
2-31
2
23
...
-;
.3-4
3 -5
"
Ave ragev life test survivals of typlcal tubes vs bulb

temnporatures....................................................4
3-2
2-9
2-3
.*
Jossible flight sequene,2 bo-tween Earth and Mrrs
7-1
and cisiunar s.5.accr
-41
'Tortxile~it and laminar flow tem~perature variations as

function or Mach number.............................................3
Pflueiitry vihicle- altitude vs stagnation temperature with

typical trajectories as parameters....................................3_10
.ar~ Ion heat flux vs reentry time from 80 miles.
3-10
laltcmissile reentry trajectory....................................310

3-7
3 -t!
11aliistic ruisv'lic surface temperature during reentry.....................3-10

Ti uc4 trawij)ortation vibration data ..............................
311
T't~il of average number of vertical longitudinal

and Ilatera;l shocks per' 1000 r.Alien of travel
lnlf.-8$ured oir fz vight car floor..............................
V)
It
:32
I-1..
312
3-12
. ......
3 -12
......................
linpoct is ed du ring freight car switrhing cperation
car
freight
of
accelerations
horlzoital
Maxiinor)
body vs ,witcliing impact Lspeed...................................312
( ks itcc rded during airiline test shipment. . .. ... .. ... ... .. .....
... . . .3-13
............
Vert IcalI and athwait~iip hull ouid dleck vibrations for ships.
..
3-13
;
1:-1e. cnal spectr-a for iicar fid': 'et noise relative to

In
T
r~na I spec2rtra for jet noise In untrecated compartments

.
... .
.
.
I to overall nulsc
'Frend of (Xterlial overall 1cvois of jet andi rocket noi~e .........

'13.t id of liternal overall JOt and rocket noise leveis foll UIf _'v
..((i (npartioiellts...........................
3- 1
2 -7
3-1
3- II
-,w-.c chlaIF-cL iP~tics of F-94A and F-9flD aircraft..
c'~e0
tr:iu
te r Iepof
I' ) 0
. . ......
.
. ...................
OI'll
slr,'tUaitII'd fl;ll;
;tit"'P
31:
3-16
1
aircraft.................................315
................
........
No;,e c,.t:acteristics of [-GG aircr~nit.. ..
'Nuioe diai :tvi istics of Ds-52 airel aft.....................................
Vi1w1.1 ion k.".araclerl.9tics of four opt.rational missiles
2.-
1afr
t~.............................
..
..
...-
h; :10rursh Jof bc.veni operational mniss ies

.... .2 .' ...........................................'ii~~
~ 17
ralt t'l
2.1 -
v(l
rt2(2I
tlton
17
deislity plots for three

. ,. .
.-.
. ..
,
..
.3-1
>''
-.
*..
3'3
-...
p
TITST OF ILLU.T RATIONS (Continued)
'J.
Page
i* -r
-25
VHratiori and flutter damage to elevator of

1' 99)r It fighter......................................................3-17
of aircraft fuselage caused by vibration
Crack in
-27
of floor of C-124 airciait
corrolor
&'V"TO
4;' I,
.
3-20
3-21.
Eficcts of iian'.ldity arid temperature on unethed

clad laminaten
3-29
Scvcrc corr3uion of piece 01 electronic equipment

d:arnig'
aircraft nose radome
jYr
3-22
3-31
Aircrrft damate cauaed by static dIscharge or

lightning strike........................................................3-27
3-32
Meteorite int:irisity.................................
3-33
Wadirtion sttUility of selected plastico.....................................3-31

Effect. of radhtt ion on g1as fabrIc reinforced plastic
lamlr'tes...................................................
3-31
'3-3
fladiatrora damage to silicon and germanium translbtora.................-
3-"3
3-3G
Iladiatiun daningc to luhricant...............-
3-37
3-33
3 -'0
Ltitudlnal diotribution of environmental extremes........................3-42

&mi-ittial cistriLArtlon of environmental extremes.........................3-43
3-'I I
Terupcraturcs
3-42
Conabln(.d cnvironmer.ts encountered durI.r. ground

htmdiing nd operation phases of typical mission
profile..........................................................
Ftixrtcd
ikisa temperatures at rated speed ...............
3-34
'-
'1-2
5-I
-2
r 3
A1
3-37
...........
at which various ot!er envirmments
occur
3-29
........
:adhtmum stability of organic liquidi......................

grcasei
u)bC ihjitatiuuats ira urac uf-*rioui
atl(i Ii draul Ic !luit....................................................3-38
3-38
3-44
, *,
'-
3-48
4-10
S'ybtcna (I') velopoacut Interrelations.........................................4-20

jUl
.1
I'-
1'LICN
1.31 LbL
WlUi WIU
wItirrut f.iliu ifl.........................4requiring use of vuviroonrerital facihtiea.......................421

()v:rJliIat1Iius
as a
alila 1w' c:uiiou ratcs for different piati
!ulir't ''a of it* mpc rature.........................................-
5-2
1h'r n'l in,uIatior comparison ef higla-t2raperature

j-h'u lic I;aauuaI:s.....................................................
.
C;aj';al Iii)
1ii'.h tfjfIlp(l
,J
ahi ririnuara and raaagracsiurn ailcys for

apj-1icatIura.............................................b-S
ilUle
'"I.
A 1-ki
[1
at
Ti,.,
compared with iryilluna and

mials oar a s rengtla-to--dcnsity balr
.1;rn urn ilov
*:as'
riate
tn
e.-t
.5
a,
-
.i'';'
tar It.)
ii
ni
a'lcw............................................................5-15
-.
...
.'--*--,"..--------'..-----------
'..
-.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CGntlnued)

11I-u rr
rage
S~harpi-adged plate turbillator
J8
...
...
PdAtype tiir1bilator...................................*.
5 1
5-10
Typical propeller type fan
5.17
5-I 1
Typical axial-type fan .*

Jypical centrifugal blower .
lloat-dissipating tube shield for miniature tubs ..........................-
17
5-12
5 -13
5-14
.)-15
................
5-17
5-17
18
I'vo-dissiipatlrig shield for power tube. ...........................

Ceinparlson of heat removal methods.....................
5-18
.
5-t
5-19
5 -Slll-arid-tul.e
-18
type heat exchangers....................................5-19

Types of extended surfaces for heat. exchangers .
..
Bulk temiperature varintio-aiIn heat exchangers...........................5-20
5-19
Dulk tempierature variation in crosteflow exchanger .......................
5-20
flivt
5-21
Wi slic arranigement of an e-~udair
5-22
l~asic ,ri-angemneiA of bleed-i~r system for direct or

imiilrect rLquipreni cry ling...........................................5-23
5-2,3
Basic arraurngemnt of a fuel cooling sysrtem
5-24
B~usic arranjge-ment of an Indirect expen~ble cooling.
5,-25
13asic arrangement. of a vapor cycle cooling system
5-17
5-2~
~arrangement
of a rmm air system
systexrr.....
lran-ifrirmeracesign to resist shock and vibratioii
5-29
5 -30
S~!leignut
I 5 rc.
55 -"15
.......
...
...........
. . . .
..........
,-
..........
5-22
........
5.i
'
. . . . ........
)peet
.............
..
.....
...... . . . . ......
5-?4
wihrelatively s9oft l-n~scrt t~hat. grips

"d loo.'nin......................................5-30
1l*lciIt
ut with thread sngf.Liy dieformed Inwardly
to grip screow throad tightly................................................
5-3
Tim- part 5relf-locking nitt. ............................................

-l3ki3gputs that may be cl;Ijjchpd into panel and
anchored by rtivetinir or welding. ...................
.- .
~
.
Okiuu t(-r-turn fas~tener that lc~ks or releaseB with
qua i tert-tu. ni of i otatinK element......................................5-31

:~tr-tolrrj fastf-ntr lnstaliecl to hold two parts togetner..................5-31
i1;ilf-turoi tasterie
.37
520
52
Ikiative sk--in fathrue life..............................................5-2-1

'Iransfornrocis does1-,ned to witholand shock anid
Vjibration.............................
..
..
KIurled tCer-I Iiial 1hsts . ..............................
~-.')
.........................
5 -2.1
5-31
using camn receptacle and roiiber sleeve .
I;it ntur op~erated by nmaj.1 movement of

sc'. HQIi ........
S~t
..
'1
5-31%
Swi;I-QWt(h
Iil'ig .st(2TIng
..
5-31
clap..........................................5-32
~ 1 citnothirour'iou
.'
f r,
onl
lwng-body I-clay
twifcx~h)' canss....................
-
.....................
5-33
if
VFW~
t'iA
r..'A
LI1ST OF I1..LU9T'A ilONS (Continued)
',~.
Page
i W"1tI A
5. A()
Clapper-type -. elay and axes
5- '2
]Pest orientation for three popular iype relay

C' idle-type tube shield (or niijiature iube
5-14
Five types of transistors.
5-45
5-48
..*
A............
5-19
5-50
Effect of cross-member stiffener on box-type chassisA.
5-711
E~nlargvement ol slot ends to reduce. stress concentratjor,'4 at C01ne'S ...............................

Visc insert distributes bending stresses ovar greater
qurfa .......................................................
!5
~?
534
A, A..
...........................................
,.
53u
5-35
Typical cross sections of structuralishapes..

...
..
Examples of chassis stffeners.......
5_7 2
.4
A....,.A,
...
Fatigoic life vs natural frequency of lead-mou~nted resistor...........5-35

PrzJp.%r mounting technique for lcadwaravanted capacitor
or zvqiqtor .........................................
5-33
. . . . . ...
. ..........
Pa~t and post device for holding tube in so'cket
5-43
.....
5-3
5-37
5-37
,A,.......
....
.
..
5-37
A, A,
-c
.A,..
.-
8
5-39
;~~
5-40
Ratito of damnping force to spring constant plotted

aga~iist transmissibility..............................................5-41
1asic a-r damping system................
5-5
5-57
5-43
.................
Yorr~c-delct.If-on curves for same isolators as in

Fig. 5-57......................................
5 - F,R
A..............................542
All1-metal, cup-type vibrationi Isolator with metal nesh

.As frictio-n clement.................................
flesqponse curves for two types of isolators.....................5-43
1150
~~
'
A.
Transmis'ihilitv at reRonance as function of damping ratio ................
5-54
~*
5-5
Nui
supported by linear spr~ngs..................................5-44
5- 0
Usc of equipment fragility curve for selecting ieolatorti

to modify vibration environment.......................................5-45
5-Ci
E'ff':':t of lhiyht vehicele attitude cn mingle-acting vibration

isolators...........................................................545
F'-1,2
.'4tabl~ihPi under sztatic and hnrizoiital shock conditions.A....................546
5-'
S~x dvirr'es, of frvedorn............................................54~
5-"1
Ci iti( Ai (hoiisin5')l1s for underneath mounting...........................4
5-44
....
frequency as function of spring rate for mass
l'41'1z c unidet iwatii mounting system......................................5-47
oad on each isol~ator when center of

fgravity i! located unsyinmetricaf-ly In hori/ontal
I~terziiliii
I~ ;i
cei'i-o
-g~viy
ounting system................................5-46
(1-yu1-sid' miouniting syS e.................................-48

n
J'.i
~duryr
V%.
moun~nting system................................A!
xvii
"r
M=
-
.4
All
.1j.Zh -11%;AL-4
.A
LIST OF ILLU3TRATIONS (Cont i'uod)
'A
jt
r~Page.
-- I
Basic inclined-i'olator mounting system
5-7f)
joint..........................
*.d
.--
-~~o
"Pawt can" joint
Annular-ring typt jo'.nt
..
5-74
Serrated sp'ring joint .
..-
i-Y7C
...................
...
. .
. . ..
it
' ""pcr
and empennage ...........
for
wing,
nacelle
Anti-icing system
...-
..
5-73
49-...
. . . . .......
: .
.
.......
..
.,
.......
66
f!-,
..
5-68
..
....
..............
5-79
Air conditioning and pressurization system for F-94A ..........
5-89
Rib pi utection system for auxiliary fuel tank .
5-81
,-82
Sinte red metal screens used to protect equipment .........

..
radiation stability of materlals .......
jci,,ilvp
5-C3
Iepresctntiton of inverse square law
.. -
5-73
...........
5-73
.
reo
5-87
Amount of vainixi
5-18,
Approxln,iate human time tolerance as function of tern-
.........
....
.
Tylik al vibratiori pickups
f;-2
.
Typ, al accelerometers . ,. ..
Tvyical data handling system . . .
....
.
.
. ............
. ..,.
. . .
(-5
Typial time division multiplex telemetry systcm
Typ;cal D'Ars.nval galvanometer riansducer .............
0-7
Tyi:ica talpe recoider System
(;-"I
ConCcnition frequency and time division multiplex
t,/mt
y sy.'t(-ti.
...
. .
.
.
.
.
.......
.. .
.......
....
I.;
'I vpicA s,"I.' , for clpt iv" insisrile test
S.
1). '
-.. I
'-,
ro:.
,.,,
......................
".
6-7
......
.
...
' ..
"
d
6-8
... .
.................
6 15
..................
-12
6-14
.........
.
.......
',
6-11
6 i2
.
.
..
6-11
...........
............
.
... .
"
..
6-10
"-1V
d etup ................
6-
.
...........
.....................
suU-ystcm laboratory test ..........
6m8
.
yi:IhAl systein laboratory te.st .. . . ...... ... ... .. ... . ......
Analyzer
S,,.strn test -- "'paddlewheel" satellite in Dynamic
iI
5-77
.
.......
I iyptal ialoratory vibration test .............

'ypical
T-
. ,
06
6-6
-Ty.pir al ,lack 1.mx laboratory teot................

0;-i r
5,
5-75
...........
C-0
-. ......
......
. ..
Typical frequency division multiplex telemetry system ..
C-4
5-75
perature and humidity ....................
C-1
5-74
..........
. .
......
materials, n#Pded to .top
..
;4
5-72
RLjngc
5-72
5-73
................
5-80
..
.. ..
....
Pcn.-tra'.ion -epth of beta particlc--and protons in

,al<,minnum as function of particle energy..................-7............i--
in ait
........
5-85
of pro-von
....
......
Range of alpha particles in air ......
.-84
5-71
......
......................
B-47B .............
'
...
...
.. .
Cabi. air conditioning and pressuviz~ton system
5-78
21
5.-66
,ofil--tring ryrtem for windshield
'
6-1,
.11
4
"
---
1-1,T OF ILLUS7RATIONS (Continued)
j~(*'Page
li-~h- and low-temnerature test cha-mb56r employing

. .
It. !ce cooling and conveot~ve heating .
6-164
..
H~igh- and hjw-ternperatur- test chamber employing
1;
refrigeration cooling and convective heating............................6-17

011 dif f usion pumnp with cold trap......................................6-18
6-1
20
6-.
Drop miachine for shbock simulation................
C.- 2
Elroctrodmynamlc shaker for vibration testing........
r3-??
--- ndnn-motion virbration system with Courier sa~tellite

interframe mounted ant special fixture..............................
.............
1vpical1 clectrodynarnic sinusoidal system ..
C-23
....
..
69
...
Typical progressive wave acoustic facility..............................6-21
,2l
Sairl
r-9~7
dusL chamber...............................................6-21
M~s, supply, blower and ducting for sand and

dlust chabi......................................................6-21
28
6-21
'3-29
1i;iosion chanxr..............................................
C- 3()
Y1c-,tronhc equipment mounted in chamber for

test ................................-,'-~pLr
C-3j
Nucis-ar environmrenital test facility.....................................6-22
1-32.
22
Cc~itrifugrc q('t up to accelerate b~omb specimens......
C-I
C -3
L'ual-cliainlk,;
with~
Co ie
3
Sr:'
6-25
2"
*1
Lu'
eiinperature- altitude simulator
atsl.lite interfirz-riv:~ne on
~h.nCal
-
(lc~uic tt-,1',1trl'i
rc;r~cdini L-iz
~(jO.S
6-25
lcrsac
acility..........................32
Aet,i~.tc - im trhaiitcz, vib~ration facility...............................6-28
Tnryfi,ti dvnarnifs facility.............................................6-28
r'St -. qS)h( inlnn ve'hile(ifnr inertial dynmc fct.............6-28
i)
6-241
Layout of combined tenmperature, altitude and vibration

tv,.st facility....................................................
Wvl Combineud Environmental Centrifuge...............................6-26e
U- 20
...................
Arccicrationi-vibrationi test stand.......................................-24

C rl~jiii(-c tcmj':rature, altitude and vibrat~on
tcst facility.............................
..........................
.... ..
...
. . . . . . ......
Typ~ical reverberant chamber acoustic facility...........................6-20
;- 25
Typieijl randomn vibration facility.......................................-20
(2,
'
1 (w.
'-f t,,l
ii ,
i-I
d-.uarnic facility
.~..
..
..
....
.'
''
..
..
FAied, Florida................................6-32
spin-c syst enis test facility....
.....................
6-33
Onwittal facility tor life support systems....................6-34

r.,j!onrnental laboratory
......
pal(
V-1~
U
Ao
'Iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Page
World-wick zJassificat~on of clnimates..................................6-43
U-1~3
point of manufacture
.)
(j 4nviOIL-,-ntsenruniredfi'oin
tc Point Of use
. .
6-44
6h
LIST OF TABLES
~~Pagc
x~
edicted future temnperatures
1-7
Maxdknum o:zone concentration ................

Averaj.e k'nsity of a standard level surface and
2-2
1-3
Outooor exposo~resites .
1-1
stamndard deviation for month of January
2-6
h
....................................
6ensltLy zf a standard level surface and

standard deviation for month of July.........
.
DensIty-height data for cold, hot, poitr and tropical
ntmosphes................................................
2-8
2_'."r.0oI,o
2-4
2-5
2-
2-'
Pcrcenitape of time during average year in which clock-homr

n-'d instantaneous rates of precipitation equzl or exceed
U.O07), 0. 12 a. d 0. 18 ln./hr at selected stations . . . .
Physical and positional properties oi the planets
.
.
.....
SAtelIte
dual enr
2-13
;-l-*asi
-.
pomplutio
invaitkns
es
speed
of honeatalsrbiongcpit
dt of lrir.
l td...................................32
.~
...
..
Lun-ar cooffiriernts or' expansion for some commonly

vsf d materials......................................................3-3
1 rir-afl(atj0 7, of nhbhcr by high temperature..............................3-4
a~rena
,f rarr-eri
.................
!-durcd u:,vlronmenes and their er'eci .................................
P* duriatio
.
.
i ronrirffCnts and their effects................
1-3
tt...............................................
3-2
-ur
2-9
2-11
Average temperature and standard deviation for month

of July............................................................212
Taat~c'-hi~htdata for cold1, hot, j~ai
a.
110oicalatrnospheres.....
...........................................
. ...
2-9
22
3-1
....
A-.rage trmpwrature and standard deviation for month
2-'2
.... ..
Average prcss-ure at given altitudes and standard

deviation for month of January........................................2-10
Average pressure at ghen altlWAes and standard
djl-ktion for niornth of July...........................................2-10
Pressure-height data for cold, hot, polar and tropical
at-mosphores.......................................
*
*2-7
*~
....
2-15
.2-26V
2-33
3-1
3-2
*~
A"~
..
..
3 -4 C
....
with
+r
..
5.
.3-
'
1-1ST OF TAB3LES (Cuotlinued)
i'i~t~~lIyf meteorite or micrometeorite hitting

I
Properties of metals
C-I
"4
3-0Il
..........
..
.....
..
3 331
~~
affected by r;.iaton...............................3-32
Lffects ul iadiation on tensile properties of virious

E-7
mletals..........................
.
..
.
.... . ..
..
.. ......
Effects of radiation on hardness and density of various
.......
......
.
.....
....
in~cals.............................
3-18
3 3-33
-1-20
13ieakdown exposure doses of organic insulaiors ..
~3-21
Itaq.tatioti stability of gas-turbine 1ubricantsI.................
3-22
3-33
3-34
.......
..
..........
3-34
..........
3-386
Possihlv radiatirin-resisiant aircraft greases.........................

Possible radiation -resistant hydraulic fluids............................3-39
3-3
Characteristics of flight trajectory to produce

wexhtc:,iissof maximum duration for various
vehlls...........................................................3-40
3-2-7
P1o.5isible com binat ions.............................................-44

Qoalitative relationships of combined environments....I...................3-46
3-27
%nuviary of environmental effects..................................3-52
4-;
Ain Fore 1.)olicy documents -- handbooks, specifications

and standai ds, and reports........................4-2
..
Examnic of cnvironzmental analysis coivera'.......
4-2
n
t
..
I.....................5-3
Coniniurclallv available- hivh-temoerature materials.
Sonic bcttrie temperature-resistant metals...............................5-4
5-2
Spprifc 1,( .0,
5-4
So~nc
of tenI mctals,
..
..
4-8
....
5-2
5-1
..
..
solds..............................................5ta.irtr
cii ic li. its of sc-vcn transparcnt solids................................5-6
-Sp,
Lc~f~ic'
jitsof linar expansion in descending order..........
characteristics of conductor
Iturc
,
inr hiiJ-t( n
-7
Ip-dw .tion iii wall 1,12d for production aircraft with
vai:i digrces of insulation.........................................5-12
Pt l:iu'thi-1 i mal
ii
ci
o ly
1'
3-Mi~ ;41)'~
..
3-24
0_6
'
liesistivitv of organic insulators after reaching equill..

. .......
.
.... ..
Iurlurn of 41,750 erigs/grn-hr........
3-19
..
. ...
..
stability of clastomers.......
Relative radiation 3tability of jdastie . ..................
3-15
1000) f"' :f suiface, and its penetration of aluminum.....................3-28

COivorsion_)T factors for nuclear radiati-on data............................3-30
Rl~cative radiatfio
3-14
3-20
IRat absorhing capacity of air a%.various allitudes .........
11-I
Page
Ta! le
1.
y-.p
onndiictivit cf various materials at

) 1 (65, C),...................................514
-al;Iu 10 p1 otection meth
....................................
5-26
N~?
.1~
LIST OF TABLES (Con -. a(cd)

Page
-3-
Mo'Ilij
-11,
of elasiicity, E, for various materials..... ..

cts cf
i-.[c
Appioxininat
a-Ili
.....
5-36
t~tjsity for various liquids........................5-39
hiysteresi3 -values for various materials.
..................
Thrante~risti-s of shock !1-olatorti compared to vibration

l~oflat ors......................................................5-43
5-1
5-IG
Resistance of natural rubbers to microorganisms........................550

........
rcMi~tai~rr of synthetic rubtxers to microorgan~insm
m*f.J~jf(~
laterials . . .
......
5-17
Pungus-nutrient materials............................................5-51
5..]
5- 2()
?-iish appl icat ion table..............................................5-52
3-21
fieative niri-ts of some hermetic sealing techniqu~es.....................5-56
5-22
>22
WIv'Thenft coinpcilrd characteristics......................................5-58

Prupertifs of some silicone fiuid...............
.....................
5-64
3-241
Shield thickiiess of various metals to achieve

33 (1) oss atime
c.. ...................................
5-65
523
S11-elding, efl'ectiveness of various metals at 150 ce ........................-
65
ON~
C,.ntact spacing vs working voltage at various altitudes...................5-70
52:1
of a few seLected elements...................................5-75
2-1iie
Halt-thicknesses of various materials..................................5-76
5-28
T:.,.;lctl sensing dcvices for natural er ironment.........................6-4

Tvpi al sensing device-; for Induced environments........................625
(-
Some gamnia irradiation facilities.....................................6-23
f4
Legend for F'ig.-6-35...............-.
..
..
..
..
..
26
......-
SpocJficatioris for space research facility...............................6-2P

j'cif
juationis for acoustic-mcchanical vibration facility........
6-30
Sp~-cificjti(cns tor inertiai dynarn1es fNcUlty.... . . . . ............

6-30
p S, cifitcationp !or thermo-rnechanical dynamic fviciity ....................

->
-Ii
cpaljliiesOf Dynamic Analyzer.......
................................-
31.
C-tpa'ilities ol proposed military 8pace systems test

fiii..................................................................6-33
I
r 1.1
Df,:id for Fii,,. G-46..............................

Te'stinr fa( jiitv checklist
Iraj T
T,
................
.....
..
..
sl;wicwiccs lor ground support equxkpnift ............................

b-:~I.~tl(
t or airc raft
..
6-34
.
.-
35
6-41
and missile equipment.......................6-41{
AJ.
xxAI
*i .
.i
-,
S.
....
,.8
...
LIST OF CHARTS
Page
2
Vlbration
tur1oprop ,ovironment
tr-usports at varlous locations on
35
ui
. . .
.
2Vib~ration enivironment at various locationE on let
:"5
btombe rs. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Vibration environment Pt various laoctleos on century
jr~tfig
. . . .ttir. . . .
. . . .3-63
V1b,'-:tion environment at varimia locations on
}licopi.cr . .
'
-5
.
...
:i
3-69
.
- .
..
3-74
VA
K i.
;It
'-S
}.
S....
'I-
:icncy in the design and development of equipIlt ' IXP)ud tj coi'Iweailier. Ini the same year,
acompriehecnsive pt-cgranl was initiated to dot, ,rminr' world wide recorded maximum, mini1wumn and mecan 2aibient and encloiw-d compartinent 'cmeinpatures. The resulin showed a raige
Cvvin -65) F
Q.54C
to 160 F (71.1 C).
Oui-i~g lthe winter months of 1942-43, the

Coid %Ven'tter TVesting Det achment and the En;'inlCriilg D~ivision combined efforts an ra extunfaive tests at Ladd Field. The test results
sliowed that no combat or cargo aircraft in an
at ge ct
f eve~pn
oul oprae s~iiacor
ily at temperatures belorw -25 F (-312 C). The
samne a4,rì'c h, auxiliary and accessory equipY;v2t, 1'uth allrc-aft and ground. All hydraulic
zystms ercunstisactry
ncldi'g eock
wtas common to
itruts, packtngs and hoses.
~~find that hydraulic fluid 1ceaked comrpletely out of
Aircraft anJ ron heaters were
tj~c ytis
Ulatsys-ornt
ony
ecus
gof
hatoupu
bais ariA
required considerable
hut also because of general operation.
Aprovcnicflt
*ja.cks,
iuhricants solidified and

research, modification, standardization and imfor cold weather operation. Screw
ball and ro~ier be-arings, hinges, bushinws wnd entire contrrA systems lockea or beCearnc: vitolurably difficult to operate. Improved
hoppers alrd oUl systems that would prevent en1,.iio irorr. occoming oil-starved were needed.
kjil cool ers required'extcrnsive work to prevent
lwrsting, cal.n-d by passage of congealed oil into
the co'eer corz when the engines started. Ca-r1buLretur air t~horrorneters were not provided In
ti'iist aircraft, and oil dratno were not accessible. It was impossible to keep batteries warm,
and diflicult to' remiove them. Ignition systems
wo)uld riot fu-nction at the low temperatures, and
:lartrr miotors broke down,
During 1941 and 1942, an entensive progrZ.Tn
s cmiidcted to determine the lubricant qual -~
tit'25 necossary for cold weather operation, and
10 prodt-, lubricants withli-iefee desired quali-,
TI!.'b-' nemw K'r-asvs that resulted from this
prng.:n-'cc
ued n ~92 ad 143 beaing
11.-iii
a~t eurors, gi-ea; producers ana te Air..
I or(Ic h'i 1J bf-arinks intenided for Air F-,-:
1
i-?, as u -1 a,; those already in Air Force stocK.
Thfo-ijs:ncts oif twaringis Aere waishrd and reiuhi ~attiandheaingprolem '~re
realy e-,
Watiir
Tstig ~
ier
Proving
Droun
wao
uder
lat d~e Povig Grund
rioninaod, anid waL8 made responsible for sort'w-!~ tc.,iiig of all standtard aircralt and equ~ip;vct.
~eEi'inc'r~g
Dtison f te Mterel
1ciinu~id -A s inatie respoalsible for expcrirnen.>11f aind de'ulipmental testtng.
The program
v')t h-:Aihogtw in 1941 was accelerated at this
0ime bt iwsure that tiircral t and equipment would
,W'i-ix
satia.factorily iin all areas and during
l~-2fl~194,
th Cod
1Q43,i~ithe Cola
duner
In rainalii't'swere,
.1,
a~aln reorgan'I itc Cuid Weather I vstiniz D!etachment wa&.
-e-2
shifted I rom the Proving Ground CommnPaid to ,lit

Maero Command, which now hnd Zbe coniplete
recponsibility for cold weather testing. I11w
ever, the Proving Ground Commiand still con.
trolled operational suitability tests. Testre
sifts now Indicated that aircraft andl equipnixit
were suitable for operation to about -4.0 F
(-40 C).
The following areas, nevertheless,
weesilrobeo
:cruetrarea
oil systems; hydronmtic propeolr pitch and
feathering controls; cabin and c~ocVkpit heatini.
deicing; oils and grei~ses; surface control. systems; sealB; responi'e time in hydraulicallyac
tuated systems; and low temperature starting.
Cl
ete
prmnswr
n~uc
e
ntud
Codwahrepimnsv
through the winter of 1940-47?. Th'c huildinir
specifications had been written,~4n were
made for completion of aLClimatie Rm.ngar at
EgnArFreBsVlaasFoia
after which Ladd Field would be used solely for
field tests. Cold weather testing
part of the normal developmental
craft aystems. The aim wab to
factory operation to -65 F (-54
mined'by the program conducted
then becami, a
cycle of airprovide satisC1 as daterin b4l.
In 19151 the Air Research and fl..ivtiupiiiunL

Command was established, and ihe respunsibility for cold weather testing was included in the
res~ponsibilities of the ]Directorate of Flight and
A-II-Weatirer1iesUng group at Wih i
eeopment Center. About this time, cold weather
testing, together with desert andI special co~vironmental testing, was established as an tintegral part of aircraft development. Since then,
the All-Weather Testing Group has provided
valuable Information, and uncovered deficiencies
in detsign and operation of 2.lrcraft and equipmeat intended for global operations.
es
eer
Just as the failure of the Germans on the
sinfntndcedhe
edfoclweather environmcntal engineering, the trouble
*Iat
- enra..1 RoI
~mmel gav 11R in the
Sahara Desert provided the teasun for setting
padsr
etporm
tpa eettstp~rm
In the summers of 1942 and 1943, certabi of
the then currently used aircraftwere inspected,
modified lubricated and instrun'ented and taken
into the desert near Blythe, California to determine their
opi~rating capabilities undir li -:
weather
iun; tiauak w~iid dki o, dtos
saysult of the 1943 desert trst,& it was determined
thtkt solutions weeaalbe
topatclyall
of the high temperature problams encountered
in the desert, and that much future work could
be conducted In high temperature azid sanld anti
dust chambers then available to the Air Force.As a result, both the cold weather and desert.
test design and devetlopment proraswepu
into effect by Haadquarters AirForce: the ternperature range of -A5 to +160 F (-54 to +71?C)
was specified. These were established uponi
recom mend-at Ions of the Englaeering Divibion
of Air Materiel Command.
'.
,~
*
-
-~
.-
'
'
1jjpical Testb
During 1945 and 1946, the Tropical Science

headed by Lt. CoiornelNlrmno C.Tvson,p
and staffe by4y scienitists and engineers,
-Mission,
Shortly after the initial desert test programs

%k
ere comipleted, It was decided that other enused a C-54G and studied Air Force operulions
vi ronin.'nts primarily those -associated vitki the
and problems in:
rarjige o!-6 to t160) F (-54 to .01 C), should be
!rlvestigatcd. Trorilcal tents were performed atHaianIlds
CtoIlns
aianIans
CtnIlnd
tna.i
L
Zone during July, August
I rau.,. Fi
period
anid Scptembor of 1944. xiluwever, the test
New Zealand
*
Fiji 18"d2
Was.15I' ong enough ta make a thorough evalua( ion. it was foun~d that nQine corrosion took
Asrla-NwGie
platce, hut what was experierr.d was not tao
6erious;-however, it might have been more serAmrlyIlns
Ba
Bk
ifiusj if t Phe test period had been more extensive.AmrlyIans
Phlppn slnim
G
In the case of armament, it -was deterinioedaijich lubricants were the most tifective under
hot., ninc!,
fiquate
30niton. maintenance
IoJn.'
r,_vurqwerc developed. Proper procedures-Sapa
fr the care of h~inbing equipment were also
U
ChinaA
Japan
evolved during these tests. There were sorne
IiroblemPs in photographic equipment, such anIndo-China
Siam
condensation on the cameras caused by the air-a
craft being cold soaked while at a high altitude-,frc
and theni dropping to a low aftitude limto moist.,
hot, tropic~al air.

As a result, heating co-erd
vwere provided for cameras to prevent conden-
Brazil
isation. Also, the ohotographic equipment speci-
fic-ations were reviewed to provide for fungus

xcsisbtancf, and fungi2atatic and fungicidal treated
materials, for corrosion. proofed metals and for
irackagirjg. It wail found that somne of the probsplsnecprtn
Indies
altha,'
mnlafi,,,,
antri
(,,n,.g,
P
7
i-, n
The mission made evident a definaite no3ed for
research programs on the effects of weather,

mycological and microbiological agents on
equipmnent.
'*
Outdoor Exposure Sites

Outdoor exposure siteA -vere developed priimarly to evaluate materials under alttua conditions of weathering.
Later, diuring World
nmore thwiu a normal amount of maintenance.

1!o-evem, the corrosion of aircraft structures
%as founld to be a potentially important. problem
..ca.
War 11, such sites were used for exposing equipment that would havc to undergo long periods of
storage. These sites were ilso used in aittempts
to establish correlation between the Rctual "r-
in tU.2 Yrnie Field, Canal
~okanl tiopical areas where the Air Force
-rav
both.
tiv-e hydraulic fluid was also determined to be

cimeccsRamr, siricehiydraulic systems were gen':iyunafa coted by tropical climate. In gener'al, iLWaS found that aircraft could operate sati~ifactoi iy wider tropical conditions with no
~,'
Leeorw
__isi-!ec-sdb
AD
'
Generally, it was found that storage condilions were Inadequate and the majority of material stor- I out-of-Aoors was unservice~abl.
Elect~ronic quipment vras deteriorated beyond
fgroups were Pct furnished with adequate ir-lormoat ion or properly packed material. In regard
to power p!7-i equipment, there were no prob1cmn areas that could be attributed to the tropi-.
(Il Lcimate. The recluiremnent for rust preven-
Whilie ncr serious problems were uncovered

Zone tests it was
Lfi'ieveU ac!-iF,'isable to gat-her more experieer~tp ii;
ii ,pit al relduns. Fur this reason, it was de(i7'ri that aTropical Science Mission be sent to
West..
vr2'cs.to
viroinments encountered in nature and ttose sirsulated in1 laboratorles.

The names anid locations of Government or Government srponaored
expunure sites and' other information pertinent
each are shown In Table 1-1.
Tmbie 1-1. Outdoor Exposure S~ites
1~k~q 5ite
Operating
agency
~Date
foundcd or
establ~shed
C nmate and
stmnosphorin
cond.1fiona
Present
HUatS
i r i'rc e ( r i, ac
~~uc
~
-_________
,~.'
Rem. irks
Urive~sity of Alaska,
Geophysica'l I~ nntitute,
Cootv A~a11,R
ka under
Air1' it.
i cc! contlract
1947
Active
i
A~rctic.
Subarctic,
Rural
4.11
~t~
Table 1-1. Outdoor Exposure Sites (ooi~lnued)

Md
_1iit
0Date
Operating
agency
1T36, Site
Joint
'.icility, Naval
Air Stationl,
founded or
establiebed
110t~
tertd Staten Air
Force an'l bureau of
Aeronautics
Fl pnro
1948
New Mexico College
19H7
Prbeent
'
cechtkionia
statut
(ArIM,
Rural.
of Agricultuiral vnd
Mte-.ja~iic Arta,
School of Engineering,.
jitatoi College, New
Meio; uonder Al
en'res, Ne~w
Mexico
Desert
(Arid),
Active
.
flnarka
Naval Parachute
Facility until !951.
At that time beear a jota Bu
Aer-USAF
operation.
Deosert
Active
California
New Mexico
Actinic, Las
UtMoapheric
p*.j
Morexco nderAir
United Stales Air
Force
sou'h Florida
Exposure Site,
Emrbry Nlidle
Air 13asc, ('cral
Cabler, Fic.i!d5.%J
1.93A
DeaeUl7ated
15415
&zbtroploal,
..
Rural.
9lesc~aat
Navy or
'I
,.
Navy Contracr
United Staten Navy.
Bureax= of Yarde and
lDocka
94
Fisclicrs Island,
United States Navy,
1946
Miami, Fiori-Ja
Bureau of Aeronautics
11ami~on Roads
United Stateis Ntry,
E-xprnaure F'e.
Bureau of Aeronauticn
I Arctic Test.
Station, P'oti;i.
Barrow
Arctlc,
Deftmtivatod
eo.a
Active
9ubtrqopll,
Rural.
1928
Temp~erate.
Urban,
Deactivated
19U
Beecoast
Na-val AMr it~ation,

Norfolk,VJirginis
L~akethur't Naval
Air I-A.zin,
1
at, ? cw
Lakhll
United States Navy,

bureau rof Aeronautics
Naval Civil Lngi-
United States Navy,

Bureau of Yardc- sad
1957
1948
Ox,,anlo mnaterials
exposeure ait..
'Jperattotts imoved
to Wright-villl.'e
Boa~ch. Nort'i
Temperate,
Aetim
ActiveTeprt,
rtural,
Seacoast
Docks
iiuenemt*, Call-
12
fornioa
1vilrtwl Navn* Ship-
United States Favy,

Hurnau of Shipc
1941
United States Navy,

Biu I u of Ships
19415
Active
Temperate,I
lztduatrial,
0O*
yard, "nl F'ranL"InI

Ifo rnift
Ii 90
NavalNi Miteriai
Lai0oi itvry,
Nf'w York i'aval
Actve
Tem~perate,
Industrial,
6ams
1-4'
1g
Ognly
established at
Solornous, Marylaad. Moveeo to
Port Hluetinle In
Nav a] Materiel
l.:%boratory, Ma~re
4"
-u4l
e.oa
-.
n~rrig
i~cach
anrl EvaiuatQjn
Abor..,
I
Po rt
t*~
Rural.
-1"A*
i
''
T'able 1-1.
TnHt
JDate
Omraigfoune4e or
agency
estpbUbhW
~ite
1iru,'-:I Licterl .
oration lob;
Staticiii, nrIr
C~o~t', ~
1>;'18fa C8,ial
I;tre .1nto,
Outdoor Erponufai Sites (continued)
inlvorzlty of Pennsyliev.ta; awer

F Office of scientiflo
R~!esearch and
DevcOtpmont
June, 1!944
l-oatr
Rroaf-t
UMUMo
'I mph ic1 Expoeuo '~o

r
1L953
Naval ltomearch
Laboratory
2tmospbXA71Q'
flwlotlvatWe
July, 1946
Tropioal,
Rtural.
Seacoast
1958
JtAr4,
Fort qiierrr,n
jSio) .
Climate and
--tanditions
Actlye
flen-rkb
OSRD contract
trurisferrad tto
Niays!. Research
Liaboratory
iernr1,
1945.
i~t&K'y Rev-
s wouLZt
Uou clOAT. h
Tropltol.
RUM) ,
FaafllUen Y'vil)able to all Paultar7, egonoles or
er-oolet
Ci'ia
their cout'ractorm,
3~~le
0A-- Clooear1ing.
i'Vor hixfortua~tiv
conatact D. A.
aeash~ure and
as stes
.A.1eaxwder, Neval
r*tcry, Washing-
Txf4;Ia1,
btarWdby P5an-
J3C1)8
I roJpical Coi ro-
1940
Naval Roasarch
Aotlve
4RcA CEII&I
aortryU)V,
In
Army Coli~kt "Ahcr&mi Proving

"I rOiITd;IAbordeen.
,Xrry At- .'c~ rin.
Movltin
;R~~ng
em:.
Unitod States Arrmki.

Ordfiance Corps
nited Statea Army
1019
Active
Activir
19)
Fnim~jrngCorpa
Wvgner1~Jmir
I ttf'VAh'Ilvarht
ri
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a.j...-
:t e*
0rqif
rd
'w' 1
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ihI
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iofie air-' Lt in. 14ow
id
t9i"i
0~i,iAh I
I?
Ux
11"
tk
*.~
PA_
ltz "st
- requiremnents, such as temperature
were undcr review 2t intervals fromu 1944
through 1950, but investigation always proved

eurmt
f
eprtr
tlic-m sound. Th
-C-. to +160 F (-54 to +71 C) were !airly applicable to all aircraft, because their operational
ani aIltituiL3 were nothigh eaouoh to inbj-~
emperatui,.; above 160 F (71 C) or
dure an
belowa.15 IF(-54 C). Hligh temperatures were
oncmatetteprtrs
based pi-ary
of the aircraft parked in the desert sun. In late
1949, however, It was found that there was a
need to establish extrerne tempereature atmosphc-rcf f,,r use in the design of airbreathing
equipment, and in computing aircraft and ene withiin the rangesof temnp eraFine pn;fr tr"'a
ii was also noted that such atruespherea
.,.
could scrve a-s baselines for predilcting future
environmental requirements. This work was
initiated by Wriglit Air Development Center and
resulted in the development of hot, cold, polar
arid tropical atmospheres, which zre described
in a Wright Air Developmnent Center Meniorand Rn vp'rt WCSE 141, "Proposed Standard
Cold11
and Hut Atmospheres for Aeronautical
.A
Design;-
20 June 1952. TIhey are also de-
dated
scrltbid in MIL-S'iD :zlIOA, "Climatic l~xtremes

for Millitry Equipment," and in the "Hlandbrook
of Gcophysics," which was published by the Air
ForceC,,nhridge Resea rch Center. The atmonpuju
UUc I~j-utiplbLUIlty ol
ipuutl
Force Cambridge Research Ceniter.
Atli
-quirement
7'1e vst:-'.i'shment of the atmospheres pointed

oiut titat altit'de ternperaturen considerably below -65 F (-54 C) could be encountered. Hawever, at tIha! time It wai3 realized that the aerodynamuic heat rise from the
speed of most air-
inurricrai tempeiiaurcs high
enough to eliminate
icraft, exceot possibly cargo aircraft, and the

lica rise wgenerated in the aircraft from heat
lprodat.;c!-g 4eiprnent, w.ould probably raise the
aiiy wctesijity to set low temperature requir..Tflifitsi helriw 655 r. Experyiments wiJi a number
oA aircraft Provided in':renuentB of heat rise for
twiny rs-tvvoin 'va tif prr,,trmpnt
and wers,
Runnyr-
limpi)h'd on the cold and hot atmospheres. It

~arc. I Isir.'d that the -65 F would Ihe adeq~uate
at uo -1irteimijerature. Meteiorological nu:y~was
havel,1 en j-ifurinud, though, which have Shov'n
that it is either too high or too low, depending on

the choice of data. Many years' experience test..
ingo to this requiremeat bav6, on the other hanO,
pointed out that It lis realictic.
The high-temperature requirement, however,
became unrealbstic. in Mar~ch of 1954, a study
of futtwe temperature ro~iqirements extrapolated
to 1065 foundcitai the high-temperature requireient for such vehicles as fighters bomiberc- -nd
missiles could no longer be establ~ished on the
basis of high -temperature requlremifnts on the
ground.. The extreme speed of future vehicles
'was expected to produce an aerodynamic heat
rise considerably above 160 F (711 t.) Thiat estimate of future tempri'ature requir'ements is
eould
&
J
ble
presented roughly in Table lnoted that insulatIion In thaii ehicle d:oes have an
effect on the temperature, a'ad this pa~rticular
problem will be treated more completely laer
in this handbook.
~
1
'
,4
Combined Environmental Testing

In the period. prior to 1954, there were some
attempts made to perform environmental tests
In comibinatior. Th~ese, t.oviever, were fairly

simple combinations, such as tempcraturealtitude, hi I temxpuw'ature-humiditty, low tern-
Ferature-vibr~ion and
Wrlwghf AirA LVAD~aivopmra
the like. ,In earl 1954,

CLUithU
InitiWated
n. ic
to Investigate the feasibility of coinbined envirantnental testing for qualll icati~on and
equipment ev,?Iuation purpoR3B. It was Intended
to investigate more complex co mbinations of envlwonmontit; than simple coinbir~ations of two, and
to use the minolon profile approach. It was ex-
pected Ehat rxla.jy c~ombinatons
of bflu nsitu;'al
'2
'~'
%
and induced PnAroniments cquld be evolved, anid

that. ono combination might bg produced that
would have the worut set of interacting. environments.
The work wks p4il-formed by American
Puwer Jet Company Rfidgofield, P~ew Jorsny,

Th18hi
and. was comnpleted In Septemzber 1956.
gave impetus to combined Onvironmenut~al tebt-
Inv.
Comb~inations were evolved from a mission
profile appiroach, and the 1rofupvctp of nimulatmng ouch combinations werL analyzed. N4o effort
mnade to determine the conlidonyme of such
environmental tests.
Tablo 1-l2. Predicted Future Temperabirrea

Temperature atep, F (C)
1955
ig19o0
to ratm air, or
284 (140)
600 (260)
690 (j-M .-
I 'itpr.,emnt in tisolatod areaa and uncoolod

((tiripi tmrenis protected to sonin extent by
OF7 (122)
350 (177)
G0o (260)
160 (71)
225 (108)
300) (141))
230 (110)
300 (149)
3751 (J91)
yp
_______
At
i
rxterniil ;t
Is
L
1)
pillaneiriIr
of eqil'"tOent
orpvn
irectly expotied
1905
eue.
protected by cooling system
Hu truric eq'ilj'rent
_________-1-7
-j
____
I It
.'
r-
In M.ay of 195'?,
the! Development
Dersign
The launching of Russian and Anierielvn

satellit~as emphwabied the possibility of sogato'.0%
exploration and focused attention on a nee for
more specific knowledg6 of the space environ-
Biranch. of Uie Aerial Reconnaissance Laboratory
of Wright. Air Development Center initiat- ,d an

c.-perirenetpl dyna.riC snnldy7er. A fenotihIlity
iull-scale miodel was N-ilt in the fall of 195'7._

This facilitly Integrated combined environme-its
-vit" vie funct'3:,aI aspects of the equlpa.;,.t..
being
ments.
-,Iod.~.
For insitance, photographic.

roinhined entemperature, vibration, roll
~P.ipmnwnt could be exposed to a
v'ir.mmrent of
p'c,r1. an'~ yaw, whtic photo.graphing a simuiate~a
moIng target. This now concept of testing prakc-
ticaily clfimn ated the njeed for flight, evaluation

tf-stingj
of az.rial reconnaissance systems. The.
d'slign ofa~ new st-pare oriented dynainlc anlyo
has been completed and the analyzer Is b~eing
built ati~.eronaiticLI Sybtcn.s Division (formerly
Wright Air De-;elopnient Division) under the
cgLaneof the Design Techniquesi and Anly
CSgn..afCt
fteEiiomnp
iiin
gineering Test Directorate, Deputy for Test and

Suppe.rt. Another state-of-the-art advancement
in comfbined environment testin~g is the test Iacility
~
n15~
~ he~ ero~
ciliy~al~
asemidedeary
in195 byyteArAccessoi ies Laboratory under the auithority
of
the Air lRhaearch and Development Command's
R~dlifauc M~siDivision. This is the first
large tent farility where, to the combined onvironments of sustained and vibratory accelerasuha
trions,
other envronumentalptderandenoise,
e
suchay
itions, other.enicronmental~ parameterse,
I,c addcd eli-jcr singly or 11r co'mbin-tin
JF__
ee.
I-cla
environmeutz .-.. c..
1--orutat
with the initiation of the nuclear bomber In
A
(us19.'4. 'The environments provided by
the reactor spectrum, consisting primarily of
neutron arid gamma radiation, could affect man
an well as maiterials and equipment. Nuclear
riadiatiola was recognized as an envtronrment
spr~oe
pnteohrecr.
1ntwt'
posdible Interacting, reinlorcini1 anu- "Aabiting
effects. At that time, work was already ging
ont*ul.ratr
n htclstosycte
efcso
ula
aito.svrlidsre
have been enmaed in the nuclear propulsion
atebe
~ beig
rC~i
r~
o build reactors. Hfowever, the one
Air Development
Division
n biltat
ftefrs Wright
oeonzte
edfrsm
ulone
Is
of othefrs eti)reognmyenthe necor binaion
enirnmns
iadtodermbineto
wlaith raiton. Ahstd
wan
mdeinibitringet
wthe Itradition., reinfocn
encountered inhbtnfutur
theosinter
tacting,
rein
may
inftresut
io nucea dial veiceMnycofnthred
ayo h eut
red eils
nulerp
of theCells
study
weeincorporated4 into the reactor
test.
being
b~ilit at WritLt Air L)Svelopnlent
environmental
tests in relation to
and their combinationsmust be anailyzed an~d reviewed, and from this point we must evolve test
procedures to cover both materitals and variroua
categories of equipment.
etna
u~'
suffers I~room&-theZpi'obbiezn of inadequate correlation be-tweon the effects of test env1i'inmac= ;'.-d
the effects of actual service environments. To
keep testhLg time within practical 1'.miis, a laboratory test very often require3 iticreariod severity of an environment over that which would
be encountered In actual service. This results
In accelerated deterioration eff ects. Ile cwai:L
den1LO Of such at test. depends upon adequate correlation of the time duration and severity of the
tent environment 'with the expected time duration arid Reverity cd the actual service environineni. To Improve correlation, work is currcntly being conduicted in the dovolopituritt of
standard environmental test spcmn.Those
ar
eie
htratirreversibly in aLknopn
and prcuictable mannorwher. subjected to a specific environment. It is expected that in the luture these standard te3t specimnn~s will permit
the deterioration effects of onvironrenitilt exposuire to bo more exactly evaluated in tci-nie of
play P .'c
important role in qualificatio5n and
retiahiliiy tesiting.
llypt~r FEavl ron merits
4
In. early 11.455, consideration was given III the

Jf-nvlroiinientat Criteria llran'-h of Wright Air
I -veliopnicia Center to the need for reproducing
!iylp(r (rievironencrt8. L-1April 1958, work was
mitiated oil a preliminary Inventigationof hyper
tVnivi('wnliects and nicthodii of simulation. it
%kas lit. rh~d that this work shcAuld nvestigtnt
";I.iii::'
tsoccurring In flight vehiclea at
;dittwl'-,s alove 75 1,000 Met, defltne these enii(l,:tIliits ant-cillatc. effects, develop aimulaIi''l
f '-tjrolf, 'R.d evolve a hyper environmental
tt~
it y. Ilice work, performed by HCA,

11, 1 ew je:it sv, was comrletod by Jan-
fo
1'4. 3; tie flint report, which d-3scribed

"anyitil~pr
'I~Vrn?.niet~d thecir
11i- I-,,-Tluly I
~.du.,ut~iox
aff ects, waa aivail-
,.P
Vf
%
ohntrladidcdevrnet
fcso
in the research and development p ase of ma-
Considerable reeeerch la still required be~ ~

nlomna
etpoeuewl
eur
etin
and inhbiin
Ida enviromnteac
Lea
becevoflboth noaIteractndinduced tribviionm eft -
lines in the future. The single ei-vironmonta-l
terilas, components, equipments, wid, subsyatcnis- an-d combined environment tefstin will
Future Trends
concen~trated effort will be expendedalong these

tcst will probably 'still plai ni~ratpr
e.
.r
A contract was let to United States Testing
tingle environmental tests for various cate1gories ni c-iipment. Itis anticipated that more
5~.
ondluct -e'd&Ailonai c:ombned environmnental tests3..
combined
,.'
NuclearEnvrnet
Around 'Jctobcr 1958 funds were provided to-
Comnpary, Hfoboken, New Jervey for etudy ard

tefit work~ to deter nine the coafidence level of
T~oa~-
''""
,r
aziJ intensity.
J
-W..
t: e lijan
auirtlon wj)d
tent procedures were evolved by

xeiecplssm
reseitrets
and ( perimnentatinn. In the future, however

6)1h h.'per and ommbined environmental test
I~
:r'Lced-jrc.- 'will be founded prizniriiy cia sceletii..* w' Mclipiis. For this reason, environmental
(n1 :nhtr..., liar bconne a sep~rate field of
nc avn
1!isi.resting to ntift
SIn(tiifiC
U.tu a programn that began with sach elementary
rf':uirpmrents as cold weather operation, in
wh'ich practically aniyt>ody could eitlher watit for,
Ow
acc to, or reproduce the envirotoment by the
eof a woodcn lx~x and some dry lic", has
rew'hc'd a pioi~nt of complexity that Involves a
wucle!ar reactor with environmental chambers,
is wiili as adv-A.:c,0 hiyer environnmental comnhined f ic:UiL-s. Figvr-e 1-1 gives an indication
'Weviomental
ffi
program of the Air Force.
1lt-r-:,t is in both the conventional and hyper
uv -' onn'-io
ents, single and combined, and in eatainil1ing requirements, test procedures and
neow fa( liliies ii. all technical a-reas. Consider--1:
abit. work has been done with the single conventionl;d enivitronments, Iyut there has been little
v. )x- done in conventional combined environin,;-its, primarily iio the equipment area. In the
iiypivr eniviruninent area, only a small amount of
pruvccis. Single hyper environmerits willfhave
ic understotn' but combhinations can also be
StUdj ed. IleraCC, ItIL'ansition to combined hyper
did in tue convvntil..a] environmental area.
Fif)
l~n~i'mnnrialengL-meeri~ng is also impox'tazu

in thne d'.!velopmcnt of satellites and space ye)iclvs. E nvirunmrnnt1 : near the Earth and on the
Moon, Nlarti, Venus, and other planets, as well
:-sIn innlerplanetarv space, must be understood.
'lb. at inosphe ine of 'lie planets and their weathez,
Must. be detevaiine,.. These enviribnments munt,
Uiten lie expressed as design requirements, and
Combined
Single
Comhinad
A
-',
Applicatlion
Test
Requirements
and
Procedures
Design
lRequirements
I
Faciiitics
Technical Areas
-.
'I
I~imtFih
Materialsie
S ructufeel Vehicles
Components
Pronultion
Fig. 1-1. Air Force environmental progrom.

a complex research program. In reality, the
history of environmonitai engineering in only
now beg;nnling.
,
test proceduren for

"irum'w; c~its, (iL'Uiprnerlt, and
subsystenis and flight
VOha ics mnoat floevolved.
-The Air Force Ws Interctged in obtaining high

quality, reliable flight vehicles and support
equipment at the lowest possible coat. Thlis !a
R challenge facing the Air Force and the entire
tnduatry supplying the Air Force, As flitwht veLL~e.e miseions become more complex, so do the
environamenta, the vehicles and the job of attatming operational reliability. While the job of
attaining operktional -reliability Is not entirely
environmental engineering In nature ani increasingly large portion of It Is. In 6me strict
Then, I.i:,lities
il ~nat
fl(d of oure, s a atuty
lc~tljrC.uru
unA
0;d some cnvursieIsa fcilit
an stpoeu
i-;;sm
nirnetlcm
biinatip in Lhat uv.21 p-ovi'i in one facility and

in (jtoe test proce'Inre actions or all the Inte-.
i~'~jcn;.ronnnientr.. This would allow evalua~'!
.jS.fJ1.'~mact!u more rapidly than we are
al~l'; t: u~compliishz todany.
(-ns1-2 and] 1-3 show the p~ogress ol
(Jw!rinlnPntai engineering, both past and pro.
ji J .
I ijgure, 1-2 indicates the relative ad-
v'ant-sinan it' the various areas of environmini' 1lei.gtinit i ng, as well as the time at which
'*~c
d'l,,rn
evnivronments became imptortanf.
nei- 1-3 t,lnows bo(w tbne types and severity of

wi
-tinit .i 'ni''ounter(A have ch~anged, and
*njvi
li-A111 wi 1l iank!(! even Inure in the fuiture,a "

:itA
ad irnjn'ive flight vehicle systems are
I.
u- -ilinany. crivironinental engigneerhnZ has

rii. :i!.orviLe_ engineerinlg problem Into
-GENERAL PHILOSOPHY
*1 iC
III
Single
Hypar
Environments
tie (-xpresnsion nmustt be simrple and casily under6tuod.
I.h
Conventional
Environmyents
sense of the word, even ntru.,ture and wind tun-
uiel testa are environmental in nature, though

environmental engineering hda avoided referernto
to these tests as environmental. The greatest
application of environmnental engineering Is in
the development and qualification of materiasd,
components and equipmnent that can withstand the
eavironmentsi.
-Mh former years, the Air Force evaluated

materials, components and equipment, both for
overnine(nt- and inlustry-developed Items.

This was done because performance and
requirements were more generally ap lIIcable. With the coining of jet aircraft, mifs U08,
1-9
PJ
MnV
~
-
100
...
'-~
-.
sr*wl.
~.-
~~~vr-,-q*:..~.
baN-*W
R'
B0O
. DefT
A0-
io
Aiuat
C.
uler1doci
/HighiI
30 Terprlr
Sand And Dust
Vibral'on
Low Prbssure
Koisture
20
Shuck
AccustiCs
Greater Extremos o? lniduCed EftvtrofnmW%
Meteoroids
Ionized Gases
Corbi~ned Enwl,osments
Dis~ociation
Chorcied Pairli4cat
Accelerat~i"
Solt pa
and tlt(ir as soc iated complex Ities, requirerneuat

--i
d'LL :wperfrachadtioa
be tablatye.-It
spaecifi
--
and under environments expected for futture apula
plctos
F'(fcc,, then, wil still be evaluating netw materi-
Electronic Components EvaluatiL,"
and dtevel:)pinj new equip ment will fall on the

shouldcrs of industry. In the eqruipment irea
di,.! Air FoIrve will vontinue to initiaite developlCWtyiir
cncets ad my tst
ad
'huhoi
&oAInc! of tile Concepts; ihrvcver, the Air Force
I.l
I jot 42n;hgafe tj a.ny great extent directly In
Electronic components are dcve)opcd for a

variety of uses and must be tested for operation
under all possiiblil eiivlr:)nmntfi. They are
iven quallicatioai tents and reliability teeir.
Owi q'u.difi(.%uutn and testtng of equipment to be

ji 1V:'.' it) product ion.
engineering is actually a
I-i-a it's )Ii re-1 ruetfl~is thpt are applied in al
from the Initial
-u-s f tslrnde'velopnment,
systent
JIrm e u! nuiatuiills, to theo ultiniate
lf'irnn~ena~
1111ej'r~tLinn.l
MIj.cirl
Fv-duati.itf
..
Ljvt
of which include environmental
1rietmprtrs
testin~g.
Egilpment Evalluation and Qualificatice
In the development of equipment, many en~ineerlng tests are run under envtironmental conitforis that are necessary to 1.10pcdclpmriiet of the Item. This iet geiieraUy Conmplet cd
withtilte qualification test when? ant. if itac Iteml
is to go into production. This lsater test to also
predominantly environmenta! In naturf , prlinaril because of the operatiorai characteris-
r projert engineer sets ar, the lost pro

is
~
~ ~~ii:I'i-:].i( gram
~
~ ~ ci~-ii.tnl
riia-,arid, ingnrlsV.stut
tntyImngei~atd
N-lkwt-jkar
of
environment~al test opec&cuFctiviis.
rioty
future,
jo iL udir j t~pv'tti-s needed in tWe
?J.
Sumettime near the end oi the develcoment

*
pi~ase,
an item to;
4xquipatiheloti
first end item test of at coulpletcr weapoll
*.The
~~5~CLl
%ind-krg(o reliability tests. Te tat ar rn

szpec~ified environmental conditions, which
do not necessarily i-epresent the extreme opet-atiolial environment. These tests are run on
"lots- .,Z !t-no 'c asheure a statistical pupula.
and a probability ",.t tie -equipmn~3t will
F:!i io
0
!ivanacceptabte mean-tliwe-betweeti-failure
raite.
th
=C9gory
Mfli.-tt te!:t, v.hich in-
lues cold weather field testh, desert 'tests,

Icing tests, adverse flying, speciza htg'-, pprformanco teats and operationalsuitubility tests.
Operational Use
The real teal. '_ operational use of the flight
vehicle. Aircraft that are recoverable give
much lneormation and allow corrective action
through the uge Wan unsatisfactory report and
service eagineerin channels. Thso Is not the
case with unmanned vehicles. The operationa1.A
phase, particularly in IRBM's, ICBM R and satellites, In essentially a highl instruuaented
;iU i ovw.-atest flight. The IRBM and ICB jk
ticonal for only a short period, and no c,,jrz-,tivc
action canbe instituted on those launched. Nevertheless, telemetered datawilllbe availablo for ap.
plication on successive vehicles. Thz satellite
and sipace vehicle will for a long time to come,
be essenitially a test vehicle. Actually, they are
et ,ronmental resecrch vehicles.
Pr)oduction Samplin~g Tests (Qualit Control)

D'jrng poduviori
it s
touse
!-;rn6prdu6io.,itiscustomary toue
St atistical sampling (one out of ten, one out of
fifi ty, or some other figure entablished by quality control) to ascertain that an Item still meets
t~c rigorzus performance and design reqeire* A :w'lta
th orignal ualiied iem.
heau
.sampliai; tests incl;ude some environmentaL
tc~.ts
..
ISe
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I.
~n.lr'iAter of
-ii WeatherTbri
AM(
1946,
AAF Technical
Report
5503 AM1C
WrighJt-P9tterson Air For':e Base,

01it(, 24 June 194(..
bLytuin,
9.- Prlmnr
2. AMC Cold Weather Tests. Winter of 1946VIC47-AF Te-chink

Report- 5650, AMC,
W'ri-ht-Ila' terson Air -Force B3ase, 0db,
25 ovnbr 1947.
3. ATY2 (7 'd Weather Temts Winter of 1944530, ATSC,

4"~A~czflepo
Writ'.ht-Pattersor. Air Force Base, Dayton.,
Ohio, 31 May 1945.
4. Co.in w'otnlr T estDetacliment. Winter of
l42 11j43_-Vol u~mc I7_USAA7CWrightl~TL:;;;fl
ir Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.
5.Cold Weatlier Test Detachment. Winier ul
W-' 7dVo-61-ijjj-ji7,USAAWright~tc'nAir Force B~ase, Daytion, Ohio.
*
Tests at IflyffidiCalifornia June and
6. lDeit~,'t
1 1
*
--
yI~37AF1Acho~iiii
porT
C',_nter, Wripht-Platterson Air 'orre
Lvzzt, Ilaytvii, Ohi0, 9 SepiLember 1943.
7.f Cro~ine-EniromentTesle~uihiitV
ins WAri' ~ ~rR 1j~~13.
A.,I), Wligiit-Patterson Air Force Basee,
Svpernbr
01dr)196.
'o,
OioSepembr
156.Air
%1!(; ce, Jo~hn and Chester Polak, ~The Deel-194

ep
.(i f:-'iit (if Staniard EnvironmentalTO
c-- inis, V'ADC Tit 5M3-97, inlan Test,III
l.;1il(jr.turietj D~ivision, Contract No. Ar

')-11,ASIh, Air Re~search and De-
-1
ivi-i'.1
ll.~
-c(J45n Coman Wruht Pptteraor. Air

Force Base. Ohio, Octuber 1959.
Peinn
Ivsiaino
rEv
net~aino
ye
ni
"i~nvironi
TR 57-456, "art 1--Survyo5
mental Fil, July l957, V)arL l--Simulation Methd,
Nveniber 195? "Part IlI-Fac ilty"
R-SAir Force,Al)Wrgt
Pattrl
Air Fre
Base, Ohio, January
1958.
*r
10. ProposedStandard Cold and -Hot -ALzir-P-6*

heres for
Dea
A
Rev),
141 U.5. Air For~ce ASSD
WrgtPtesnAir
Force Base, L)ayton,
Ohio, 20 June 1952.
_ _
1-_.
et'esJu
I"-__K
~r~lne
aiii6_fReport, Materiel Cente, W.-I. htturnes
Pattterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio,

5 August 1942.
-~
rpclDjroation
'j!
re-rlal airEupent,
Air 1Porce Ma-
AA
*.6_F0_ii2r
Riepo&VATS ,WrijgilPatterson Air Force

base, 6 ayton, Ohio, 15 May 1948.
Tro~ple Tests at France Field. Lwiql 7oiie,
st~
Y.
oandun Reort-_
rhrfA
ou
TSC-MWiglit-Patterson
Furce Tase, Dayton', Ohio,
1 October
14. Tropical Test of Armament Eqauipnment~

7iAK
onflorawndi 7RiATA'sq, wr
tPattcrbori'Air Forct Bal;s, Dayton, O04io,
15 March 1945.
qk
:7
Pi-
NcturciI
Veus-,
Veu
(Plonets-t nearest
approach)
I
:0I
----.-- r
0.
"
LUD
;:b
e Lii ofItne aito
Lj~~~~~H--s
Sunli
-Mo-------------------------G
;Q5
Loe
Radiatio
_
of Intense
_
Limit_
Dus
Mirmeeort
~ie
=:1
-
'iaLower
RadiationM
Limitor 0nes
MconeerteD
I~er
Noheo
fiijcgnt
Cloud~
- LonlrA uroti,,eo
~ruTo
Iax eom iR
ad
-.-
OinH
Ia
Snow
2900 t
Hond
Lighting
in,
%s
Lushn
i
Hum'dily
'
LoTemTp.gt
1.
High Te-mp
*
*
1\
FSnd
Fngi
910
Fok)
14190
B Oust
15
90
Salt Spray
1965
1970
ti
Nil
:'
W-W TIP'1
I4
190
t7it
C~snduced
\irto
2-20C0
---
Q1.1
25-
-:
ion
5/
IIoF'
900
a
.-
jl
S 0-33
4c
C~~C
F-'
4'0
-.
II
-w--
-V
~
vibrtjpfs-=0-200
>
>
4
,~
U--
Bo Ing
Jr
-Z
-I
rccl 1cceroAir
-.
I1
'4'1-
9001
I)
ln
-1-
U7
10
/T,7
Range_
135
5-'~rcce
.72
///4U
1,
0
5004sio
ja
H
5o
Muf
4
400 j1ii,
Lo
Heate
Hele
3.
1-~n
in na u a
i d c d e vi o
A rtifiia
L~9S/'
Pressuri-u
195
195
19
n s
m /u
19
oln45.
1.970
CHAPTER 2
.3
ASTROPHYSICAL FACTS AND ENVIRONMENTSI
Thev natural environments imposed on a

we ap-)Yn system depend on where and how the
rystem iq to be used. Environments differ a
9 re2aLtdeal '-~~geoigraphiedl
location to the
n'.x', _-oi5 also frotd one level of aerospace to
t~o r.,!Xt.
The wefapon system. itself comprises
ri~uiy components that m~ay be locatrd indlviduaIldy in diffet ent environments for a Psingle
ii1ls'ijrf.
Also, during some missions, differvnt, pieces of equipmrnt will probably encounter
different
extremes of environments. The flight
vc'hi t e may be subjected to severe environinrnlIAl ShUCKs by guing from one extreme of an
elivironmien?. to) the other in a Biort period. With
s'round suppu)rt equipmnent, though, opposite extr'.::ur-s of environments may only be encountered over long period~s, and so the duration
1:I1Wein is :i.t zis great.
Nevrertheless, it Is..
number of wavelegths tkikt can be Identified by

the pattern of lines o& 6%e urecrum. If the lineu
are displaced toward the violet end, or s-horter
wavelengths, of the spectrum, the star Is apprmiaching the Earth. However, i1 thp C.z.....
5 -e
displaced txoward the red enid, or longer wavelengths, tha star is recoding from the Earth.
The spectral dlsplacmamuit is known as the red
line hydrogen shift. The amrount ot displacement Is proportioaal to the speed of approach or
recession of the star.
pe:tnvtary, iy-stem5., a wider sc3pe of environ!-n( ftheptril

phsnned
din sae and
types ofT
(.,!ir'jhim
its 'omne
more Important than
otiie-S. This chapiter discusses Ute a-stropliysic:; envirenments ':xlsting' outside as well asin
SOLAR SYSTEM If 1, 2.4, 5
thc solar sy.-clrn that may
y we~Yn
C A IAX T~
/S
There is aome Indirect evidence for the existence of other planetary systems. However,
with our present state of knowledge, communication with such planetary systems is a matter
of speculation only.
.r
be encountored
ystcnis.The
I "'i ceter
te iaactc
:iuyoiil our gtlz'xy are couutesohrgl
\.' L and cl isturs of galaxies. Tihf. galaxies are
il;i-~e mainlf types: spiral, elipt'cal and irreg11a;. I'[hfe Nliky Way in; one of se'veral galaxies
in a !,'iauli cluster known as th6 Local Group.
1', lrso. ii is thme most ainvmdant cimernica~l i..

-,aL it i% in the suirs thcnAsclves. Astnron1: ia"ha; ma4dr use of this fact In determnint.( r;LI'uLL V(I)LIty and distribution of stare
iu.(v'.
ir#lyd
zd*ti radiatlon in a limited
The, Solar System consists primarily of the

Sun and the nine pisnete, with their various
misu.
The nine planets rnove around the Sun
'
in the same direction in similar planes (see

flig. 241), and in newarly circular orbits..
toa
Tlhe unl-/crse btretches far beyond the Solar
9pren.fW1matrI
Syteam
mre
SoaSytm
Syr-ti~m. Our galaxy, Wie Milky Way, conalsits of

Liiunstrs, in1Lerte
dW- -. and
,
i.'fl
t 70,1) lgh yars Indamtroadies.
]i ,hl y,.r is aiiut C.x 101 miles) and ainproxis~t
d i yar sghlaxy andhi
v
0
!,-1oy
i an
2 insilni5v
iiia
51 str
nsir~ii'ar~
n tis alxyandis
tdapp'-or.Jmiately 30 thousand light years
'--
The and
fourMaIrs,
Inneraxeplanets,
Mdercury 1 Venue,
narth
relaLiviay isLadJA,
A*ti.5f
They are known as thc "terrestrial"
aet.TentforpnesidstivIiui
the Sun are Jupitel-, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune~. They a.-e known as the major, or giant,
iaes
l or ~teeaerltvl
ag
odies, believed to be composed principally of
solid Ice and rock cores. Ve-ry little Is known
.of the planet Pluto, which Io farthest from the
Besides the Suan, the planets, and tlheir
Sun
moons, the Solar System also containr aster.-oids, comets, meteors and Interzalanitary dust.
I
.
Asteroids
Tihe asterold3 are a group of bodiles or planetoids that orbit between Mars and Jupiter. It is
-vatimated that therd are hundreda of thotisands
2-1
I..
~~~~~~~~W
*A4
'rW
}:
planets and the Sun account for most of

the matter In the Solar System. The Sun itself
has a diameter of 864 thousand miles and can-
-3
2,
''~
10
p---cornets
0",lufmicrornetEoors
----
* C($Neptuai
or asteroid coU1isions./6/ Meteors and,

range In size fromn 20 microns to
a few meterv.A layer of uilcromoteorlters exteLds from the
to far beyond the Earth's orbit, and is concentrated In tWe plane of the Earth's orbiL, The
paxiieleab follow a path that spirals in Igward
,---
1 r-y
,F y
U
K'-Sun
uoJupiter
N.
the Sun.
g~enerally have highly elliptical

around Lie Sun, distribu~ted along the orbits of the comets. A typicil met~eor o--blt Is
shown ir. Fig. 2-2. Estimates, based oni various
fBBSUMl~nptsl, ait the total amount of meteoricN
that ex-ern the Earth's atmosphere
each day range from 25 to 1 million tuns. Rus~sian satellite-data bijdicate an c.'tlimate of
800,000 to one mJUlln tona per day.17/ Meteorites enter the Earth's nxtxnospheijc.. "
-il
velocities, ranging fromn 8 miles per seconad
tornepo ecn, with their aegespeed
SotrnMeteorites
Sounorbitz
-~
*j7material
a~~-
-.
0
The Asero'ds
Marshigh
Th A~rEasm
rth
venu
itic material burns up when it etrsheEarth's

atopee
casn a drfigof dust particle:s
seathaurface. Data on the probability
of flight vehicles encountering meteore and
micrometeowltes are covered In Chapter 3.
Mercury
Ile temperature of the solar coroaa near the

is probably about 1 8 00 000 F (I 000,000 C);
Sn near the Moon it is abou 3
0 F 1220,000 C).
-Sun
Fig. 2-1.
The sobt, system.4/ jFrom Space
1!aia1b6c_+1
Asf~oatc
an
7o~urtesby- oftne PAMD Coj;57a ion
of these asteroids. They are believed to be evid-niice of a PI anet that never quite coagulated or
one that rtis~nttegrted.
dependent upon the Sun's radiation. If a epacie

body d~es;not receive any solar radiation or any
rePCected planet radiation, tse space body's. ternperature mnay reach absolute zero. For example, Mercury's dark side receives no solar
illumination anid Its temp~erature is piabdaby
close to absolute zero. Figure 2-3 shows the
temperature of a spwinnng sphere as a function
of Its distance from the Sun. The sphere receives heat only from solar radiation. The
Comets arec loosely bound collections of mat-/

ter thiat L;.c-,,) into the Inner re)gions of the solar.
systi-ni I.-urn outer space. T'he-v have orbits that
'iitii
Ili.d
?.L~
1
Earth
Meteor Stream
of 1V912 tons.
an
llo
leterltes, alno known

believed to be the
'the disirattgralinin of
Laeay dLStI alre
surl
I*an~d Mit rornetorites
Mtu oita
i'v reuitillfn
Ironh
.
I
Most of the asteroids observable from Eari~n

have di mens ion of only several niilemt, but a few
The largest abter.ij e Ivu miaiic in diameter.
nI'2rlv son rnlleR In dinmeternd ('-Pv.
i I
-otiBteroids have orbits passsnf.ilmafer
ing quitL close to Eartih.
vary in eccentricity aivd direction around the

.Sun. On each trip around the Sun, the comei is
;A.r-tiaU',' distended 1by light pressure and leaves
;at
%0.!
or tail of smiall molid particles. Comet
1,ob; (ar he cxtreniely long at times even ex,edainr 100) million miles. it Is estimated that.
t*,1~1,
(olnet niasses, including the tails, have
Fig. 2-2. Meteor orbit./0/
1000
r.di) of the sphiere's absorptlvity of sola~r ra-
(.It ,it~to emiissivity of its own radistlon is ot/a.
1k
Y 600-
"hie vtiute avrc

temperatures of the
',;in('ts are also shown, If the body Is near one
itep.uiet'i account must be taken of the re11ctdsola. radiation from the planet, of raomtloiin fr-m the planet Itself4 and of the elimie body i6 in the
aJ'inif
n~t"eoi
1,Str
400-nu
W2W
CL0
E10
Uau
Venus
Er
Er
With Lhe exception of atomic and thermouinulcar ei..-rry, tlhe Suin is the ultimate source
01f a.l,
".111
'i
) m4 ii
energy on jihe surface oi
Vih: E~arill ir.d -udier planets of the Solar System.
More than 9S piercenit of the Solar System niass
in the Sun. Its diameter Is
s concentr.'zd
iu-1,000
mniles; approximately 13 mti-uion times
laigr
Erthtan Th
he Su's dnsiy aer-W('rSO
onlr,ourtl,lhatofthe1Earth, but at the Sudls
Curliter tlie density is several times that of the
F~aro.!23/
A pres,,.,-re ol a billk;n tons per square Inch
anid a it.emperature of jibout -360 million F (200
infl~ion Q) probalbly exist at the Sun's center.
hi this atomnic furnace, nuclei collide with ire.. ,.ro,.1locities, and enormous energies are
rclcaSed. This eonpir'v mieRius
i Lhe S19un's. saurface,
v;hi~rc it IF radiated into0 space.
Some uf C,e known -,h
S'un are Iat.d ijlw./,/heat
~sical
iendiamuter
MUS2.1
WlA4,000 inies
x 102 ton 9
I\'isjitv (relative to water)

let. jod of rotation (average)
lootl~ii{' ion of equatoria axis
At'uopryand
properties of ;ic
1.4
27 days;/24
70 10'
Temiperature
1-'I'll'uns Sur face, the Ph~otosphiere is a gasau, -m-lope :rlvrut 203 ralles thick. its density
- lv:
It;o
'logj ;il*)ut a millionth, the density
:uir uo Eird
ii.
Thu press'ure iii the photoIo i., (,;11y aboit ouci-fifth to uric-tent-h of the
'l' tI -.-cvl prcsstire.
130th the density
Iin-
Jupite
Netu
-L- U----L-AU0.1 0.2 0.4
1 2 4 6 K) 20
D~~~ rmSn ~rnrio
~lOf~
uAtooia
Fig. 2-3. Temperature of a spinnirs
as function of its solar distance and
radiation characteristics./6/
20
lItadi.,tion In space Ineltides x-rays, steady

161 raviolut and solar radiation and ecosrnic rays.10
E~xplorer TGYY salecuites, Explorer IV trid Sputnik III indiciite that radiatiort Intensity increases
!ya factor of several thousand between 180 and
975 inile'- ,i .-- the Earth, reaiching as much as
I 0 -. osper :our. Tentative data from the
1)inneer I probe indicate a rapid decay of radlati-,. intensity withIt inreasing didtance beyond
17,000 milecs from the Farth. In addition to its
s Iteady radiat ion, the Sun delivers addlL~onal
slloirt outbursts of solar radiation during solar
flares. D~uring t-hese periods, radiation level
may 1;c 1000 tinies greater tlhan normal./6/
SUN
SUN
40
iiE
lo0o
~i
Apbcrs3
'orfice
and pressure decrease with distance away from

the Sun's surface. The average temperature of
the photosphere Is very high, about 11,300 F
(6300 C). The temperature decreases throughout the photosphere and .?eaches alow of 2550 F
(1400 C) at its topmost region. This Is the cool..
set region of the tSun./2,4/
-
,,
Outside the photosphere is anroiher layer

called the c-hromannhoret.Tii1
b...,iof great solar storm-s'and extreme turbulence.
The chromiosphere hase a rarifted atiaosphere
extending severui thousand miles above the
photoiophere.
Above the chrdimosphere is a very faint cornna region extanding milllions of miles into space.
The tcmperatures in the co rona are unexpectedl y
-high
and are believed to 7ary from 500 000 to
1,500 000 9 in the outermost portion. iigure
2-4 aio'ws the solar Intensity distrlibution inside
the Earth's atmospllere./2A34/
Solar Radiation
Energy leaving the Sun consistrs of CleIL-f
magnetic radiation, and high speed )roton!-- qnO
other particles. 'Me energy output tif light and
is extremely constant, varying no more
than about 0.5 percent from it@ average value.
The output intensity of ultravioiLet radiation,
radio waves and charged particles, however,
varies considerably due to solar flares, which!appear to be associated with sun spot aictivity.
The solar flares discharge Immense energies
in a few minutes. It is believed that this reof energy in dun to a sudden instability in
-lease
the .'un's cliromosphere./2/
Magnetic Field
The Sunl'a magretic field Is only slightly
stronger thtan that of the Eartli, except durini:
sunspot activity, at which time local north andi
.!*k;
S...
.
L
Mass
6.586 x 1021 tont s

b.5
Density (moan, relative

to water)
Surface gravity (45 dogree latitude)
Escape velocity
6.86 mues/second
Albedo (fraction of total

reflected sunlight)
0.29
Maximum distance from

Sun (July)
94.6 x
Minimum distance from
01.4 J 10" miles
Or.bital speed (average
18.517 miler/i
tangental velocity)
second
Orbit Eccentricity
(departure of orbit
from the circular:
circle occentricity
0.017
?
0
/Sun
11 0.
1
(January)
005
/
0
2400
2000
cubic
25R.9xI0
05
S0
-.-.-.-..-.--
Volume
--
_-
I
2800
Wavelength, A
1
3200
Fifg. ?'-4. Solar intetwity distribution outside
Earts's -,nosphere./13/ (From "The Space

Eivirornmuvt -- A Preliminary Study," appc(ariag 1,j Electrical Manuifcturing.
Coynove-o ast
Y
October 1,15t,_c-rto
Technt."ai Publications Coip )
x Ies
',
=
0)
23" 17'
Inclination of the axis

.
(mean)
32.1724 feet/sec
The Earth's atmosphere, temperaturo, weather

conditions and types and quantities of radiation
are described below.
Atmoshere
s3ouUi 'agnetict
poles in the sunspot cause magni-tic moments to reach values 109 tiWpes those
of tne Earth. At such times, the Sun's magnetic
;nv. - 10h15000gauss arndwouldbe expected
field
to extend well beyond Mercury and almost to
Venub.
lowever, the bolar corona, whic-h-is ,w
kAcetllL!t electrical conductor
nulli!ies the sunspot fields in outer space./5,hB,/
*
I
The Fart, is the thrd planet in distance from

ttc un. 'The avera4ge Oensity of the Earth is
t;r,,:n in relation to the average weight of an
,.',:ul v.uOve of water; the density of its crust
v.triCS frinh 2.67 at its crust
outer insurface
to 2.90
at
of IgcnrrpOSed
its liwur extent.
Tlhe
w'(':, m'etanmorphic and sed'mentary rock, with

v:,ryi,,,: diconti ultiea down to its core, which
i,0 (,npw.ird of liquid nihkel-iron./9/
I-.
i"
'iIe
t,'s
topography of the Earth i,,iq',e
It"i,'its due to its vast oceand and widespread
~uI0t
I xvi - ,:,tA tMon.
feet and
Mountahos rise to 29,000
physical
(.f :!ji tF,)ths reacth 35 000 feet. Other
p.
!itrn
L of the Earth arelistedbelow./1,4,10/_
I''''L
#Wt"
i,
,tal
i'
atdiaieter
The Earth's atmorphere can be divided into

four zones: the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere. A representa-tion of these zones is given in Fig. 2-5. The
Z Oml
Ilit04
,oo
1o-
500o
%-
4T0h
300o
zoo
5oo400
0-
'
.,"
r,O~r
sph...
"
oo-/
too-
rU
0oo-
oon350 '
30
20o
'
f0
c" ono
.:._
,g
Ao.0
',o;,o ,o'It,
2lli,_,.yc
t:-
10
5-
IU
'"
.0
o,* .__..
'"
7120 miles
"
.
...
1-1 ir
T;1
~ii,
11 15
iiir
H, is ((,)f irnd btl he troposphere,
111w domainn of litili winds; and cirrus
(tr.Teteprtr
ecrea.-;es intie00p
o0'00, IT a0 a function o; altitude, and is con-.
~i( :.(.( (oOn!taflt at (3.5 C per kilcmeter.
It *is thtckest evei the polen Pnd
r maty uvcn be contsidered ahsent,
quOtor. Stratospheric temperatures
h c-Li
ar-2 on the ordei(r of arctic winter temperatures.
'Iii(. iou r roCri')rsof thestratoppiiele contain the
n,. ~rindring jet stireams and are turbulent./I 1/
rArgon
n omin
f'f:
neophcre !rentains: the frtterrtpera.Th
E
E300h
-Oxygen'
xgnAc~c
\'\
100o-
m~ridisappear./1,12/
0
OD06Lo02
the domnain of the atiro-
It Is also a region ofLo

risini, tc'nipieratures and heavy ionic densities,
vw
iih ciot i various layf.rs. These layers are
knofwn collectively as the ionosphere. The ionic
Their
layers are the 0, ', F, and 1"2 layers.
concentrations vary with
fmf (laiy, sfeanon of year and sunspot cycle.
till)
cit
m*iiu loweast i;Iyec. tile I) layer, is found at a

of almut 3Cmiles durhilg the day. At
ni':iit It disappcir.r aoid tile bottom of the lono.ph(2re ri!ew-s to abo'ut 70 ndlcs. Thle top of the
irinnr".ihhre is not WCIdefiined but is asburned to
be,
a litlfght of 250 milcs. Tue heavy electron
dcoitillg,25)cause refraction and rellec-
I;
tir)'iot
rulo
'.are
Comr~poei'ionsure,
The. p~rincipal composition, by volume, of the

dry ;itmivo!;rher'! hclilw 5G' mio etia is:'..
2.Ngthig~i
%region.
aron0.93
0.03
I,
iO
%should
ca
(onstituents aitiount to less
verF.-ai distribution of ijic
conz~titucits ILb shown LIn
rviainiriim
11-4
.0..OO~';.
1 iv
*mtmoop~jc.irc
l I
of about 90,000 to 110,000 feet and is al.)ut

eleven parts per million of alr./11,13,14,15/Z.
The concentration of ozone as a function of
altitude atvarieous 1Wt!tudea 15 given In Fig.2-7.
Seasonal variations at Flagstaff, Arizona are
shown In Fig. 2-8.
rT~e ozone conecentrati (xi
expmressed in terms of "cm 03 (S'J'P) per
rhis It, the thickness of a pure
kilometer."
o~zone layer at standard teom erature and prescontjLau~d In a vertica column of air one
Qx
~is
imteInhit//I
at 130,000 feet. This Is chic to the changev
thle density of air that occur Iii the ozone

The data presented Indicate that ozone
be- consideroa as an environrient only
between 30,000 arid 150,000 feot./I.S/
Atmisphoric Electricity and IMghtntrak
~difference averages pibout 120 volts per metir
rm
***
.-
varies witih location season, hour anA

weather conditimai. In gcotA wea~thr, Uieo potential gradient is about 100 tol20voltn per meter,
while during thunderstormo It tiay becouio
10,000 volts per meter or eveln highes./l0/
tbut
A liplitning disirharge cani occur between two

charged regions, eitlierw~itun a tlmunderuloud or
betwecti a cloud and tie grounid. The frequency
__________
**~~~~~~*L
:4
A difP-r-Price In electrical potential exiflts

between the Earth and tihe atmosphere. T1he
a form iml eoicoular oxylen,

,'oo:-.ii
: input to 0. canm cause thle lur)f U .Ili
the Lartli's 10imd atmo~spheric
7,!1Is Ipr dufnvcl b) interaction of
It.C 1
I kn
m:;it 05 with
m,.\yj i.
'The amount
hti.iithl.:cto~tr
i' a functioin uf altiotuth-,
'Ll
';lsol, of yiaia amiid solar activity.
'ii'i'.u'.~l::ii
t~(
unt ratimion curus at a I'etght
(in:
'
ozone concentraas a fu.action of altitude. As oiorwo, tile

78.081%c~oncentration, in part.s-per-million of hir If!
o~cyeri20A49~In
Carb-il diunide
TaleOL .2-1 sflCws m~aximnum
n~r~:ttion
oxygill
001
Fig. 2-6. Vertical distribution of major

atmospheric consUtuentB./11/
i,iz.
i)rn'lt
001
e Deniy
lnieDnstcy
rae and~ ma~iii-kict'~nrf~
wli4iazib aoi~
irgnltmc
\..........Nitrogen
20
1t1P0)Of Wie me-sospbere iti'the atoi'.Acto

en ')Yp!h 1'(: tsornpe;-'.ture mini murn of 205 K
The2 1i111ios[)tierc altso contains the D ionic layer,
wi1a( h reilects very low frequctcy radio -N~aves.
Tt~eIs conaidt'rab1!e turbulence it. Mhe meaok'pwrr!, and it in alie; the region where most
'lIhe Uicirmosphere is
6-rr
500
_2.5
F.
IN
50k
401.-
-20
-7800
:5
02
4 G 8
Fig. 2-7.
LotitudJ
47*0Olitiude
3 "12'Lotitude
-- 8031 1'Latitude
2 '6 689 0 0
O)zone Concentrol ion, cm it 10-3 0/k m
2 4
6-8.-10 12
Latitudinal variation of ozone roncentration./4/
I
Tahie 2-1. Maximum Ozone Concentration
Atitde
Altitude
(fo)
L.
---
0.05
30,000
0.010
0.376
0.3
50,0flC
0.030
0.153
2.0
710,000
0.000
0.01189
greater
hwever,
place,WHo
the- muparkliiv
rctra
October 1958, ccurt fly o
ne
11
0.0242.
9,0
i-h. witilIii a ( loud In~ foYur timne
ii
11i1lion
1.000
reluoY
titii .
0on
(jprtrim pm.r
0.005
........~
ligittaf!, Arlzorlja./4/Std'aparl"I
Reolative
den Ity
of air
Sea lavel
2 t
I-,,i ait-oa ;it
Ozone
concentration
(rimn/ki)
ulctul
___
fC~iovcma
r5
op
iu'ii(lIouidtiLiouni.4
t ii i~t~$
ti;&I
t~tizrj~di(
ari:(.LIta'w
[, 4' t jlal J~radtulct miust

xemed
... 1ti
-1 1a1ul~y I oiuidt-red: to be at-mt I ,OiOU,U90
'i.
1- Iu ii'!
i a'. wiorruul air divrisity. Under
v-iIdiii~I m~h a Ii 1 ~ anc~niV ar
ltit litIll
V.110
i
diitijrt thri (1c( tric fiel2d, t1e
ii
ouvdu'ziy Ipe au low an 3000 vult6 per
t . 1.14,/
-.
I I-r f vtIwo fi iilH of 1111tnitic utrlketu or
.1i
iitInIi
Ft!i
wv-i
rt
t', *i~ I-10I4
z -tiliii': fox Ill, will(l h Jproj(dl(eC
*''. I .*I lt
1..~
c~ul
~ the miuddet, xelea'io
of high eniergy. -'11le tiecornd form lai the cmintiuuouB, low-cUrrcnt, lorng -time type, which re'lease3 larga arnowits of hefn# durtng a lon g purhlid of curi mit Llojw./1 4/ A fitudy of lig,)Aunil,,
atriketij by lirHlel Eurupjem/aAirwaym tjiiuwf.( Uoj
Inllowhnr distribution of atrlkon !ti the iarloui*
Cloud foukzin:
CulitiiUU
Cumiulu sMnd curritul-nmuinan
28.5%2
l3.51,
Cullvj'Jo-1JZIUIJIUW
-c;
"Tll.
.l.
_______________L~F
V
3
Althoixgh there iii some

of the satellites.
spreAd of the computed densities the estlimatd
mean value of dennities derived from, all rocket
and satell ite data t-nd to lie on a emoothi cuivc;.
olsdomn
~, '1'
This curve Is shown In Fig. 2-11./1 B/ If! conditionB appear critical, additilanali nfornmation Is
avail able through IGY World Data Center A,
flickcWs and Sate~lltes National Academy of,
..
Sciencesi,IGY 6a~L-ite fkeport Series. 'ritA nnKew
ries can be obtained froin the following source:
Printing and Publishing~ifice National Academy
or ScienceA, 2101 Constitutioni Avetiue, NW.
- ~
Munch ..
Washkington 25, D.C./6,19/
K.
Kremsrt'urster
The average densities in slugs per cubic foot
at various attitudes from sca level to ;^,OOO00
feet are given In TJables 2-2 and 2-3. '.he di
sities shown In the tables are for eitcl. t~:% deiiSamoa
green of latitude over North America for the
mronthr, of January and July, respectively. InC,
eludedl In Tables 2-2 and 2'-3 are the standard
6pmn Midnight
12 am
6amr
M;dt,;q"' C
from the average densities for the at-.
Time o
(Jayneviation
titudes shown.
Cold, hot, polwr and tropical atnrospiherea
provide useful climatic extremon. The chinaI'.2-9. Daily variatlion of atmospheric
tic atmospheres for density-heighit data in the
p'i.!ilti4 tradilent ]or locationo withi dilHlemisphere a~re shown in Table 2-4.
.Northern
aLituilt-t a,)ve tva. level./lOG/
1,,j ntA.'
As shavin In Tabjles 2-2, 2-3 and 2-4, aQ Incre~we In temperature or a Aecreasc In prensure generally reoultsa in a decreae In density.
9.5%
Curnultis :nd mtratus
Since temperature 4nd premmpjre var. !rom kr
atiatirin
______________-mass
?I.
,,
at 11iHplieric potential
j hti- dally -aarmof
gP With lor;;tion aid all ittde, am
I
i~jlixWa iti Ylii. 2-9. 'I'lie vertical potential ~rad-
yr ;tidiii
lejii
it,'b
aujo,,ttphvre varier, tzr'Aigl
tile Ewer
601
iiyer of Uie, tr.-pusphiere. Atxove the tropoIii I etis rapid arid Vradually
IfV(1', h deurea~.
The
djiiui lulben to a relat vely tnalal value.
hetwven the atinosphere arid
p'iautcrtai Ii .1c. ai
Wsj~yCittiIbuti')t
above
150
kiloumeters
~~.
fli oi t nIist:L-;o' of ortipiutAti tin. Ideas _o'ncern-.

tltitude drn:;ity haid b~evn greatly Inin: Iidy
flu, at( f0 ov ayr I!;ui1it d viv aiiurerneni oif density
of 211d kllurno'ti'mu (135 miles), ob;it ;.u'.
l;i
1
toiited rJut 'ri'i i )1( Vlikiij! 111iylit of Aunitufit 7, 1li51
at IVI'll( S kw'l.', T4;--%hexico. 'I'll iB iglit gave a
I 't. i. Ir x i ) grams 1ii(,-r I ul.ic cetittirater sit
l 'niyrHo.itwever,
Li
Uje three Itutnlan
'':,
~i'!tii i(lj in, 11.157 reported the fol~uw.. )+.,
it:d
vi' uilurn at hvigltt; f~oni 125 to 1165
___
2
AlphJli 1
La.
2 1.1
2.2( 1n
2,1:
30
'Ji,iii
!E 2 (
__10
4.5 x 1
132.gill/Cal.
3
'.7 x JU-1 1Ilal/nn1
101. Irr/ct. 3
2. xhF
*-
U
-
:.
ira' dill
almout t7.e dea'!;iUtlnEli,'--A1 1 ?.% I an'! irl ta, di,, u the duaji-itiyn
(ti~icof
thfi ftIe attld
'l
*d it iflij;
IOU
200
400C
300
puten'IoI Relbtive lo Larlh,

Fij'. 2-1(1. Poteitial difffrenrcit
L'arthaltd atmuonphere./W4
h;1ov'j1?S
betweeni
2-7
.'
'
,'~~~~.-'.';
t,,.ai
2nd
are not certain; but they do exist wid must alwr.ys be taken Into account./20/
frim place to place, density will

'ihese varia'Ick'.2 of density
v;ry);nitrdifly.
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure can be defined as tLe
force per unit area exerted by the weight of the
Pressure Is us;uly given In rillibara (nabs), inches of mercury (fg) pound.i
per square inch or pounds per square loot. To
miLltbars into pounds per nquare foot,
multiply the millibars bj 2.089, and conversely,
to convert pounds per aquare foot into mllibars
0.47h8.multiply the pounds per square foot by
cO
..Z'atmosphere.
yy'
,9'convert
4-)
10
S?200
Atmospheric pressure has Its lowest values

at the highest altitudes, and it is important to
know the variation of pressure as a function of
altitude from a geographical, seasonal and climatie standpoint. Figure 2-12 gives the preosure as a function of height from sea level to
ressures, ms well as the
500 km. Average
for altitudes beprsure,
yistandard deviati
tween 10,000 and 100,000 feet for various lat-.
tudes over North America are shown ii Table
2-5 for the month of January. The same data
00)
o.-6
-8
-I)
-_2
-1,
L
i:.
k-;I.
k)..ji't
-2
-4
3g/m'
1xnisty as function of
.. 1 8/
Avuruge 1rna;i, of a a;..d
"qalle 2-2.
1-
.0
41
0.211
17.314
0.348
17,G5
0.514
)7.96
0,758
18.18
14
18.37
iA!.
0.174
0.174
12X(2
0.270
12.50
9.17
0.4G0
12.68
0.o59
12.(16
0.099
12.62
0.503
12.(;H
,,, (;Xl,
o.117
C1.01
0.214
5.61 {0.252
G.50
0.270
5.28
0.270
5.1
0.233
.j
.O:1
3.)
1
("'.U
3.61
O.131
3.42
0.115
3.29
0.13'7
3.17
0.115
3.03
0.115
b.92
0.270
0.389
9.81
0.4G6
6.45
0.465
8.30
0.407
1 1A
8.24
0.604
0.370
0.059
2.').f,,U
2.:,
V.41 0.078
2.25
9.078
2.11
0.078
2.06
0.096
2.00
0.076
1.88
0.059
1'',
.1.2
o.019
1.-12
f0.059
1.31;
0.059
1.32
0.05 9
2.28
0j.059
1.22
0.059
1.14
0.03'?V
0.';.'',
u.0; 0.'
W.)5 0.037
0.8s:
0.059
0.814 0.011
0.777 0.037
0.777 0.C37
0.659 0.037
-o .'2.'
0.,
0.Y,3 0.034
0.522 0.034
0.522 0.031
0.504 0.034
0.448 0.021
0.42G 0.0256
(.T" U 0.019
0.32V 0.022
0.329 0.019
0.311 u.019
0.292 0.016
0.233 0.012
'
1 or-r
I .r.'7
6,kt,
%
'
70
o-or-
-or-
'-
do
4 o10
.,or-
D2nf4ity for Mrinth of January (niugl!/cu ft K ID

0
"
Luvel surface and Standard
'lviationfor Month of Jaruary /4/
""'""0'"
*.
The standard atmospheric presser'. :t sea

The extremes of atmoslevel is 1013.2 rubs.
by
,
p'er Ic pressure that may b- c.,oi %cu:ed
equipment during ground operations Are: 1062
-rbs maximum and 506 nibs minimum. These
extremes represent altitudes of 1300 feet below
sea level and 18,000 feet above sea level, respectively, at standard conditions./21/
--
.:11,'0)4,
J.
"Jbillc 2-3.
Avwragn DenlRIy of a Standard level Surface and Standard

Dcvistiun for Month or .luly /4/
IDasity for Month of July (slugs/cu ft x 10-4)
Latitude (degrees north)

n40
--Go
.r-
~60
_.
o--
80
70
4 or-
+or-
!+or -
+or -
+ or -
- or -
or -
(ftct)
+.....
16.97
0.115
17.06
0.155
17.03
0.233
17.25
0.329
17.37
0.370
17.53
0.407
17.53
0.3F9
'20.o0 12.43
o0.115
12.43
0.137
12.53
0.214
12.71
0.311
12.53
0.348
12.53
0.370
12.53
0.343
"V)noO
0.09G
8.89
0.137 18.89 10,193
8.86
0.252
8.80
0.270
8.76
0.292
8.73
0.252
_;,
G..h
6s.25, 0.13 1
6.00
0.174
jl),()oo
8.SG
0.174
-4.0
10.059
4.07
0.078
3.95
0.078
3.73
0.078
3.61
0.078
3.51
0.059
3.5V
.. 5,
I."..,..0
2.48
0.037
2.46
0.037
2.41
0.037
2.31
0.037
2.25
0,059
2.23
0.059
2.25
0.037
70.,'0'
1..I
0.037
1.45
0.037
1.44
0.037
1.40
0.037
1.42
0.037
1.40
0.037
1.42
0.037
6. 6
(0.019
0.581 0.022
0.640 0.022
0.640 0.022
0.0590.022
0.755 0.022
0.833 0.019
0.389 0.01
0.270 0.009
0.407G0.016
0.252 0.009
0.426
0.292 0,009
0.485 0.016
0.310 0.009
0.544 0.012
,'.(l0G
.0 .012
0.233 0.000
f"--0
0.214
il;"/",(i'J
"7
alA,'
2-4. lDorsity-fleight Data for Cold,
0.348 0.006
500f
110t
450
vrislty (,,.X',A
Allitu Ic
c~~f
50
Hot
Polar
Tropical
10
1:..5
16.5
18.39
16.90
20
32.8
12.1
12.78
12.45
,8T 8.6
8.56
ha95
30
,
Io 5.9
5.7
5.33
6.49
4.4
3.5
3.31
4.22
200
.,o
2.;
2.2
2.05
2.53
1 ,1
.
] ..
1.27
1.43
,Z.3
0.5
0.47
0.52
0.1
0.3
0.29
0.32
,I
o,W
arc
a n d,
,l p o~
l a r 2-G.
1, hin
t t Toi~o
b') r shi'wn
C
'1)1(wn
s:.J~f
'I lii.!,
t )I :tv'i-u
,,'.i
.. ; Ur ef b'aorc
firctIi,
Tot,olar
2-n.
'. I
h'r
. .. iv
it, Table 2-7.terretArii
~ ~ivr
Trilc
i" 1,..
,II-.
-10 -8
-6 -4 -2
Log01 -s,
Pressure, mb
o
1 ,r
to inenomena such as thunderstorms and fronts

are excluded. Factors affecting the temperature of the Earth-air Interface are:
. ,
1. Short-wave solar radiation and long-wavo

aland natrospheriC radiation,
as albe-dr and color.
2ach1
'tii'
"Ii,,y
-12
.Pres
i' \,~' h:t

.21'',.
.'
.*.
50
"'
*tli'
150
-14
L
'
300
1''~.'urta-E
fcd
400
ftL A 10- )
slrs
iJl'
Climatic atmospheres
(t
.1
2. Mean wind Bpved.

of ti
v'itl'n
iJirly
'
L rib's
,
air tern
v.ulr w t il.variations due
3, Type of soll and grcarnd cover.

.
4. R1oughness of the Eartl's surface.
2-9
T
Wwr-3MORM
, .
Tabl, 2-5.
Aver~tge Pressure at Given Altitudes and Standard loviatlon

for Month of January /4/
Pressure for Month of January (millibars)

Ajtitud'
(feet)
7(7
705
694
680
11
669
13
662
12
662
20,n00
483
477
463
447
12
4.5
14
425
12
425
10
30,(lo
314
308
307
262
10
273
10
265
2621
4vC"O
199
195
186
!77
171
165
1601
5 0,000
122
119
114
110
106
102
97
60,0o0
73
72
71
08
66
03
59
44
27
2
1
43
27
2
P
42
26
2
1
41
25
2
1
38
24
1
1
35
20
1
1
1-8
1.0
37
1.0
17
1.0
16-
0.9
14
0.7
13
0.
0.6
o1
11
0.7
0.6
10
0.6 1
1,
__
8000 27 11
90.0(J,
17
0.7
11100
0.1
.-
Tablc 2-'C.
f or-.
4 ort-
10,000
,nt
70.6
0f'0
.- +or-
4. or-
or -
,.4 or[ -
4 or.-
80
70
410
so
40
30
z0
0.5
,-
I'I
0.4
Average Pressure at Giver, ,.14ii"

and Stwiard Deviation
for Month of July /4/
.T
Prossu re for Month of July (millibars)

20
(feet,'
30
or-
40
*or-
10000
711
2.
715
2().()(
4IF7
A-.i
2
2Q
50
+ or-
708
|
AO
701
70
+or694
+or-
466 1
691
41 i
80
7
"
4or68
458
'
t
....
319
3)9
307
299
295
293
204
1316
1 202
2(3
196
191
188
188
50,010
125
126
125
122
120
119
120
76
76
76
76
76
77
'15
7r.
0.6
46
0.7
46
0.8
47
0.8
48
0.8
48
0.7
49
0.6"
-0/,,,0
15
0.6
19
0.6
71
0.7
22
0.7
23
0.7
26
0.6
29
0.61
".""om)
12
0.4
i2
0.4
33
0.5
14
0.5
15
015
17
0.4
19
0.4
'Iif'((0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
10
0.3
11
0.3
12
0.3
70,),wi
The E;alih's al:,edo varies with angle of in,idt( u of the radiation, the type of surface and
tht a,: uin'
ol cloudiness. It is usually thought
(if a- the ratio of reflected-to-incoming radiatl-i,.
It:- avcr-"
r
'-'due is about 29 percent./22/
It :avct mr
annt loll
v;,rial' i'm
r1
:, where periods of darkness

..
)1i.i
.(d
,for several n)nUths, the daily
ipc'rattire i8 controlled primarily
40,f00
19,010
2-
60
+or-
4
I47'
'
by the prevailing cloudiness and surface wind

speed.
In summer mounflts, the maximum ternperature seldom exceeds 32F (0c).
In tropical regions, the daily and annual tnmthe effects of air mnasa
changes, wind direction shifts and fruntaW pansages. The Intensity of these weathuer dlsturbances generally decreases towards the equator.
perature is controlled by
"l ,'
It
j;
Climtic
t~nilphaCold
throie
(h
~~
pncladr todprovieapnicatmosphore
aote
extimumea minimumn sandomaimhangem-
n Table 2-10./The ttmperatucenhbigcxpectve
Clivesi
eminmperandr
thiopee
2I-1
1,oieete
lr
e
ro
fhih
11. -8
953
03
20
0dgtso
p!Inaefret-
teet~
oI
od
aqf~
2-.lr-,u,-lih
'V-d
peraturewitht daigta
14147
10
5.2.
14362
915.1
106.5
20
888
1018
70
853
C.C
40
375
50
90~~I
oo 15158
Z6
27
700
It wicasume
thor thabl
1407
8275.
94.3
403
5o62
5842
21 28
21.7
65
135.1
182.7
3.
56.eneg
23.3
tat I
(L-moecle
vnraevaiado
ueflcmas bel mucthwr

n F15./1/
te
2-10n are preig2
Finur
ameagiveso theatempge ratre ~asoalfuncticn
Tepteratoenerghtofthem searleve tha500ken
dife0n cmonreqfurlycer tahin.
data uptoasu
tuhre
abovtues1( kin, htowever, the incrleelse of ther
mchonsist of
hoeighttmayphbe
peatmophre.wThe
aoninum
iayFig conidre5
thanule
tat-nd
fre
peathur e
At Bhigld baltotued, that altoug
tkieti
a03.8
ofntreasesand traslocationa
moeaules
athe
thaeti maenegup thesat
Anf
athoug
it
bjectthelawer leel of thego
paltitudes ishigan
3ro.ca
reg.ns
s ratcal
At,th
mean Are
Ate highr altOwitudes
discito
annugy
To~~~lae
asaimunctirn-
o50k.Tmea
ee
T.
Andstat
altoug thel kinti
sbregionl, thetfarItroppical
varibations
vanpriatio
o tehrncareipacticallyrtc eios
y'urivtn frecntJ 1,ia tox
dlymandosldomia stxceeds
paOth of, tE
takesur
these1
oepea
Itv,
d-iit
AJ illuoftratej tempedailye extanulremesera-n

ubroiclde4j
ttre woldariatlostedr toI~cal,
World's oighpst tonporature

Nk(,bId'!: Plowst avuaer.c
w.11t'1icinj.i urc
S1Lus
SonitliaC)
tuqrauf
Xl.,i~2:lp~ A
.Itf-:11hI-1raiurr..
'tnluid's lo)wust
Antarctica
136 F (57 C),
Libyajl
-30 F (-34.4 C),
Antarctica
-761' (-40 C)
-l
-57 F (-66 C)
Montana
U.
.134 1 (5 7 C),
Caldulrnia
.Icttiijrur
''
to
x,
'Cl
;t%-L
f.t tC11Ii t,. iaJUZC.a
for
the
:I~ty
',id July ibr vaiiou.s Olt2-8
I')I' J() 0f1et al, sh ..A irii'abiet
y
l'i' tempeatgu res situwn
I .;I
J
ii.t~i. f
j'
it
-t
Flitg.2-13. Daily climiatic extrumes of
~.temperature .1/
2-l1
W5.
-W4
.-.
I'
Tablo 2-8.
Average Temperature and Standard Deviation for Month cf January /4/

Avornag
Temperat4re tor Month of January (C)

Latitude (degree. nortL)
(Dit)
or-
j0.nnf
20,_o__
20 0
--
+ or-
ei--
2
-17
4
4
-7
-n4
-17
-3!
1
7
-24
-41
-4)
-47
-52
-54
-55
-55
-55
-55
-54
-56
-57
-,,'Orj
-69
-65
-60
r,0.ncO
-71
"/0,r)r~o
-4
3
8
-51
'00 )(00
or-
4 or -
2
2
46,0
,o0
+ or-
-6
no
70
CI0
50
40
30
20
"___
___
4 or-
-29
-- 4
5
4
-30
-47
5
4
. -57
-58
-56
58
-56
-57
6
5
-(,6
-62
-40
6
4
-57
-58
-60
-58
-56
-57
3
3
-bi
-62
-65
-57
-55
-55
-58
-64
-67
_r3
-52
-54
-58
-65
-89
44
Average Temperature for Month of July (C)
30
20
4 or -
(f, t)
lr,()1)
10
-8
20,(,(.
L
300b
2 _9
40
4 or -
+or-
oCC-
_._-_
60
50
80
70
1or-
+nr -or-
10
-11
-20
3
-5,3
-3
-54
23
-9
-52
44
-43
-49
-6
-8.
-24
-2C
63
-45
-46
3
4
__46
-4,5
11-2
4.0."'1
-54
-"f0d0,
4--7
-4C1
-60
-52
-47
-44
-43
,,(i,,ri
.60
-65
-CO
-50
-45
-42
-41
-. ?
-58
-56
-47
-43
-41
-40
0 .,o'
..l,,(1
-53
-47
2
2
-r3
'-43
-40
-40
-407
-4.
-52
-48
-40
-38
-39
-39
a7,aa
vauli ( ,tne to a rather low temperature deteruh,iw.d l:rl:cly by radiation, slncc Ute air is so
tIIi, that t,,iduction hau a very ania.LU effect on
., h,.it b:d;ulce.
'il .,:
(',htI,,i~n,
"1!,c 'ir ulatium (if air within the Earth's

rirlmiJle for weather
;i:,i,
a.
r'wi 1; iiii:':Jy r,(o
, it;;
:w.rl tUir (:,iezi-y to riutitalti de ocir-
'".6
Tarhle 2-9. Average Tempner.turo and Stindard Deviation for Month of July /4/
culatlon comes mostly from the Sun. The tropical and subtropical regions of the Ea.xLh P-bsorb more solar radiation Uiiui Uity re-radiate,
whilo tieth oot of th Eartlh radiates more than
it receivucs. As a rebuit, the air warmed in tUi u
This funcdttropics ni)ves toward the poles.
.mental movement seLs up a global circulation
syntem that islargely roeponeiblefor the weather conditions, such an temperature, humidity
and rainfall, of Uto entire Earthh.
-.
2-12
;-
I'
"1.0,11
2-10. Te~rniwrature-il~eght Duta for Cold,

1,,t, Puvljr .and Tropicatl Atm.qrph(,rc3 /W1
WindWinld direction in usually dependent ont latitude, season and altitude, bunt local condittions
may cause extreme variah~ons. Normally, wind
direction shifts withi height. These shifts In di rection arc due to Earth aur-ace cf(-_ctsi and
Tempeinture (C)
AlUtif ,I
(Iov
(01o
-11-,qd
tatic atmnospheree
, . , , | . t , , , t l a !
Cold
Htot
Pola r
Trplcal
_ _
fc)
Jo
20
30
40
50
1.'11
2-0
6n
71)
di
U10
11.7
total sh~tln.in
degrees./4/'':
--47.7
-1.7
41.2
-8.7
?r0
-22.2
-55.3
-29.0
-G5.0
-42.8
-56.7 S, -49.4
Wirds above 30,.000 feet have the greateet

variah ) "IIn low ?a ttudes and In New ~uuntdand
and G re enland maximumr variability 1.%r',nai.
tered in the summer and minimum in the w-,ui,r.
In middle latitudes (2.0 to 60 degrees) the wind
direction to most variable In spring and least
variable In autumn.
4001
The prevailing wind is
Yer,Lorly In winter at all altitudes, becoming
easterly above 60,000 feet. It then remA',i3
easterly up to bciweern 300,000 and 400,000
-h11.8
-40.1
Tuncn[rI:.
-58.2
at
-87.2
-39.1
-59.6
-73.3
-71.11
-37.5
i-61.1
-60.0
.-72.1
-33.7
i -6;2 .5
-52.7
-29.9
-2(;.1
-G3.0
--45.4
-63.0
-38.0
ho
.1.
""
, .
.,
.7-:
'
! .
.,
,,
,,.
4.
:
:,h
IIA
. ..
,
,
oarpcl
.9
,.;
:,
'r-
,'
L tIs
.
altitudeo range is 20 to 40
fe et./ 25/
-"
Temperolure(C)-
I
.
-69.6
o
ol.W
file early morning hours. Trhe average.
-24.4
Cold
S500
b-_.m I
18.9
-76.7
the atmosphere; cold air weakens and wiarm air

t r en gt h e n s t h e win d d i r e c t .io n s h i f t . In l t h e
lower 3900 feet (if the atmosp~here, a mzximum
h~ind Isl encraunteredin midafternoon, and at maIn -
-26.1
74.4
]r1m
--
In the horizontal pressure Eatterns of
nqchaziges
,
--
I"~erymrighur.~'~
hoFg
The wind speed in middle latitudeii increases

f~rom the Earth's surface Wa tUie tropopause,
about 35,000 feet, and then decreases with alti-,!
tude to Z bout 80,600 feet. A second maximum iu
reached arorund 150-000 to 170.000 fPet, Th!_s t
pattern
exlst nLboth"sum~opcram~iu
oe
3".e...tc
m er s nd winter./4,25/
Very little is known aLaut wind in the polar
ztdsanad
one from 60 to 90 degrees
latitude,
except,9
botlocal
K
odtin
that It is similar toltitde
that of the
midd~e latitudes,
recrncronr
-5
ar8 dlttue tor
emeatrte asfurnctio
',
,% ,
.,
."
.. '
" '
,
vrg
of hgt. n
7.Q.
_
.2
*-8.7l.
Si i
'~P
i,,
.1r
-,72
-39.1raur
v-",lttue
-33.7rq!
-62ln/~.r
h- t
r!ti
4~00 -
- 6 .. .8..
. . ..
"...pater
A
I-
- Uo -GO ' -40
in umiddl
"
d
d
onat
laitde.i/raO/
,r
caue-...o
the a
sherle;
.. : . cold
. . .c ir wak
.a. e r. saes.
- wr_i~ aL . .
exst in bot summ
a
.r
" "w--ter./"4,,5/
0
o 20
..
winteratur al altiudesl becominght
W 00
The winsp evel
-5.721
a'monphores.....
:
,:
Fig~.te2-y5,
d ................
"",lan
.. .. .-..7.2..
Q_-0-20
,' , -r . .
10
4..
"2,
2-13
20I-477
-;n
-1.7
4 .20-8.
miOdle latitude0O(20
t60
120rea
the
"wrn
Strong Sout I Ovest (15 0ph
-I
Wes
--
--
---
10m h).
InCreasing
/it
2c
Stroig Vertical Motions
--
SSpepilds
Strong West (100mph)
I--'r,
Tubnri
-f
100,000 ----
IL
.-
Nighthest toW est(75-0mrph)
30,000
----
t'~
East (50-i50ryiph1
Ireasing
-'
ID
'
'ti,
Ied
WEst (40-3mph)
*'---
Northern t-emisph6re, Winter
Southern Hemisphere, Summer
::1g. 2-16. Wind dir.uction as function of altItude during winter and sumnier./25/
the density of air at these altitudes creates
little force.
200,000--
7
100,000
cQo
.-
--
Wid
it~r:' ~~~r-cope
30bGC
050PDO150
0usually
Speed, mph
________
*vrgeWn
lI Wurv 2-17. Average wind speed vs altitude

diriii inte
Sumier n midleintense
i~k~tui.~,.25/of
1ii.i:,, wei-terly fin winter and e-asterly In surnN;' 1. I
re2-16 is t r51nripJlifed plot of wind
U; r(tvin ars :1f-ritionl 0 altitude during wlntci,
,niot
Iurv
lnwr''r
2-17 sho~ws tUe averag(
V.rWI T'i-cd ~I'I~(J
lcd riinii a] itude during wilnter
;,tri simmiriir in the noddle Iatitudei. /25, 2(/
I x~ir n
cif :in'~
i
wi ndinp
withi altitude
-Hii~
u itir *o fikcqiielitly in wintertime. It
'I I1
1 1111t' (I lhitt aidthOu11 extremocy BUtrong
\
:t ,i.;iliidutrr~~e thn iJUu~ fet,
Mtaximumn wind speed and peak shears that

wil beexcede
wih gvenfreueniesduring
the windiest season are shown In Fig. 2-l8.
Figure 2-18 Indicates that maximum wind speeds
and maximuin wind bheaes occur between 3U
and 40 thousand feet. Thus, a flight rehicle rcquired to operate withjin this altitude range must
witfh winds up to 300 mph and a shear of
Sine
wittorl precipitation dato arc. =uzdly
limited to average monthly, seasonal aid annual totals, surface rates of precip~itation cannot
be obtalned from climatological recordB.X
H1ow ever, clock-hourly p recipitation data pres ent
total precipitation on the hour every hour and
are readily aivallable f or many stations In V;1)
Ur~lted States and Europe. Periods (if short. and
precipitation, called instantaneDus rateS
precipitation, have been comnputed for only a
few stations.
Table 2-11 tabulates the percentage of time
durixig an ax'eralge year in which cluck-hour and%

Initaxitaneous rates of precipitation ejial or excecd 0.03, 0.12 and 0.18 inchiperloortiit~tlectind
stations. The datt tin Tanic 2-11 conlsidersj
precipitation as a whole. To obtain the rates of
rainfall, tire rates of snowfall oqual to or ex cc~iissg 0.06, 0.12 arid 0.10 Inch per hiour- niut be
subtracted. It. Jia been dcterrur~tci ta5t
1 pfi-vit of JIi pr-i"pitatt-n failing at rates

-ii a1 to o)r cxccedir~g 0.12 Inch per hour wiLl
h)I
1.11 in tlhe lrmi

b
p:
130
20%/ 1%.
5Q0/%
of rain. About 85 percent of the
ipitiltion falftog at rates equaltoor exceed-
120
t:o: .06 inchi per our will be encotuntered at

and wiLl be in the
ti)rni of rain. The remaining 15 percent will bc
'"~untrc
drigthe
warmer months of winte-r ;u~cd will h'-c0l'eur rain or snorw./4/
:LIP)IT f ruc?.ing temperatures
rond
l'r'upi~,tonexrems
1:~rc
1'., S. gratonextree
a
Peak
t0oSod
re~
hewold
1~'
1101~.
Moximuin
t-a
(fps) (fps/I000 tt)

3 p00
v
20/.Cuve
2 18
I %O~
Curve 300
45
1
l~',./4/
~
rouge
nd~a ffewolreptio-
Crv
Cu
grca-!st single season snowfall

ir.''
,~05-l9.07, ramarack., Calif.
U. S.
--
884
L_61
47
1
U. S. greatest 24-hour snowfall -- 76 !nchea,

14-15 April 1921, Silver Lake, Colo.
40
14-15 July 1901, Jiagulo, Luzon.

World's grcatest average ainnual precipitatulifl -- 472 Inches, Mt. Waialeale, KauaL,
20.
World's lowest average annual precipitation-0.02 incliv:;, Africa, Chile.
ruRulall
d'-ih v i'rvtdee
qWL- to1ucuI
5o
t00
Wn
150
200
pef/e
-3e.
Europe's V1 nate~it average annual precipita--
300
Iui
3G-
inches, July 18611, Cherrapuinji, India.

f~orl
250
Fig. 2-18. Max.1rurn wind speed and shears

exceeded 1%, 20% and 50% of the tinie./A/
183 inches, Crkvicc, Yugoslavia.
lahlje 2-11. Percentnge of Timee During Avrirage Year In Whi-ch Clock-houar and Instrintaneous Rates
of "recipitntion Lqqal or LxLc.:ed 0.00, 0.12 and 0.18 in./br at Solestod Statfoelb /4/
*4nnual
-precip.
Averge
A~rse anual
nc. days %vith
measurable
1.
Allv~
I
37'30'N, 2:1'4311.
1
111T
J5.70
.....
I:c"i~,iIe
I..If
Insantancoluo ae
(in./hi .)
OU1
-
-1.
0.12
8i
0.9-i
0.24
0.08
0.85
0.23
U.08
52 '2t0N, 13'25'fj;
22.t't
109
0."4
0.16
0.03
0.70
0.18
0.03
-3"20'N, 6'I5-W
27.37
218-
07b
0.'.3
0.01
0.70
0.12
0.01
G7
144
n.89
0.z0
0.06
0.80
0.19
0.00
0.2D
0.13
''n012,No20ol:
1,ITr'
Clock hour rates

I houer
ices
0.6
~ T8
N'n- '.37i
24.13
132
1.05
0.30
0.13
0.95
44'5~2N, 2'20-1
22.6,2
160
0.84
0.16
0.03
07
41'4 5'N, 12' 151i;
Zr.70
105
1.45
0.59
0.33
1.31
0.5"1
0.03
14
149
2.22
1.13
0.72
2.00
1.00
0.72
22.21
1G4
0.84
0.10
0.03
0.76
0.15
0.03
4?;'U14
2.11
0.90
0.00
1,90
0.85
0.00
I'
('I-:',,2zOV" 1.
.0
00
2-15
Zp
Wv'"7f
I-
'4
1i1iiil'-lty is exprus~.ed in miany w~ays, some of

timr moit commilon being: absolute humidity, relativt, Iluiomtdy, specific humidity, vapor pressorle, di-w point and mixing ratio. These terms
i,;iVO
~perd
vapo
weghtof
s te
Jull
Xb70
our
(X 60
IS the mass of water

1.A~blJ;.t:!h~ii
It Is usu.vapour per unit vol unhe of space.
per cubicimeter
ally CxprL'3sed in gramrs
or grams per cubic foot.
Seciic
3.umidty
-.-
cl
fu_,iv1cing meanings:.
2. Rejative humidity is the ratio of the

aiount of water vapor actually present in
the air to the amount required to saturate
the 117 a' thst temperature and pressure.
A.
-..--.----.-.-.
4030 20 10 0 i0 20 30 40 6090
Nr~ LoMlude, degreesN SoutnI
~ 9060
l.20
-re.Ltive
ate
weight of ar wasters
uniityite
peruni f most ir. t ~
vapoweiht
gams er ilogam.
usualy nepresed
4. Vapor pressure is the partial pressure of

the water vapor in the atmosphere. It is
expressed in the same units as atnnosj;-cric pressure.
5. Dew point Is the temperature at which
condenbation would take place if the air
uwcr.' cooled at constant pressure.
rntio is the ratin of water vat or
6."'
to (dry --;r. it is usually expressed in
pe kiloram.The
graiir
Th
iget
possible absoluic humidity is
directly dfp-idcnt upon temperature and it
rJ"ubies, for ;'Aui eauh 10OC of temperature Inc~rease. Thle world extremes of absolute humidity ucrur in Ole coldest polar and hottest tropi-
ala
atudn
humidity,/27/
~itoso
itruioof--
topircw'trvpr
content clohely I o! low the varlationa &; roillerature. Uip to about 140,1000 feet, absoltkte humlidity decreases with altitude. It is 1~ifnted by tlhe
cooler temperatures which cannot support larg~e
amounts of vapor. tor the very warml levels of
the atmosphere, at altitudes between 140,000
and 200,06)0 feet and above 400,000 feet, li,
pressure is too low to permit liquid water,
'.
Foaluvriations ~o! Se~caifict1~dity. andpeii

humidity is greatest over the equator ard docreases toward the poles. It is highest in the
Summer and lowest in the winter, anld follows a
dady cycle in accordance witli temperature
changed.
geogra~phical distribution of relative
hnumidity (Fl.22)i
ifeetfo
hto
specific humidity. Relattive humidity Is highest
middle
the
toward
decreases
and
at the equator
latitudes. From about latittude 30" toward the
poles the relative humidity increases as a result
of decreasing temperature. The seasonal dintribution of relative humidity varies with latitude. From about 30' North to 30' South the
is greater in summer
average relptive humidity
t
than in winter, while a hgher latitudes the reverse in true. The latter siiuation is caused by
'
the low winter temperatures, especially those
January
July
,,7
Meanthan
~Although the relative humidity In the jungle'

occasionally drops to as low as 70 percenit, it
frequently avrerages more than 95 percent for
lexree, relative
months at a time. At the dry
humidity rarely falls below 5 percent for longer
four hours, even in the hottest d ".erts.
Haill
~Bail
OK
9'-0Q 40302Q0 10 0
(11I'( "I h)(South)
10 20 3040 6090
L~t~tuda
er
I w.
2-19.
Latitudinal distribution of
1j ific limmif)i~'.
27,'
is formed only in well developed thunderstorms, and may be encountered In, undecr
and near Such stormis. Hail reaching the ground
occurs most often over mid-latitude mountainous%
areab, suc has In Colorado and Wyoni iig. Secasoually, hailstornis are most numerous in summer,
while diurnally they occur most frequently in the
hours betwse mid-afternoon andearly evening.
.4
Magnetic FIeld
prohl.)i~ity of encountering f~all is

F~lvry
incroaged whten worst .-location,
k, -1innw ,onditions are assumed.
tlit
fro goun
th
~
huti may beCencounteredfoc
tegondup
tt altitudeq of about 50,000 feet. Howc-ver, the
pr'i~ahilitl of encounter increases with altitude
u; ') iF~~roiI~oly15,00
o 1,00 fet, rid
otoo :;zl luidr~toJrns -it higherly
t
5
tos
10nui;kwI ihnufdi.uutormsh. area
,enwherall
i5 en-1
intiiutr,
tlo 3arees
nwinh daiameter
cowitiered aeusually I o3n~e ndaee.
he gound
reacing
TF;C, size of h.ilstoncs rahntegoud
varies considerably. Frequency distribution by
ssize is difficult to estaibl~sh due to lack of data.
1!ie larg(est hallstone oit ieuord in the United
S~tates znea~ urau 5.4 inches tin diameter and
uciLgiied I.-) pounds. Tline most common size in
the( Ujnitred States is about 0.25 to 0.75 Inch in
diarneter./4,28,29,30/
;Sandan D
fo
-1 to 50O
".~-'.-.'-' -2~ IL~~
s
e '
~r~c&.-cect-a-enr
F-.
0.5 and 1.5 aticrods.

fr-l: ita-av 'iaural -tnd
As a first approximation, the Earth's maii.netic field resemble& the field of a single, large
magnetic dipole situated in th.3 Earth's core, but
no, exactly at the center. The field Is strongest
ecassn
agtcplsad
nerte
The.e
poewddeqases.
the
ad magnetic
netrent
south magnetic pole is stronger than the north
on, Indicating that the effective center of the
dipole in nearer that end of the Earth.
is
The direction of the Earthi's magnietiz_h
expressed in term& of declination, which. is the
deflection of the field from north-south, and dip,
_-~which !s the deflection of the fieidfrom the horizontal. The Earth's field is not fixed but gradually changes with time. In the United States,
-the Coast &Wd Geodetic Siurvey And the Navy
.
j
W%
Ing u-to-date~ infortnatkm ow tbegeomagnetic
Radiation
Types of radiation stre cii~nflfte acro'rd i n
to wavelength. The shortest known radiation
type is cosmic rays, followed by gamma rays
x-rays, ultravioletL rays visible light, tinfrareAd
orhetzian rays. Fgr2-21
rays and radi
shows the radiation spectrum on a logarithmic
scale.
Radiation wavelengths are generally
measured In termsB of:
1
Angstom units (A) -- equal to 1 x 10F
millimeter.
etr orX1 0-7
Millimicron (mMA)
or 10 A.
--
Micron (i.') --. equial

or 10,000 A.
equal to I x 10-
MF
to 1 x 10-3 nmillllroeter
'0~A
-0WC
C
hU 11ro V1ol etJ
-fieklL/31/
sea spray, blowing soil,' swnd storms, planu

pulnand 1?,-.teria, smoke and ashes of forest
fires, and cosm> material. Dust is present in
~h~roughoot t-he yeaqr. In the
du~ert cliniates
lropics it uccurs only occasionally, Fine sand,
silt, volcanic a-3h anid soft rock form dust very
quickly after a rain. Distribtijton of dust aloft
varics with season, climatic area and time of
day,
00
The
strength of the field~ at the south magnetic pole

Is slightly more than 0.7 oersteds. Above the
Earth's surface, the strength o! the geomagnetic
fieW~ varies approximately az the cube ,i tlia
distance to the center of tho Earth. This relat'onshiii holds to an altitude of about 300,000
feet./ 13/
s),ut
Sand particles range in size from aboitt 50

inicrons muirward, withi the average size of windblown sa~nd por dces being about 150 and 300
Sa~nd is seldom lifted more
rnmcron.9./8,44/
thian five feet aubove the, earth's surface, and the
bid.( of thte movement takes place a few inches
off the groLuncd. A winid velocity of about 11 mph
is necessar. to set th~egrainsof sand in motion,
Y.,n-bl~wn.~nand sand storins are most freq,!-n tin (lescr: rv'g'ons, which have high daytime
ticouperatures and low night-time tern eraturies.
%k
ah little raudanlU or nioisture./4,14/
'
If roridd
Visible
Figur'e 2-21. Radiation spectrum on logarithmic sca~le.f14/

2-27
and ulaswel asvisible ilight.

1%pot ~ti~iion
,'irradiation wavelpngths are between 1500
;iii
1,200,000) A or 0.15 to~ 120 mlerc-rs. Most
.4 tlivE solar radiation energy lies between the%
v -i. clontijb of 1500 and 40,000 A. Hall oif this
is in the visible region hetween 4000 and
)~A, ani, the oth-,r half lies In the invisible
,.'ilar
Hitg h en'?rgy
radiation comprises infrared
jf-i-!dAg./WFiur
-,,/:r
.,
2-22,e
d I nsirat, s the sc~lar crpectrtu'o from~ about 0.2. to
"Zilici-ons,
N~,
or 2000 to 30,090 Angstrom units.
Co!;rnic radiatirri may be defined as indiawiti, srufficiera~ energy to penetrate to the

osEu-t's iir~w.-thrughtheatmophee.
mOic ray criiegy luei.cs are considered const.ant
tk10
ine and have no pr eferred oricntation./33/
S-'i
comicr.~y
ca beIdetifid a coing
the bun during periods of violernt
dlIuctly fl"om1
lir:triviv.
he es arivein qua ym_
1), rsf'j'
all dikectioras./W4
Nearly lI)
(a
hiHJin bIjlliov', cusrilic-ray particles enter the
I-ii th*s it~ivosphcrc every second, Most of them
~'s'~enerry of a few billioai electron volts,.a
tifn, hiuwovc-r, have energies greatfrrna
lir~alI
'i~.n 11. ults/34 Pri~.r ~~ctrii
tilli
I ad iatiom -Wieit rates the Earth's atmosphere
!ian allitude :41 1U to 25 Tifles, where it interancutrons in the air to proa-t.- wit'. I1ll)TISi;z~
Theaiisons
inturn trvel
* ~cxi~'.a.
-tween
,~
I.
S
'-%
-L
JIr
omc asdnertn
Fi.a23
/
Fig.' 2-2.eosmaeic rays peetatn
at'gomneifed.6
throu h the atmosphere wihere they undergo energ; Tlose. When the mesons decay they emit
electrons and uncharged particles.
6 atmo8phere thus contains a mixture of primary and
secondary radiations In proportions~ dependent
on altitude. Many of the secondary cosmic rays
interact to produce Iurthbr secondiary rays,
thus producing a shorwer effect./4,14/
'he
Before cosmic radiation particles reach the

Earth'E6 atmosphere, they have been drawn off
their original course by the Sup's rand 1Eaxth'is
magnetic fields. The Earth's tiagnetic field
A.IIUW5
ViLLY II~IVi ViIt;VL~)4'..e

t5 1ra4c.
Eurface at the equator, and particles of low energy can enter ordy at the poles./G/ Thr! goorrapnetic field, as shorwn in Fig. 2-23, df~eq nuLi
retard cosmic rays but induces entry of the
highest flux of partclles at the poles.
Van Allen Radial'on Bult
304
&'
.j
Or6 08 10
Cosmic radiation Increases with altitude

sea level until It reaches a m~xImum be55,000 and 60,000 feet. Ab~ove this altio
anidl Wstcon riary
rnic, radiation falls of
component.
Jfrom
,I
.I
Tihv most impo~rtant factors determining the

av;~unt of colar cncrF:y x cceh ed by any portion/
,, thle Earth's surface! are the length of day and
01 the Suan's rays. Discounting the effects
arc.ij
of ,-.mab~le elemnents s.uch aq the Earth's at-)
c~ovcr, all places on a given
i.
rfosp~hero
paraLlcl rex:eive the same amount of solar enIV11owc2ver, diffcrrnt parallels of latitu.de
r,ccive varying a-mounts of oneegy. The amount
o.' solar energy varies from almofst zero at the
p'iioi to approximately 900 gram calories per
rcouure cpritiireter per day at the equator./14/
.;fsdriadiz~tirn absorbed byave.
e ilalso bp. determined by the altitude ol
tic vchicle. Much of the solar radi'itlon entervi-, it atinosphe:c If!absorbed, scattered
r-fiocted. Therefore, more r;idiation will reach
a vehiicle at the higher altitudes.
inii
Low energ~y
-Z
15 20
W-v~rirn-rons
I..
'-2..Jutvwn
I-:.S-lar !,pf: trum,./G/
30
Instrumentted sats,1lites and lutiar probes

Pioneer I and Pioneer Ml have 6kown dhe existcnce of a radiation belt -round the Earth,.
as th~e Van Alilin radiation belt.Thsi
belt consists of charged particles trapped in
-rthi's tiiaj.-n#tic field. The lower edge of

i:.iit is ;ipitxiriately 1000 nilles above the
vii,r(f and exiend s into th e atmosphere
I
Surface gravity (ratio to
i"I
1, I t'I.A'iuiiC ()f several Earth radii.

i i-
is
hinsointjlense
The ra-
Escape velocity
In the equatorial plane,
LirvIT in,: in extent and intensity polowarils.

A comparatively narrow inne~r core of high
c:"-;:iarL)e, forini'dfo
omcrypr
tii 1,,, with
o f up to se,,crai hundred
ii-. exsi several thousand n.Ailes above the
I.irUCS BUrf;W,'.
Surrounding this "hard belt"
Ia halo of lower energy particles that covers
si ionlih 1-irrger arca.
itoilr~snties
MUON
MONEarth
To ie Moon is about 240,000 ni6ites from
Thew most prominent feature of
E ArIth.
Mor~r's surface is the dark plains, w~hich
kno wn asq ma reg. These plains are usually
cuijr and range in dia~rt.'ter Ir')n about
niilc:s to over 700 miles.
the
the
arc
cir200
'I tiou~sands of rraters cover the Moon's surface. Ciavius. v.+'> Ii is ffie IairvpRt hasR a dl:,nicctr of over 1,.0 miles and is 0,000 feet
det p. Mlountain ra.vcs on the Moon are similar
to thos.e Onl E'arth, ranging in sjize from 5000
fteet to over 25, CGO Ject. It is believed that the
ld,'n'S
6ur-FaCe
is covered with pulvcrized rock
awfl dust- howvever, at present, no definite stateVIntI can be niare a-:nut Lhe mineral composi.tkinr or thic'kness of this kipper layer. Probably,
it is only several centimeters thick. Due to the
contuinuous LWrnliar 'ment of!nicteors the Moon's
suifacte ib very rough. Nothing is known about
the nu'
a thotwan
is
ditngused
ver
tre sevealls
th siai
dejsthat can hoeer
d
stincused the sevralls
liui,.td*cd feet in diameter.
s'Jnlie of the Mloon's phiysical features are
llstcci bulow: /'10,311V
L.:alictr
I':.iiicir
Vine510.8
V .ii,'(itzo
21.0 mlesalan
?(~O
ilesMeteoritez,
x 0 7 cubic mlles
tnF-irtfi) 0.1 Z
110.1 x 101' tons

8.1
\1.,:; i''o tii F'arti)
1)i
*i'"2v
0.0124
1.50 n-lties/
second
Albodo
0.07
Maximum distance from
94.8 x il6 miles
Mean distance from Sunl
93.0) X 1063 miles
91.2 x 10"' miles
~Sun
~
t
1"
t'.
Sli
of 5.5 roentgen per hr havet-eer
rvt'irded by tiec Pioneer I probe at a distance of

LI.8- L arth rad!i; 'lie radiation Intensity decreaties
to Its tan U.- :s(e.,tgen per hr st a distance of
9 E~arth. r.adi./35/
0.16
Earth)
Maximumi distance trom

Earth
252,948 rtilea
Mean distance from

Etarth
238,840 miic's
221,593 miles
Orbital speed
0,6 mile/second
~iw
-Orbit eccentricity
(eccentricity of
circle
0.05S
= 0)
Orbit Inclination
-Inclination Of aXIS
ayrounri Earthi
27.3217 Earthi
days
Earth
fdy21.27
Atmosphere
50 8
-603,
Length of tima to comnpl~ete orie revolution

Le1t
'
dy
The moon has little if any observable atmospEarth Itmspheresityrbesng which imorel r10-1
Eatamshere; t
esit breing apric
matey 1010
fled than the F2 region ;f the Earth's atmoBIn tmeuinvhe,'!
phere, Argon in the~ moat prrnlconstituent. although xenon, krypto~n, carbon
dioxide, suliur dioxide and water vapor may
be present.
cosmic dust an other celestial

particles' bombard the Moon at velocities rangIng from 1.5 to akbolot 4.4 miles per aecondl.
Since there Is very little atrnosphere, the rineteoritic bodies will not disintegrate, iand even
the smallest latrticloo w!Ul reach the MAuotw'
surface Intact./37,38,39/
erprtr
206.73 pounds!
Since the Moon has practically no atmosphiere

to shield Its~ surface and minimize radliatiun 0A?'
to I~rtii)L).6
~i'..
heat, the daily temperature variation lo very
P. -1 I rfptooLarjj)0.
0
la e.At. noon the temperaturo Is about 240 1"
(11! Q.
At sunset the temperature reaches
to %water)3.33
.92 F (0 Q- it fiunally reaches a low of approx12
:z in .l47f,
~ feetsec'
mately -243 Franges
(-153 stre
C) atp-trtlyduutothie
.nidniplit. lliaeMoun's
great
14 7 1 ut/R(c-2teniperature
(Ut~C foot
y i.o!i:
'
Ju-
vau-f00,cmae
;dd
ihta
flieEar.,
pvw t,-n!)vau
t of
itnefo
Maiu
.29.The
wichhaB
3.
ie
nLaU
abedoof
l,!a compared.with that o

0.07a
Maiiimum distance from
156.0 x
1 0P, miles
Earth
Iritcn:;C ligi. ',Ad ultraviO))ct radiation from
the. Sun hit the Moon's surface. Due to its long
Obtlsed2.6mls
-
oi'xpourc to solar radiation, the eurfac.3 of the

Plo rbbyhas a simple molecular strucIUC.Orbit
prlctInclination
Mercury. e:.n :nt

efspherc, is the
IinnhirinosE pianet I'i our .Solar System, and the
smllallest of Ilic principal1 planets. Due to its

-mall size and unfavorable conditions for o)bw-rvation,
it is difficult to observe
distinct
surface rmarkir.ys.
However, dark patches,
uitnilar to the MAoon'n plain6, can be seen tele.soupicadly. Mercury s sur./ace probably conii'lts of mnouunta~tious and rocky tcrraIn./I,10,36/
-4same
3107 miles
155.9 x 108 cubic
niles
mile
V oIit n i (ratio to Earth)
0.00C
Mass
26.345 x 101-
Ma~is (ratio to E'at tin)
0.04
K,tons~
SHowever,
_23!RA
Decrc~ity (ZAtl
I.I
to Ear ti)
~ae)
L)4II'ity
(r;at ii to
'u,I fa
I~ravity Iratto
S( ;it)(- .;iloiity
*9.0
3.8
.0
7"0'1
of axis
Lengthj of time to cornpletfi one revolution
around Sun
Unknorwni
87.9 Earth A'ivm
Length of day
88 Earth days
Number of moons
C'
1
it
.
cprtr
flecaine of Its relative nearnebs to thre Suit,
Mercury receives on the average about
seven
timrefs an much beat per unit area as the Barth.
the amuto heat receiv.ed varies
-
cubilc foot
Obtecnrct
inclination
Becanse of Mercmry's smalfl rimsa, high tem.ppratures and small escapevelocity, it is almost
certJn that It possesses only ait Insignificant:
atmosphere. NoneofteIgeranspri
conntituents such as nitrogen oxygenorwae
1-nrc
4 1-~g h~
for fgj- ,
lwatier,
Mercury may containi a slight atirxspiiere of
out heavy gaaes such as carbon dioxide.
Rlecent obner-vations indicate that Mercury's atmoophere may have a thicknesn about 0.0003
that of the Earth, and exert a pressure of one
Tmilibar per square centimeter, compared to
theEstrlt'smea.level pretisure of 1013.2 mil,barx./3,10,36/
~~/thinned
Volume
iDiaroutur
second
Atmosphere
Miercury rotates on its axis only once In eac~h

trip arounid the Sunt, thua always keeping the
side exposed to Hunflirlht. Thie sunlit side
is therefore extrenmely hot, and the dark side
cxtemly(-j,] Aday and a year are equal on
Mercur.
C~aO~
(A' 88 EArth days,
)T1C1
f -rcr,
ph1ysical features are lioted
cliw.11,~I,10,
(eae)
thog
-inim/lin
atr.C'.11frtpitIJ fir itA nr--
bit. Also, since Mercury has i~ardy any atmosphere, the temperature difference betwiten
thde dark and sunlit sides is very Larg~e. O.1 thu
dark side, the temnperature ia near absioluto
zero, and on the sunlit s ide, the temperature is
about 78
42Q
nytpgi
ra
a
have meaetmeaue.1,6
0.1.
2.237 mnies/
second
VENUS
Oall M~e planets lin cur solar system, Venus
mniont closely reserables the Earuh In nmals, size
mandensity. An a result, Vetaus Is often re-
alavailable Informiation, it in Ioclirtvv'i thjAt tho

z flected back int
space.
The major physical
--
of Venus
are... listed
below.
I)Ufl ity
300.54 pounds/
cubic foot
top lies between 1/6 snd 4 Earth atmospheres.

Above the. cloud top, the pressure decreases by
a factor of about 2 evory 3 rniles./40/ At higher
altitudes; approximately 65 miles above the
cloud layer, a region aimilar to the Eorth's
ionotnphere and exosphere may exist. Thie tempc-rature in this region may be
so re than
10K/6
only atmospheric gas thiat has Ween posttively Identified 18 carbon dioxide. Other anus,
such an oxygen and nitrogen oxide, may aX0 be,
peet
u only In very minutc ckuantities. In
-enus' upper atmnosphere, ion ized latomns and
an well as free electrona, probably
exist due to absorpthn of siortwavelength sc"'*
radiation./36,4s)/
lPero.iy (ratio to Earth)
()8
-Temperature.
YA-uilty (ratio to water%
.1.86
Venurs receives about twice as much her-t

from the Sun as does the Earth. But, since
Venuh Is covered with a den,3e atmospherc-, and
to Its albedo refiecsaotwiev
sunlight aL does tho Earth, tine tempera-q
ture on Venufa is uncertain; however, it is undoubtedly higher than on Earth. The carbon dioxide found in Ve3nus' atmosphere Is very trans-
(Li.L(
.*l7icn3
I 01,36,C),4 I
milers
23. 0 9 ui
V- 1) n11,239. x 0 cbic
miles
0.92
Voue(atio to Earth)
V~l~nl"(,Tihe
5.3472~ 121
jijan~loF7705
tojns
to Earth
0.82
M~wu
ratiomolecules,
7.683 fet/ec2
buzfc(:gravty
Surfce ~avly 2.663 fet/aec2
rrvt
Surar(ato
grviy (ai016according
080much
40 Lj Earth)
I1ficapc' VVIX-Ity
6.3-18 miles!
Alb#:oi~
0,59
10 mies
Mlaxionorr t.i~ntan.:c
IXIJnh
t7.8 x 10mls
Still
NMea.n 'liltanice Iryni Sun
67.3 x 106
Minimnum dh!talnce from
66.8 x 106 m ilea
IMa.izuznl
I.; rth
tif'rd
.ronr
ilnes
it lso anexelen absorber of the heat radiatedl from the ulanet's murfave, Aft a rARUit.
f carbon dioxide In aB abundant in the srtuosphero as spectroscopic Investigations indicate,
the temperature on Venus' surface may bA very"
high. The temperaturen derived from various
obseL-vrAiona of Venusn fall within the following
ags/6
Top,of atmosphere
T
160 x 101 miles
~ic j
26 A~ 10j
~-i*2!....5
S ndture
Ui hit eu euitricity
0.007
hit
Vi
30
ho
~~ui1n~atL;T7
~
L- Frthofl
to rnjrnl-
tfiK2i
p,( a)day.nou~
vrr~
if0
25.4tdasfieold
2!
iii'iSumThe
.0
iilt
f
4itauiation
~i~n~tii)magnetic
(*';t'
Ujto 46 La~rthdy
d.1)
MnIe
(4t 1f
n'Juni,1
of! Vtxnun ko ai leant 20 mnudes

1 111;Tlu~
111;1t of t1WILay Un. UnudE-r1".1, 1-;~i'
;d 1rnuo~ejn (,it
ar.dthur
u
dutot or water
HIPi , :111
'
"
Surface of Venus
405 F' (207 C toJ4
I trh..
'I tI,
C)
temperavariations occur moer the surface of Venus,

"a. 9ine temperature range at the top of Its atraospinre Is very luw.
As with Earthn, daily andi seasonal
().ii~i
12F(0C
54 F (12 C) to
603 F (317
tilt.
C) to
Middle of atmosphere
bar' 1
(39
.-
117 F (47CQ~r
Niirr-nu'n diJihtaure f rom
%.tj
-38 F
~.
irijnc
near
te cloud
and Magnetic F'ields

Thre Is evidence that Venruea posocsesse a
field similar to that of tile Earth. Thle
aroundi Venus, hoim' cvr
iS ab.out f ive U11106
)'
stronger than that our,.-vuncitng thle Earth./36/

Intensity of solar radiation Just outside
the Venus atmosphere Is sipp~roxiniately 1.9
tittes thle hutenrsity outsl id the FEar~i o' attruoinail. It is also
P hoto, or 3.8 cal per cnraPer
Jelievcd that the existence of a radiation belt,
such as Ui*3 VailAllen radiation belt surrounding
the Eartin may exist on other pianete with rnag1)etic ficle.
Since Venus ahnorbs aboutt twice
as nnunh radiation as the Earth, the radiation
belt oround Vci'.is may be more ititenseo thanir
tMat ourrounding thle Eartli./4U/
~
2-21
Mu,' crcomplete Information is available concerning Mars than anyofier plane'.,with the excpt(Ir)t of tle EarUt.
However details as to the
v%:,tt ,tirf.ice conditioni on 'Mars still are uncert;tan.
Mars' surface Is very flat, with no
.o)r,-i: t (h:anges In olevation and no promhient
tini),utailno.
Ytrg
areas, covering more than
half t.turfave, are bllevWd to be dust-covered
d,.s,'rt areas. In the bright area.s, dark, narrow
streeti s, k.nown aa canals, have been observed.
The dark areas show seasonal changes and may
bie areas of vegetation. The wlite polar caps
are heuheved to be caused bya thin deposit of ice
crystals. The "climate" on Mars is
mlmUar to
that of a hVpothetical detort on Earth about 11
nil,:,z hi;,, VWn.ds range up to 20 miph and dust
Storms are fairly frequert./1,36,42/ The major
phys(ic. cbaracter isLics of tha planet Mars are
iihtcd
V ouI
4215 miles
cubic miles
-.
Volume (razl t., Frth)
0.15
Mass
72.44864 x 1019
tons
Mas.s (ratl
to Earth)
I)sltILy
Inclination of axis
2512,
Length of time to com-.

plete one revolution
around Sun
d.
Length of day
687 Earth days
0.I
241.1 pounds/
cubic foot
aa
1.026 Eart
[.
days
Mars' atmosphere has a variety of cloud

types. "Yellow clouds" persist for weeks over
large areas of the planet, and are believed to be
dust clouds. Water vapor or mist cluuds occur
in the polar regions, All the clouds are below
20 miles.
The Martian atmosphere is much
thinner than that of the Earth. The surface
pressure ranges from 50 to 100 millbarn. nnlnI
farther
into spiace than does the Earth's./36,42,"
43
Ie weather in the lower regions of the Martian atmosphere Is similar to that on Earth.
Surface gravity
Surface gravity (ratio
to Earth)
11.9 feet/sec 2
0.37
Escap- vcloci'y
3.107 miles/
However, the lack of appreciable amounts of

water vapor causes a more uniform and simpler
weather than exists on Earth. The atmospheric
temperature decreases with height at an average
rate of less than 3.7 K per 3200 feet, up to an
,-
Is much smaUler.
Bettween 16 miles and 05
miles the temperature Is probably 180 K 50 K.
/36,41,43/
154.9 x 106 miles
MIan distance from Sun
141.7 x 106 miles
The variations
daily, seasonal and geographic tem pcrature
on Mars are not completely
Miinurn dista'nce
froml
Sun
128.5 x 1o0
known;
they are
currently being
tnvree;tigated. however
The following
temperature
Information
MNiin,uri
.&i tiI
distance from
236.0 x 106 miles
The average temperature on the surface of

Mars Is about -30 C (-22 F). The daily varia-
Mirtut
distance froi
31.0 x 106 miles
tion
of temperature
the equator
approxi2.
mately
30 C (86 F) near
at noon
to -60 Is
(-7OF)
or
-80 C
C (-l'8
) at night. In the polar region, the
miles
altitude of approximately 10 miles. Above 16

milsa. tha var latlnn nf temnmir2ti,-n tlth hlahht
Maxi-'uo dittaaucc from

Sun
01 hit f., viltl icity
r'
slightly less than the Earth's. Above 25 miess,

the pressure decreases very slowly. The Mar-
4.0
hit.l spe(cd
k-
the pressure gradient up to 25 miles Is only
Density (relative to
Wate.r)
Gi
ttan atmosphere probably extends considerably
Den-sIty (ratio to Earth) "0.70
Lirth,
1'
Mars' atmosphere has been studied for many

years; yet much of the informatlon gathered Is
speculative. The only gas Identlifed In the Martian atmosphere is carbon dioxide, which al=though only one percent by volume It, the tota,
atmosphere, Is severaltimes more abundant per
square centimeter than in the Ear.L:h&- aLUosphu-,2. The bulk of theMartian atmosphere consists ci nonabsorbing gases, such as nitiogcn,
95% by volume argon, and only a trace of oxygen./3,l ,42,43/
v ie
o
389.85 x 108
eI
1051'
Number of Moons
Atmosphere
hlow./1,l(,36,42/
Dianmeter (averatge)
Orbit Inclination
Temperature
Is therefore subject to change.
14.975 milcs/
average temperature Is -70 C (-94 F).
0.093
ofrthe
thin of
atmosphere
anl the absence
of any relatively
large amount
water vapor./l,3130,43/
Thie
large variations of temperature occur because
i.
"
!
'
* .,
""
..
-,
..
a
W.'J .1
.7;_
V-
2.
...
w
-",
ao.
,.
l,
'
n.
-.
r.
"
S--S
,ijtionMaximum
"ihe
distance from
600 r 106 miles
Earth
average solar radiation incident on Mars
Is ipproxiniately one-ha.f the amount receivei

!y the Eatrth, or about 0.87 gram-cal per cm
ier mi. Due to the eccentricity of Mars' orbit
i.;. .,'er, tl,,i
value nay vary b, a much as 26
ir'ent during L-.. M.artian year. Mars' albedo
i, atpproxinately 0.15, which indicates that the
Martian a.mnosiphere and surface absorb a large
fiaction of the solar radiation./42/

Earth
Orbital speed
6
367 x 106 miles
6'.
8.45 miles/
second
Orbit eccentricity
0.048
Orbit Inclination
1018,
JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE
Inclintion of axis
307'
At!) PLUTO
Length
of time to cornp~ete one revolution.
11.86 Earth ye,"
The fuur inalor planets, Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus and Neptune have many characteristics
ii, common.
They are massive bodies of low
d( osity and large diameter. Because of their
],,w dcnsitics, they are believed to possess
c: Qabjle solid cores surrounded by a thick shell
of ice. Te only gases in their atmospheres are
a,,::onia and methane. Other gases may be
jr,..snt, hut bccause of the low temperatures on
thse planets the gases nre probably in the liq!2:!: ',r possibly solid state./l,3,10,36/
atoued Sun
around.Sun
Length of day
9 hours 55 miutes
Number of moons
WI
12
Saturn
Saturn is circled by three rings which conllstAIItites. hn addition,Saturn has nine moons. Titan, the largest and
Flint of mjllionR of Rm.I
Juipiter, the largest planet, has twelve moons,

Juopi~cr spins so !tst on its axis that it is flatteiied out at its poles. The major physical chara( teristics of "upiter are listed below./2,3,10,
36!
D)iariieter (mean)
Volunme
Volume (ratio to Earth)
86,840 miles
342.55 x 1012
cubic miles
1318
M1a.q3
20.1 x
It.s at) ri't

ellsity
6.28 x 1023 tons
egravity (ratio to
(2
37.28 miles/
suwund
l i,o ,0.44
, twIm,
Density
44.78 pounds/
cubic foot
d*:1tan( e from
di
su't
a;t,(e fr' ri
Density (ratio to Earth)
0.13
Density (.zelativc. to
water)
0,715
Surface gravity
37.64 feet/aoc 2
--
Surface gravity (ratio

to Earth)
- Escape velocity
d:: .:rt,,1
"'.f,:v:
""ti''t
95.3
2.G4
-
1.uttv ".,'l'ity
Mass (ratio to Earth)
0.24
84.93 feet/sec
I Wit)
71,520 miles
211.29 x 1012
cubic miles
736
23 tons
303Mass
(rdlativt! to water) 1.34

.:'ra;....
u'rf(
Diameter (mean)
Volume
82.66 pounds/
cubic foot
Lt nruity (r :.io to Sarti)

I "slty
10
brightest of the moons, is considerably larger

than our own -Moon, and is the only satellite In
the solar system known to have an atmosphere.
/3/
The major physical characteristics of the
planet Saturn are listed below./1,10,36/
'
22.37
miles/
ec and
"e .nd
4ib3.9 x 106 miles

miles
1.17
507.1 x 106 miles
460.7 x I
'
Albedo
0.42
MaxiImum distance
936,8 W106 miles
r
Mean distance from Sun
887.1 x
fromi Stil
...
10 6
miles
2-23
will';-
vN,Ye N
"n
Nu
-t
Minimiumi disLance froni
837.4 x 106 miles
Maximum
distance from
Earth
1950 x 10
M.aximum distance from

Earth
1025 x 106 miles

Earth
1615 x 106 miles
Minimunim distance from

Earth
Orbiti s1C-
745 x 106 miles
Orbital speed
5.965 miles/
second
Orbit eccentricity
4.225 relies/
second
0.047
Orbit eccentricity
0.056
O b
Orbit Inclination
229,
of axis
Inclination
it
n evltoi-.
In(rIination of axis
26045,
plete one revolution.
Ler,-tj,; time to cornpictet one revolution
29.46 Earth years
Sun"
Orbit inclin,,tl.!
arounidSan
S....
to corn-
Number of moons
84.02 Earth years
"'
38 min-
10 hours, 42 min-
__;,
Number of moons
utes
'-
x 1011
101.36
Scubic m~les
Diameter (average)
31,690 miles
Volume
Volume
226.34 x 1011
cubic lailes
cubi.miles
39
64
Mass
11.4 x 1022 tons
Masr,
96.87 x 1021 tons
17,3
14.7
Density
Densitr7
79.22 pounds/
/Density
cubic loot
99.89 pounda/
cubic oult
..
0.49
.
I ensign, Fratio to Ear-th)
0.23
Densitytrelativetowater)
ravty
uda:e
0.92
9.6ft/ec2Surface
Ciirf ace gravity
29.6 ft/sec
Surfaci gravity (ratio

Io Earth,
0.92
Isui ape veh city

Alhtwlo
M:t\intuJtIn diatance from
(ratio tu Eart)
Density (relative to
water)
gravity
2-21
'
..
46.33 feot/secO
1.44
escape velocity
14.29 miles/
Albedo
Maximum dintanco from
second
0.52
2820.75 x 106
TImiles
rmiles
Mean distance from Sun
2796.7 x10 6 milest.
1700.9xlO6 mUes

Sun
2772.65 x 106
miles
1784.8mx0
:*
13.05 mfles/sec
0.45
1868.7 x 106 miles
.'i
"4::"
2.22
Surface
to Earth)gravity (ratio
Su
Meati dtvlanxc from Sun
I lPnPni-uimi distan, from
"
9Netn
Neptune is invisible to the naked eye w4 has

two known satellites. Its atmosphere extends to
Uranus
U uperhaps 2000 miles, and the planet experiences
external cold and only partial light. Other maUra.nus has five satellites and an atmosphere jor physical characteristics of the planet Nepconipuvtnx almost entirely of methane with only
Ia t......r
ammo~nia gva nresent. 'the mator
tune are listed belo'w/1.10.36/
tre
listed(ea)100"
ph y.ical chl vacteristics of Uranus
31,070 miles
Dikneter (average)
12ow./1,3,10,36/
"
--
10 hours,
-utes
980
.ro~aund Sun _.
Length of day
Length of day
miles
0= 46'
004,
SLength of thee
F[
PI
M.c.,iolufn distance from
2900 x 106 miles
Minimum distance trom

Earth
2700 x 1
Minimuni distance from

Larth
2700 x 106 miles
Orbital speed
2.98 mUes/sec
Orbit eccentricity
0.249
biti
3.355 mitles,1
.d
n0iles
second
Orbit inclination
17o19'
Orbit eccucntricity
0.0081
Orbit inclination
Io 47'
Inclination oI axis
Length of time to corn-
Unknown
247.7 yeawr a
In: lination of axIs
29"
plete one revolution

around Sun
Lvgth of timP I, cormpiete one -hi,,xution

"arOound Sun
164,8 Earth years
L,.igt h of day
15 hours, 48 minutes
Nuirncwr (if moonb
.
24.43
x 10
miles
0.094 (?)tronments,
Mass,
Unkinjn
giveni in Table 12.
I;t~s (rati') to Eartl.)
Unknown
),,n:;uty
Unknown
14risity (t'atin, to Earth)
Unklrwn
I), unuty (:el.tt,.
Unlkown
.,'
Some environments, such an temperature,

can be both natural and induced. Their effects,
however are the same regardless of how they
are produced.
The reason for separating environments into the broad categories of natural
a'rloty
"Although
Unknown
rnil,~
~ 106changing
4590.45 x to
miles
3
5
.3
.3;75.3x 10 milee
!1. 111 i-Aal, u fuor.i Sun

Mhi,11J31 di: tiuwu frf)m
"rt
2760.15 x 10
N.1.Jitlri
I ,
4650 x 10o
nilles
d,:lta ue from
.,
A.
.
',,
. .
.
"
"
the various environments Pre gen-
erady encounters
thought of individually, a flight vc~ico.
nevei
them aingly, il.t Ir combinations. The peaks, or extremes, of the criviron-.
nments may be encountered Individually, but
nevertheless other, le.ts severe environments
are present at the same time
z
uKi must be considered. In addition, during cts mission a ve-
0.04
d;'t,tnL fronm
i;
tal analysis (Chapter 4) during equipment de.sign.
Unknown
Al.'',io
L~womi
without the system.
Unknown
-
St,,;tcr "gravity (ratio

,,I.. !~~i~
I'
In addition tr the natural environments preasub

vls ".
dr..cjzu-cto 21l
jected to induced environments during operation. Same of these Induced environments, such
as acceleration and vibration are brought about
by the operation of ife system; others,
strictly
such
as aerodynamic heating, are caused by
interaction of the system with its natural environment.
In contrast to all the natural enviinduced environments do not exist
Unknown
ufrfaue g'ravity
ND,
cubic
V,,Iunie (ratio to, ELaih)
to water)
'
":"
NATURAL AND INDUCED EN'IONMENTS
D,3600 miles (?)

Volume
A complete sum-ary of all of the planets'"'
(.hkuIkicteris1tice '
Very little Is kwo'.:n aM)ut Plutou. Its mass is

bIel'cid to) b) about one-tenih of the Earth's
z:tr',
ard the eccentricity of its orbit Is the
greatest of ail the principa planets in our solar
o
- . ............
Plutu are listed bei.w./3,10/
V,
Unknown
L
Number of moons
SUMMARY OF PLANET DATA
Plut,"
i.t
Length of day
miles
.
r
hide will encounter- a continuous gamut of

environmnenta, each of which may be
Ii
affected by that which preceded it. The many

combinations and sequences of envi:onments
that are possible include both the natural and
induced typets. Thus, adequate Information ont
both natural and induced environmenxuts is niandatory If a vehicle Is to be designed eflilcicntly
and ecunomically for rellatle operation.
Thr,
natural environments have been covered In revious portions of this chapter. The iducej onvitonmento are discussed in Lhaptor 3.
2-25
"'-
-.y ..
-" , "5,;''
.,
"
. ..
.......
e"
*RJ,
c;i
ca
4.'E
4C
U'C>.
C,3
Pr)
c01
Do
M-U
00
c
V
0C
cm'k
-.
C)~
a)jq
0
a;)
C'lL'
.4
In
c44
;D
C"
co
Go
to4
*4l
C;
C4
64
W)I
C4 to-0
14
C;
an
C*4C)1
'
.4
04
C~4
a..,c
ci
")
m~
:;p
ta...
.4
c-r
.400
m4
fm
cl Q4
C4
00
I
wQ
w
4,
0.11.
I
Il
. .
C
4LE
00 c
C4,).P4
I
I
C4
\t~jJr.~i
3.
u'r14teh
9 1
Til
diWi
6Iir
Iw
'ttCl
ai
31
. , '1k
en'r
!ai$c~r
~ t
~~~~~~t
Li,~
p~eaQaiC
coo -c AIhIL1~~1LWif
'Aetcty'
4rtt~z4i
be divided
CH
i4w4t*t
---'ml-ii ',iwR'w
i n rt v
.~ctrr
~ i.?U1Ii-t
'
~1117 If~nr
eL
,1
TillI,
1. w
t4P6Is
j4
4jLY-5 1
---
'
'or
CCII
-tcu~~fitn
atN ovtitit
iIra
IO
uo.ay~f~n
n9ft0p~"-'
t~
et1z
jIt
-~
vaur
w..
I'Ms
'iIii' CL!
a t*L !r-ifr4eL'kw'l
11711~~~~
_._f2 Li
M A
t 08
~ ~t 01Jo"''AnV
1'
IcItf
Irp' I'6
3iI.-..2-
ftk
'iflt-
tyu"
4
iins;cani
tic
t.
re
ljl
lthwtr
~r4
.i
at~li
~nt
.f..J
ii'w
"
f,"A II1FtiAp.&
4
.. ''i.
W~t4o
In
pr fri t
44qri
-11
bA
TS,tCO 4 M
61
fi
1r'ifj&Ndd d~4t4
A.7 5wQ.oO fAM-,,
~A,%aq
j~pitrn
'-''
b a I.-v
~ ~ ~
Ot
-'if
Ll 30016
-'LO
SUIT
MA~~~A
(I-nj,~4
If~~~~-.
Mj'
.4
aP(
IdLU
MOD
-i
'"
--
"'
.........
4'A
N,'"~
''
/~d
!A' C.
''
,/
U-
-'
IT
1'
It-.
-14.6i
5A~
1Ii ty pe and nevwerity of induced environEIOii~4

by conventional aircrikft de-,
priinCirl yn th e k~rid of aircraft aW nl f Its
sp- Trhe acceleration at takeoff of propeller-
MP~iI
1111'
(Jriv( n ,ird turbo-prop aircraft to generally

grea er than that of pure jets. Once in the air,
lioxvijer, niont jet aircraft experience greater
W,,e]lerat Ions th~ln do the propeller-driven ox-.
ttitL rprop types. Ttnaddition, aircraft that kxae
somreaeof
r~ktassisted takeoff, plujk.
those that employ aerodynamic braking, expericnive large accelerations.
drop to about 150 db at th~ e;dlt

the booster or. at the vo kc
a&
~~"
Vibrations
durin
boat
riange from 20 to) 11000 CP I~

Aea. ~n~i ~1
Durin thfdl~
tha 15
of the boost phase, vhai)
- to fe 11
leas than 2.5 gla,
fromi.4e
IMnd
about 8.5 g's are likely.
eeato.fom ~bk
rocket engine are expectei 0
9 g's. During boost or sepa
74FMP1order of 50 to 200 K's fc
"
40
qj 11.,
milliseconds are probable.
tures due to aerodynamnic h,
to 700 F (260 to 370 C)./4014
''
7,
iniduced vibration caused by the enigine
itt Al, o different for various aircrafrt. Inp iston.enj1nno aircraft, the vertical up-and-down motion
of U) pirtons sets up low -IreQuency vibrationsr
tht ird ,rare severe ciui'tr~landing than during
flight. in contrast, the turbines of jet aircraft
Cauls
Iiighi-frcqucricy vibrations that are most

durng ligi.density
The super -aerodynarriic

pr*
which glide vehicle
~cmteard'airogfld
rather than
flight
tical purposes,
In the
ae ra
air Is dense eiiough to be

Ae 'yancheating
*tarn
i'
Ic
C-1
e-
However, at the hig '

quired by the extremne ape
y
b tM~ Zkit its
glide vehicles, the air Is Vehiclies, previoualy
ceapes to act as 9continuu
i1
of an aircraft surface,
alffio~ igh always present to some degree during
flir'hl I~ecomvis a consideration only under caroriditions of speed and altitude. Flight in
uum.
the lower, denitsr Layers of the atmosphere, and

at hi: ;h zsneeds in especially conducive to aerodynamnic hIeating. This, howvver, is vastly different than the reentry environment of ba.listic
vhices.determined
smilr
rnis~o~, ad -atelits
miss.i~s,
an simlar
atllits ~icl~3.irrdatio-.
problem of aerodynamic
5 0 0ht ide 've~klbe'idto the
Stipp -onic and Ilypersonic _iamiet wk. Rokt
hlti~h altitudes above

, 416A at" Ohb?6~
kii
P
6e formeda1 'z I'
layer cannot
ciperates at this he ht itis 1
:w0
:)-y
essentievy by '- sa "Si
This resiulte
bet'ween the RsWa temperai"
side of the vehicle and ont
".i
The thin atmosphere at

has the effect of convertingr
the, natural environments encouncre
twsuprsonic And hypersonic ramjet
fndvulmlels,'
rckct-owert
vehicleso are
the same as
pneo
h phenomenon
kno h
thrsand
previousiylcse
ovninlar
"sputtering"
~
::.
~
thr),hn
froio
airanddliuae
ofnveetional
cr.~~~~
~
~
~
I
igadeoino
h
ur
~1pitation
data
present
(ra * M. riowaof these environments, however,horvryouan
n
oreeyhu
Nuch an low atopheric pressure and density
are riore severe for ramjetandrockct-powe.r
~
During flight, hye~nzit,;ubiig:Ati
uper-aercodynamic vehidc'PelVs.dY (itAfI aid
v~l, ofthir
Is m-cusreteralitue ang.
ricabecuseof
hei greteralttud rage.
the physical dimensions
Th induced enivirrminenta and flight paths of
which depend upon the bluj"We4J~b
q
typer,;oazic ramnjet and rocket -powerind aircraf
airfoil leading edges. Der.01;jjt
7~~
and
in
bi.
he shock wave,
rli~td f th suer-ero
:1 Ie t eythse
cure and dynamic viscofitl
ofrte dscuper-er
dre 1 el rocetlated t . Thoey
Jol .yY I the following paragrapha.
discusse
higheroti
ejcn
andn
nIn
*tc
gener~kl,
AI
Iti ck.'t-powercd super-aPorodynarnic glide yehicl~ls uri', the rpntrifugal force created by
noar orl~il I speeds and .a ininimunn of aerodyflameic lilt. io providt- ani equilibrium flight path
-AhiikA ircuuninaiviating Lhi Earth Iinan approxi-
considdrs
obtain the rates o'
brief periods dduring certa.0 fail equat to or cx-X
Inchiper hour.-nust bie
The trajectory of a pro ltj rind ht9.t
shown in Fig. 2-25. togetJ41
natural environments exi 0;fe. ..- Iii r
i~
hicle's altitude range. Ir
will experience a severe noise onviruly~rsint. Thie p~rincipal noise source during
(Ii phast! is the rocket AOngin.e which generates
a 1)(wer Jevi~l at tie exiaust of' nearly 200 db at
Illt. lo1w raki:,e oft
-feuncy
band. As the
v 1) ( le risces, the sound pressure level may
countered by a glide vehIO,.'

those for other manned
i
discussed. The niomL
ciated, with reentry of a I
denser portionti 01 toe Ea
4overed in a-later paragra
Suqsr
c______
i~re:kt circle. Duringv the boos*t phiase, a
I~h~v-iiete
'Jf"n
g0
vehicle's orbital pi
the atmosphere the natur
2-2 3
-?
'-*.
0 P7N l
II
~tv
uli
1
300
oo
2*Slo~e 240
-
SI
69e20
5 1'
,2
IS.
Ir
I.
-.-
1I60
"140120
I60
200 356 400 600
800
\'4"
-00
5*
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
3000
7800
11,,00
.\
-
p.-
-.
C.4
- _ _ -- _
Dso c olc l mls
'1
.I
I
71
IlkI
320
3N.27 300-- 1.74

XIli- ?..39x10-
~Y5.917.10-1
31.39
260-1.97,10-5
31.45 240--a31.51
220---
1.02 A10-
Full
Solair
'
3A6xtO0A--
5,200t0---L t.0x10
I.2!x!O04
~---
2~i0
-4,
S3163
1802~-
5-06xilO
I.45xI0l
-'i 31.63
160
"0 ,1
3.0 x107-2
31.81'20
Il-
3i.93 0
3.49l0
O''3 214.,~
3205 11--
2.471lO-J
7000
210
.3.lljO
jv
5.S34 x10-1- 139 x~c~

10
31.87
32.11
2.
140--
31.75~~~~~
.XO2,'o
U.31b
5.5'6'-"'
3
5,3 xio-i-
1.00
29.92
8000
__________
-60
0
\U,
__________
-40
-20
9
+20 440 460
Ambient Temperature, F1200
2
4
6
8
10
12
14Sor
Relative Ozone Concentration, parts /miflion
-80
-(10
2000
2900
FMg. 2-25. Somei
14
er.
V,
AA.
>
.6
u FRn
ll d orvj Radioli
.22
()
C.,
(I
6CPO
00.
Mual
Cosmi
Qf
RoRho
r'~TDu,
4i 410.
60
2co
lz
11A
1"n 29"77
Soo
bu
2,
9000
35t
I,)(:-7'.So
1riirIJllrlsunout41dI
2 O0 1 0 3
E00
~lo
Wvtts
0 s
Roito
Cosmic
M0a0
itniy
er sew4
nts
ni1,Id
eicl ei e/
"supe
-arcn
"Awo'jgj
12-29
oF)
Du~oOO toHazeV7
wv
14
IIK
ve4
'All.
420 400'
380 -V
360
340-
~Meon
32
Free Polh1t2.42 Oile

at 300-310 Miles Aititly-30
280260240-
160-
Mean Free Path, QG?I Miles(

1t140-150 Mile% AJtjtude -
~140
120-
Mean Free Path: 3.94 inch~es

160 Miles Altitude
6
-
40
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I.
M
MISSILES
While traveling in it~s elliptic trajectory a

missile may'be disturbed by atmospheric effects
or gravritational anomalies. However for missilos with a range greater than about 00 nauti
cal miles these disturbances are small. Other
natural envirouments that exist along the elliptic trajcory are shown In Fig, 2-26. Longmay also encounter the VanAle
raito
rabel
itt.isle
ihlf
taetre
Mitisiles may be divided into the following

categories:
1. Pilotless conventional aircraft,
rarn
3.
x.d glide missiles.

2. gh-spersnic
Piotlen
ad hyprsoni
Ballistic missiles.
An -important induced environment encountered by a ballistic missile along its elliptic

trajectory is zero gravity. For a missile of the
Jupiter range (IRBM), this can last for as luaig
2q 1t minutes; for an ICBM it Is even longer.
Of the three, only hallistic missiles wil be

covered, since the missior. p.-ofiles and accotupartying cnvirunment.3 of the other two are simiOar to mannnLd aircraft.
-raniwc ballistic missiles the flight
pith ronngsts of t-hree sections: (b powered
ascent patli. (2) elliptic trajectory, and (3) re-entry path. Thie ypes and extremes of environments encountered fIn each of these sections varies. H-owvevr, a common feature of all the environinents encountered Is the extreme rapidity
with which they change, due to the high velocitic-s attainad. Generally, the voverall flight time
of a ball stic missile is less than an hour, evea
for rajnges as lar,,e as half the circumference
of the Earthl.
R~eentry Path
The reentry path of a ballistic minik3.e siarts

where thbe missile enters the aerodynamically
rel1evant atmvoriphere. The moat severe natural
environment encountered ia the abrui' Increase
In atmospheric density which in turn Induces
decealeration and aerocyiaamic heating of the
miasile. As the temperature rises rapidly an
lea sheath is formed arounad the vehicle. tie s
sheath is bounded by the shockwave and the yehidle and causes communications !rterference
UA
Powcrcd' Ns( cnt Path
Allong to., lower portion of its powered ascent

I)aUi, a bll~distic missil~e may encounter any of ..
ti alm~uraI enrv i ro nmen
tts previouisly discussed,
bu-iic. o~ -' naittral cry ironments present along z-*
0 11:1 W
c pgirtion of th powered ascentpath are
.i.t in 1- i!. ?2-26.
-
and if-rodynrmic heatiing. The acceleration Is

cpce-ially sct'crc, since it is important to prop1 thoug
te mssieth dese, owe laers
t~w klinosphere as quick ,y as practicable In
orclo'r to ievv 1ravitatlona loset aciium
--
2-4-
Ua1
--
.d .Ju U 5.. . f3'.-i.
7.~
IL &
*LWU
Sonic intuiced envirmtnments experienced by a

rlrn,suml ',i 1ide: acceleration, shock vibration
everity of the Induced environments

c~pcricaced during rnentry depends on many
factors: the height of the missile trajectory andL
hence the reentry velocity; the angle of r~uintrvand the shape of the muissile. 'These are diecussed in a latter paragraph.
-/44/PvTah"ev
'Tlo( prrwe(red pathi of a bal1listic missile conSISLS of a bric'f period of intense ac,eleratiotn
duirinig v.+i,,1h the rinisile gains the momentum
ntccussar y to carry it along its trajectory. This
poitv.on of t~he flight path begins with engine ig..
nit ifon at lauunching, and ends at the departure
point, wlijufm i ' the po~it at which the rocket ern[00,25 cutoif and the niiss~e enters the ba.Uistic
tiakivctory towkards its destination. For longritngr r~t: dc's, the dep;Irttnre point lies at an
;0fiLUicJU
whr between 400,000 and700,000
a?0I7
JA .-
A;
EARTH SATELLITES
Depending upon the altitude at which they
operate, Earth satellites ruay be divided into

LLUtLLUK It.
~ALcIULU3,
The sat ellidorbits
MIIJU LL'UU D4LULLL~UD.
I
P,
at comparatively low alti-
tudes, and, because of the existing aerodynamic

drug, requires tharust power to overonme the
drag and keep the velocity constant. Without
thin thrust power, the satelloid would be unable
to complete even one revolutior.. The true satellite, on the other hand orbits at bigh altitudes
where the atmosphere is extremely thin, and
thus irequires no sustaining thrust power.
41.
Satellolds
The satelloid rep resents a transition froma m_i

eo~nmcvtlietoatu
pc
eil.I
prates within an altitude range of 00 to I5
nautical miles; too low for a satellite, and gentoo high for a glide vehicle. Inas9much as
I** i.t r Tajctryerally
operates under sustaining po~wer, the satelloid
reserrblen an aircraft and may bO Bubijected to
followof a ballistic mnissileanmany
Tte fli-,1;t pathi~liepow
of Vime samne induced environments as airin-, thpwxredascent is red
asection of anellip-.
craft, such as vibration, noiaoec
merorbit vhoste track, lies partly bielow the eur-Dt...Iit( of the Earth. Fonr the purpoise of this disAt low altitudes, the most critical environ.'inthe elliptic trajectury can he defined as
mental factor affecting satelloid operation is
Ul. t 1art oh the ilight patli 1,etwEen thfe departure
skin temperature resulting from aermdynamic
I it and time start oi reentry,
heating. Above about 70Dnautical miles, tihe
_____________it
2-31
akmount, of skin heating is determined to an Increasing extent by sclar radiation, and, as a reSuit, large differenccs exist beiween the skin
temperatures on the lighted and shaded sides of
the vehicle. Other natural environments encountered by satelloids are shown in Fig.2-26.
creased orbital lifetimes made pousible bI the

rarif led atmosphere iacrease the exposure timec
the satellite to meteoric material. Meteors
and micrometeoriteS a~reespecially concentrated
~
in the plane of the Earth's orbit, and a satellite
-'with a polar or near polar orbit is therefore
susceptible to b~rnbardment.
aeltsoeaigi
ersra
pc
n
counter gravitationa anomalies causedi b the
i
may
asphericity of the Earth, especially its oh a eness, and the irthornogeneity of its mass aist~ri*;
btinevro
etlstnonth
.'
gavitational anomalies are of significance only
hycuepeeso
fst1ieObt,
I
'-"
and this precession changes the satellite'sa duiraof exposure to aunlight. The diaturbing
onsatellit-3 orbits due tothe Ezxth's ob-.t"
Pjm
lateness is inversely proportional to the tune oi
the distance. At ten Earth radii %i .. pp:uXimately 40.000 miles, the perturbation due Wothe
.j
.iN
Earth's oblateness equals that Induced by the
Moon. Thus "j"onadthis distance the perturbatoncud
jIeMngrdaybomsoe
Gruvitationa y spea~iag, therelore,
terrestrial space endsj at a distance of approxitnately ten Earth radii.
-of
..
...
_-least
As a uatelloidl's orbital lifetime io extended,

a cert.-if ?irpowt of pitting and erosion of Lhe
skin will take place as a i esult of impact by atmlecle,
ricrmetoriesand
mosherpric mosherc
mlles.,nte impotntevro
nmeient
encountered by a satdlloid, as well as by true
satellites, is zero gravity or weightlessness,
which prevails for the urbit~al lifetime.
~a
Satelitestion
Saeltsforce
hy
-wih
h.dsac 11te itnc
.wihte
orbi atelite
th ~arh, ma bedivied nto
*wo rnfteiories: terrestria and cisiunar. va'
of Iie epereuce
nvirnmets
byeachare
anique and therefore they will be treated sepai~puQlgupo
Lately.domninanit.
As shown in Fig. 2-27, terrestrial space begins at an altitude of approximnately lO0nautical

miiiIeLs, below which true satellite operation is
imprissihle, and extends out to about 10 to 14
E'arth radii. From an environmrental standpoint,
the ,,.:r~or co.:!;duratlons In terrestrial spa-earc:(I)
~mopherc
gses,(2) ravtatinal
anoi:~Jcs
() te gomageti
~I
fild.surements
The dest
fLc atmnosphere, and hence the
dra', uri tii(- satellite, decreases continuously
w~hinrea~iagaltitude (Fig. 2-26). The in[
-~~
-
4$
-
.A.
--
'
'
,j
The geomagnetic field ie environmentally

Important in terrestrial space because it traps
h~comWIii BGiat and~ cosmzic ra4
ont
the Van Alen radiation belt (Chapter 2). Meamade with Explorer IV' Pioneer III
and Pioneer [V have shown that die radiation
belt Is oriented symmetrically around the magnetic equator and contains two zonesofrdtion, separated by, a gap about 5000 nautical
miles wide. According to the latest available
data, the region of maximum radiation in the
~inner zAeextends froin about 1400 to 3400
natia wie/n
that of the outer zone from
about 8000 to 12,000 nautical miles .144/
~~Thereafter, the intensity gradually diminishes,
re-hngtelee
Cislunar space begins beyond the loosely de-%
"'~~
~~
~
d b,
-'cubic
tible radiation, except !or primary cosmilc rays,

ha
endetected in cislunar space by either
the American or Russian Moon pr-.#4,;Bt. The
density of gases In this regionis extremnely low,
being on the order of 1000 gas particles per
centimeter as compared to approximately
3 xi0 7 per cubic centim eter atan altitude
11h
'
.,
%.*.*.
I
'5
.*
fambient cosmic radiAtion,"s.
I fined limit of 10 to 14 Earth radii. No percep"'S.'
,.
...
about 6300 nautical muile,,,
~.
PI
//
Although not-an environment in itself, thle

orbital lif etimne of a satellite maybe considered
an environmental parameter. 7The longer the
the longer the satellite Is exposed to
the environment. Some of the many factors that
orbital lifetime are altitude, orbit eccenatmospheric density, abundance of
charged particles, and the shape arid density of
the saelie
bittal lifetimne and supporting
data for vate~lltes launched from 1057 through
1959 are listed in Table 2-J3. The data for tVeic
1
,
-lifetime,
I,
JJ
4$affect
1 'tricity,
-____
--
_____
1i~ 2 -27. 1'1 rrestrild anid '2isltnar space.
"
..
'
.
'
2 -32
.4'
Initial
Weight
(lbs)
&-ttellite
Dtmennsica.
Shape
,.:
Perigee
(nrt)
Apogee
period
(min)
I.Afelme,
U-
(Me)
SpJtnik Ti
1.!84
>1.120
sphere
complex
dia - 22.8"
?
142
140
588
I,036
96.17
103.7
180 days
155 tdays
Explorer I
30.8
cylinder
length - 80"
dia - 6"
224
1,573
114.8
3-6 years
Vi.nfniard I
3.25.
aph4re
dia - 6.4"
409
2,453
Explorer 111
31
cyhinder
length - 80"
121
1,746
115.87
cone
length - 11.75'
bane dia -; 5.67'
135
1.176
106.
cylinder
length - 80.39"
dia - 6.25"
163
1,380
110.27
cylinder
length-85' dia-lO'
110
920
101.46
347
2.064
125.85
>2925
S;AwiLk 1I
38.4
Explorer IV
""
Table 2-13. Satellite Data/45/
8750
Atlas-corc
da-6"
200-1000
years
1.z
yea
450 days
34 days
20.74
sphdre
1300
cylindrer
length - 10.2'
99
806
95.9
-'5 days
Discoverer II
161C
cylinder
length - 19.2'
142
220
90.5
"43 days
Erplorcr VI
112
spheroid, with
flattened bot-.
tom and 4
solar- vanes or
paddles
dia - 26"
depth - 29"
vanes - 18"X 18"
16
26,357
length - 27"
136
i),sovorcr V
1700
da
Discov'rCr VY
1700
V1tipord TU
100
"
.1
12.5hrs
,year
, '
"-'.1
450
94
34 days
62 days
33"
'.,'
- 27"1
dia - 3"1f
139
537
P4
sphere, with
tapered tubu-
sphere dia - 20"

extension - 26"
319
2,329
30-40 yra
2 truncated
cones joined
at base
base dia - 30"

length - 30"
342
680
101.33
-,*2O years
length - 27"
100
-length
Ir."-,,,.
-. 10 yerrserri
IDiscoverer 1
di
p).
"
,,
Vaitguard H1
---
94 days
dia - 202 "

dia -5'
."'
lar extension
-xplorer VII
91.5
IL'ic:,rrc VI1
1700
dia -
ti.,covrcr
l:-
%'!11
372
spheroid, with
4 solar vanes
or paddles
launched
520
Nov. 20,
33"
length - 27"
dia - 33"
1700
length - 39"
depth - 55"
vanes - 24" x 24"
130
1,035
-. 14 days
.
launched
Nov.26,
1959
altitude
unknown
"
,
,.
a',
3..o
2-33,
Disc(.'crcr satellites may not be representative,

since the ejection of a recoverable capsule may
have led to unpredictable disturbances of the
satellites' orbits.
Launclin :and Reentry Environments of
aellites a-S ..t6116-ids
enja'ri.htsh,, we environments
During
countered by satellites and satelloids are similar to those encountered by a ballistic missile
during powered ascent. In addition, satellite
*type vehicles may be subjected to a severe
shock environment upon being "boosted" Into
The environments experienced during
orbit.
reentry are discussed in a later paragraph.
LUNAR VEHICLES
SPAUE STATIONS
Space stations are inhabitable Earth satellites. They are placed in orbit in a marner
similar to instrurmenedsatellites andencounter
In conessentially the same environments.
trast to an instrumented satellite, howevero a
,,-ace station car.ot orbit at any arbitrary ltttude. Urrdcq it is heavily shielded, the station
mu ,torbit eith er aleivr' or below the high intensity regiorlS of the Van Allen radiation belt. To
F) Lc'h
N'
Hiyperboi'c
A tThe
-.-Encounter
lyp'bolic Encounter
L,:,,.r-yd'
--.-
_
..................
,'
D-ret-
Lunar Circumnovigolionf
_vehicles
_
-'
--
S--
._
....
"-
b,,r'Yr.de
..
.
Lunur Circuninovigaton
S.
Lurar capture
S-
"-
......--- and Lunar Landi
I iv. 2-28.
Vc ic ls.
2_,1
Possiblie flight paths uf Lunar
b
.
'
'0
t
.'
Based on their intended missions, Luatar

flights can be divided Into the following groups:
1.
Hyperboitc encounter.
2t Lunar circumnavigation.te).
3. Lunar capture 'lunr satellite).
4. Lunar Impact (hard landin).
5. Lunar landing (saolt landing).
The flight. patIh fUllowed by vethIcles ha, V.-.
of these groups are shown in Fig. 2-28. It should
and
be noted that Fig. 2-28 is purely schematic
ses only. It
.
.
is included for explanation pu rpo
does not show true Lunar vehacle paths as they

exist in space.
;"
Br.
Aire'
"
stay above the belt, it is expected that the orbital distance must be greater than about 15 Earth
radii and at the present time this is not technically practical. The higliest altitude at which
the station can orbit and remain below the blt
is about 350 nautical miles. For permanent
stations, a lower altitude limit of about 200
nautical miles is set by the atmosphere. Thus
a relatively narrow corridor between 200 andc
350 nautical miles is left for the operation of
space stations. 'Iorc detailed data on the naturat environments existing in this corridor, especially corpuscular radiation, must be obtairied
beforeapermanent manned space station can be
established.
environments encountered by Lunar

vehicles before they reach the vicinity of the
Moon have already been discussed. Once the
-vehicle approaches the Moon, thetype and severity of environments experienced depend upon
its flight path. yehicles that land on the Moon
as well as those that become lunar satellites,
fnnrflip
h
'Wil be subetdtepruP
-- extreme temperature difference between the
light and dark sides of the Moon. Also, Lunar
that ignite an auxiliary propulsion sys-tem to exercise-a powered maneuver near the
Moon will be subjected to acceleration or deceleration, as well as shock and vibrat.n. iror
Lunar Impact vehicles, which fall to the Moon's
surface under the force of gravitational attracthe most severe environment encountered
-tion,
is the extreme shock at impact.
The surface of the Moon must also be considered from an environmental standpolnt, although it is not known for sure whether it conBisists of a hard crust or is covered with a thick
layer of dust-like material. In addition, the
almost nonexistent atmosphere of the Moon will
provide vehicles with little shielding from the
Intense bombardment of meteoric material and
solar radiation.
Another natural environment that will be enz--countered on the Moon is low gravitatiornal acceleration. ItB value at the Moon's surface is
- only about 16 percent of the value on EaAh.
*.
ill.
"v:+K
"
IN"TERPLANETARY VEHICLES
For the purposes co this discusslon, inter"planetary vehicle refers to a space vehicle trayelln,r between the Earth and another planet. A
flight path s~cqtence that night- be foalowed by
In Fjr~. 2-29.
-"-
(C)
Mars
The vehicle Is placed Into a lowvehicle~~~Obi

frm arhtoMasisshwBErt'
trvin
IOrbi
altitu'. orbit arondfie Earth when both planets

are at (A). A suitable departure sition is reach-
is then boosted out of its Earth orbit. It coasts

the Earth's relevant gravitational field and
comc under the influence of the Sun's gravitational field. If undisturbed, the vehicle would
travel in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, with
its orbit crossing that of Mars at(C). However,
boxth Marr :l' the vehicle arrive in the vicinity
of CI -. the same time, and the vehicle Is "capturcd" by the pianets gravitational field.
A
powered maneuver Is then required Ifthe vehicle
,ibeither to land or become a satellite of Mars.
Similar types of flight paths may be followed
by vehicles traveling toplanets other than Mars.
Many environments encountered by interpl;Auiftary vchichs depend upon whether tlhay are
travelling toward or away from the Sun. With
increasing di-ozancc from the Sun, corpuscular
radi;tion, as well as solar light and heat decrea.le in intcrsity. Conversely, for a vehicle
trav,'1ii1L fvlrvl' LU Uie Oun, LAhet UAVrOnn&
becornre more .,vvere. The asteroid belt, which
is cm,~entrat-0 between thie orbits of Mara and
Jupit,,r, becomes an environment fir vehicles
travcl:iit to Jupiter and the more distant plaziets.
Othcr envirinents that may be encountered by
vehiules in intvi'planetary space are dust, metc,,ri'" material and comets,
,Mars(B)
Mars
Orbit
Earth(A)
M'
"outof
S
*
Up.,
arrivin, at a particular planet, a vehiel, will he ,ubj(,cted to many environments.
Atmo,,_,phcre, 'w'. etic field, gravitational ac(',_lcroti,,nmusurf ace characteristics vary from
plan, t to plane:t. Mars, for example, has an extr-.T'r-t;.
lin htr.rnrsnhorf, whilip that of Venus Ni
rhlattvely di|se. -Similarly, some planets are
ii','
1. havt
C3d
fairly weak magnetic fields
w-hiic it any'eaus thatVenus possesses a powerful
0,r,,, nrld c-'s"-q,'entUy a radiation belt similar
tr ~tiErth's
Vnn Allen belt, but far more int,, rse. A d, taild din;cusion of pl.aetary enS.... ' ,",.,tsim; 'ontained in previous portions of
it h;. h,-Cr.
.,YNVIRONVIE'NTS
IR.,,rytiv occurs when a vehiclC returning from
Fjilm 0 eLiters the Earth's relevant, atmosphere,
"llhe himtic ,l!ien'rgy
of the returning vehicle is
triroririu,
;uid the relatively rapid dissipation
of Utis ener!:y results in severe aerodynamic
hoatn r"taTrd druee.rrathion.
Air,,t,dyvau
,,a,,ia,,
Srictjmtb,
Ileatinl;
Around
Earth
Fig, 2-29. Possible flight sequence bIeEarth and Mars.
".
04twe
i!,
environment encomntered. The high air density

andhigh speeds involvedcan cause the skin tern-- erature of the entering vehicle to go as high as
3200 R. Factors that determine the severity of
:--aerodynamic heating Include: (1) speed of reentry, (2) reentry angle, which is measured with
- respect to the local horizon, and(3) shape of the
vehicle,
Lower reentry speeds decrease aerodynarnc heating by reducing the friction between
atmosphere andvehicle. Smaller reentry angies
aso aecrease aerodynamic heating, hince th.
vehicle passes more gradualy thrugh the atmosphere, thus allowing more heat tobe dissipated. Into the atmosphere than Into the skin.
-
""
'
The shape of the vehicle, especially its bluntness, has an important effect on aerodynamic
heating.
Slender and sharp, or pointed, bodies
have more surface area exposed to the airflow,
and therefore build up a thicker boundary layer
(see Fig. 2-30). The shock wave at the pointed
nose, or edge is generally notaas steep and hence
weaker than that of a blunt body; and the air flow
velocity behind the shock wave, as well as the
boundary layer frictlon, is much.higher. This resuits In less energybeing dissipated Into the ai'r
by the shock wave and more Into the boundary layer and skin. Consequently, severe aerodynamic
V'
- ,
.4.
.
heating takes place at sharp or pointed edges.
The shape of the vehicle also aff!/rts acr->dyn-.mic heating by influencing the reentry velocity and angle. A supor-acroaynamic glider,
for example, possesses some degree of aerodynamic lift, which enables it to maintain a small
reentry angle for a longer time than would otherwise be possible. It should be noted, however,
that for a vehicle employing lift, the reentry
time Is greatly increased. And, although peak
.,
4- r
'
skin temperature Is reduced, the total quantity
of heat that enters the vehicle is generally

greater than for a non-lilt producing vehicle.
Deceleration
As shown in Fig. 2-31, the deceleration experienced by a vehicle during reentry in pri-
caused by the intense
twe~en tie 4chic~le's skir and the air

ithci,,
IlVehicle
most destructive reentry
manrly determined by the reentry angle. "htis

angle, measuredwith respect to the local horlzon,
Ws negative fin a downward direction.
It can be
2-35
2I-3
'Co munications Interference
Shock Wave
xrm temperatures exist behind the shoc

At these temperatures and the aC(:omlow pressures, air molecules are dissociated and to isone' extent Ionized. This hot
plasma surrounding the vehicle has a high de~gree of absorption for radio signals with frequencies up to ahmit 15 000 mc- and B111CO frequencies between 20,b and 34q,000 me and between 40,000 and 6000 mc are attenuatted by
atmospheric 'water vapor and oxygen, only a
limited portion of the spectrum can be used for
radio communication with a reentering vehicle.
V~
SharpBodyshape.
SharpBodypanying
Intense HeatingJ
of Srmolt MassBunay
ae
Shock Wove
/Boundory
Sonic
UnsBody
Loyer
400
--
_____'
Reentry
An~'e
Bl1uni
A siape.300
j~ii~tO~i
V
,~
Fi.2-30. Aerodynamic heating as a
.200
seen that thc g--oad in(-reases rapidly for reentr; virles :,-rater than two degrees. T7his is
csp(.ci.LiLas(far
asohuman transthe irecnlry antv'1.i result in larg~e changes in the
Ti e d r-
pyaianeter, CD,.A/W, which
-.
F
'.
--
.-
v*
is a func-
tion of t)he vchiclc's shape and mass, has almost~

iivi ellect on) the d1cccleration environment othex
th ~in to di~urv.'e the altitude at w- ich thu peak g-
iado vurs. Sivuidarly, the reeriry velocit~y has

little- Olurlt on) deceleration. A elocity r'eduction of as inuc as 30 to 40 perc.nt if circular
cauncity only relatively small changes in
-1(,Id.
0.4-,-
n 0 . a20.
Lntry at Circular Velocity

eelaings
Dclttogn
Fig. 2-31. Variation of deceleration with

ltitdereenry agleand drag parameter.
ri
_mittcecon Ast~ronautics and Space. E.ploi'ation, United States Government Printing

Office, Washington, ]D.C., December 1958.
2.
tevr
HG."Ou
Treret
Air Force Contract No. 33 (616)-2689

-
Geophysics R-Croatnof
4.Han c'K,ck of Gec~phvsics~,
Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, U.S. Air Force, 1957.
-
7.
8i.
9.
Pro-
ect No. 11I11, U.S. Air Force ASD, V/rightPatterson a~r Force Base, ofi~o, Juine 1955.
Di Taranto R. A. and J. J. L2amb, P reliminary Investiga~tion of Hypr Environments
z7W
r
anostrand
xfethoda of-S~imiuiin, Prt
and Induced- E~n~vronmenta Above 75.,000(
Feet, Defense Electronics P routs, ~adio
America Cia~.nden, N.J.,
AD 142002, U.S. Air Force ASD~ WiiglitPatterson Air Force Base,8hioi',Jiuy 195'.
Criteria for
16. Climatic mid Environlmenta
estne
S Meric E.H,
~uccim II W.5.~~~Pepr
F etn
R.iicw
foreni
W.SMrikE
Corn-nton17
Air-craft Des)M Prpa
and A. G. Wilson', Edited by Peter Swerling
j
& rrmteAC2
~
IRE
'Sooie Aspects of Astronautics,"
Transactions, Volumne MIL-2, Number 1,AI172,Jn
92
Whnnle, F. L T. E. Sterne and G. F.
4 Dceber198.17.
Scliffing, S0516 Preliminr yValues of Up-.
per Atmosphere DFeqsity from Observation
.H.
.Kelggad
r,
.
U.GalyC,
Vt-stine, Space Vei icle Environment, RAND
of USSR -Satellites, pca
eotN.3
Y 3,-0
TejctNci.0 No.
NFGanteot
C,rporation, Report No. P-1335, 1700 Main
S tr e e i,, &nita NTo i ic a, C alif or nia, 7 J i Ayt.)b, .
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cfyv, Awu -st 1958.
195; AF~CR(-T R1-59-27 Ai~rForce Surveys
Vestine,,E...,1Physics of Solar-Terrestrial
InGeophysics No. 15,Geo hysics Research
,p~c;:Luniar khjgpt, RAND Corporation,
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Minc, Caiona
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. .the
"M&
-5.
A riI
,
&.,
*A
KfrArra
rborne
orAcafnt.
t'Tx.qeria
5
aniImttn WD
TS
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n Sacean
2.~~~~~~~~~~~SerI..,"rIteetnSpcan
its Technology"
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ecebe 198.15.
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and Positional
1~ot
iesofth
'
f~mtsWADC TN
AD 206671, ProiAJTToc~um~ehY_1Th'.
1
Task No. 13001, U.S. Air

'ocASI), Wright-Patterson Air Force
I"aisu .%Ilk I De( eniber 1958.
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'
.'
>~
.,;
~j
:Ov
'i
'
Monica, Cali~forn'., 7 January 1959.

20. Kellogg, W.W., Scientific Exploration in the
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ii.Ccrori'4C.,TheAtmspereNumer 3,
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ACIRC T,, 5--26,w
oenetPrnigO
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eerhDocuments,
5'CU7icpvis
f
I~i reci )rate, Air I orce Camfbridge Research
,..GvinetPitn
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I)'eorciCmanCmrde
*~
:md
Mass.
S'955be
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A. and J. J. Lamb, -The

.antR.
'awionen,"1'ltr(*L
eI
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toI I in;,
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tibution to the Measurement of the Earthl-1

0.'
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31. 1llwxcll, 13,?njamnin F., Jr., Introduction to
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'
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34.
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3:3. Vmi Alliwf, J. A., "Radiatofn Belits Around

0the Ealth,' Scientific. Amnerican. Vol. 200,
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H~xbrovnikoff, N.T., Na-turltl Enivironment of
13~on
hase Technical Note 847-3, Contract
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Ehice
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Ia
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11. A. Pence, RentyChar-
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iiarAsrS'atjo.ir~ -and L.v;rVlic,
rna utk-si Ilc-par L A7P -O001 . J unec 1957.
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.l,~.
,..,~1
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cu'r''-',-.'.~- _r
Di'-
ni.uti-!.
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z~p~o~r IDVI~e~rr _ Tmpeatues

~ e ooSetinReeac
TN-I-5, T!(:n~tdynnucs
Sctin 5 Rseach
Pr'ric.!s 1,.yrzitory, [)cveloprnent ( perations
Di)ist ,-, ,,ri~yFyi iti
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~
TN-'
~ TIcmdv
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T;r,1. G., 'Lifctines, of Artificial SatelitL

ef ul tire l1Auh," Jet P ropulsion, Vol. 27, No.
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IIIuurt * 1mtt
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0%iji-,,rnio
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27, i'4o. 2,
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211Translated 'y
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Techtt&r
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Vestine E. ReportKO~..1'700 Main
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F. Schilling, An bIterim
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s~~~.15
nl
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OfT -AA,
,o,
IA
and Gaini Sotel' iYcius 10738 A.pha

t32.1 of the P.ational A~caI(
ijo
FondNtlo~d,St c~e-ic
ic
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t
u.ive
i
i ir crtof
:1ftty,
(Aa
AlItii .1. A. and L. A. Frank, Radiation

iCTh R;fi 5i :irwKj K il omet e rs W
,I 11 si
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'.
____
E~nvironmental Criteria Branch, Pro-
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than the 15")h
14-"
N'
CHAPTEP. 3
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND EFFECTS
Thie effects of the various environments on

flight vehicles, suppo~rt equipment, components
and
descrii~ed in this chapter.
mt'-',aue
D'iit ral and induced environments are covered,

t~~1x)Ui
sinrIy, and where Information is availableEwoi~t
in comnbina~tions.
To avoid excessive rcpeditiork, the environimerts are covered indc)endently rather than in
Infor
inis.sion puf Le(cr flight path sequence.
matio~n on which particular environments are
likecly to be encountered by flig-ht vehicles following s~ecific 11 i-li paths is given. in Chapter 2.
Bec.(auseL of Uie iiitcrrelatiofl between environmne!Lal ufi(ccis LIJnd mthlodS Of prUtccting Systems
aTIx eqJUIPmenCt al-ainSt these effects, some overlap r)'i_1Sht,! -~centhe information contalned in
Table 3-1. Natural Environmenta and

Their Effects
Llii; clipter
tr-A that containf-d in Chapter 5
lNi~N
i;LPROTECTION). Thus, for
ma-, inunii h4.i-! it these two chapters should be
Used in
ti.oij~inction.
_____
OeainlMcaia
Evrnet
oeainlMcaia
Albeck.
AtudX
Clouds
Cosmnic rays
D
ae
Lissociated gssX
Fog
Frost
X
X
Geomagnetiarn
td
1iI
inand
a list of natural eiivirijntmnirts
Iil
u
-is5
o~h-r in','i~ h
tef ef vet of each Is operatlonu
Lr
'jr ii.(, iia !cA1. 'Jhe Sanic inifo nmuiAtilo for ilniicej
enj~iIu., ishumewi in TabI? 3-2. A inore
de~a~V
It
ehl tuwim
%
tho p'ux-1ion uf the m7ission
l rdh~f (br itic %iii(I Uii various Cr.vironnficiits
will i-ii)st likilybo urit ounte rvd,:asA-,ll as whiethcr I-It it 4 !iNe a
;i f 9 0P(!1 atfon.-l or mo-charilcal,
is in, luiu in (iL apL-r 4 (TahIlt 4-21,
7EV P
ju ratlit4
u
lii axic'ixdi'u
Iii
liNTIii
~peraturesina
1iq,
ratur e 1-s a mnuitifentai lxmaikinetic energy
-X
X
-Ozone
X
X
--
Pressure, ai
ifthX
jSalt spray
Ian and dust
k rghns
properly.
fro fnctionilng
bro
6;rc
Lxi:pcsn
hsar ;re n zutrn
ntna (Uie
aagdby
a fr z eri stourter motor.
X1
Me-lorolds
.)ut neve~rtheless proCalise_ thf syilutofal

vunciit
frmitiiiga
intenunma mission. As
atA -,:xawiplc, initerferunce caused by a severe
cle( ! rcAl stlirm cani make radio rccption im
p(OsF:0
uii>,
V
itouvii the receivirig equipnntIs
inl w -0d fip': ral ii condriilon. A iriechanicit orfodi1y- . "1r hand, is an actual defect that
ti:Lvtm
fHumidity
Pollution, m.lr
JA (.
c-i
HlallX
illigh-apeed particles
is orie thrat does not actually
opczte
-Gravity
Ionized gaises
EN~ll{)MJ:'jiEFFCT
-Lightning
Envirozirrn~ital uffect% fall into two general
cat-,rwis: 1iporaitionai and mechaniical. An
-I,
Sleet
Snow
Solar radiation
IVanuum
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
]Tcmperatur~e
Wind
Wtnd shear
X
X
X
-
of the trolecules of a Bubstai.' e due to heat agitatlon. It should be dsigihdfo

et
which Is a f orin of energy, wh ilt- temperature is
a factor affecting Uhe avallability :if enurgy.
Every weapon vystem Is expowtA to niany
varied ternperature exiremes fromi production
until tic Utineof participation In a minision. Temuuynkeni are initWIly Influe-nccd by
solar r;iiatlomn arid anibient air tenmperature..
. .tem ope(!rat Ion c reates addi tIonal h eat sou rces
tJ-at ContJÌbU1t~t UbdunfJC0 ad conirrartrinciA Lem-I
-
..I
3-1
Tabe 32. nduedEriig-nmeteSolar Radiation. Direct absorption of solar

energy can increa.*u 4La craft and comnpat(n
and Their kff#3ctd-well above arrbient air temrpertemperatures
Effec
Solar radiation is of particular importEffect
ance on flight vehicl~es parked in the open and on
equipment stored without p-otective coverings.
Mechainical
Operational
upon the material surface raid temxDepending
perature, solar radiation lo reflected or absorbed in varyIng degrees. Once the radiatlor
absorbed by the cuter surface of a flight ye-~
AcnuflticaIs
on Lemperature are dcpe-ident
hicle, Its effectscapacity
x
and heat t~ransfer charon the thermal
of the skin and on the flight vehicle
heatingacteristics
thermal capac
structure. If the flight vehicle's
and heat transfeor capabilities are high,th
electricityity
the moaterial cr
in
stored
be
will
heat
electic~tyabsorbed
distributed around the body with modprat~e tern
perature changes. If the thermal capaciLy bis
temperatures 'will rise moic -p'ld1y./2/,
xsmall,
Icing
ilk
4
'ature.
----
F~nirunment
Acceleration
Aerodynamic
Atmospheric
ExldorL:..ia
'Z
*\
x
Molftur
Moistre
Xby
(n(
-nar mris-)
Nulersubstantial
3-1 shows a speed -temperature reL A)~"

la~iouriahip UL42GoGOUUUk~L)UX"VU&LUILALOeb
The information io based on the assumption
o solar radiation and
fcto,
0.
of reovey
kFigure
Thu,
AerdynmicHoatln./3/ The heat produced~

anhiud iriction of air sliding
-cornresefo
Ue
~ln~ce this heating eff ectV
heating.
~aerodynamic
is proportional to the squa~re of the Mach niumlber,
Increases in temaperature can be produced at high flight vehicle speeds.
UA
~on~cix~rn10.
rit'.1
A, Stcignation Tempematurc
St~ea Level
I.- : of
6000
Adiabatic Wall TemperaI ture at Seao Le'vel9
500
C: Stagnation Temperatura
:1 or trn1ils
V bratiunT
x
xI
iru, irc it V
7nro
7000
5000
at 50.000 ft
D: Adiabatic Wall Tamp
hi::' mu'-s tJhi jpredkoinatinr factor, fol, nd thiuri by solar radiation.
u.oroture
at 50,000ft
LiIi luic.( surface and compartment terndu rc (-, broudilt abo~ut by one or inore of
iat Houreco:
U: f~ir r I.,11m-Ailu; mau;:j he-
E3000
air t(IlIKpvrAture.
20
At sul'er)nic speeds, ae-rodynaral~c
u',ttur('sz.
I :
:
1
li
1.
Ambi-i
ii:f: e(lii~i;mCict.
4. It'd-r
A ui' ii 'ii
A ii Tc(iwri tu rc./l/ Onl the grounrd,
'i:::lt
aL i
tcuujnzeituit! is
iifimutimed
A-
200
-D
1000'
by manyI
are: L.- nature of Uico

il
f.,, 1i ,;, itmilu of
I -it th'Ns uui itce, 1,eographical Inlitudou, incidence
rtvailing windtl, arndSpe,
sairu
~il~i
~IZA2dtiti
iruijlmrat*_ren3 ov-erj the
ilnli.
iit
II O 11i I fi t JII
MLI
-:
IIl1h raitiu'-IfomnI ixju- 1F(-83 C) to
ii
(7A CJ). Yor shlIri prf:uiJryA, ixA' 01c low
aur hilii: to 11111'l JtUm ('o (ail bc1)4 e-L'-.Ied.
3-~
-2
it
6
acnur
Cl
Fig. 3-1. Temnperature versus fipued to
M d
O/
10
.4
standard atmospheric temperatures. rhis illustratioli grapialhw

h
agru.
high teripcrallnrcs th.at arc reached at speeds
exceeding Machi 2.
while others are unduly compressed. The co-L

efficients of expansion for some commonly used
Heat-Produring E iilpment. At low speeds,

the principa source ofrii ifEivehicle heat is the
equipment within the vehicle Itself. Electronic
patnc~ n~wt,
eprtrs~prca~.dfeetrts
electri-a! rotAting equipment, power
esuti
.z~thertypes of airborne equipplants aa b(,,,
ment Can produce sufficient heat to raise COva-
Moreover, most maiterials, for lack of perfect heat conductivity, do not ordinarily heaLliup
or cool off uniformly throughout thtir volume
but do so by a series
h of temperature
otCRB
gradienits.
.7j
Hnnce, the several, portions of a single ploce
may expand or covitrat at diff erent times and
Although the heat produced by any piece of

equipment could be critical, clectronic and electrical equipment are gencially considered the
miniaturization and greater power output also
accentuatec G1c 1:ca! flight v,,iicle heat Latensity
complex systern of internal stresses that the

material may or may not be -able to withstand..
pr0'.are
Powker plant heating is a crilial factor In

coinpartmncnts surrounding the enginie. Although
thermial insulation is generaliy used, sufficient
heat is tranrlferred to tlo..eareas irnindiately
adjacenit to the engine to restrict sevwerely the
istalaton
f oter quI)runt.Table
result In some componenits being forced apart

materials are listed In Table 3-3.
3-3. Linear Coefficients oi Expansion

for Somne Commonly Used Material*/3/
Tcmperature Ef'rcto orn Niterial.(ofiin

hle3t and its correlative
1I' dCold ./4*
cold, oi, the O sence of heat, act as agents of
cheni ic'd a-u *iiy3ica] deter iatufrtwbasic
Firs,' zhe physicaipropertiesof almost
reasrmin
alliri
mauwnials are grea'tly7 modified by
hai'" ii ten".0rature; aid se-cond, the rate of
atniu.. all chnio _'ia reactions is markedly influcniccd by lorn'pcrature, F-'r chernical reaction.,;, a far illar nile-of-thjumb is that the rate
of Inost rea.ctions doubles for evary rise in ternperature 'if I P
.Moschemnical aftivity its steppod up by iie.tirg afid slowed down by cooling.
All cltcinic:il and physical agents of deteinutuatl" interrelatcd actIonis,
riora'ion .-xbid.
ria
Poroalain
carbon
2.0
Chromium
3.4
Woodl (verp.ge)
3.5
Gias& (average,%
4.5
Asidle fruom the fact that
Cpe
a cha.age of state' with
7c9.4
th,! r' qiiicd A'raeor

de~crease In temperatuio., (1-ima' is, solidui meilt, liqoiids freeze or boil
int'j ja(,and
g~sconden1se to liquids)
the r~iout inmportant physical effect ofDrant
pt0:
13 runze
10.0
10.4
Slilver
1019
(-(lit I m t op c")'At 1mj,an
Ti'm
13.0
AMumrdnrn
13.3
Mrigner!um
1.
IlulAbmmr
42.8
n'tii,
-22
Wliiit i w. or' j-n rtnival of heat ofl materials Is that

(if . '1,)1
in di nw-imcnoinis. W ithi very few ecccpci(_j:mt:.'I ki''v '1riacl exi `,mu on I.eatlny and
dlf (creitt materials exParts"Jo
.f
7.4
ipII.in
06
iOf~m4.7
1Tiftrowed6.
Nickol
4tnderl'r)
utei;
'xpEso
*.
6.5*'
Ab LiJIficcts.
''
3.0
Iron
ilia
Fx106
(pe do
asen,,c, or by the relative

;Oe
by the umew
iiem y of Oth ci a..e ts lile mioistu~rr, sunlight
I
Ja,,kj.y
MateeogF
tlf~two e!Xc(jA in the miost ruperficial w:ay. The

efloct o! lwat and c1old On materials is inod~ifed
!ii~ia
most materials not only show Et change in p~1y5Ical froperties oron.a kind or another I%-t.'hy
_Thso oe likely to undergo chemi.tsl c'knes
Teechanges takie place within tLia zn:_,tp'~al
or by chemical reaction with other elements of
the environment. Chemical reactions proceed
--more readily at high temperatures than at law
ones.
-~
'
r-I cuiimti i:(t at difffi er-t rates.
i ft 1,w0) i cr at one tenipt rature in the

; th''V d') at anotAher.
slhus changea
1m t1't''ii
tu
)Ii certain Vc3SO!nlliv
can
jd
t-;k!I
v v
., i" :m
i't, *,m hm
kii
C j
i ''tmiicj'1,3b Gle~n A. Greatcourtuay (A' lttinhorld

)vt5i~orx
dlp
tifni, I
Di
.V'~c,
F,
3-3
On exivosiure to elevated temperatures many

organic materials, especiaily those Of COMPlex
undergo internal chemical changes
st rucue,
ion, cleavkitch ain rearrang(3ITIeft, poly merizat
age and oyrolys is'. Certain plastics, for example,
experience continued polymerization under the
Wnluence of temperature; others undergo splitting of polyiner chains. And finally, increases
materials with %wa,.er(nydro~vsis)or 'Withi oxygen
toxIdAtmon), or both.
Loy!-Teniprtr
low temrperatursc
Table 3-4. Degradation of Ruibber by 1111gh

Temperatures /3/
Type of rubber
Silicone
500 t260)
Polyaerylio
Bun&-N
350 (177)
340 (171)
IJ~
Efts./3/ The effects of

r sflnR
ntraU
Highest. usable temperature F (C)
ttrSi1(157)
...
30(19
280 (118)
Baa-S
1. Lubricants bercome more viscous, loolsingNaua20(') Ntua

20.M
lubrication tndfl 'icra qualiti'1.
250 (121)
Thiokol
2. Pubbers, particularly carbon based types,
Rubber shock mounts lose their resilienice, ana
load-carryintz rubber parts such as tires, lose
4. Organic materials deteriorate, and longstreiqgth or h~conme temporarily deformed.
The
range aging processes are accelerated.
belorw
is
thermnoplastics
most
of
distortion
heat
3. Most plastics become brItUe and fracture.
203 F (95 C), and cellulose :)egLns to deteriorate
However, somec thermoplastics, such as Teflon
at about 212 F (100 C).
pliabUlsatisfactory
mairtain
and poAyetbyleuc,
ity. Liectrical characteristics of plastics are
Hyvdraullc fluids e~,an rate. hreatE down
t'recjaby.5r~o aterd
MstncU'1mtlexiiadceae
U.fclpiorlc-inssif
uhr
tea, c.I..ea
tear
Thermal shock refers to

sudeMP&M Bgsi~n-tewper,ture, whichi result in
high temperatu.re gradients. Depencling upon
the severity of the thermal shocks and the ros'iltlng stresses, the elffects can vary from little
or no damage to complete rupture.
and cracks and

storioffipat
tenmsin
tnsin. uodrorsw
cail
orImpct.
1ike can~vas, become so
7. Hriva'y fabri,
ilfle.i(Ml)letlIy ('uliW)t be foided or unfolded withiOUL djui-rler Qf I -akinlg 0o' tearing,
arc ;t
nSot ably [!lass ardw~,

tej
dppj-cjiahly aff~ected.
in
cuit~ait,
lubricants,
-i'a'
.1-4
t'iii
ild'34
...-
WAIA~l AL1645.
--posed to low temperatures for long perlods are
quickly brought up to maximum speeda./3/
V-
4r
'
Temperature Effects on Componentai,~,

temperatures are freq~u;uaLly the
cause for the failure of component parts. The
_general elffects of temperature on various cornponeflts are desbribed In, the paragraphs that
follow. Electronic, electromiechanica~l and mechanical components are discussed under sep-
I.
'Extreme
hydraulic
eprtrs
'lc
Lu a''' in ttrrii~ie stinoiwti.
at %%Ili( Il %vanriot typoes of rubber become unlus-
Thermal shock will bo encountered most fre

quUMLY
The effects ol high

!,IiK -'1j''iLp'' zature EMfects.
1
f'fo llow s:
'I
': t L;r ,I- n rIaI cari7Jsarc
ti
ownand
brak
1. (r'.,SL
iccnrethi,
the soap
and
evapyorat-es
base
oil
Thc
oxidWc.
ba-: , Hiars udcr the inc'reased frictional beat,
oidi~C, ormng
ols
valoateor
1ubrati~g
2. V,'ici
flui':, ind %vai~iotw ri'itaults.ud rg a coplx
(hlulwlj tI ia:tijn that lca'IL, to 11) a decrease in
ftie metal.
(L) C '0lo
;)l
vail. ciud
lot i~nl
Mvlok afi':(tcd this way include cadmidum 3 cadIt -ad Alloys, nialnesirim, copnice jlo:s ~~
md sih-cr. Steel6, aluiiinum and titanium
IIIemplo
Y'
at
dirtt~iaiiireiaily.form
h'tirIoth natiir'al and Fiviiti~etic be3.
set, arid dewr.
aeo~aiiliancit
-S
and oxidZe.
The strength of most flight vehicle atructural materials decreases.
.1.Motydr.oicf~i~d,; thiekert, and tb' syss

ce:c)n'~
ter !I.6.
5.
art
hains
Electronic Components /5/

-
'
fesistorm.
Vhe types of resistors pretiently
ed-1h military equipment generally per-
satisfactorily at low temperatureb, aliwuugh

'large resistance variations in high value cornposition resiftors can be expected. High ternipratllrrs causei most resistOr3l to fail rapidly.
YJoth reversible and Irreversible rosiotunce
change8 take pl~ace.
'I
Wil-hin the temperature range of -67 to +.77 F

(-55 to +23 C) the repistance of wire wound resistor.s utuat~v varies leaf- than 1 percent. The
extent of the resistance change for any
particular resistor depends uIpon its nominal
value and the resistance materia~used. Udec ol
ddgissinlar nieltai& for control sh~afts and shaft
be~arings of continuously variable resistors (e
tentiornL -,iRand rh#1csUL.3) can result in excesejoseness of Ehaft aloten
nivntigtneo
peratures. Binding of the shafts can also result
ifproper lubricants are not used in Vie bcarlings.
the movable arm
~The torqiie rqire ortt
OA SomeC, units operated at -67 F.. (-55 C) can
sometii'es be more than 50 times ati great as
the turning effort neediod at room temperature.
Temporary electrical discontinuity in variable
wire wound _.61ctors, due to ice formation or
hart~~ii. oftheubrcatonthercsstawe cMent, have been reported at -67 F (-55 C)./6/
Composition. resistors, both fixed and vani10
ablecanshowresstace vriaionsof
to 56 percent as th4? temperature varies from
-67 to +25 F. The largcr changes take place in
resistorsof higher nominial values. During 2tirerInai cyclc!ttsts performed betw een -67 and + 5 FP
numerous craCKS in Oie plastic insulating tubes
of certa 1n fixed cornposicion resistors developed
Althoulsh Uie crak ontatrterssac
tactual
(hai
al-
UIICiO~.t
Y,i~
tUSI.4l"W
Lui lLsIcs
~ii,~itos.Most capacitors are cap)able of

satiSfaCLory ope~ration attePie-ratures as low as
a1bout -4') F (-45 C) and often lower. The behaviorojf0(!ctiW iticanidwax impreg-nated papcr
1,eiciiies critical at temperatures

).Some types.
1( ad -0
sucha:1 tai~tariuni, (:an opurate at the lower tem
pcratui cs, but under s-evera~l limitations.
Eliilyivcapacitors exhibit large reducat low temperatiofl15 ]Ii etfect;'e cip .cr o
d'kpwiding, upon tOre electrolyte,
ture-s,ti cxt,
type (-f t-,, voltd',L rartuir and manufact.uring
Ieu si_,res resistance, and consett~ccbr~i,,.
qirenI-t-l ire inip-6i uce of electrolytic units inVarteprtUre.
bzr
j
~r;Uvt
ceass
ndrei sitaneC Aitht temneri~rie':.''" "'.higher frequencies.
~~atori I. n I tr.it
b~te~i-s22mid-1
*
4
L~ow Li ncr:bs-rati s refult iii two favorable effects:

the dif i- [tic h:ruakdown viulta4',O increases and
k Lt'tOui i Lilt leakzage, value., Flrow an exOWlit
t eiii cae.-;I orav'e of electrolytic capac-r
itUI-s wl tcnipiiip'tirturs as low as -67 F (-55 C)
resuilt iln wl jir mniarurt h~arm and may even inhihiit d,1
i
'IIh' ct i to :iIl
at
a fiirtinf.iCtOrilV at
itr irfOrm
t*.1jX*.i(
Mi(,
Calpacitance aWi loss
rat ur u1111Ps.
SUI)-7c V t'rip
fact,i:7it~r
swiin In;
I v..If
v-itir
rrj '
nipi
tewpijreatnrie
are quiteW
nitut
(-i di~wt to, -67 1, (-55 C) and
ptinA11.
m,
t,,uu;f Ai "i co t itc
those(. typ~eF
ni41 (Itc slg; crack, or
nrntnds(Jf
Wax-iniuregniatod paper capacitors are subec oextensive cracking of the impregnAte bie4 F (20 C). This results in perma ieut
lo
changes in capacitance, Insulation rzcs1rt-nCe,
and a-c losses, especially if moisture enem.,
the capacitor's properties become
Fngnrl
impaired, with the dielectric failing ultimately.
Air capacitors (including vacuum and insert
gas types) are relatively stable with respect to
capacitance and losses as temperatures are
varied. Iii some instances, variable types may2.
require considerable, increases in torque to rotate the movable plates, probably as a result of
improper low temperature lubricants.
SIIGhLIL.
life of th' alffcted units. Variable comnposition rusistors are subject to the same torque
and discontinuity difficulties mentioned in conaditon,
"itiiwhowoud
reistrs.In
iiecicji
high temperatures cause tire lubricants used in
up, ooze out, or
io dry
all vaiiable rtesistors
t ohersufacs.Ingand
niiratimn
trebeains
*thec
It molds split under thermal shock. relativeiy

changes An capacitance an
--- y
adpranent
wetas a-c lonsea may occur if moisture euters
the affected units,
i-mrnaepecpelrfuctopj
01-mrgajtpprcaaiosfucinwl
at cold temperatures. As ambient temperatures
are lowered from +77 to -67 F (+25 to -55 C) and
below, a general reduction In capacitance taker,
place, althotigh this Property mnay show a slight
tncreas dont .xt-4r(20C1r
et1
ty~nes of oils. The-capacitance reduction from
room temperature to -67 F (-55 C) may vary 5
percent for mineral~oll impregnants.
high temperatures cause decom-4

rdi.Lper capacitors. In addfition, temperature rises
result irt hicreased d-c les~kage current in electrytcapior.Ticaesnraedet-.
drying ouit of the electrolyte. Itapid failure of the capacitor Inc viiably follows, High
temperatures can also lead either to rupture of
the electrolyte or rupture of the container, both
of which result in capacitor failure. Air capacltors are virtually immune to high temperature
effects, while variable ra'r capacitors may be
affected by loes of lubricant in bearings and
shaft seizure.:.'
-- n general
Transformers can be exTransformers.

pecte to operate satisfactorily over the tornpezature range of +77I to -67 F (+25 to -55 C),
urovided precautions have been taken, in. their
design to prevent mechanical damage due to
thermal contractionk. Coil winding rosistance.
ithi decreasing temperature.
derNe shrl
Thecd-c resistance for copper wire of any gauge
at -67 F (-55 C) is about 70 percent of its value
at 77 F (25 C). Cracking of potting compoundsB
and terminal bushings can also occurv especial-I
ly if the temperature drops rapidly.
70stoadee
V
A2
'P
.~
In general, high temperatures reduce the life

of a transformer, Inijulation deteriorates and
the resistance of the windint-s IncreaseB,
ibly resulting in clianges In transforme
-)S
cliar-
acterihiticti.
Elvctron Trubes. Low temoperatures have no

serious effects on tubes. J3liow 32 F (0 C), tube
cathode heating f inre takes longer. Also, if the
3-5
co!Jensed-mericury tcmperature In a maercuryv;,p(Jr rectif icr-tube is below Whe minimum value

of the oper;,t ipg range, arc -back can occur. This
wdi damage the tube, Low temperatures can
also cause th.hc bazing cemient to crack.
the Inaulation of wires. Unless the temperature

in high enough to soften the glass, pilot lamps
are not affected by high temperatures.
lcom
hailCmpnt//
High temperatures can result In grid emin-Eetroecaial

omonsaeiem
such a.8 relays, magnetle. and thermal circuit
Electro~v;-,!z of! leads coming through tho glass
breakers, awitches electrical indirating in
eriveI,_pe car. also occur. As the bulb temperruetadrtangevcs(org'nature increases, the life of a tube is markedly
tuesanrotwdvis(mosgedecerased. Figure 3-2 Ehows average life test
ators, d'famowore, resoivers, synchros, VyrS).
survivals of typical tubes as a function of bulb
:X.Rly
prtdudrcl
epr
tempratre./'~/atuire
conditions generally perform their InSemiconductors. In general semironductor
tieaced functions, Provided the mechanical probdicv gv3stsa~r
perdormance at subIemsencounteredat low tiumperatures are taken
zero tcflr,j-J.re-. Changes from room terninto account. Thedecrease inwinding reststance
rt~rauiet, oeraticne can be readily compensated
Ateids
to alter relay operating characteristicall
for, shoidd any low-temperature effect be un-.
PaI'ti~nllSzly it small or critical ccrr --ts a~re
desirablde.
inole, as is the
with sensitiv"! rmays.
At low temperatures, czse
operating (closing)mrgnA
As the ternp eratuore rises, semiconductor der mrvdadnnprtn
rlae
agn
vices becomic Increasingly unreliable. Transissire impaired. Variations in spring stiffnes3
t~ts, i~ouldnotbe
fr catzplc
pertedinEm-d
magnetic properties can also change thess
blent temperiatures over 185 F (85 C).
characteristics. Ice formation on operating
parts and contacts can cause trouble at low teni()-,bvr_ !7E~cfronic Conp 4--tits.
Additional
peratures. In addition, lurbicants and dashpoL
el& tronilc corn;onen!L: in cludec terminal boards,
oils, where used, tend to congeal.
~
Con-voctor;, v ire, sockets and pilot lamps. Low
tf,11.rcrfi,i'r.ttJJ1 niJr not flrifl-na11f
Affect these ComnMagnetic and Thermal Circuit Blreakers.
pjim", it.s scinusl v.
Pu-sible low-temperature
Magnetic
circuit breakere wi~th silico6ne-oLT1damnip effL~s
1) ~i(-nr]icsocetsmaycrak,
ae:
ingperform, well1 at Fiub-zero temperatures.
As
(2) %Oret ae~jrc: q tIhencbliy tocflexs may cracke
the temperature drops, the time required for
as the coldl U-2cts th~e insulation, and (3) conthe breaker to trip under overload or short cirfl~~'r
rcvC rn,'
ad bcam
dificlt i~
cuit conditions tends to increase. Thermal circult breakers are affected at reduced tempersC~~irtc.-~atures
by the increased heat transf er away from
;>vr, and release of vtas from other tube elements.
11
fenem
'
10!;h
termperature-s adversely ar.

bo-irds, connectors an,_
the bimrntallic actuating elements, with a resultant change in operating characteristics.

tripping time at temperatures near -67 F (-55The
can be about double the time required at 77 C)
F
C) for a given overload current.
'fickrtcvs,tt..niinal
_______________(25
------
-.
:C)cletly
o cusecracking.
true in the poityof
('n),,Tr-fr
A KS (22)
~ ~.matter
.~
This iB especially
attached meta parts,
which may contract miore severely or mrore

rapidly than the phenolic, plastic or ceramic
nay a~llowv entrance of moisture or other f oreilxi
t~hat can cause a short circuit. TDie apaof sv.'itch contacts, which may be a fraction
o an inch, may decrease sufficiently to cause
vrltage breakdown or corona.
-cing
2'S ('l32)
f. 300 (572)
2U 500
750
1Q006
Durnoi of u Life Test, thours
*'
high temperatures, both magnetic and thernai circuit breakers trip at lower currents than
at room temperature. Thermal circuit breakers
are. affected more by high temperature than are
_At
Ea.tichea, Exposure to lvw cmperatures can
6
11
chemnical
to which swlitches maiy
50 beThe
subjected areactionm
accelerated by high temper;dures. Reactions that take place silowly
.4t
112.3-? JieAvrag
tst urvval ofnorinal
temp.eratures, may take place rapidly
1 i,. 3-. Aeraj.(lifetestsurival
at Pigh temperatures to Impair tswitchJ
typi' al tubces vsi bulb tehzipuratures./7/ofenough oper;Alon.
4aisu~lation resistance between thec
'
Ewlicli contacts and ground. may be thousands of

mcgohms at room temperature; but at elevated
tempecratur-es it may decrease 4o as low as I
megohm. Ano*Jier effect of high temperature ib
the Increased speed of corrosion of contacts3 and
switching mechanisms. Corrosion or expansion
of mndierials at high temperatures results In stuck
toggles or jammed detents.
__The
f~iso
g~ons3
effects of _kempjeratibre on equiprment are

depndrkrnot~ o te cmpnetscomprising
Imwv
h dnesintof. the equ tpdlctepequdpemtnot,
ent deternitnez to a great extent the temperatures that th6 corfponents will Im subjoc-Led to.
In electronic equipment, the proximity of
-transformners, and resistors, in confined spaces
and enclosures raises the ternp erature acid. may
-lead to malfunction or early f ailu re. T~a eL~eat
producing components themselves tcoid to o Prate hotter, zompourding the deleterioui~. ct:.
Rntatii~g_ Ievi*ces. Motors and dynamotor#3

will sTrt anaJ perat e satiifactorily at temperatures as lOw as -67 F (-55 C), provided lubricants specially developed for low temperatures
are used. in general, as the temperature is
ciecreased from +77 to -67 F (+25 to -55 C), the
final operatizir speed is lowered and the input
powe-r incrcases somewhat. Generators require
ihtmprtrs
The trend toward miniaturization and greater
power output also accentuates heat intensity
problems in electronic equipment. MiiiiatuirIzation, with its small space factor, leads to an
in~rs. Low temperatures change the electrical

cliar;acteristi~ of resolvers, synchros and
iththex'ist
mpotan efectbeig a
gyrs,
dccrua.- in ar-.:.
o crep,
caus luricats
flij.1 temrporat-res cuelbericngs tcre,
oooe In' evaor:tdsleadrings deerort more.
Cunouatos
ad li rigsdetrirat mre
owdir; rsistnceinceass,
an w
raj~d~v
erii':, the outpl-t voltage of dynamotors ana genrators. Syri(AiC)s, resolvers and gyros exe
hibilt a djru(rr. pnacrc.Ingnrl
terinratioii of insulation brings about ultimate
failurf- aI-ll ro~atiurwdevi-es from an electrical
Pmlt Of *i"on
on a
~uponets.
Mecanicl crn-
p~nfiit'~ui
.0"'-', it rfls Eudi as pumps
valves
l'di., dic :,-.( pneumat~ic actuators, sliock andma
i~
vil'rais etc.verity
~!
tw
Pvih teropirattircs similarly- result in dif.'ru~tacti'mi. This causes a variety of

uot as h1titidiuig of -movable parts
rnaiai it-,
ii .~ ,' i, 'J JoJlt -, distoi tji-il of aiscnibiiew WUa
rut Jr.:, (of s-'rib. Valvf's, for example, may
I uci leakaige in check
ca'1 -i Imil: ori 1'ak.
sarid selector valves, norvI.',lv(Ot ji
((:1
rfidia
"
''~
increased concentration of thermal energy.
This is particularly true since the total electrical power dissipated by zLminiaturized unit
is usually as great as, i1 not greater tlan, that
dissipated by an Paulvalent urnit of conventionsl
construction.
Thp combin'id effect of mainiatu:rization and
increased power output has been to increase
heat densities of subminiaturized electronic
equipment to from 0.5 to 3.0 watts per cubic
Inch, with an average of about I watt per cubic

inch. Experience has shown that aegradation Is
likely to occur when the heat dissipating surface of a piece of equipment is required to dissipate, by natural means, more than 0.5 watt
per square inch for a 122 F (50 C) rise to tempe.tre
Other effects of high and low tewperatures
equipments are.
1. The shock and vibration environment of

shock mounted equipment myincrease in Bedue to rubber shock incunts losing their
'
'~
:
~~
Freezing of collected water may cause

equipmlent to malfunction by restricting the
operation of, or damaging, gear trains, inechani,aimcnrlec
tir;rdursdiffrenialconracion2.
re.r-wis ini I r'*.tn, fluid leakage and pump and

Mctu-il ?- diff[Luitics. Exitraipped moisture frerwt vringf orif ices. Stiffening, of
C:10o'c,':(),io~i'u'
vihr itiin immUlt at cold tuniperaturest Increabes
* ti~i ri>~uraifreqenc,
an theebyreduesS.
iso~r rn
'I li': bjIlvior of tbes- componentsi
1grc.r lv influt-nced by the material from which
the';v arc cusi.,tiuctud auid the type of lubricant
*
-- eprtr
ElectricalmindicatinaTnsturents. Most
aifcotriaf iniaigisrmnsoprt
indiily at reduced temperaturce; changes atin -87F
percent
10
than
less
be
kmay
cation
(-55 C). T'hermocouple and rectifier type meters
Temperature reduction can cau.3c meters to read
inacorrectly by altering the properties of such
basic mote" .ir',-emnont parts as cootrol springs,
mr&aEn_., and coils, as well as range .xnd functionchanging accessories,
greater power arid have a higher voltage output

bc,,asac of the ,,oduced resistance o! theD uine-
xnalUy aggravatedhby the cyclical use of fuels of

different aromatielty, will be increased at. edo
--vied temperatures.
cotosec
,*1.ms
Guns may freeze and become inoperable,

ethrbcseo
igangfluiatsr
losubreicnt orma
condenationuan ofreonezing of
nra
eznsf.ostr
condestime nhanism
4. Ijattery operated equipment may n.alfunction at low temperatures due to reduced
battery output, and at high temperatures due to
'
battery deterioration and decompooition.

mvy malfunction K'. low ternlperatu:'es due to bzidiiig of iauuvablul paila.
-Equipment
3-7
TLny,,rature Effects on Guided Missiles
Compartment heating in also increased by

solar radiation, The maximum compartment
temperatures in guided missiles due to solar,
radiation will depend on speed and altitude. For
altitudes below 100,000 feet, the eifects of radiation on the transient temperature distribution
may be neglected regardless of Mach number,
as the heat flu.x cue to radiation is never more
than approximately 8 percent of that due to convection. For alUtudes above 10-000fee' though,
the effects of radiatiun ahould be taken into
account.
,
e
n ldfel
misstiles, the extraquely low
Ineaiqur-Les
tenetuethteitabntolqidoye
or liquid hydrogfn linee can adversely affect
nearby componea.8 and equipment. Temperatures as lCow an -300 F (-149 C) may be encountered.b
The thermal shock of going from a reiAtively low ground temperature to extremely high
temperatures wvithin a few minutes puts trernendous stress on guided missiles. Dilferential-xa'psions and binding of mechanical parts,
as wcil as malfunctioning of metering devices
ia occ,,r quickly, leading to system ftilure.
High rarn-al- andl skin temperatures lead to
compartment heating and constitute the most
critical aspect of supersonic flight. The increase In ram-air temperatures with flight
speed Is shown In Table 3-5. From the figures
In nthis4
tLr iable it Is apparent that rain air will not
be a suitable means of compartment cooling.
In addition, compartment temperatures are increased to dangerously hihlevels
o
the he-t tcanrsi,:ri ed to comipartments from the
hot skin of the missile./6/
_
_
~Temperature
Tro
,icreased fliht altitudes also increase compartm,,nt heatirig. The effect of-this increase
in attitude- is to further decrease the cooling eflect of a givcn volume of air, since the capacity
of air to absorh heat is directly proportional to
its density. Thc order of magnitude by which
the itcat ahs(rhing capacity of 4r falls off with
altitude :s shown in Tble 3-6.
0l1O
1", .
-
eI
"
~
.
N.
-
1. The strength of most aircraft materials

decreases as temperatures increase.
:
-
,
89(
1570
DhLferentlal expansion between the inte1rio and exterior-aircraft sturcture may set up
reverse thermal stresses.
790
1420
19
470
92.
ll)
4110
(,80 350
'
-.-
(wtet)
Pinh T
neratnre- WffertR. Hhih temoerature
con-diions can effect virttually every system and
-- part In an aircraft. Important high temperature
are as fOOWS:
Temperature Ineffects
'Mach number of:
A ititL
Effects on Manned AircraltL,
Most of the temperature effects on manned

aircraft arise from the effects on miaterials,
_components and equipments previously discussed. Additional efflects are described in the following paragraphs.
Temperature effects on
-humans, which must be considered for mantued
aircraft, are covered iater in this chapter.
Thh' .1-5. bncicase of Ram-Air Temwneratures

With Flight SleCd/G/
,"
3.Hydraulic systems may malfunction due

40
280
LthJ
'I
25
So. t
-o 1
,li!
'If,'it
0a-.
250
_1(1
1270
40
640
5.
Absorbing Capacity
rti-n ()f
f Air With A!titud /G/t
_____
690
tO degradation (f hydraulic fluids.

4. If too much heat is absorbed by aircraft
fuel as a result of aerodynamic heating, the
;J-vapor pressure of the fuel may exceed ambient
pressure and the fuel will begin to boll, result-ing In the loss of fuel.
I,,
(I ,at
ri,
.4
-t.
Turbojet and alter burner performance are
adversely affected as a result of higher inlet
______temperatures.
6. At high speeds, aerodynamic heating be-
Hl:if ahsurbing capacity

(of given volume of air
as p!urccritage of that
zac level
comes so severe that ram-air cooling cannot

be used.
Low temperature Effects. Low temperature c .fects o'n manned aircraft include the following:
:"O
(,
50
;(,.Wo
25
1. Hydraulic systems may vpring leaks clue

todifferentlia contraction. Also, hydraulic systems car become stiff as hydraulic oil thickens.
,:'.,,
10
2. Moisture may freeze in pneumatic systerns, clogging metering orifices and lines.
3. The starting of reciprocating enginesfi Is
restricted by the congealing of oil.
__...._,__
V
'1l
p.-.
4. Contamination of jet fuel can result from_______

conrdensation following a change in temperature.
Waiter may crystallize out at 0 F (-18C) andI
clog fuel metering passages.
0.96
Tem erature Effecto on Sate~lites and Satellite

There are two types of temperature environments -X-"4!'tnied in satellite flight- aerodynarilr heating aiid radiation heating. The first
type occurs while satellite and vehicle are rnovIng from the ground to orbit, The second type
is encountered daring orbital movement of a
satellite at altitudes greater than 200 mitles.
.4
The satellite and vehicle travel at very high

speeds to reach orbliting velocity. During this
acrodyn--ixic hcaling phase which may last for
Ewo or more minutes, the Induced temonerallure
is of prime irnportnce. The temperature increase creates a thermal shock that results in
temperature gradlcntsand stresses in the satellitewaid vehiclec. The i-kin temnperatures for this
range from 1700 to 2400 F
of fli~lit
)rtion
r(q27
to 1335
C) and are highly dependent upon
ruln
Trbln
0.2Fo
E
C%.
E
I-
2 0.90-
~i
2Lominor
'n0.88 1.3
Flow
0.86-
ruie altitude, speed oi flight, and type of air flow

ahout the ':ehicct-. Tuirbulent flow creates ternperatures hrgi;:cr 1<ithose obtained by laminar
2.08.4'35
I0.8A4
5
8 O2
m5betr
L2c0
3 M2c5 N35
ilov.. Typical vairiati-ns are shown in Fig. 3-3.LoaMchNmr

J ;oe tcrnnrati~-c shockis felt direct~ly by t-he
inand vIl-er e::teinit surfaces such as ra-
donies. The 5`.in-temperature shock problem

can involve a change of 36 F (20 C) per second
for 2 ininute8. The internal equipment does not
recieive tli-c name tcmperature shock since it
rivsthe ternperature change over a longer
puriod doe to Uie la6 ill tirernial transmission,
The major efe(Ct of the high temperature is
to~useciuinefltobcorc.inoperative. Elec-
troni~c cuiuiprnitnt r-" e,-ts to function. Seals

niav no'.
p.e.rroperly clue tc, ex-Pansion. Me-
dlaruic:.d rnovint; parts miay expand and lose

thcir s~rfmrtb. 1'Proper-tics of liquids anid meta'_
n;.ii-,Orauii 11u1u May UVUdI) dLt:, lMiJ.U1L
S
resistanice of wire will increase, and
tire porpei-to sof rragrreitic material will change.
j~ai
~':.1s'9
pri
n-leans of hevat exchange Ibetwcen
a.;::uaur vc~h>-.~ rlid its enrvironmrent is radiation.
ex~iuve,,plus any internal heat geniaiw iw
t'uu-u dutermzrine the .spacc vehicle's
ir.tenA-w Sat-face tempera' ires. The amnount
(if riLWtti'ur
h thi ehicie depends on
I),,he
-r
Ule
';'1~r1 al'sor1)iolrr
.- rlavteric~ties of the
SrUiat:c Iurdt'!rial
wilu tire ,riiunt of radiant

41"
C111
(n
Ieddpends
Ay
not only on the surface
n~eaum
u as
n iespcrl
msio
cl.ar.iet-rrstUes of U.e surface. The absorptivity
au's
of a riaterial depend in turn, on
the
a~li'u~ti f the- radiat ion and the chemnical
'is-sivity
and uect~rurealchaacte
of iresurfce.lative
at llsor~tivity anid vnrrrusivlty of ffout ptni-11ri m-tit surfacus incinease approximately
I !I
I uoarly %,ith
VIi
ILO
1I)I1
t-rrrpcrairur,
tt'Jlpcirturf-s
anid the radiaiion

of such miaterialti are
Fig. 3-3. Turbulent and lam inar flow tempera-
tur~evariations asfunctioas of Mach numbeer./8/
relatively high. Non-metals, on the other hand,

often exhibit the opposite trend, withi absorpttv~ty
and ernissivity decreasing. wlth temperature.
This results in a lower r~adiation equLiarium
temperature. The absorptivity andt emlbsivity
of roug.i or oxidized metal surfaces are generally little affected by the temzperature of the
radiator.
RetrVhce.
enr
71-,
*.,I
eilF
renern
pla-eta
are subject t(; e1xtrenie heating duc to friction

betw"ei the atmosphere and the Bkini of the vehicle. Althou.gh little is known about the effect :
of penetration Into other planetary atinosphere_.,
the effect of reentering the atmospherp of Eaxuh
has been thie subject of considerable ntudy.k
Figure 3-4 Lihows the stagnation temperature
as a function o~f altitude for reentry vehicles of
typical ratios of mass V. frontal area, with approach speeds axangi~ng from 10,0010 to 36,200
feet per sewvnd. The latter figure WWii hOWSUr
as a limiting case bez-ause ft represents the so
called "escape velocity" for a body leaving the
Earth. The stagniation temperature refers to
the temperature at. the extreme forward part of
the nose, where-the air has zero velocity reto tire vehicle./l0/
Tfie heat at The reentry vehicle irobe is scu

great that the nose will hu-ij up unless: (1y it iL.
made of heat resistance tz-4turlal, (2) it is coat ed

to abi.;ojrt. thto heat, (3) it iB du!8irgid aerody-
. .. .. . . .-.
.-
'-*
2F
160
Velocity
2e
2
20
-5,0002
.20
C~
-12-00.
ag
:t
!r/sec
RRongte
<1
024
0,200
0____0_
0 20 00
4000
6000
6sOJoo
Ztcgnntion Tfe.-;perature. K
IQ00
0
-)
34
Time, minutes
Fig. 3-4. Reontry vehicle altitude vs stagnation temiperature with typical trajectories as
Beat generated equals 100 Btu/
paraimeters.
fi 2 _scc..'10.
Fig. 3-6. Ballistic missile, cecrtr-.

recoy//
--
Nose
Reentry al33Deg
2500r
"eon,
I.2
Ay-y
A-
f___f______
8100
600
4100
^v Timne, seconds
2100
500
i'(,Tlr hoal flux vs reentrv
SI.,T'J
fli:
6)C
miles. '11
02
Lii.
lll, Lo iue
04) 0-_ s-o ~rI il
.''itr
.
r-l-i #i
lI
)[h)
thi! t-a
Fig. 3-7. Ballistic inissile surface touwperature during reeiitry./12/
OJic stainzat iuu temperature,

s controllod or (7) the
IS C(Alttli(2ld.
n
,If
ail 0,r.(ry
e'rodofaerdnmi
i:
S'v~ .U-t
Y'rre
46
3
m
me, mi nu t s
1.158, cou rtusy of Rt. Hioglund,

SfK:ctv,.i,_
l~r. .1. -11wc and American Ro1cket Society.
~nxj
etig
when ree:(,.try pathis below
It is also apparent that
-')iitj1 atI fne.
flux to the staiu:1tion point is reliI
I'll
missile reentry trajectory is Wliwn In Fig. 3-6.

Fl gure 3-7 shows the missile heating Utat resuits f rorn this trajectory.
_'ln.-;iJcrah 'v
utt Ow k
Muc'i,nhthl~
i,atingr rate is in-
t(2111 1ratures9 also bring

111,1
hi'
'Il.
Y AL,'("d.
(Llior prohlfenis . At temperatures eqoito) diSSOCiate
gi
U
VLIn'1t 1' N1 t, 1 U0, 1'.XYgen
ahlmlit
Ownili al ir-a(.twns occu r, resulting ei ll-, in ;wi I(,rIII,iteir1 01ntrnrc oxide. Thec
w)0:,: 1 'it~lle, must I K: able to resist clhemical
the. veii Io. A typ~icali ballisticaclt ! it, pr'!t
anid
:t
I.~
(From Recovery________________________
fri;ni a Saleilhfic Orbit, paper presented at

1
ifI
o,(fAif,wricay, Rocket
' i,,!,u LI il(
At? Body
1000
1Q000I
The heating effects of reentry into the atnos-f

pheres of otlier bodies irn the Solar Systemn are
speculative. This Is boecause reentry characteristics depend. on the gravitAtional accleiratlon,
g and varilationaof density with altitude, ,vhich
at the present time are only estimates, in peneral, the greater the value of v- and chanlges of
density with altitude, the greater will be the
heating during reentry.
- ,f.ier
'
SHOCK AND VIBRATION
IE4
Although shock and vibration a-re oitelt treated

as separate and distinct phenomena, the disUnction between the two is not clear cut. The
difference between transient shock motion andY
periodic vibration is fairly obvious, but the
:xisten'2'of any basic differences between shock
and ranv.-r
itrlon, which is not periodic, is
miuch lcG' ibvious. However, shock may be
considered as intermittent excitation and vibration as sustained excitation.
ao
onsJ
Number of doto Dinlt
1579
is
N1
e,5-ic bSPI
3'
,1
,
.~
hock 13/
*
*
*
*
Shock connotes impact, collision, or blow,

usua~ly caused by physical contact. It denotca a0.
rapid (2'
,-feload, or a rapid change of acceleration with, a resultant change of load. A
shoclk motion cannot i;;defined by assigning flurerica-l values to established parameters; it
car. univ be clef ined by diescribing the history of
a significant par-ameter such as acceleration,
occurs mwhen a !itrociuze Is subjected
toariddenpp
~ied force, rusulting in transient
vibr-atifm of tic:_ zAtrcteiv at its natural frequen-
cies.
The
tity
I~-
0.005--
0.00o
000
be, tranmittdt
1-mp)nei
.0
50
100
GOO 600
is
Vih'tAiUn1ML11 h periodic, hinwhicht-ase it. consi~qt. ofi rinotionis at omil(- or more frequencies,
willh Oic
o ant eauch freqjucncy beine, harmonirI, i nt hv
licU.Udoni, in which case the am-
I Ii~u dc~s and-.nar;,_u! iircucruucies vary randiomly
An ntdditionil type. of v'iIal;Ho, ternieri white-nois3e vibration, has no

tc*"qw
I-imntijes of viotion. The excitation
hatcausQvibatiii i~t b mehancal
[(),(
il
uc , cud
yareciprocating
inini or-, thf_Y ma~y b.e iicoustic in niature, such
as cuuc
bI(ktClii2Ii:e.
wkill)rjci
to tim':,.
A( ,lrio.
I, s the chwia.c- of velocity, or the
rah, Iii
iI:cv.
Itli rcila i to cither speed orS
dircc(i~in, oi U~thl. xVhe(ther-rdispl)acemeit, velo( OY )I at:I, lc-rat iunIi is tJit'In def ining shock,
ith,
.0
ik piu'rncter that defines the motion of a

6eiaii3i
''m. Vibraition has also been
(t"rlcsIiU'e variation, usu.ally with time, of
the
m~.:ntud
f a qmnmt ity with respect to a
*sp>,ci'iud
reicreneiic. wthen the magnitude is al-
41
4-1P
-0
mimi~itude of the vibration may be-
com, t-re~ut eiiou!,l to cause fr~acturing of brit--tle lm~terialt or yielding of ductile material. A
s Qcoi id Ii v
C1tshiock
ofI
isj diiaL tiea;ee
ratibis, c ha,, '-t'jri stic (if the abrupt changes
ass n iac~tl %%uW: shock, nma
tasitdt
equpin~n
wiI cmpniutssupported byth
Vil
'
ETfl
vutAcitv or dispiaceia;eut.
*Shoc(k
IIII-r
0.05'
incplhic'tie
of a relatively sudden diange in
l':~iiusisalwyspreutent. Acceleration by
it:.'itj d's
nil't ons)'titkimi sock.
nl
For example,
at
Fig. 3-8. Truck transportation vibration

data./i4/
~ration
is not considered to be undergoing shock.
2'
.AcauRtics
-by
Intenseacoustlic pressure loads are
g~tniratc~
the noise from turbojects, ramjiets, rock-.
et engines and aerodynamic boundary layers. The

high levlsofsnd impinge on the aircraft skin?
-- and the sound energy 18 converted to mechanic-?
energy that. can eventuall1y reach the equipmrnctt
inthe form of vibration. The sound, geinerall,attenuated when It reaches. the equipment coimpartment, can also Impinge directly on the
Traksortation
All or pitrt 01 every WNeapon systerr is transpo~rt~edat some time during it8 life. The shoc"i
and vib~ration1s to be expected during trarmsptrtatlon vary, depcridln~r ulx~n the type of carricr,
and are discussed in the following paragraphii.
3_l11
3D5
iiI
too.
I !fIfi1I
iD<J
7!
oo3
ii
to.
1/
IL0 iImpoa:t
d1 E T
.o,
Fig. 3-11, Mazimum
o<o
o,
"s..
Speed mph
ihorizontal acceler-
YFig3-.
Total 'i average numbeir o' ......
1onfgitu,!inal and iat. ral shu)cks per 1 i00 miles
,iii trayv [ meaisurcd on freight car ficx r./14/toit
resuIt~ant
displacements.
These large displacemenits may result in a severe shock environment for unlashed cargo as,bouncesth
tr
abouteninthe rtrucktrflossonfr. Vlhraiion~sy
e~xdule
truck transport.
--
frigtcars
from
50DOO
to
Iabout
<I
"
LozJ- L
shock-excited vibrations occurred in the 30- to
LI l,11
I i
I-
2 .___L
_L[ ..
t.
0 e::,: I 12
I-,.ict
~90-cps
"'"f
lrge
range.
s 0.5
Very few steady vibrations as
gzer-"-peak',"
were observed.
7____.
z(=1
2
/
l0
0 22
S ',e'ed, m h
ling and during stalrting and s~topping are gener-'

ally considercdl to be the most damaging phases
of rail shipment. Figure 3-10 shows Uth veltcity
atior~s.
It should be noted that the mean speed
of impact is 7 mph, which is well above the approximate 5 mpih linmtt for which the switching
gear' provides cushioning protection. Longitud-
1 rtu ' l yIn.-.rt.
inal accelerations of a freight car bo.dy thai can

be expected for Irnpact speedls of 1 to 7rnphar e
siviwn rinFig. 3-11.
.,-I
:..
'
I.
,:
I'
Vii'rai ow), frequenies

(it'j)fHIll
it
iplti|( llth
in
natura.,
I'". th,. tUIlMl)ltin: litai~s eoi Ucl th-es,

.LI
x'iI(IfI Uh:.;prinl system
i, ai~d
ie
Il wit ,d
,,Ie
'[,Q
s of tho
lx;dy structure.
1
rh, 'I,
pl,
.i rid it lidns art d(.jIuridcrnt upon
't
lr,
i*',, II: ::
tI
"i '
.. ,i'
1.
,'
,-,
.!J .
,""
"
,I
.
"
,
!"
of impact during switching operations taken from

a represe-ntative number of railroad yard oper-
.~
tIip'I
..
Sock "and tra~nsicnt vibrations during coup-
,.-
J_
:-l1. rii!)it t Slp,:d durint. freight car

S,v::' I:
,pr.,: V ,,n. 14,1 t,,' (From ASME
,;,:-2-SA-,ll
,urtcsy '13.M. lIthocm and
) .mi
pt:i .),
iv. i ,MUh~nlual Egiineers)
2
35
iseconand
the46lpredominant1000
10 to 0
jl
in excess of 27,9l0O pounds are shown in

3-9.
The frequencies concurrent with each
C4L
'were not determined; how;v;r, for tkhe
Cshock
'
'
from track and wheel ir-
101
Z-]loaded
u[Fig. H
SC
arls
",
-"!
and occur principaliy in the lateral

and vertical directions. Shock data obtained
an instrumented, mo-:ing railroad car
fregularitieB
I,
i(
(
extreme body
relatively Insignificant hii the cargo areat./13/

Figure 3-8 shows measured vibration data for
B___________
road conditions and the speed of travel. Intermittent roadsahocks of high magnitude can occur,
'wiUl
laI2?
_peed2,14,
impact of freight car body vs sw itching
~-ations..
Sr~4
Al r transnort./i3/ In a~r tranlsport as in all

nthivi--'i--odcss-0- trarnsportattorn, the shutcks en-
'.
,
r
,
r,
"
"
r
count~tered in handling, loading and unloading

niust bel# ~orasidcerod. F~igtre 3-12 -showsl Uce.
T6
r-iO-Nawarlh
eE
A-Clevolond
5-Buffalo
H - Derrolt
J -Erie
C-New York
K -Columnbu%
L - Doyton
M- Cincinnati
-Bridgeport
N - Mansfield
F-Hariford
4
F Lii
-
00
COO
pt
03
0*
c-
00
0,
CC
CO
GB13
JA
Fig. 3-12. Shocks recorded diring arlrhne test Ehiprnent./1331'

nia-ximuni z,iiutJ:s recorde'd during a test shipa) ,!8r airline, Two impact recorders
'l,
nisitii
plautd, I!- a 'AOude'n box (having 73 peunds
-,did both lungittudinal and vertical
.
were
IjPa
It is evident that the
re recorded.
wei.~
From: 1 3 5 7 9-1-1
.-.
o:246
0.0o
nio' ,,,'ccrc 5h,_)cks recorded arose from handin-nrL./' 4,'

Tra!I,.!r
4~~
~~~~
~
,.j
The principal cxcltation
Sjl~tk,ra11
1~
W~
l
rc
012o-
fro
:;iS t1ructUl ireinterfering with the flow of-"0
of th~e propeler shaft systemn.

frcquency for which vibrations
aree'ns~~eedimnportatnt is about 1200 cycles
p-i n-jute ltr a typic(al modern ship. Exce~p~t;,, ns max. I)(cur fur smialler ships and modern
i n~
I ..)th of w~hich mnay have greater
aopi itudc vrersts f reIi uoit~s. V it ti'
iAe rived froin representative ships
rpl-niIl
.0 1- irA it in i 1 :. 3-13. AUl points In the illus-.
t [Cl, It- i,~r Mn mritions of tie ship'sa strLuctUre
",111,I'
*tf01 t*'J'i~mcnt im utd on thec shipls.
aing
iii
Iti
*,
o;nl Values
Tie
e~
n1TlI\'flUvinw
Ii(
SI)1Sand
di)A
:
ajti
y ft
tl i:.jL
vibrations
inil ih
II'~-,0.4.
I u'hI~t''l~i
I'nr,
'. jndttoe-~f
thust5.
I*
lii
!tlf,'iintij.
cticoufterwu.
ariseL I ror
I'
maniy
__-
00~bI~
J-1 3. Vertical and athwartahip hull anct

deck vibt-ationris for- sh~ipu./I4/
Fi.
bvt'alaitce (if spj~iniung comtponenitts.
Acrociyiiarilic. forces arising f romt gutitb,

wina. uhear, turbuiente, et~c.
3-13
-~~~~I
"-.~-.
--
176-8
if.
2C*~~~~~-c
OcaeBns
ps-Dsac
Overall 37.5 75 150 300 600 1200

75 150 300600 12002400
4800
9600
Z
152-
Exoernal spectra for near field

je.t noise! relative to overall noise.! 16/0
Pijc, '
t1
0
14
!a.
140
-B
*
44
~2d
""/
_j-'tp.Crtnosndlceeos
/ ,,
~~40
~
4800
Ov-nll'175
) 50 3C) 60 100
7, l12)o 3ICC00160200 2400
9600
00oveBands
cpsnoise
Bordswas
Octrne
lInternal SpUctra, for jet noise In
Vi.3-15.
'o');rtuflefts
'1
L. oddobiui
rclative to overall
(,,trum
duzing taxiinF and landing air-
""r1'
llock- loads and transient vi-*'
t'rat! li
ortIhjsO v'ihraLions are at dif-.
fecrcnt lr~~'c';froni
those experienced
from Nozzle Ceont.i, ,ai

to Radijjs uf jitt
oun
d erry
Fig. 3-16. Trend of external overa~ll'

levels of jet and rocket nolse./17/
/ ngie
'I
isfreqenty ofthe ontnuou spetru
pcr
a
e np eis
si
equltntouly asthel asntinuoviuas spctu
y
A continuous spectrum type of noise for both
let and rocket engines is shown in- Fig. 3-14.,P,
rhe method of presenting the spectrum differs
considerably from that used for the discrete
spectrum type. Noise in sperific octave fre
quericy bands is plotted relative to the overall
level that would be obtained if the noise
passed through a 37.5- to 9600-cps filter.
The range of octave levels iii the illustration
was obtained from mneasurements of jet and
rocket engine noise. The changes in the specdue to passage u! the sound through an ordlnary fuselage wail is shown In Fit 3-15. It is
"-sre
44._.t
the fuosen1firwa-
hae1
n~fut beepn
t~
treated with soundproofing or other Insulation.
Cfl~f'
duri..: flii
13"
~J-y;;An
iij;o~inportant cosidertio
it wuterth
sun
A discrete
spciu-i, _hara-teristics such that the time
hI.AWui
0y .1"11( 1oc
f
'utionlS
is periodic and
tli: r. n.)f, (i'mI atiilzed by mut,ictid of Fourier
scrii.
N'i:' p~rdJ'cec i by a sp)i nning propeller
ifllO
'::rt
or conitinuou~s.
r-(' CX,11Jae
-l"
it
If flie t'11'
"a"rIii,
01 a. discrete
rumcraft
history of
ti'; frf(iltili('
Sound prcssuxes
is
aiuilvgls is Soimetimes
)INt~he' Ynirier integral. Tbe

1wI i ,of
4~
6-1 wnu- resultingi rots this analysis
ver awide band of irt-qucni's. U11'itit is,W02jtile stnid spetrurn is said to be
(oiitimtkiris. 1.51jrodCiiid
by a Jet or rocket
3-14
Figure 3-IC shows the trend of the overall

noise level %Ith increasing thrust as
well as
with Increasing distance from the j'l t strea~r.
The range is fr-om about 140 to 180 ab, The
samnetrend of ver21 noise level alter the sound
-aspase trogha typical fuselag~e wail is
:31icwn In Fig 3-17. Thia illustration gives typ.Ical sound le'vels encountered near equipment
*or structural components an the interior of the
flying vehicle.
.The noise
chrctrstc
ofLL~L
seece
.,-
4.
-
.j.
jeLt~aVdir-
are shown in Figs. 3-18 through 3-21.

Similar data for -miany other jet aircraft are
contained In reference/ 17/.
Jet Aircraft Vioration. Altthough all jet aircifth ar7- subjec 6 v 3ration, the amplitude and
f requey~cy of the vibratlonti depend 11pon the type
of aircraft and the particular location on the
aircrmaft. Charts 3-1 through 3-4, located at the
I
'
I%*
-. ?
.roI~n
O.,e.atI.,A
11
/ 0
434
146iw~
(Trgq
?s1nin p9 uti o
_P
d l
r toaduoo
110
1211f
f Distance from.
0'
too
11
50's lw
30
ofU
t00
1l',,
~
116
Fir 3F7
I'
Noote
-~
re do itg.
Cenl
o e al e
II
10
w6fA
14
92
61lf
3-19.tft NI*stc;'
2A10
eharit eritt ics
ofGwv
F-kl"
end
this~ chptMs
of
owthes- v oibrtione nvio
met t aro u lO veall Monet'arbopraqOswatra"
port,
jt bml~rscenuryjetfigter
an
heiotrM
epciey
Avgchn art I rya
9"sl
~~ ~i-2J~mi
tip
manyQ
Moanaog
10ll
1an
for adito
I,
to
W
lDYeput Pty fork 0es a4Pnd S0upport
Th.KTZILL.ud.,rp
U.. AirForc
~.
-w
~
.,..",,~1n
211
~
174
,-------
mn
Vbatvaion
ports,
datatcovri3ng
s
jt
a endt-79ur
j-et bo-75r,
helT-opters, resecivly
anThan
enineBo transbo-jet
fihersiand
et chargts drniae
""60 al type
and f airerf alxo available. frm
EngiAneeroughu
A-91* (ladi
ly'.~~~0 3-1 Cl.1w~jitc
ai,~
r-'.'1T3
LU~(U~ft./1/Areseroatctalt
If
'U~~~~~~19
"
,.*
.'
..
______Ito*
~*
4.
Boudar
91.)C.c Ioiseircrsfo utrate/cmpr/

nie.r
1161'
____
Irflo
~'I~
L~!RY...
07
O.
D,,sIi 0S.~iiw
.~. ',.orS.
Rot
.
4M
Their oprerationaltie,
is
Sshock aDivibrsionloddu
L4-11P.-
AirRasarchand
C"Air
Force'
eveopmet Co man
~~
[~
~
~
~due
_____-
ti-nAl..g
*
M.i-..A.on,.
I'lo-Emain.o O,.vutL.)
to the tir aitted number o~f operational experienices. The following however isxe conside'r'd
reasonable limits lor fiese'environixxents:
lb,1o
Vibration
20
8,0
bolost phase
0.2-ftnch duubie uiplitude

from 5to 55cps
'
Sustai~nedflight Im~m 55 to 2000n epm _0 g
90
-3)710
500
50
20300
1000
2000
!o.I,.r.,flShock
70400
l,,
400nl 7000
00
oono
~'4r....~.L1s
0
0%
(Q.4
50%iii~
o
0 to 200 g for one%
cutoff and stage
mlnlUisecond
separation
14
-0
Engine Ignition,
0;*
landir'-&
IitSoft
/Acceleration
*
deceleratdon
--....
15 g for 11 mUiisconds
or
0 to 7 g dtkr!.ni boost.
phases, and 0 LO 100D
during recniary to Earthi'c
l-ow
0~
0'?~'t
n'
~4
4
MAlo. A.4
1O
Lelil AIo.g'AnqlO of Meovimurn
-4
9______111
3-20. Noi
0 to 190 db from 37 to.I

10,000 cps
IdO
;MaW1.:.MinivwYln
AlmntgPwloorl
AIIn.tboftwt
A "
0
_31_Ell,____
Yht
'
C Mq..,.v4o'~atmosphere
A oustice
I~
characteristic;3
(All E14112ii
Of 13O
2!rcrat. 17/
to) itoi s,?. ~thr - tawd acrodynarnic disturbances,

anI] cxtt-uine (),a!L(cs in accirlerations, effective
3-22, Lhiy~u:c,
'Y Lrc
euf
flles0!
so
nd emertue.50
gra.!iml
orcsdesiy
~fr'
fu;~i,'
iriw!
0 100
5100
CIP-9*11ofe
wE q~ SOV-11
P19~6, L..en
6
anld 1 ree-flighjt tests Of
Rasca
1000
c orpr''~Il
so
--
2000
4000 700
.,'
)w
-~.T
*~:'0'
--
?0%
/P
'krfRsa
4'F
~I-
200 300
3-'-4 arc selecte~d-O'InfwT4ber
andi viln-ation data obtai~ned
5!)k
1*44
rI
il~ler2
Rlegul us
'
Snarl-,'A'
iiiL tjrA
Mat a (4 r
Ta s
04el,,.s InPn'n.0Iftp of.1bo"C4
C'Terrier
Ora.1
0 10401le
Level 0.vS OP4nullee
Ins~ur~Vrrisns_______Mo.
tMet
3-22cz l.vtcaos
tlhe data presented In
-; 3'2,
o urih 3--"4 are not assuci~ited with
ific ndisilos. MonI. complete miissile shock
a :l I jr, I Lv
-4t~ia!,iJ~
nI
in reference
IqC
101
,,,
[-1.
Z..
4
h
Av
M1%
Mie.
115.g
550l131
1,1,
14?
sie
P"C
'l
k"0I
1215
141
qfwe wse.le"IL,. It .ej v.1.4
i"94 i-0 omesm
01'
_o!
AVg
156
**,
IsAm t41 oS srgo.4.
d k-p~tce VehiclesIIif"01Vr
a;
li'l
-Lh shl(LL and vilirat~on eiivironrnents of orl,i!..l .id
uqvu
cvlilclcf
have not lbcen ecoufirmed
#I A"%ofeM6.ll,,we Radlelf"l
Fig. 3-21. Noise charoctcristics

B-52 aircraft./W1/t
1IN
,.4
0.05I.Cntn
4~~~~~'
41~
.21
Freqgency cps
Virtancaaccist
f orC
3-22
Fig
200
"0
1000
00
10(
3000
Fig',.3-22. %'Obration charactcristics of foeren

oiraiO1a
mszsiles' during Lxust. phae./ flgt
-2
I'll~~~CIe
nd-
pe SecondIV;
U,-2
t.--dth
nonc
of-
imacer,,i~softh
vrs~n~yofa
ui'tIf
. 11in- np t~e ra
sm
Ulu
:~ tH!
LIuro!
u,,-hl
Fig.
srutue
%iratnio
then
loulo
isZ
trutue
ve
1dfuetfeuny
,e
tue
nVopoet.ujcedt
sok
rdvbain
frm
mcaialsrse
fftge
cw
\,7 cas
r-e
v
cLtiuecsiesr
SO 1iri(2-N dcK0,,e st00e
300uhfaiu0aiueuual
defecton
C~r~cror
-N
to
sqae
aclration
lte
aaen-odn
fgher
ive2
material..
J"
F-6Hje
togh
evr desruc
trlhI
.'an
Vib
ancfeunya
anpiuomycuen
7,r.-
'
3-25.
eevto
ratrsiso
Ce
s3-17n
Failure
eurn
a
aeilo
vnulyfl
at
alrsrsl
ea
mosdwti
ca
occur.
esrso
eihrtrog
xesv
Cathode-ray Tubes. In general, shock and

vibirtinn damages cathode-ray tubes if they
are improperly mounted and inadequately sup-ported. Tubes with screens larger than five
inches are especially susceptiblo. Of 31 ca-
-.
thod-raytubssubjected to shock and vibra-
t Ion, 1 tube had the deflection plates become

"deformed, another had a filament failure, 5
Ssuffered envelope fractures, and 1 had thf gl asssocket-aeal break.
1!
'
Meters and Indicators.

The moving-coil
typeof meter represented the majority of units
in this category. Other indicators were Bou rdon
tubes and drive-tvye synchros. Of the latter
group most of the failures were either erratic
performance or zero shift difficulties.
I,.. .
.
,'
...
Nearly 200 units were subjected to shock and
"
vibration. Two suff erect permanent uieitrma~tion.

of the case 1 had elements loosened, 12 gave
erratic rea&ngs, 1 had the glass face fractured,
n developed internal open circuits, 2 had loose
or damagedpivots, 3 had the pointers deformed,
and lOothers failed from miscellaneous causes.
'
Relays. Relays present a problem for dynam. c 7onall

ditions
of moments.
the difficulty
in
'-balancing
of the because
mechanical
Shock
generally causes failure in the form of the ar-
114
I1
-mature failing to hold during the shock.

.-.
vibratio.
shock and vibration.
rmature difficulties ac-
fcounted for 29 defects, 4 relays had contacts

plies a larce nmbimer of stress cycles, the time
rcq',ird for these .Aresses to accumulate is
shrtwv.h n a com pon ent is vihrating at hundreds
of cycles per second. Excessive single Atress
may (,lure bnrickfts or other supporting structures fo vi,' ' or fracture. Excessive deflections (4of
rts may result in their hitting one
anotlcr with hic:h impa,:ts, leading to failure.
op,.fShock and Vibrtion Damage
The 1,kaprn :wystem designer can gain considorajlc `n.si;',t into the shock and vibration
prolhl, m from sun.niaries of shock and vibration
danm:we to typ:val structures and cornponeais.
Foll - i rg i 3 s;on ce data taken from one series
of tV,.ts. 1-.
Ca0-riwt
and_ Framne
some
*2t'h
opti-.,t
cabii Stnicture.s.
n ~in-m-Among
elrun-ures
20iim_
q iL
abnt a'i
fr
-itruVlures
suluj( t ted to) shcK and vibration there were 30

p-1-r
ICnlt de'f,9'1lnltiQons, 17 fractures in areas
()f
SLss
c.41, ,ntxation, 2 fractures at no 2pparut s:trrss concentration, 23 fractures in or
-,'t"
-el
aid 26 miscella:..ousun ......d
;is,
Ia*
iaL, i
Chi:,-sis. Nearly 300 chassis subjected to
SheiK And vil'ratiori rcuhted in 13 permanent
defrmrnatitsn, 8 fractures in or near welds, 9
frartit s :it noi apparent stress concentrations,
4(1 ldactun s at po,,ints of stress concentration
and 1 tm-scil
cwtus
failures,
3-1.
dfcs
e.ns
VA
Wirng, Wiring failure as a result of shock

"--and vibration Is a serious problem. A defect
not only results In
pmrfunctioning
of the equipc.
ment, but it is difficult to locate for repair. In
number of equipments subjected to shock and
_______a
loosened an the pole piece, 2 had the springs

disengage from the armature, and there were 4
vibration the failures were as follows: 10 cold

solder Joints opened. 14 lead-supported components had the leadB fail, insufficient clearance
caused S cases of arcing, and Insufficient slack
caused 9 lead failures. In addition 3 plastic
cable clamps fractured, 14 solderc 3oint crpa
cornections failed, 16 solid conductor wires
-broke, and there were 92 miscellaneous failures.
r.-
Tr'
form..,/20/ Transformers are pro- rest
t fou
-ably the heaviest and densest components foun"
onan electronic chassis. Because of the welikit
and size of transformers, shock and vibration

is more likely, to pruduce mechanica1 :ailures
rather U.,
.,-,ctrical failures. While L, almechanical failures immediately prevent the
transfurmer from functioning properly, they
eventually result in destruction of the transformer and damage to surrounding components.
X'
i
.
Thirty transformers were subjected to shock

and vibration. 17 had the mounting studs break
at the weld, 4 had the bittom frame fail, and 2
,1
Isuff!ered brolkcn internal leads due to motion of

the corc in the casie,
Slummiary/21/
The major failures caused by shock, vibratiers, acceleration and acoustics are fatigue fallures (if. ou,~nting ba~tes; loosening of fasteners;
inicatrs;errtic
istrmen
o~eilatinn01
opertiosofvauumubesboun
fngof motor anfd
generator brushes; sticking of relay8, switches

and valves; misalignment of optical equipment;
and fracturing of propellant, penuniatic, and
hydraulic lines.
MOITUR
Moisture is a somewhat all inclusive termn
used for humidity as well as various forms of
condensation aniprecipitation. More specificaldiffused
generally water,
ly, moisture isor liquid,
qunti~s.
rbtielysmal
cndesedin
Water in the form of vapor is always present
srrondaouns
invayini~
i theatmsphre
Ing thec Earth. The vapor content in the atnioEphere is referred in as humidity. When the ternperaturm of the air is, reduced to, or below, the
dew p,'~nt, ondens-at ion orcurs. In general, dew
formiatiter, takes place when the surface ternpc-rature is Wve .32 F(OC). If the temperature
Is beo- w 32 Y, Lndcnsation takes place in the
1-1
01. t bu,6u P ~Cu
formII
airUf
rc011 U
111L:,
f nr-o II,i ( ff
-
A uli~
dopPts - whch
ate
freze~
..
~organic
ice.
grow at nearly 32 F and others that will grow at

very high temperatures. The average ptimurn
for fur~gi is in the vicinity of 86F (30 (e) when
-relative humidity iff 95 to 100 percent.
The moisture content of the materic' Pttacked is Important in determininng the extent
of the attack. In general, wood c-ontalaiijo, ie'ss
thani 20 percent moisture is not attack~ed by
fug.Hwvradierneoafwpret
in moisture may determine whether a given
species may grow or not. For example, one
o rwV
ugsde
odsann
priua
In pine wood with a moisture content of 23 percent but develops in wood containing 24.5 percet
Beyond high relative humidity and suii~ahle
temperature., the only additional requirement
for fungi to thrive is abundant food. Thia is
supplied In large amounts by a great variety of
materials produced by veetatlion. Many
items of equipment as well as clothing, shoes,
boks, oods, and other items, are composed of
materials. Textiles , cordage leather,

~organic
my cus
Pss
rdiaio
on radite
oation
ofycaue. Such
wood, paper, paints and varnishes, aci~esives,
rubber and waxes are for the
plastics,
ccoolng
o.Ool yi nopcorxalivoccrs
w
c ~rris tt nght.
n ght bu
b u itmay
it maym
os t pa rtresins,
co mp ose
d o f o rg anic mnate rials and
occur at -.n-. tinme. ItLis not necessary to reduce

the t~e~dUCo!
tiie entire air miass to the
dew Print irs p.1,
c-nd-nsatioii. Condensabe induiced in aircraft coinL
fcpi
.tn
tio)n
I" ofthe
m'--men
romone
oflter ehile
upehil ro
onttues
alti~uc to a
Ten
,. 1
par~rti'Z.
lov. r '!if
arri.
;UL
J,
......;.-,*
ar
11
*1vl
cooeu~Lic'ix~'tocasemoisture to condense
and ejo1ipinent within the
up~re' Lt. -x ''ContEvery
Flf~r:1-'
'0
*
!Y:,,-cr
are thus susceptible to attack by micro-organisms. Furthermore, damage is not limited to

organics alonn, but extenrds to inorganic materials such as metals, cements andplasters,
clay products, glass, stone and various other".
tf_'I'j)'rrature within the aircraft%
U- ':I
ha
deleterious c;'"ut on most
t~~s, xiui in al'twion, fosters microbiological

grt!a~dal:airactit-n lin dissimilar M.etals.
v ira] i, iowtl and galvanic action may
NMi( z-!~
"i-.
I~p~uc
t.'; of in-oisturv.
be tclx11d
NJ
1F,-4tion
L i
;!
Metmjrui1'cialform1s have an Optimum
"I.C~jtur-c in 111c ra"nge of 59 to 95 F (15 to
~,
slt~rj,
tere are soem
forms that will
of Ma.terials -- Causes
'(VII )nIhtritin
cr Iini jues, IIy Glenin A. Great anid 1,1 rt~r
esy o:f Reinhold
iN . es;courtP.
I,- ;tl .io
*Puli~'r'gLup'r~i inn Ihk D~ivision.
Galvanic Action 23/

metal has a certain inherirt elvetrical potential. When one metal is placed In
contact withi a metal of a different potential in
the presence of moisture and an electrolyt e, galvanic action occurs whereby an electrochemical
current flows from one metal to the ot-her. The
metal from which the current flows is the. anode,
and the one to which the current flows Is the(
cathode. The current flow causes chemical by-
products, but principally results in the dissolu-A

of one of the metals. The sevcrity of corros ion by a dissimilar metal contact In the presence oif a corroding medium can be predicted
qualitatively from the potential diffrence of the
metals making up the cell. Thc greater thi dir
ference, the morm severe the corrosion. The
galvanic series It -given In Table 3-7. Those
metals farthest apart in the table have the greatestpotntlaiil differences and tend to be thie rixost
severely corroded due to galvanic action.
3-19
Relative hurniditylisimpotn perentrelainie

ndeemnn
eowtn I0
thrwhp~fni
humidity there is little opportunity ior fungal
-growth. Many forms will grow fairly well at 80
to 95 percent relative humidity, whereas at relative humidities abovc 95 percent, fungi flourish abundantly. Optimum temperature for maximum fungal growth in a nearly saturated atniosphere is near 100 F (38 C)..
Tha
ro
inert
eol
~
-
Stone and Concrete.
Table 1-7. Galvanic Series in Sea Waiter /23/
1.
19. m4untz niotal
M.;tgriersiim
2. Magesiumli alloys
3. 7ine
20. Mangenese bronze

21. Naval brass
-types
4.~~
c~
22. Nichol. (active)

23. Inconel (active)
5. Aluminum (52S11,
iljS, 35, 2S. 5:1ST in

this ordvr)
24. Yellow brass
C.. Aluminum clad, 24ST.

17ST
25. Admiralty brass
2G.-Alumlnum bronze
(%iamicomes
27. R~ed brases
7.
8.
Ai~inu
Al17ST, 17,ST, 24ST, in

this order)
rn(75~Tor
2%1.ocopjxr
29. Silicon bronze
9. 'Mild stcei
-mr
10. Wrouitht irorn
31.
11,
Caist trot.
Imetals
32. -Cornp.G-bronze
12. N:-PRcsist
1.3.
70-10 copper
nickel
1
chrur~iurn stainless stt'i, tvv, 410
iAt
t i V'J)
Nickel (passivo)
~..15 Iconl~pssic)
]:ij-insoler
Inonl ()-ssie)
ii.23-0 oldr
lid-in
) 5. 1 -8 !;0:iinlrss !'-dei
typv3(5
B;.37 t;nls
tvpr
17.
3(3. Moniel
stinlss
18-8
steelntyea
~Lcive
.37 188
sel
JI6ThtVC) pass~e)Paint
..18.
*E
Ef etof '-.1st-ure
I____
~tp
__
paer ad Textiles. Because moisture as an

agent of doerioralTon can function in so many
different ways, it is difficult, andI sometimes
impossible, to pinpoint any par' icular kind of
deterioration as caused by arty particular properties of moisture. When ordinary pa;,;Qr bewet it loses Its structural 'rength and
falls to shreds because the moisttur-.:
'-is
atlast softens, the gelatinous blndez ned
ed to holdtbe fibers together. Althoug~h the wetting of a cotton text~ile does not usually result In
disintegration of the maaterial, eixnpie evaporation of the water produces the so-called brovwnline effect at thEiwet-dry boundary.A
sMand Aloys Moisture is essential to
the corroeloii oUfiron, steel arid other structural
(Fig. 3-27). The rate of corrosion is
by the physical way in which the
mo-isture is anolied. as for instance. alternate
wetting and driying, as a spray by limmersion.,
as condensation;- and so on. Alternate wetting
and drying is especially apt to rause r~ dcr
rosion, and "rvon mnore severe is a thi Paye r of
dew condensed from the. atmosphere. There is
a marked increase in the corrosion rate of steel
when the relative humidity Is over 80 percent.
Also, the higher the relative humildity the more
r91api Is the corrosion of zinc.
Films. The effect of moisture on paints
lacquers is the foi-rmation of blisters, which
eventually break and peel off. When the subhappens to be wood, moisture may reach
-strate
_J
the paint-substrate Interlace Irom underneatli.
on Mtras4
Netyall inaturials are adversely alftCLed
*4~
_.i 4t
.
.IA
'
1)y i v)ist ur e. In the usual case, the more moistu~c oricsent -ind the easier the access to it, the
mellrt
e ious is toe detriuweital effect on matten .1
OrdLoimrily, the more severe file mnoisture ufmitlitions, the more rapid is the degra~~d-r.:e fitect. A peculiar feature of moisture ist!je Iact tlitt in a neg~ative sense it can contribute
to ti~c brfeal~tiin of isome materials b~y Its absence-. ['or most materials there is some optinmiun n seture content for the maintenance of
usef al pnopvm ties. For exampic, paper that is
tuo dry is brittle, and leathler devoid of moistI-;
. ;i~pt ti; 1,u btiff aumd unworkable,
*C,
1 Vroin Deterioration of Materials -- Cauves

and1 Pr:vi).; vutle To.A Illiquics, T13y
Glenn A. G;rcat-
1Lnuse and Carl .1. Wessel, courtesy of fleinboid

Pu'l 15Iji'"2 C orpot atiun, Bsook D~ivision).
Fig. 3-27. Severe cor-rosion of floor of C-124

aircraft.
'
16
-and
18-8-3 stailllcsF3
steel, type 316
isve
weathiering and disintegrat on of rockts Is caused

by moisture. MoisturG entering the pores anid
freezing there eff ects a sort (A oexplos ive itction
which, over a period of years, can reduce rock
in freshly quarried building stone or in certain
of stonework where the ocleavage, planes
are an orieated that incipient seams can filu
with1 moisture.
-influenced
33. Cv;mp.Mh-bronze
34.
Much of thie natural
The nmoisture may be pre sent ini the wood bcfore

the pailnt is appiied, It may come fromi faulty
Con-struction or it may enter directly from the
reve-rse side. The effect of the moisture is to
desteoy adheision, and a blister, once it hasDXXotO
begun to form, is readily enlarged. The pro7essivf-breakdown of thtpaint film is a mechaitical one.
Glass. Glass exhibits a solubility In water.

Certain constituents are more soluble than
oth)irs, and certain glasses are more susceptible
to mnoisture damage than oth~ers. In the presence
of high concentr ations of moisture, the more
soluble cozistituents of glass migrate to the
surface. IZ the amount of liquid water on the
surfare L? J'ieiff.,zient tc dlissolve the resulting
hydroxides and carbonates, a slushy layer of
microscopic crystals is formed. The rate of
fogging, by this process depends on the composition of the glass.0
104
~'5
0;
Wood. Wood owes much of its physical propertie.s to its moisture content, and a change in
Jie
oinu!ture level results in a modification of
one or mor2 cf the properties. Wood is subject
to rtnther iatge c~mensiona1 changes with
chant,-es in the moisture content, When moist-r
ure
tistiken in or given ieo. a inoistlire, gradient
is et-1i'-hod, and not -111fibers, of a piece of
wood swv~l e shrink at the same rate during
vet ini-wor dryinf. The internal stresses set up
Uy L2,, loss or ! (entry of mnoisture often resulte
int,
ig
In addit ion, moisture in wood is res-
pninsildo f'i rotting and staining.
Fig. 3-28. Effects of humidity and temperature

on unetched clad laminates./26/
E~ffocts ofMonilt'ce onCornponenits

-
Tr ajddjti'i
whiitii;n-
to affecting the material from

A5~o
ax~~ue
mnade, moisture degrades
th
prtie
charaIcteristics'. Fur example,
high rciai ive humidityreduecs insulation resiatz!" --' and i-oointcs fung,,us growth, uhich m-ay
elch tiiete r faces or- proxluce riechanical inter'cr(eice in niou'rs, tining capacitors, and so on.
T!14, difects of mo'ist ure On several typical corna:% e.ven in the paragraphs that follow,
A, XXXP at 35 C and 90% R.H.

8 PEpoxy Glass at 35 C and 90% R.HW
C2E~oxy Glass at 70C oi.d 95% R.H.
nd5
R.
to
oistu~-e onf the body of a

R. -~tor.~2,'
re~
*~:~r~.,~a leakage path that is equivalent
''2r5itUe
n parallel with laie
are especially
alt( ted byVt11ISI.ture. T:-c pirniolic case is not
ah~nitrirreadte'sobdmit
ure is
vwe ins tatbility.
c.~lfiit1flrosistors
C :"ac it ors. Noisture_ in thle dielectric

of
UxCi-Icapcilor s decreases the dielectric
strciigti, insul'ition r'esistance, and life. and
in( rua,;t
the power factor. Li addition, seve~ral
fUr:: ninlY uss>J capacitor materials (paper, wa-x,
'iid oUeor iniprcrnants) are fungus nutrients.

Ifijgt rela~tive, humidity also causes corrosion of
the ('Iltainors of mIetal-clad capacitors. In one
tel:t, fifteen
netal-c1ld cap.aci:tors were sub-
jv' !(,d 1,P a r,'lativeL hurnic-ty of from 95 to 100

pecr
(Tit
at h!6 V 0'5 C' f-r 2l4 days. At the, end
i01-
50
o0
Hou100
50
150r00
0O
Hour
of this time all capacitor enclosures were 80 Lu

100 percent corroded.j25/
Printed Circults./26/ The effect of moistureon printed circuits resembles that of its cffect on the base laminates alone, except that
when an adhesive is present. an adhesive layer
Is left exposed after etching. The effect of humidity and temperature on clad laminates not
subjected to etching is shown in Fig. 3-28. The
poorer insulation endurance of epoxy 2t '70 C
may be due to copper corrosion products resultiIng from moisture.
Trans forme rs./27/ Moisture In transformer
windings pro motes corrosion, supports fungus
growth, and reduces dielectric strengt of insulation r~c.Elect~rolysis and clectrolytic corrosion of the metal also may take place
in the presence of a suitable electrolyte.
Motor and Generators. Moisture in and
across windings of motors and generators reth.e insulation resistance andl dielectric
strength. It can alsoresult In arcover between
high voltage points. Galvanic action corrodes
-- 'the bearinigs, causing rough runtning and early
failure. Fungal growth destroys insulation, re-J
suiting in short circuits. Howevcr, sh~ould the
atmosphere become too dry, there will be excessive dusting of the commutator fron, the
-*duces
__brushes./4/
3-21
Fffi~ct of Moisture on Equipmenti

iqMoisture
degrades the overall performance.)~~~~

ai
rciesaej
taiiyo
a!,Iqec
of most equipment (Fig. 3-29).- The sensitivlly
rcdured. Yligh humidity can cause the tuning
Nat
to flsI-
:,cpecially
-.
during periods of mio-A
on the sprepders of open
dulatiol. Condens
UIre feeders will detune the f'nail amplifier of a
.Ak!i
trainsi~tter. Th.'s reduces the output power and

may cause r-f feedback in audio-stages. Moisture can corr-ode f astenera, making access to the
equipment interior for adjustment and maintenance purpoSes miore difficult;
In hyd--aulli-, po)n-uatic and fuel systems,

condensed moisture accumulates in low spotsA
and freezes it lojw tcrnperaturesq. This blocka
lines and val'es and makes the system Inopertatice./?2/
Moisture
o1)tif'Ual
also promotes
~
-7ig. 3-30. Rail da~mage
to aircraft nose raciome.
fungal growth onErsnofetnaairatsfcsbyrn
ndpjhotographic equipment. This causesErsoofetnaaicftufcsbyan
:ogving of lenses, destroying the usefulness of

equipi-ent. Fung-us also aitar'i-n leather
cases used fi'9 r s?-ring or transporting such
4the
S:
*equip)01ent./4/
and other forms of precipitation is a problem.

_-External. plastic parts, such as radomes, windshields and antenna insulatars, are susceptible
to rain and sleet erosion at high Rubsonic speeds. As speeds increase above Mach 1, even
surfaces begin to suffer severe damage
when precipitation is encountered lor more Wran
a few seconds.
It has been estimated /28/ that if a ratio of
oehi
none
ot
hnesompn
onhalecutrotntudrsrmp
etratiot's is taken an 2.n average, there Is a one
percent probability that an aircraft penetrating
a t~hunderstorm will encounter ha~ll'tones 2
inches or greater In diameter. Likewise, one
nov al
tdsmntainn0wl
0wl nov al
tundrsormpentaini
stones 1 Inch or greater. The leading edges ofI
the wir~g and tall are most susccptible to hail
damage. Damage to ti~e fuselage Is generally
confined to the nose and cockpit areas Fig.
3-30). Windshields are sometimes broken or
cracked by hail, and engine cowlings are damaged to about the same extent as leading edges.
Turrets, radar coverings, antenna ioop housings
and lights a-re frequentiy atruck.
-metal
Effect of MI;ueon Flight Vehicles

lei(-;dfs
jilecting
vehicles
mechanically,
inoi -Aur L cjnai.~o h ave operational eff ects. For

cxa~glcif suf1( jent mioisture fills the pitot
give an incortuico, and arpeiiicorwillI
~
i fuel, evn
rectmo~tuzc
retrt'cadinl.
Also,
*;ui
evni t
m.,nay cause rough engine operad (:s not f ree~v
tir, er comg11pJAt agine stoppage. Moisture in
cuse
f'~~ icngof iltrs nd
j(t-ijieu1n jeti"Ie faiured
ecitherfbyltbrpasnd
cof~ne
etherby
ailue
ypasing
that plug-ged nozzles or by
crwn 1?fin~ited ftf
jic
-I
...
4%
Fog causes serious operational dihiculties

by interferring with take-off oi landing. Low
temperatures on the ground during log cause icee
frost. This glazes the aircraft creating haza2rd-
AV~
_31
--
4ICING/22/
*~k
-~
AA6
3-
rfiut
ous conditions for personnel. Ice-frost also

adds weight tothe aircraft and changes its norodnamnic characteristics. In addition, ice-f ropt
obcrsvision through windshields and makes
access to fuel tanks and doors difficult.
Sovere co~rrosion of piece of

eq'tipment.
Ice, as the term is generally used, refers to
solid water exclusive of snow, hall, ice-fog or
fr~ost. It occurs naturally on the surface of the

Earth as well as in the atmosphere during aircraft flight. Dasicall ythere are three formis
of icing: Rime ice, clear Ice, and frost.
Va-laklone and mnL,%tures of these occur and use
4 %
such, natnes as glaze, glinie, soft rime and hard

riiie.mains
1x,nint ice is =n opaque ice formed by thie Inostantaneous frec-zing of small skupercooleddrp
lets Sine
tese roplts dhere In approxiirelspical shape,thy trap air in the ice
giving it an opaque hppearance and makicni I
britd,.-. Clear ice is 1:)rred by slower freezing
of larger suptrc.lw'led dr..-p!ets. These have a
to ipread and assume the shape of the
*tendency
surface on which they deposit prior to complete
Clea iceconainslitte ar. Fost
freeingalso
Is a deposit of ice crystals formed on exposed
*
uppe
Fostcan
suface. lsofor on ircaft
in flight upon descent from subfreezingr air into
a laer.damage
wam,
ois
In
toeconitin
~~.ara1 rquird fr iing
is tile presence of liquid droplets at Bubfreezing
temperatures, that Is, supercooled clouds. Af
loud isoewoes~eso
suocoe
hofuh
oeane whfozen suvenn
s
wauc rcoplet
th
ater dropletsc rmain unfarozeno feveznthouhi
tentp'ratrc,
beinfretre
is an inherently unstable suspension, wen a
supercooled droplet hits the surface oil an aircraft or miss ;lr, the Itmpact destroys the eta..
hility (if 1he d-oplet and raises its spontaneous
d
cr*V;stallizaticinpo~int so that freezing is Initiated.
-
Chairts showing the probability of potenilal
oten
h
nircr:Lft itcn, con'litinns exsigI
1lcnum:phcrc ., various altitudes during tie dL.!1cr-'.
~c ic..utedinrAferncJ2/.
casn:
Lzinl, coniditions drnote a state of the atmosdcfiel

~'~etof
.y
alue cop~isiig
prcs~ir, dop danwerliqud wter
pcsonrC, artit"Ib',pdrope Thaefater,liqui wate
C~ltlt
rnpeatue.
nd
he fctos ae ~
1. Althuuti-, icinlg has ueen encountered up to
'10,OLO fe-t, the limiting altitude for all but thr.
h:
cIinit is a!iuct 25,000 feet.
2. Piz orIt '.-ivc normally does not exceed 30
O(:-~
but. may reach a maximum of 90
t:, It'.- mic: -n:: in diani~tr.
to :T5
3. 'The w:;ti-rcontent varies frorii 0 to 4
grani: I _r Cub;')
*
meter.
4. Itie tornverature range for icing conditiuuin,-:rious fItcm -40to32 Y(-40 toO0 C).
lliJ:!, %atcr contents are associated with
ci (orivcc i e cloud.,;, and thle generi.1 !-d!-
cati !is;arethait such clouds start to precipitate

wheni tli,.v att;i in temperatures between -12 and
-IS (ajir-ixzatr'y
32 ad 114 F. Itis
lieytti.i 1ru:c~iJJu1T water content will
bite--i A th icuiperatures below -16 C.
be comn-
Lffi is, of [cin.,

h kin: caa cither decrease thfe performance
an aircraft, or it can- cause comnpide faiiluro, resulting in the aircraft being des(a-lp.ri-ui"mso(f
troyed and the mission unfullied. Icing rea hazard whenever adequate means ol re aent
rvde.:
Aircraft are affected in several significant
wy
ytebau
fLe
h
eoyai
ways bythe wigadtice
uidu
of
Thfaes arerodynami
r hne
igadtalsrae
rpri~o
by the Ice decreasing Lhe lift and increasing the
drag. An aircraft burdened with ice requires%
a lon~ger runwity for takeoff or landing. In addition, ice adds .to thes total weight of the aircraft, decreasing its operational radius. Ice
of
or hinders functional operation
upnet,
mic prevents
aeuuitaesoesr
by blocking the air' intake duct, distorting the
fteaenaec.Sncua
raainpten
to turbine enginces may result wi-en ice
breaks off IWet surfaces and is ingeste-d by theS
engine. Ice accumulates on leading c4.-. nroinlets, wings, Induction
pellers, compressor and
all aerodynamic surlystems, pitot tubes
faces of aircraft. It is also induced by operating
conditions In fuel and oil lines, fuel filters, vent
leowfreesg.Ti
aay
ie.'
n niebete
Air induction systems In general, and turbine
enginea In particular, are most critically a!fected by an encounter with Icing conditions of
~~~high liquid-water content, ever though the duration of the encountex is very short. Oi, the
viindsh-elds, -- gsa
ipnropIer
nthor handl
tolerate brief and inusually
an
talsrae
-- termittent encounters with icing conditions ol
greater severity. Severe icing may cause a reciprocating engine tu stall.
rie
*
'
.'"
.
.
which is a suspension of very small

ice crystals In the air, presents an operational
hazard to flight vehicles. Ice-fog usually occurs
under conditions of clear, cold, windless weather
-- in the high latitudes.
-Ice-fog,
SAND AND) DUST

The sand and dust environment is aLmajor
factor in desert ar'eas; howitver, it Is not re-.--strict edto those areas alone. Dust also includes
airborne Impurities, which can becomne a pzrcblem in almost any location. The amount or con-- centration of cand and dust at a given point is
one of the most important factors in such an
environment. At the p resent time, concentration
Is usually measured either as weight per unit
volume of air, or as number of particles per
-. unit volume. To relate the two vnethods It L.
necessary to know the number of particles per
:-unit weight. This Is a very complex factor which
must takce into account the particle size distri-- ution, composition, shape and density of the
particular sand and dust being
"ynalyd. For
this reason much of the data obtained from air

pollution studies and sand and dust storms cannot he readily applied to the subject of deteri.oration, since engineeringkv performance has
usually been relateud directly to the weight of
sand and dust encountered over a certain period."

/30/
3-23
4A
normal atmosphere aiways contains a cerlain amountL of imlyurities in 1120 formn
Table 3-8. Normal Atmospheric Pollution

-in Various Areas
of natu'al
.s.ir~d or dIust originating froni the soUl and other

s~iurces. Anieng such sourc.es are: /30/
_________
Averag edus~t
conc entratio
1. Condensatton Of vaprirs and- gases. The

form
mtiTI6 1 6 ria~in or the condeneac rom-rmetallic vapors.
Region
sait particles in veaboard atmosphere or particles originating from spray evaporation.

3. hemcalrectinsThesmke
indsti2yu~ahea ~aS.Induatrial
rom__
From
Clower/31/
From
Kayae/32/
0.4 to 018
0.8L to 1.5
0.0032 to 0.0130
0.0130 to 0.0485
suburban
Metropolitan
4. Crushing& The aerosols generated by the

disintiFF-2ort of cuacrete or asphalt, inWIng,pilvinuvizatior. of coal, quarrying or allied operations.,
Table 3-9. Variation of Concertrudbor r,11

Dust Storm With Increasing Al~tutd: /30/
5. Combustion or explosion. The fumes,

smokes, and a'i esror the burning of solid or
Adr
MeanV
Height
tempera- concentration
(ft)
Weather condition ture (C) (mnllligramAt 3 )
lifuifuel
vocaicacivtyormeeoicdust.
*im
Atm'ospheric Pollution
600 Clear to slight
33.0
0.0060
.4
henor~damonti f amopheicpoluton1000
haze. Visibility
30.5
0.0065
Th
rnun.,
nrm1o amophri pllt-tin
2000
about 80 miles.
30.0
0.0049
found in various locations are given in Table
4000
29.0
0.0039
3-8. ItLis apparent from this table that Indus60019.0
0.0015
trial areas have a higher degree of pollution
th~iii don 1!i1iir areas. it has been re.-orted that
500 Slgh haze.
Z1,4.
0.0067
ajprvmx~ina1 Jy 200 million cubic feet of dust
1000 Visibility about
33.0
0.0074
ir:islt poriiw,ic tly in the atmosphere; as man'
2000 20 miles.
32.0
0.0057
1,, El0, 00-D .C!osol (soot, mietal, dusts , fuingus)
4000
27.0
0.0039
pryies v'r-re found in one cubic centimeter of
6000
21.5
0.0054
thn-,i in Ncx York Citv.
500 Moderately detise
27.0
0.057
1-7 ,riJeratz dust storms the concentrations
1000 dust storm. Vis25,0
0.493
at lin 100 1o iotlevel is about 0.0005 gram per
2000
ibility abjout 10C'
24.0
0.197
C~U'lj( fit, ik creas in a severe storm it may be
3000 feet.. Wind 20 to
MO.
0.051
fiv.! t- tr' n tinius as heavy. Table 3-9 gives the
4000 25 kn~ots.
22.0
0.018
vnr'-vil in o. ('mflveitra' ion of a dust storm with______________
I easHj! al-titude. The fact that significant
of dust are found at upper alIti't'
en eiitritis
or erosion by removing the dry dust. The dustbe an indication that some degree
iuius 1ol
ier seasons of the year are the seasons of tight
rUSt he viveni to aircraft and air6! [irott C'''1
Winpf ertmi iimut. The uipper limit for this dust
atmospheric pressure gradienfe, sharp troughs
and frequent frontal passages.
*
kli~t I V19~0 feet.
a"''i-~0
r. ~
.01
)it~Cuulyrfr
o
dmianicter and is given in
t aro generally limited to part!iì'1L]it"'; ri;;ai rom about 0.1 to 50 microns;
s ti All >aid
a,
a
articles between about
5 1 ni c rmis and sand taiilings from flotaki. i (air-imie I,- win"' or someW mechianical
-r
lii
PAads
~'lxt'v~
c
AL.1.)
li-
N.-tir ti D1
Ih
mam
wardt fron .300 microns in d1-
"
a.
'
..
'r
Cr~tind)i~i/30/
(f-fP(t of xvindl in creating a natural

C" hioi
u is(mie
themor imortnt
I I' i,
i'~iictlin
h-,
i:I;I
dust
ar-
air absorb's more

mn-iwnin,
Il air, %kindacts.: as desiccant
it0 the tnp suil, and theni as an agent
The intensity of the wind is al=o a factcr in

determining the dust condition, since the force
exertedIbythewind Is proportional to the square
of the velocity, and the energy, or work-doing
ability, is proportional to the cube of the velocity. Table 3-10 shows the sutrface wind velocity necessary to transport vaA ious sized dii.LL
particles.
Wind velocity increases logarithmically with
height above the ground. 'Tnese data a-re closeassociated with the tranisportability of dust.
unless adistinct. dust storm occurR, wind-blown
sand rarely rises more than three feet off thc
ground; the average height being about 4 Inches.
I-t has been estimated that a 33 mile a~n hour
wind at a five foot level is required to set saind
particles In motion.
The hetght to which a dust storm riscs is a
function of the wind velocity and the stability of
Surfalev Wind V,Iocity Belated

to No~wing Dust mi'rUtclt /:10/
The:i-10.
Plcan particle size
Wind Velocity
(mph)
micros)
40
2.2
80
4A4
160
8.8
3Z0
19.6
650
29XE
970
_________age
____________--
the entire air inass. Unstable air masses createe~:trni vrtical air movements, resulting
in urblece ndconvection currents, which
can c.,rry the dust as high as Aen to f ifteen
t~cumd
fet.leaded
4
~ation
Effects of Sand --.9d inY~st
aJ]I dusts, and many kinds of dirt, aire

e~teints hygroscopic, anid so they tend
mo)ist-ure. A film of dust nr dirt on a
thec:Aufro, tends to inaintain a higher
moisture level. This tends to increase the dei'radaiion aLnd corrosion rate of most materials.
/ 4/ Sand au~r iwsl. penetrate every crack and
Crtwct!01a wcu-y-On system. WVhen mixed O'tl,
lub~ihants, the mixture becomes an excellent
gindngcuflpeLwii-l. Accumulation of dust, sand
and other grittiv matter _ccounts in large part
for 6w~ d ryiw- -,!i cak~ing of greases in exposed
becarj:;_zs. *Iur *<atnple, an internal combustion
er'W'(lJrn1td- wf',hnut an air filter will be
r(2ndoiered unless in about 10 hours or less, deo
the dust concuntration.
pe
A In-vt
to vari )is
to ad',9rbl
niaterial,
jrow a c';injrsi~nint viwon,
ifte
compo-
newt i,- in a rnoistureproof housing, it is also
protectcil fim'n) sand and dust. 11e;metically

se-aled (01t.Ictsuch as relays, transformcr5, ain. %,tcum capacitors, are not affected 17,
sand x~d iu!;t.
ightenson eet.id, s iind uiom,.otcs arcnii, It gects inic constic

andmakepoor
tiuni toEffective
cnat.Thu inucirsctu~n
abrasive
action of sand and dust
in;aits i,earinngs wid the armiatures of
r;ipidl:.
dust
Dust.icumuliesbeteen
*
*
u(;r U. nain. tors and gencrra~ors. Volcanic

unt itoents that hasten the cortiW rosiwon of irn !-ir laces. Duist can even become
in -ime types of die castings and be
ernitcJ
fr
;;rnoeno kovn as g oln
res:;-~.~c
If part; no ifff-ted are intended to be moved,
scrr v
takeS p~lai~./4, 33,'
ttaly
etin
proie -l,mits or propellant s~ stemns

mct I:Jassoiivos, causing erratic
operw ~i,,or ovnepoin.For
example,
minim r7;w,
c.1'
uwtinm huavily concentr ated hydei
:]'.i
drogen perixide have causk. explosions. Dust

In cooling passagos of regyeneratively-Cooled
lqiu~d rackets can cause hot spots, leading to
possible motor burnout or ex~plosion./33/
The abrasive action of wind-dri%,en sand
wears away paint and other protective coatings.
It can make windshields, radon'es or startracking windows opaq~ue and thereby reduce
visibility or sensltivtty, Sand and dust particles
in hinge b>earings of control surf aces on aircraftM.
can causecsuff Icient friction to -nake the controls
stiff and difficult to operate. Wear is increased
and additional maintenance is required.
Dust will plug the drain holes in the wings
and tall structure of aircraft and prevent (1-!nof water; pitot tubes become plug-od and
the dead air spaces in wings, fuseflage arjd tq41
allow dust to accumulate, possibly affecting the
ae rodynamic stab~l)ty or perf orruance of the air -craft seriously. 'Dust will also clog or plug
components of spark igriltion engines. This is
.especially true where oust in combination with
Auel will rapidly Increase spark plug
fouling. This Is a serious problem in the operof helicopters because of the relatively
high percentage of time they operate in heavy
dust coneettrations./30/ Cooling systems are
affected because the dust adheres to oil-soaked-.
or wetted surfaces and forms insulating, layers
that reduce heat transfer rtteS.
*.
-PRESSURE
The eff ects of pressure fall Intotwho categories:
-Those resulting from ambient pressure, and
those caused by wind.
Ambient Air Prepsure/34/
--- Ambient pressure is the surrounding air
pressure of a given point at a prescribed altitude and location; it is equal to the wei,~ht of a
column of air, ov.er a given area, f rorn that point
to the outer extreme of Vic atmosphere.
All aerodynamic and therrno&,na~mic charactoristics of a flight vcrqlcle are dependent to
some extent on ambient pressure. Drag, lift,
thrust from air-breathing propulsion systems,
vapor pressure and cooling r-ates Increase
directly with increases in ambient pressure.
thrust from roc~cet engines arid control
surface size, on the oth - hand, decrease wil'-n
Inraermietpesrs
Low ambient pressures aidvexrsely affect lmu-
man beings and make p'-essurizatior systems

mandatory. This, in turn, presents the danger
fepoiedeoper~
hihw.l
cu
If the cabin or compartment pressure were suda mieteor, or possibly ene'my action.
denly lost due to mechan'cal failure, damnage by

Manly lubricants have a rclatively high vafKpor
pressure thet renderb thern useless under conditlons
of
extremely
iow ambient pressure.

3-25
q.,.
Table 3-11. Heat Absorbing Capacity of Air
is :fspecially affected, becoming an
CjrauL~jilt
;,buisive.
at Various Altttudc3 /34/
Without lubrication, oxide coatings,
or molecular gas filmsr, coefficients of frictionmoving surf aces rise sharply, With gal"Ibetween
ling Inevitable and cold welding probable. Extremiuiy low pressures will also drastically afidi hinds of seals; even a good welded joinat
Afet
ji~ay prove to bc pcir~ius.
ri.
soS
40,000
25
c'so0oo
10
100,0001
-____
*
entforce develops, setting the air in motion and

casing it to flow from high to low pressure.
of air at a velocity
Any
sudden brlei
ut
eoiyi
i
tesed movement
i xes
ut
srv-oiyi
1tesed
necs
Aerational Effects. Wind can affect the
flTiFTigeomiilsndarat.
In horizonta flight the direction and speed of
V
1
the winds at specific levelsl, such as the jet

a
sras
nraeo
eces
ordces
can inceas
stem,.
A~ chianuiuKe la whirou ape-'o
aveaziiliu.
m'ra-torS
h
h
ag
aeo
tI-rt anid. cakj~c considerable communication
'
Udk-tLi.1cUit
with height can force a vehicle off Its intended

courae and possibly out of control. Surface
'Winds as well as atmospheric winds must be
considered in selecting Itissile launching sites.
In addition, wind is instrumental in producing
ohr ai troublesome environments, such as windn
idbonso.I
bonsn
or th
air
ot~et
*re ~dhig~h enough orteairc
a
hpport
to s
' piilac
low
. may~t
injivitc
pr.'Lir
are
kolt
~ ~~~Ti lc is nothe
0V~
~ ~ rsmytk
poinp.onhists know mas
of ~tie and')voui ama(
opnnsadmIra~
u
n
('ori'
If
20,000
80,000
an
amae coducive
Destuctve
rcs
parts, and fire. dw inutosoththe
will conduct. Connectors, terminal boards and
relav contacts are examples of parts that arc
the p~rts suh
uU~j('tprbles.
t aroce
capacitors and transformers
as rcisor,
low prsurc1 nvidneveo nte rcnag
i
aruit-t orcua~
arcm~g n alowpresureenvronent Aring
is p~trticularly damaging to brushes used lIn
:Ind
100
Fie,,Jcal Arcovor andcorona. The insuleleccff!ot

irewe
at inc fet
trodes, or other high tension points, decreases
with decreasing pressure. Therefore, at high
dltitudes, higi; voltage equipment. may have a
voltage arcover between the high tension points.
At a press'ure coirrespondinlg to an elevation of
45,0OU0 feet, the voltare breakdown potential is
apnro~i-i-tely ,' fl..rd less Vhan at sta level. At
60,000Ofeel't, tie breakdown potential iE about one
fifth of it.9 breakdown value at sea levei./4, 35/
r-tor;
Percent beat-Rbsorbing
capacity of given volume
of &Ir to that at sea level
Altitude
(feet)
'
blwsadndid-onso.
irltc ci r' !i: C. 'ice ionized air caused by corona
Stes Srsscudbywd
1.1ol it o2s -:'onc anid oxides of nitrogen. ThieWidLa
StesSrsscudbywn
nzi-o:idc'm~s natural rubber and synthietic ma-WidLa
loading is a basic consideration. in flight vehicle
anI I t: 'o-xidcs of nitrogen combine with
debignI since sufficient strength must be pro%&at':-r h i') ni acids that. contaminate and devided in all structural members to withstand
,-,s
riu and bushings, and corrode
I-, idencountered.
Ata
A,:1,7(lprssur
,om
gvIX
tj t'i P *: tu
~
0-
oI 11g the air betcomes

1;10li irortrs
;-)rt a courona discharge.
aij;
i~'~'l;
Convection is a common
het ro)equipment. Since
wth Icresir.
in-t
r'
tiPair'lereass
n' ic': I z 'srtiini
w'nuith inrasir-,
a*'*Ao
hinaiCspofitvarious
T.
I~
c'I v:rin.Tle3-1l shows the heat('ii~~ t
' 1 cp-itY of a itiven volume of air at
a'ic~r:'i
var'-:s ;miiituu s as,, a percentage of its heatheari
ic
t e ec.
ibaa':ct
1'> 1i'tali'surb and remnove 1eta he
allill-'d-s, thec teiniperature of heat prnducing
r saf e operaadng
Il".V I ise aoethei
n"'rl
iinI.;s pre
At.i"
int"
r!i''clie oa
hua! rsosgarcnn
entippexmeatuesy
o limactely
ppran
ogrb
allwind and gust loads likely to be
ofapprxi-
10-T taken,
10-sidere11osdrda
*l
'~I
of the wind speed, and wind velocity generaly

increases with altitude. Hlowevier at high altitudes the loading caused by wind ts greatly dimiuuished due to the decreased atmospheric
--density. Data on-the probability of occurrence
of winds ofvrosspeeds are gvnau Chapter
given
2./36/
.216
uaingsspo
n
hr
Lwvlct
uaingsspo
hr
n
Lwvlct
ducing accelerations of 0.1 to 0.5 gcan shake
and jerk a flight vehicle, but utsuafiy will not

displace It from its intended course or caukle
any structural damage. However, higher ve-the vehicle and also cause structural damage.
On the ground,
gusts
may produce dangerous
utructural loads on ground Buipport equipment.
EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPIIERE/37/
Witi 14/
ui
caused1 by differences in atWs s.0ll
i ( dcily, which producec horizontal
duff, ' in air pressure. A pressure gradi-
"n"it
.1
Cob
ible gases usually a mixture of hydrocarboui vapors ana air, may seep into) equip-
-~ment and create a potentially explosilve aturoo2
A~
*
*
*
phe. elOtrirai arcover, corona or a spark

from a!ny moving electrical equipment may igniti! these coml~ustitle gasefs and cause an explosion or fire. Some of the factors involved in
producing a potentilaly explosive atmosphere
are the fuel -air mixture ratio, the atmospheric
jjresf,;',r- Vie tvinljpcatIire, the humidity anc. the
source of g.r*
*l.X
luel-Air Mixture Ratio
'
A mikxture of fuel and air mnay-be eliher too

rich or toco lean to be an explosion hazard. At
sea 1e~e1 pressure, a mixture consistingr of I to
7.5 percent fucl by weight and volume, constitutes a poterpi l y epcn 9isive atmiosph ere. Mixturios cr .3 to ') kpercent fuel are extremely hazardous and will readily produce high-speed explosicn.~b ard flame propagration. B~elo%; 3 and
above 5 percent, the fuel-air mixture will be
more difficult to ig~nite. If ignited, the explosion
will be mild aaid the _pccd of 11ame propagation
will he slow,
~,
'
'
*4
Atinospheric Plress3ure
A pit4entially explosii e atmosphere varies only
sligPt lv with ducreases in pressure. As atmospheric pressure is reduced, the dielectric constant of air 'ire ruases, thereby lncroasing the
possibliitv of el _,J rical dincharg--. Hlowever, with
decreas'tatfl i .~ ericpressure, the explosive
mLXturc bccorn2 mrore difficult to tgnite./438/
Temnp" rai ur
Tetupe(_rature( [%;,
"s little, effect on the explosivflcS O a as mitr
ihntetmealure rAl-C: cOf
Y (31) C) to 131 F (55 C). Raowever at low tc-iiiwratures, which exist at higher
altituiJe!, t'::,
4,losion hazard is con~siderably
rw d.
ll:iirh. ty
yricrcdseci hu"iliidity dw~s not affect the explosr: a~iicre

lt.~ctf. However, it does
si~hid;~oUlc
speud of flame propagation.*
for11,110I'
I;.''
*i" llJS~phere
lin 4-tisLpote'ntially
explosive at-
i'lespark
unay occur a number
oiu to ".! and rr t 1I ite the
-nixue.
The spark
mut iv- oif l iuiimli hevat to brinii, the temperaturf' ol thw iiix.,ui-e to the flash iclnt. An electrwc spliit d''Iio,'wed ovef a. relatively long period i,.u
tiii
'si- cifictive ijniition fiource. Aoijve
20,00f) I( (t, c ;r, na ratllir thanL~ electric arcover
acts
cc f a;ignuioui.4,?a/and
a sw
ia
A'l NOIU m HERlIC 1LI.E1CTIICITIY

Ii
Alim sgh've htricilty includes static dlecici"Y all I lvhi~i.l'kott call cause serious
ayii.:
d hi:iy interfei e- with the operation
off lb
*t'hIiic
(I ig. 3-31). Atnimmspheric elec
!E
Fig. 3-.31.
=:~cag
.
Aircraft damage caused by static
or lightning strike.
"
*.i1
-tricity is discussed In Chapter 2. The fo~lowing

paragraphs are primarily concerned wit~h the
effects of static electricity and lightning on the
operation of fliktit vchlclcs./37,39,4%/
Static Electricity
The electrification of flight vehicles with
high static electrical chargas Is produced in
two diLle rent ways: autovenous electrf Ication
trilication Is the most common form and usually of the longest duration. It Is caused by the
rubbing of particles, such as snow, dust, s~and,
and smoke, against the outer surface of the yehicde. Exogenous electrification resuilb from
high potential gradients extisting ini the atmnosof the presence of the II1i,.
vehicle.Independent
It Is especially
apt to occur durig
thunderstormi activity./37/
Effects of static electricity Include shocks
to personnel, ignition of fuel and other combustible materials, and arcing in electrical equip.mrnnt. Static electricity may also cause pitting
and rupture of rubbier deiciLng boots, wkindshields
other highly insulating mnatcrials, sc
s'
polystyrene and rnethyiaeryiates.
The principal effect of static electricity Is
inter-ference with radio reception. Radio re.-N
ception, particularly In the lower frequency
ranges below 100 megacycles, may be blocked
out cornpletey bit static 0~ectrhiuty. Another
related flighttproblemn Is the biankc;.ing of antcn3-27
'
..
by cxhiaust gases from the vehicle propulslon Eystemn. These charged g.i,9es make Uhe
antcnna nonreceptive.
Tatble 5-12. ProbabiLity of Meteorite or

Micrometeorite Hitting 1000 ft 2 of S~arfaco,
and Its Penetration of Aluminum /42/
flas
LightnLig
Light,. 7j is a d(snrril-ve discharge of electricity and may cause danrwe t~o flight vehicles
during thunderstorm activity. Control surfaces
may develop small pit ma-rks and holes. Non-12rnct-illic parts, such as radornes, windshields,
aiteirina i!ulators and canopies may be shattered. And the vehicle skin may be burnt and
pitted, witli most of Vie damage taking place at2
sharp cdg.2s or the sniahest radii of a curvature. Apa-_ Ir:)m the~ risk of the crew bebig
in
liin ded, there is little danger to
temnui(jaAa
humans inapi -perly bonded flight vehicle.
0.50
1.98 X10-1
7.9 x103.1 X 10
AI:Iuio,iJ
t~e
r'frc
aI hazard to space vehicles.
Mrcr-~uori':skill Iouj.,e out small pieces of

tl:2,-.;tfc0i-rr, simi~lar ini effect to sand blastib'.ti~
E-(I-'t' tat results nmy change the
Lus
t~sc~t;:-proper-ties of the suirface. in adrio;. the, energYv released 1by tire small p~article
ma',
0Ththeshri
rdvl ir ad lad o eosin
on Iil'. iisid'2 (, thl, skinl.
effect
I-e
"Idcti'htcileat-n'terteprils
of
niicromieteorltes
is the
a~ the s-pt1
vei' :
Thre positively charged
rllicimr~if ~-'rieparticles increase the erosiOn
1.0 X10~-
1.2 x10-8
1019
4.Ox101
12
1.Gxlo
17
6.3xl0
1
2.5 xlol
3.lXlO8
8.0
7.7 x10-8
5.9
2.Ox10-
4.3
4.0x10
3.1 X106
x0
7.7x1-
1.'?
2.0 x10- 5
49 r 5
49x1-00
0.93
00
1.2 x10-4
-4
0.51
2.0xo
Jr
9X104
7.i0
xO -.4
31X1
1
1.6x 110
.3T19
.71
.51 9
.
0
1.2 x10- 4
1.0 x10 9
3.xO
*
a~iu.
:r '?,"To
Ut-ri-ally, if a s-pace w-hicle
rnh'U ie
roelor-t
riOnih i
Iris it ).Irlt
an. il tro.( late.rti
br
' r
r d al e o
durar'.r iiI,, the IGG',rd fromnri

tt')z itt-s Pr
is exposed to
161
79x1- 6
7.xO
3.x106
31~ 6
4. x 101.x1023
.
0
.X0
25X07251 7
eteorites and ml.-
2.Oxi10-
4.9 x 10
.7
0.20
0.15
0.11
lx1
.xO
1.2xlr 2
*For vehJele operating outside of Earth's atmouphere
(From I'Meteoretlc Phenomena and Meteorites", by
Fred L. Whipple, In Physic2s and Medicine of the Upper
-Atmosphecre, edited by Clayton S. White and Ots 0.
Bcnmorr, copyright 1952 by the Lovelace Fvundation,
Jpulbiihod by univorsity of New MeXICo Press, Albur(iru)
'RADIATION
Exposure to large amounts of radiatloa inddces changes in most -rnaterila.IB From, the
stanidpoint of proper operation in military sysAems, these chianges; are generally harmful, It
soul bepointed out, however, that some radiatlon induced changes are beneficial. For
example thue yield strength of a metal and ti.e
ateperature resistance of polyethylene may b
improved by Irradiation.
*--
aito
date, little in the way of Induced effects

can be attributed to cosmic radiation encountered In space operations. However, two effects
lxnbadnint
IHowev
r,oi- hot1.Rdaond
agof
i n d i '
m ay be postulated:
eiwjhgil Ic (Fig. 3-32) ./44/
.x0
1.3
Csi
ru(: f thc sl'Inl and may affect radio commnu-smcRdito
t-u
5O103103
5x1
ini , cifnieteorites do riot penetrate

o~nto any extent, they may never-
fls'lu:!;i-2 -ci~t
Ar'Jt.i
Depth of
penetration of
aiuminumn(cri)
i:'TiX:eiJ IT'S
T;OIlo 3-12 -iot s; the prob~ability of a meteorLe or r icr',,nsi~torite hitting the surface of
a1Spd
lii'i'
And approximately how deep the
parti lc will pc't~n-iat'2 if tWe vehicle skin is
m,,de *rf ao 12moorm. %Ietceorites having a mass
of onuo !NicI-ogwAIo rid trave~llng 30mlspr
secood will 1-nuti~re approximately one millimeero :liniiumn f-kin, However, the probabii' fa rls'Iorite thijs size h1-itting a space
veh':c
i v~y iiht. Oni the other hatnd, space
VC-1ikiC L-ncounte:rs with smialler and iesi3 energeti, --~I ti(l~us, such as micromneteorites, wail
be rwsr- fej'obut
the depth of pcnetratilon
I~~
'~~rlc.~,
, - __344
Proba-bility
1 hit per
24 hours*
Iof
--- 4-
1.25
Radio e.quipmecnt is frequently damaged by

lightning. Antennas are iiAuoL likely to be hit.
Unlies preventive methods are used, the current froin the lightning is conduicted along the
_ej,ne~a to the electronic equipment causing
seriious damiac. Command antennas, fixed anitenna. anid drY wick dlisuharIe antennas are the
types !i5toften i;mimagcd./37,34/
MICP0,1
Kinetic
energy
(ergs)
Maas
(gin)
pr
netaue
to less resistant components, such aa tranlshutors.
". hort term ionization, wivich may cause

spurioIus pulses to lie induc ed into computer or
anti -u('lincidcn, -C
-1
cir'cuits.
16The perrmailent. damage that can occur in

Number of Meteorites
components such as transistors should not be
14-%
too serious. Estim-itcs 'ndicat6 that semiconducrucr -=none.Azli
-;I~I operate at least 5 to 8
years in a ciicradiation environment with12 ViulTiccp
out lwjre than a 20 percent reduction in their
~adRdrRneelectrical charactcrist,'rs.
The occurrence of transient ionization effects in the form of random pulses ir. transist-Unie
~
iul-~
W
or cir cuits was indicat cd by Drayncr./46/ However- these pulses did not follow known cosmic
8
Rano
ray pjarticle distribution,-. Doe to this lack of
corrclaticia, a.tfierto cannot he predicted on the
E 6
Liiis oX availablue data. It might bc concluded
dhat ionization effects caused by cosmic rays
.Z
will be no more trouble than interference from
other sources. Pliotornultiplier tubes, however,
maybet an exception. Cosmic radiation striking
the c'atlinde will produce a great number of elec0 [
toi.'riue
~c~iuci jis -,ii caufe instantaneous
6;2
q;atura ,iiioiiofthe tulw, resulting in a noise pulse.
Vsa
antd
di Cosmic i-adidt~ion damage to structurul ma-
a'
i"
N
i;'
-
-~4
tcrWal-
kkill
Visualiagnitud
be
at iisit.ri
Fig.~ 3-2 Meterit
Solar radiation causes heating, which resultsFi.-3.Mtotenesty//
in tlia. !)rca-c'.i
comi)Cx molecul-s "a,xs maike
Igators express their results in difiireal. unit,
'ISice a(ptI.aqurrubr
und Im;Lt ici
Although the true physical unit fo- radiation inpandu Lplnsles. J~ the heatt tranwhirchheacgtaerstensity Is incident radiant enervy per unit area
placs, d'!, nia cioi thehati tansferptcvearcperiper second, exposures are often reported in
rtieprpr
U,
I-cL or aite ridabl
tics,i -i~I
tie~I r t.'~oI''ct
mteralterms
of thc rate of energy absorption or Ion
many
for
production in a standard reference material.
Thus, the roentgen and the rep, defined as the
atmophbre
is a1io Eaths
Soflar prodiati
If
tic intheEarh'satmsphre.
iocssc
radiation Intensity required to produce a speclUl rxJ,1:tI, r;1td ~tplin causes iolli; itioi of atmosfled ionization In air and a specified energy ab;ihr
u
ti~~ ~,a_- 1well, as ionization ariddit3S~r~t .0u: -r~is
~y.~'.eitte Ij thesun
sorption In tissue, resioectively, have been employed as measures of radiation exposure for
y: LhI' E~rtlis upper21 atmosphere,
liI
al) J~
materials and applications. Various utnitb
Uiei,,ij,1;1-layrs.other
l)'~'d
'I'
layrs.are
u'
also used to express the energy absorbed by
a material, with ergs per gram, rads and elec'.
Nu
.dIA~t
"11
tron volts per gram being the most common.
'I h.~.
U:;u Of
o.tonfic
enerlry in mi-
*
-*
jI
m sl''vc~tenis mnakes it nec''ssary for

thea~jj -'it cjnrto
know Ole effects of
im, 1;-,uiiriilt:
1i ion vai vius materials, compof1,t '!U,
i
~,l i.in
"Ih, iioloar .-.idiatioii emanating from a re-
alt- ':;its
~Lit-t r~eutir'nis, slow or t.`crm;L1
1lI"ut I'.' JS,
p'tonus or 1g:,mlna ray.;, and
ldri:i
I1,la 1I': T 0tie
Ile
h alpiha part tcls, beta partkr 1-s rid fiss;,nip
iraenir'lWs are generally con-I'
troAecutr
'rlo
titI2:.11I'C 'UI'i
ulicti~r, theirc
enceiry has been
.1. T!t iJ-foIII, the follmoi Ing paragraphs
n~t rli-d ninly %;iti the effects of high enarltji.
cru~'
lt
Unrit
.!idC
of :1-
1-
r~s-were
01I:
i::s'e
A i-r-!d - 'h-tat:
i:ifnx I :a1ti-)
j~IT~O
U! 'I
agad
wi evaluaoting
fl1in
11111
5 Uthi!S On tite- effects
r111.1 tilli is tlic aI that the invest -
'in
)u
Some degree of untformity has been achlevea,

with mnost inveatigators now exprgssing neutrons
terms of flux (4),which Is the neutron (n)
i nuitipliedby the average velocity (v), or =nv.
The associated time exposure is integrated, and
the total Integrated neutron flux is written nvt
(a zneutrons per cubic centimeter; v = ccntimeters per second; and t = seconds).
Another step toward uniformity In expressing
nuclear
reotn
radiation data Involves thetemfo
gamma. exposures.
extensively
described
ermosly
teotigP fory
Peiulte
In roentgens,
or
photons lper centimeter squared per tiecond.

More rocent-ly, in atternptlng to report nicasur-emnents by methiods that do not involve uniieces9sary assumptions, investigators have becen reporting gamma exposures In ternms of carbon
'dose, which has units of ergs/gm (C).
Table 3-14. Relative Radiation Stablity

of Elaatomera /47/
A list of conversion factors for comparing

radiation data from various sources is
-ochar
glvcri in TabhI. 3 -13.
"Radiation
dosage
reuilred
for thresdramage
hold
Materials
nmeric ruJ Plastic

E~i,
rai
nepiaIMaterials./47,48/
Eat-mers-:p~s~
pla-st-c - ire primarily organicfotreEl7~st~ersa
materials. They consist of carbon and hydrogen
atoms bound together by covalent bonds that are
easily disruptcd by nuclear irradiation. However, all the properties of a polymer (elastomeric and plastic materials) are not affected
to the same degree by radiation. For example,
some elastom'ers may fail more rapidly by loss
of tensils, i;t,-ngth under irradiation, while
other, ..:ay Lia by loss oe compressive strength
or development of a compression set. It is
Uiert-hore important to know the radiation dosages required o damage specific properties of
polymers. Tables 3-14 and 3-15 show the effectof radiation on some of the more commonly
used olasto:ners and phlctics. Thesetables list
radiatioin dosages at which threshold damage
occurs and 25 percent damn'ge has accrued.
Threshold laniaie occurs when at least one
physical property begins to change, while 25
percent accrued damage occurs when at least
tensile strength
such as Figures
one
3-33 and
by 25 percent.
bas pthysical
changer! pruperty,
"1iLa23-13.
Conversion I'actors- for Nuclear

,ladiatinnData
Mult~ply by
'Io
T') conve'rt
r.
ro,,,z,,
crgsgm
ergs/gmn
I00
erg.s,'gin(C)
87,7
crgs/gm(C)
84.6
1.6 x 10-12
,5
-,
n/cn
',"hr
7.1
/Scc
2 x 108
Neoprene
2 x 10
Butyl rubber
8
2 x 108
7.5 x if,
4 x 10
8
4.2 x O-
1,3 x 10
1 x 10
8
x 101
8.8
r
.0
3.3 x 10
7
x 107
1.5 x 108
"
of radiationonseolccted
the effect
show
3-34 al&oand
laminates.
plastic
plastics
In gereral plastic materials are more resistantto radlation damage thIn are elastomcrs.
Plastics maybe exposed to 10 to 101( ergo/gm
- -irradiation before a physical change appears,
while elastomers can only absorb dosages o0 up
Most
to I09 ergs/gm before being damaged. when
-12"-elastomers, tend to increase in hardness
x 1
gmto the extent that they will be unserviccabie.
'r ._,hr
n/el/see
8.3 x 103
raIl;'br
4.2 x 10
Polyethylene Is one of the

yeL.lene
more raiatiaon resistant plastics. It is unalfected by dosages of up to 1.9 x 109 ergs/,mn
at higher radiation dosages, 'poly-However,
ethylene becomes a flexible, rubberlike materlal and, with continued radiation, it becornes a
crosslinked material that is somewhat brittle.
At a dosage of 9.3 x 109 ergs/gm, the overall
merhanical properties of polyethylene are
changed by 25 p-ecent. Tensile strength increases at first, but nt a pi)roximately 1.1 x 10 11.
55
rn
S2
Vt:,nnlnnast"cn
IL~nr 5.77 x Id
,1,,,
" ,,,,
r,
' of I
/sAcc
I,,v.
)tA
..-
~~\J'
, ,'
'"
f4
"
.
.
T
"
't
" *
3-')
w='
r ,%
)w)'."W~"
, ,;
Of alU the plastics, the rigid plastics are the

=-n()
more radiation-resistant. Some of the rihid
-materialssuch as polystyreneand mineral filled
phenolics, may be exposed to dusagesof almost
1012 ergs/gm and only when will 25 percent
damage occur. On the other hand, some plastics, such as Teflon and unfilled polyesters, will
becomedegradedat dosages of 106 or 10M ergsi
8.3 xO4
elastomer.
,t/cin/acc
"
will soften and become liquid with increased

- radiation dosages. Natural rubber Is the most
radiation resistant of all the elastomers. It retains its elongation, strength, resilience, flexibility and abrasion-loss better than any other
h,
.C
4'
.
irradiated. ButylandThiokol rubbers, however,
10-10
Nitrile rubber
______"._-
4.5 x10X
",r5
1 x 10
Polysuilide rubber
84.5 x 10=8
,,
(.r41: 'gl(C)
,v,
c8
C,,'..e,'gn)(C)
2 x 10
Acrylic rubber
2.5 x 10
Styrene-butadiene rubber (OR-S)
Silicone rubber
90.0
. x
rgs,/Ymn(C)
r ,! (*alt:,,
Natural rubber
90.q
(C
(ergs/gm)
8
2 z 10
Material
Radiation
dosage
requl red
for 25%
damage
or2
(args/grrm
J~AJi
)
,.'.
C
n,>,
J~J~
'
"
% .% %'%"%'..'..
.
,"
't'/",
R
.'
'h ,".
.*:.
'"
,"". ",
&.
fr.
-'"".'.
"7,, "*', '% )', .
[
.
r%~.l~e .3-15. Relative Radiation Stability

of Plastics /47/
"U
0.44
-t
(Date R' to Intepeeodnce A.Swcn.41
Radliationi
dosage
required
for tineshold damage
-eg/m
lk:'terlal
$1
C10
for 25%
damage0,
(erga/gin)
V-_1
10
4 x10
aL
Phenol formaldehyde
Z`.9 x 10 10
3.9 x 10 11
Polyester (mniieral
filer)Fig.
83.7 x 10
3.9 x 10
q.
4(2
10
S xlO
Polystyrene
Radiation
doSage
required
-1
A,0
.. 'J
Dose Rote, ervs/2m1~C)/hr5
11
3-33. Radiation stability of selected

plastics.
P1oiyvnTyl chloride
9
1.9 x 1(1
1.1 x 10
Poly, 'hy!"'ne
1.9 x 10~
9.3 x 10~
U~rea h~rmialtkhv'lc
8.3 x ios
10
~.0
5Ivc, t 11/2 Nov Ot 5007FI)
5007-50%
*.:,*as$ i Ulf, 1-.N
Ma" "of
5,',.,h
."l
eo
5. x 10
ctbyi'w::
*0
A09
Ph"-
0hflrut nc1(-'ry tic
1'tv''
Cl(I,,
, aut)rrv'.hvle-nv
L~.
-____
-
_______
____
er: 'iit
'coit IA
1.7 x 10
Roe
10
'rsgmc/r(o''ore
3.7 x 10
_________
--
l''titis to dee-rc-ase afi is 25 periaitial value at aiilrtoximathithel

lan)
PciveAitylene is Iaii Ny stable7
sly 10' -r:.'Io

in its 6eiastic
O
Dos
1.1 x
10
8x
P4
O3
to, irradiation results because these pulvvez p,

are not cross linked. When the polymers are
subjected to nuclear bombardment, the fluorine
atom in knocked ofand In turn reacts to break
'
a cAibon-to-carbo~n link, This causes a loweringof the tensile strength and hardness of the
n'iaterial./49,50,5 1/
eal-rgPolyethylenesMeao-rncCmoud.
Iccmpouns, surco asCompounds phaosporosand
black )iave a higher density
sili1cone polymers, arc res;istant to both high
sti2tilcsit~u4IC)nucearranice
ciiati'tn Itchx stxiarittd l)'ly('tltylIenex/47/
temperatures and nuclear radiation. Elements
ox low atomic weights are generally more raYlkuw 1;".2ei ' t
11'Ivnrs. Fluor~inated miaterdiation resistant. WNhen an element such as
lals d '2u o
t'tltlty to nuclear radiation,
boron, atomic weight 10, is coupled by means of
Mu'nt:;~c4
ol.,nters such as Viton-A and
gammia radiation with a polymer such as polyethylene, which is also radiation resistant, the
u'r'ntar"5zut'ulyregrciehyrelatively low
ra
e ii'itxp'trxz
cce dost;e o~f 1 x IWOP
and 5 x
combined materials are less affected by radia1)' cut.. 't.:t, rcsrtectivcly. The poor stablility
tion. Metal-lo-organic compounds are still under
critaiw!
initcl'tlus values.
cr-h
3-31
dc%-(,lopment and very little data are avallable

1-ijjrnj Ujici r madiation effects./521,5/
O~aic
eatTransfer Materials. The terpheii~isi
-cast affected by radiation, and are
the preferred class of organic heat transfer
mati-r-,Iz at hirgh 'cnpcratures. The density,
viscos~iya'.',
-n-hydnitgen ratio of the terphenlyl menciCase, andi thle mltuing point decreases
with inicrcased nuclear Irradiation. The terphea'1 'ls will become unsuitable for use as a heat
transfer mnedium when exposed to a nuclear
U~J~gC(A
01 cr!Vgl.Thermal
x
Mo-no-isoprop)Iylbiphein~yl,
biphenyl
diphenyl
ether and SiAc~te PSjLt1-L also are iitde aff ected,

Atauzdt!On. Mono-isopropylbiphenyl becomes
un-_uitaibie as a heat transfer medium only when
2x 1012 e-rgs/gm are absorbed, and both biphinyl and sillicate estecrs become unsuitable at
1.4 x 1012- ergs/gmn. The density, vicosity and
Table 3-16,
Properties of Metals Affected

by llsdlaticrnL
Poet
Teilstnghhree
Ductility
HadesDcae
Hrns
Imato srnt_
pestng_
Electrical resistivity
est
conductivity
er~a
Ducrease
Dimensional stability
Affected moderately
Elastic constants
Little or no chu-e
f~C
Decrease
Increase
ereased
moderately
iUcreased modurately
Cre tnghLtl
Fatigue strength_
ro'hae
Little or no chanige
Damping capacity
carbo~n-hydroegcn ratio of this group incerase,
Uittle or no change
Difffusion coefficient
Little or no change
deconiposiun
Temeeti
Throleti
anid tire melting point decreas~es with increasing
'Hec least suiiab' e for use as heat organic

mnaterials are ethylene glycol, chlorinated diphr vIs, DC-710 silicone and phosphate esters.
They bcerinic rapidly degraded at nuclear expeo ures as
'Ihli
),!,.v
as 10"
ergs/gin.
oeag
Corrosion resistmzice
Little or no change
Internal friction
Little or no change
Microsti-uctural Und phase transformations are

possilble in some aytns
_______________________I
physical changes due to irradiation vary
coiisidera')k, WiLhi molecular weight. Low mnoIci~lar

ei~tpdycrsare
sualy lss
uclear e3:prsure. "54/
ed
1,
m
iteo
e'oLtleornl.u~
ffec-
Various coatings and their susceptibility to ra-
diatlon damage are as follorws:

to 1031 ergs/gm. (C)
-Satisfactory
Phenolic coatings (MIL-R-3043)

enamels (uribaked)
'Mcal. ny roprtySiliccaie-alkyd
I gejerl,
St tjrtulr~
Alkyd-enaxnels (MIL-E-5557, 40%an-poprt
I-~a1
, .Cadiatien with fa.:t neutrons in in
htalfr catngysie(akly50
-
;1f I C1tcC
te-'rated fijux levels above l01j nvt. Yieldcotns(kay-50
st iin-tLh may increase up to 450 percent for ar~1
ncu;,led ni-t.ils anid to a lesser extent for coldwor lad ritAlds or nietals strengthened byv heat
Iria, ina2t.. The ductility, measured by percent
tie:a i'lofI
a mect-LI is lowered. Loss of duetil ut rarice fj-.ro
one-fifth to one-third or
in e.Th
larii~sof a in etalI may be increasCo
'.
;e iuh as 100 ihn after exposure to radili rmn .5/
ln*rs
resi-stivity of Generally
10. 1- [cent, and dlecrease in density of
Nitrocellulose lacquera (Black)

Alkyd enamels (32% phthalic anhydride)
Kel-F elastomer coatings

Silicone-alkyd enamels (baked)
Silicone enamel (baked)
Epoxy enamel (baked)
MIL-C-8514 Wash primer
ill ulcutrical
I
tel
Satisfactory to 101 Prf-R/Dm (Nl
0.? perreeit. Very little change due to
1-! t 'i
I,, 1ided in thle thermnal conductivity
au.I
erpieeficprirperties
i
of nietals./55/
V.
~-i s~iwswhat P;roperties of metals are
attP
radfiation, and Tables 3-17 and
1
-,;1
ieY. S'i-it of these- properties arc af**
U ud in %eairitis structural metials,
%'.rtirr: N-i-rkials.
A problem
often
en-
d-din ii' sruni-iim equipmuit or- systems

iii a iniclear- adrtation environment
1;
1!ochic of sat isfact try coatting materials.
1 552. At. a close of 106 ergs/gm of gaiama

radiation, most glasses develop a brownish color. At a dose of 108i el-gs/gm, many optical
glasses be onje so darkly colored that transmission of light through the gass is severely
reduced. Adoaeover 1012 ergH/gml, Uildiscoloration of the glasa reaches a saturation
point. If' t; a radiation dosage is Increased, displacement and transformation of atomic nuclei
in the glaso may cause fracture or physical
disintegration. Silica glass, PyreA glass and
piate glass generally increase in denci*ty 2-fter
Taile 3--17.
Effects of Radiation on TensiLe Properties of Various Metals /55/

Yield strength
Tensile etrength
Elongation
"Integrated
.1
neutron flux
Material
(1019 nvt)
(1000 psi)
Bcfore
radiation
(1000 psi)
Before
Change
radiation
(percent)
Before
Change
radiation
ChangZ
6
ea
+19
21
-4
153
-36
73
35.7
-4
+15.7
5
1.4
-1
-1.2
Tantalum
5(F)
Tunvften
Tantung u
(MV beryllium
5(F)
'
240(F
24.5
'15r i,,yinum
1100 aluminum
240(F)
210(F)
24.1
18.4
+18.3
44.8
32.4
20.3
+11.9
+6.7
2.7
22.3
-2.3
+3.2
Copper
20-70(S)
9.5
+42.5
35.3
+16.7
56.7
-29.4
Nickcl
"inm (T,-75oA)
20-70(S)
20-70(9)
10.3
6115
+46.3
+43.0
52.6
82.2
+13.9
+23.3
52.7
27,3
-23.1
-13.
20-70(S)
12.7
+17.2
36.1
+3.1
36.4
-i*,7
20--70(S)
13.4
426.4
35.0
48.0
56.7
-22.3
20-70(S)
98.1
+53.6
99.8
+51.9
43.7
-43.7
86.0
+5
32
-3.0
Zi rconiun
Iron
u vd,,-nilmn
'I
,otcl
.(,)
I ) I- ,st Y:U'*t
.-
,,-
1oOS. (s) slow neutrons.
.4.
"1:hl'
3-1g.
F.:ffccts of Radiation on Hardness and Density of Variok,! Metals /59
I Inh___,,__rt
L grat.? d__neutron
neutron
M1 te
fLix (j0
19
n,.t)
"5
(F)
"*
147
,;
5()
l'
"-
"-
, ".
210(.)
67
+29
2.665
-0.02
2-10(F)
38
+14
2.713
-0.004
43.5
+56.0
61,1
+54.8
-
20 -70(f)
177
+33
20-7(1(-)
68.5
421.4
20-7'(1-)
52.7
20-7f)(1)
[ .A}l.
3.5(1 )
It
I 'l 'Ii,=
.1 1 J
4.
8.894
-0.07
+41.8
204
23
-4
150
+59
8.8{36
---
."
-0.20 to 0.25
1.847
,,. I(1.')
"" .;!,'
-0.15.::
+52
.. ,(")
'( ,' , 'A )
-0.1'
-
127
N.'I20-70(F')
"A'
Change
2 10(F)
71()
C ,2')-
Before radiation
+53
'V !v',
Change
',,).(1)'-
j.,IY ),!rvill:n
,,
_'"______
Density (gm/cm3}___-_-.-
Hardness (Bhn)
Before radiation
:/
-0.05
3-33
%*
irrjoimt ion.
However, irradiation causes no

measurable change in the thermal conductivity
LmeatbIlity,
aeil.
Stutr-entv
pr~of)_ìfes of inagnetic materials, such ms perremanenre and coercive force are
affectted by nuclear Jrradiation. These eI'ects
Are moat serioup n the
~such
Table 3-20. Brceakdown Exposure Doses oif

Orgotnic Insulators /59/
high nickel-iron alloys,
as lie,..iv
which hpvo- the, highest permea~ut),ies and lowest coerclve forces. When
exposed to a dosage of 1017 neutrons/cm 2 , the
pernicability of Permalloy Is lowered by 93
percent and the low coercive force is increased
111 pecrent. Pcrn-.alloy also sliuws a change in
the hysteresis loop, indicating a deterioration of
material. The properties of 50 and 48 nickel-iron alloys are less drastically effected by
irradVclalc.
'1 ;e ;nost radiatiLon -resistant mag-
*the
netic allovs are the silicon i~rons, aluminu m
irons and 2V Permendur alloys. Properties of

*magnetic
materials that are not structuresnsirive, such as magnetic saturation, are genrlynot seriously affected by exposure to
ruclcear radiation./57,58/
nic pfiyrnersi -usc! ;-,, insulating materials ale

ionli/at inrn iand excitation of molecules. The molecul (:s undcr bombardment indilce a series of
comnple) cliorni-:d iCajigs
that alter polymcrs.T,
TPic 120st
-;-)r~mL chemical rf~acticmts az
TIbAlo
____point,
~10
,~~
'I?
20
~~~
X'~vc
i
10
x
p.
1.25
I X10'
"'C
;"'
1.43a X 10
2.5~
io 2 10In
.,1 x10 17
J-
1 h'V
"~*'
~.
2I
11
0
x1
.5 x olo
12
X 10
1. :)
I' '~
2
'i'1)
10may
115
13x1
-
1ihi, thi' :c!;cscrption in

(I!
;~
1 t'~;
II
is t
'';;tl'Tl
-
coli
1,iivalf rit !.
3-31,
Silastic 80
1 x 1019
SiI-X
9 x 1018
Teflon
5x 10'
Silicone rubber
4 x 10~
Nepee3
x 10~
2 x 10
Polyvinyl chloride
1.9 x 101
Rubber
1.3 x
iii
Kel F
IX10x
Suprenant A-10
1 X 101
%aprenant B3-2
5X 10 16
lyeiciaterias generally decreases after exposure to nuclear radiation. However, the dlecrcase In resistivity is small in comparison
with the original resistivity. Tatie 3-19 shows
the original resistivity of various pciymerf: P0n
their resistivity after reaching equilibrium.
general, the electrical failure of organic
nical deterioration. Cracking and flaking of
brittle polymers or excessive weakening _and
bubble formation In softened polymers 1hiiliy
lead to breakdown. Table 3-20 lists the accumulated exposure doses at which insulator!;
be expected1 to fail. In evaluating the data
int Table 3-20, It should be noted that. an insu-Y

lator expos-ri to) nuclear radiation may serve
satisfactorily at one voltage and f requt :icv but
fail under different operating conditions.,'59,60"
R7.1 crgs/mni.
ithl ibmims is dfiffurcnt for

'i.more
Ix1
and have greater solubility as a result
eAfteiri
x rig %inti
rti~ivitolmlibIu
-.
Polyothylene
of chain cleavage, and tensile strength and meltIng points way decrease. Crosslinking causes
hardening, an increase In strength and melting
an Increase in density and a decrease in
Afe
T rgia
'r,'U~
1 X 10~
panled by cha~nges in the physical properties of

For example, polymers may become
po
jlymers.
_________
_______softened
cr.:I1
Polystyrene
In particular,
the absorption of water, either on Uie surfaci! of
an insulator or in cracl-a within, may cause
electrical leakage./59/
Tevr~
hmclratosaeacm
of O)rg-inic Insulators After

Jc j
i Tt'ivtity
6/
rsg..r
1'i~ir~lqi.rimof 41,
An.
exposu re2 ) dosage
its usefulness as an Insulator.
The breaking
of
b--,r~elbnds
and the accompanying side
reActiiuris niake, p)Ilymers susceptible to attack
f rom tile .1,11osphere. Ozone and nzitrogen may
~~~cornihi chenmic ally with a polymier anmd destroy
~Breakdow-n
-(neutrons/cm
Formnvar
EU'ct..,rjr-a Inuslating Materials.

The most
inpj)rtanL ellects Aj nucle~ar radiitior1 on orra-
chain, cleavage#. and crosslinkage.
I~ci
nsulator
Inorganic rr~aterials are, in general, inuch

resistant to radiation damage, Umanu are OF
A f
t
substance~s. Atomic displacements acco,.nt for nearly all the permianent damiage In
lnr-jr-aiiic Insulators, causing changes in the latticeparamneters, density, strength aud electrical
properties. The density of crystalline Inua
torsi decreases while the density of amorphouis
insulators suhas fused quartz and glass, hicre~s-"i. fhiere 1calo a strong photoconductive
effect acctu_,';yyng the nuclear irradiation of
m-nst inorganic ceramicti. The threshold flu
for detectable radiation damage of Inorganic
materials is as follows:
101~~9 n/Cm.2 (fast neutrons)
MeiZt
raiii
Ceramic
(eN(Cept glass)
1fli7 n/cm 2
(fast neutrons)
ioq-12 erg6/,gm(C) (gamma rays)

/Fig/
Dielecric Materials. Little change in the

phy!ical w- viectrical properties of dielectric
ni.iterias Eas been observed below a dosage of
lO1nuio/cr.
Abov t2sdsgsm
ph'-;ical properties may be-gin to deteriorate.
i
fmn
ise(C~i'lpoete
Ilovtv'
electric rn~atnrials, such) a.3 polyethylene polystvirene, Tcfio:n, fui:,d quartz, -nylon and pf'enofor dos1orjnhldc'hYd(, are relativeijy unaff ected
atreS o~f Up to 5 x 101'" r.eut-ons/_cm 2 ./12,l7/
t~
'jclar
'nr' 'aditio atlctsme nyrathier 1i an the- electrical proneicl prnpern is
p~rlWlS of d; _''" tric inaterials. Embrittlement.
cmaterials, transformation of
in ~'ddd't
a li jeid (I i.j:' ,ric to a gel, loss of flexibility,
a~dthrma
lxuCS t~ndutiviy
n
cusemo-2.
clvtiit a! detericoration of the dielectric material.

For exiunple, pslyethylexxe and nylon when expjo~ss' Lo a 6[sai~e of 1 01c neutrons/cm2, have
decx (-iiCwi in~iact.--trengrth and become so brittle
that t).Llt.4 0l Uth material chip off. However,
very. little d-:radation of their electrical properlt os takes p'lace. The effects of nuclear ra'U'at tn un Uow pThysical properties of inorganic
tnt:4IA 'L-eraf
qat, ,a AAAIu'a OLUnuiiii, 2,irrofl and glass-bonded mica, are less
t
stCv(:rn.
l owe;'er, electrical resistivity and diece(. nc s:r2hmay
de~rease./52/
Suxinkondu - to,rMater,ials.
Radiation causes
two0
(11ct:;
.1 Semicntrductors:
transient
c;ian~w!-; inI selv tric-al properties and permanent
t hn-it,-uxmc
s9tructures. Transient effects
from tlit ionization caused by energetic

Cmt(xTlsor chirred par'ticles, such as electrons,
tx-a'
cisi" 11' ixiaterial. This ionization injects
(x(t 5i mxx'ioiity carriers intu the material and
Cnci'.T e rise to "electronic noise" in semicondu~ttrdevic,'; Tranisictitchanges are also producted ini surfaice recombibnation velocities,
a r is
Peruonntchagesinatoic trctues ay
dchic to irdroduction of defects in the crysta-1 110!'ice in tfe forin of interstitial atom:S and
v~ii~c 'sor
bN tranmuintationx, 'which results
fr-sri cutp! urc of Uier'mal neutrons by the atoms
oc iur
Of
110T',
taCr i
Al.
hot],
Of these, processes intro-
dii c nwlevcls into t-he forbjidden energy gap,
causing permanent changes In conductivity and

minority carrier life time.
.'N
ExMechanism of Semiconductor Damy.1.

pcrimentshav6UZZiare-Mhl -Fadrao-nexp'osure
affects conductivity and Hall coefficient much
more than can be attributed to impurities intro
duced by transmutatlons. It was th~erefore coneluded that the displacement mechanism Is the
source of most damage in semiconductor mg.teriai.5. Howevtev, far completeness, transmu
tation effects are also described..
New energy levels are caused by the introduction of Impurities into the crystal lattice as
a result of radioactive decay. These Impurities
mostly influence the conductivity of the material. The transmutation atom may emit ext~rgetic b~eta particles of gamima pihntonp- causlnr
secondary radiation that may be ciao"`ZX of
causing displacements.
Whnicdteertcpails
uhs
Whniidteertcpailsscha
neutrons or electrons, collide with Jfattice atoms, they may impart suff icient energy to cause
a recoil to a displaced Interatitial site, This
results in an interstitial-vacancy pair. If the
primary recoil -receives sufficient energy, subsequent collisions may occur, producing se'cond
ary anci tertiary displaced atoms. Thus, many
lattice defects -result from the collision of a
'
'.v
This reaction may result from any of the follown processes.
Ets.oliinwt
olso
lsi
Coulomb
tences
ihtences
Interaction
(Rutherford scattering).
L':
.1.
with the nucleus
3. Elastic collision with the atom.

The first process occurs when an uncharged
particle such as a neutron is involved. The socond results from a charged particle having
sufficient energy to penetrate the charge barrier of the electrun cloudu of the laLtice aLor.
And the third process takes place whenx the energyifs not large enough to penetrate the charge
Charged particles may also lose energy by electrostatic Interaction -uhich calisip
electronic excitatlon and lonizaLion of the )at-
."r
-barrier.
-- tice atomq.
~*Gamma
photons Interact with orbital electrons, producing photo electrons and compton
which in turn may have suff icient en ergy to cause atomic displacements. However,
gamma, photonis do not causu atomvic displacements directly. Electrons generally do not have
sufficient energy to produro i. zaacade of displacements since to do vc they must have energies in tdie reiativistic range. In summary,
semiconductor materials are damnaged by highr
eaxergy particles and radiation through any or
all of the follow ing processes:
-electrons,
1. Ionization.
2. Trans mutation.
3-35
semiconductor devices. However, as far as radiatiotidamage Is concerned, no great improve4. Pispiaccnment of atoms.
_irients are excpected, since basically, one sem~iconductor material is nearly as vulnerable as
The termoynamc
aproac to he rdiaanother. Thie is true with respect to mechanicTion
thraeprmodylamic approac tossthe. Aprtdia al displacement caused by Incident particles,
with the exception that materials of lower atonienart-u
tion trnavrig problemrisaloprodcsibe an
Ic weight a.,e In general more vulnerabiethan
andenoreou
prodice
a parteicula
aioe trav herAting
anio:~t-~fhea
at ~ ,arlcuar oin an a eMaierlals of high atomice weight. Also, transgion of niatei.4d ...cound the tract of ifie particle
mutations wlfl produce the usual donor or acwil) be heated to a high temperature. This rapid
cFto elements, but mechanical displacement
hetn
qunhean
ingo sml vo~lume
omawills till be the most severe problem.
portion of the lattice in a disordered state. The
end result is equivalent to a localized production
Components
of vacan~cies ajid possibly interstitials.
Cosmc
r~vi'usi
r-yc. desribe, prduceungIstors.
Transistorpraer3cnycprvi(usl
decriedprouceutin
Cage with irradiation. Forwa.:-l cr
lattice ..Clects and noise, and because of the
rent gain is5 reduced because minority rarrier
small number of collisions expected, noise will
lifetime is reduced, and reverse c~e.rr
probably be tie primary effect.
baseleakage is Increased as a result of tchanges
in bulk~ characteristics and surface effects at
RadiationEffects. Neutron Irradiation of Nthe collector-basejunctlon. These cause changes
in circuit pa-rameters, such as a. decrease in the
!ype" g,.2rmaiilur results initially in a decrease
in conductivity, a.nd finally conversion to P-type
forward-current transfer r-atio, and increased
mateial.Theconductivity of P-type germanrvrelaaecret
iumn inc rcases %w-ithneutron irradiation, provided
the radiation level is not too high initially. ReTransistors eventually become unusable in a
sistivity chianges in P-type germnia-ium occur at
radiation environment. They experience comna Qlo,-cr rate than in N-type. The conductivity
plete failure when the N-type material converts
of botli N-tvpeandP-type silicon decreases with
to P-type, thus destroying the junctions. In lowix
radationfrequency
germanium transistors, the changes
"1 41 -~iOr'atoy- lA
LIW Ai
T 'ALUL
tUiA-116 degia,
4de tirE 'L .~uI
sistor' usefuliness long Wdore N to P converThe life time, of minority carriers lx, semicondur tor mnatarial is sensitive to radiation,
sion occurs. The sensitivity of various typcs
doe rcxst, inr A"O, increasing bombardment. In
of transistors to damage by neutron irradiation
additi'oi, uns;tahl- minority carrier traps are
is shown in Fig. 3-35.
~
3. Ela!rti-c displacemenct.
'~'I
-'
'..
K:.
~
prt-lut ud, leadxilxIL to) p!ate conductivity.

Copouind Srrn icon du ctor Materials.
Some
nowk S'Ji 11~aio
P
16, icuiaterials, particul-aryc
poun:li, otter c~etpromise for use in future
i----and
S2.ctn
_Th~cL. hcvse~
Yr
Th
verse characteristics.
._______
I--__gamma -
I7j
I
________________
____more
I h,x
aa
Semiconductor Diodes. B~oth silicon and gerrnaniuim-dode

di
_siWoiiisceptibility to nuclear
radiation by a large permanent increase in the
forward voltage drop and Increased leakage current of a transient nature. Increased forward
resistance creates excessive power dissipation
reduced voltage output. Gernianium semiconductors may also fail under nu cleai- radla-
4Transformers.
b'se-main
It has been found that
radiation affects backward resistance

whLile neutron damage primaril affects the forcharacteristics of ad
.T~etn
damage to germanium and silicon diodes is determined by the ultim~ate nuclear dosage. M~icrowvesrnicndutordiodes are considerably
rdaintolerant than the general purpose
types.
P~hyLsical damage rathier Lian
damagiie to the electrical charactersistics are the
effects of irradiation on transformerti.
ormers have been exposed to high energy
____
__________Transf
______little
0'" 10"
101
in'
1014
10 11016
inerldFu', rNeUtron FluK, n/cm?
I'~terc~edat
Fi.:. 3-35. Ilwaiitioti damnage to silicon and

c'r* aiiitiminsistors.
neutrons oi 3.6 x 1017 neutrons/cm 2 with very

damage. C6Ul resistance as well as voltage and current chiaracteristics remained sa.tisfactory at high-exposurc dosages. However
such high radiation cq Psures, rupturing ol
the transformer cases may takec place due to
-expansion of the potting compound and shorting
of the transformer terminals.
-*.
Ei~1)ron Tubc-s.
Tube, in general, are quite

i~ui
tonular radiation. Vacuum and gasfildelectron tubes are less affected than phatth..Phet~otubes irradiated by a flux of 1012
ne,,trons/cmz for a three-hour nerlod showed ato
dark current equivalent to the normal output
fromn a light source. Wh'fen t'ie radiation wasA
Etopped, the dark current decreased to zero,
Vicc~~dtiiyo
h phototube also decreased. One of rt.Ojrgest cnises of tube failures
dlue to nuclear irradiation is envelope and seal
lollo
i-c
CPIMA4,10
101~
(~~
o..,p,
D41og.1 MIi'A0o
.1
Aihm-1.a
Np
N0
fractures, caused by the use of borosilicate

glass. /5 7.67,6 3/'I
Capacitors. Mica glaris and ceramic capa.Ptoe m Poiygiydiation 0oses of 10189 nvt. However plastic
fatoso
elcetrolyti-, uAr~ il*lldo
il
imfli',regnateA
Fig. 3-36. Radiation damage to lubrica:s./68/
cayacirz are extremelys8usceptible to radiaManyorgnic
ateialsevove gsesUnand couplings contain organic polymeric MAat.rder radiation, anid this gas may rupture the calladteeic
fncerrdaino
hs
pactorea~.
Gneall, nn-ogaic apaitos
-- materials is known. For exanp .e, Buria N, a
"functioni satisfactorily, and capacitance is onlysolvent- resistant syntheUc rubber, and. Teflon,
a temperature -res istant plastic, are materials
und,3,64nula.ird-to,
dera.
/57't~
/57,G,63,G/
used inl hoses. Buna N is much more radiation
Resstos.
ertin es~tor chngeresstresistant than Teflon It will leak at an expo chng resegist-omard suretrsdortagn of~l~r
~t
Tefltn
forare
x 108 ergs/gm
suedsaeo1
hut
irradiation,
or after
Ci-iis
a nce
mos ofT
te durini!
r-wouiid and carbo~n types suffer
Ix10
rsgfoTeln
little dainla!-.
Pesistors, in general, function
satisf:.cturily dtur dosicsof iOi', nvt, with wire5jbja
. Liubricants are generally riot
woun-d resi.:Ators bei~ig least affected. Wireaffecedafer exposure to nuclear radiation of
Abeve- fll A~--A
dec-rease of abouLt
9 Y i n09 ermas/
'oun
1'U
~
sov
pereceut in their resistance values, while carapproximately 1 _X1010 ergs/gzn, they still have
bcon-t :p#e res :,twi-s may change in value by apgood lubrfcatlng properties, but impuritieE 6uch
roina i~v 1v'15 irmfrcent after exp~osure to radiaas slud-es are formed. In addition, gasnes that
tioii-,
-57,G2',t3G 4!
in 13omecases mnay contain halogeno
hc
r
corrosive, v.re evolved.
no2hc
r
Ins-ilators. fn!;ulators decrease In insulation
resls~tliL d
ad after exposure to nuclear
an
Aromatic ethers, alkylated aromatic ethers
radliition. Ilocwcx-er, polyethylene insulators,
_Xand alkyl aromatics are less affected by radiaeven. -Jo -,r expoc.su re to 10 1'! nvt, show very good
tion. The polyphenyl ethers are not affected up
insulaltirlr. e.,iin
Insulation resistance for
-to a dosage of 1.6 x 1011 ergs/gm Horwever
most organic compounds and aug onventiona?
rnost insulators d~ccreases uniformly with exlosur,' t~nilW to between 5000 and 500,000 ohms.
lubricants show extensive physical changes after
Iultr- i
),a:(..fn
voltai e may be reduced by
radiationdosae
f11 to 1011egsg.
l
a' (tor of 5due! to nueIcair radiation- However,
gure 3-36 shows the gpammn-- dngagenp nflecpRssry
tie vri toie brc-Akduw.%n valdue may return to near
to causc minor and eatensive damage to lubricils- oni-Kmoa! ;-alue aLfter romoval of the applied
ants. Minor damage occurs when imnpurities
volt:,
~* '~ '1.'are
formed, but the compound still has good lubricating properties and with propcr filterin~g
SeiGasl't; andSczd ants. /65,66/
Most
its useful life is not markedly affected. ExtenClas,
cS
aiAi__ 1a11.15v 7 olplastic materials,
si're damage to a lubricant denotes that it has
i:vi
V~ CL'l us-! -as seats, gaskets and sealants.
become a poor lubricant. /65,68,69/ Tho ra'1In' is no cl~rtoner or plastic sealing materdlton tbltMfgstrielbiat
r
i" . ul'.bhle at present that has radiation stalisted In Table 3-21. Figure 3-37 shows the
lwit,. :ih-.c 2 \ 1012 cri,'s./gn.
However, sevradiation stability of various organic liquids.'
Ccrat rit trials, ma; function prooerly and could
ho
t :.cuum at lower radiatijni dosages. The
Gess
rae
ifrIonohrtpso
rmoteypso
that
luricanses inese
cfftc t, if rakhation on various clastomers and
inalanat they rely on the formation of
andrcat lnt
p
-h I ! o~irseals, gaskets undser
a structure
by the Interaction of the base
i
i-ic
i disc nosed previously une
ElaGfudand high melting thickener, On exposure
tonin :d Vlatstic Materials,"
tbradiation, this gel structure breaks do~wn, resuiting in a soupy product. On furthier irradiatli'~~ ard__(ipi is'
6~7/
Re~latively little
ion the mnaterial hardens to a rubber-like sub-sii;,:
'itOiii>
diTj
oil~ the effects of nuclear
tance. This Is attributed to the polymerization
rafii int-i(n h-ics and uoupiitiing., particularly
of the base fluid overriding Lthe gel dest~ruction.
oinUt1 -'
i.d iorKinic iilateriads used in hlose manIt is estimated that conventional greases will
Ilo..v r
standard aircraft !ioses
havepoor operational propertle-3 after exposure
-.
3-37
'
-.
Table 3-21. Radiation Stabilltyof Gia-Turbine LubrhcantfA
Approximate radiation limit for

(erga/gm(C)
nioderate changr
..
Approximate useful
tc:.perature r.lxge (?)
1;
Lubricants
Viscosity
OniddaUon
resistance
Relative lubricity
(4-ballwaar Lctt)
Commercially available
65 to
S1010
350
4,1 t. ,oG
Fair
Good
Polyalkylne glyoIB
:Esters
5 x10
< x 10
St icons, chlorinated
<5 x 1
<5 X 10Fa
Mineral ollb
5 X 10
1 X 10
Very good
Trimethylol propane
5 x i0o
<I X 109
Good
Su|r
%w..5 refined mineral oils
llaesI
5 x 1010
X I00
1 x10 10
>1 X 100
10
Very good
Fair
Alkyi aromatlcs
5 x 10I0
<1 x 10I0
Good
Polyphenyl ethers
1 X 1011
5 x 100
Good
"9:
:Fai
:1T
E.erim'ntal materials
E_5
to .nn
"
10
0 to 6(,J
lid.
-n4
4
4,"2'
-rq
6.
,..
s,4
,Vv
r
%
,Y
t''
q,- .,'
?*
'p ,
o-,
.
rr5-, '"
do
Rl ,eOp-,,
,
,--
latively unafectedby gaiJuna dosages approaching I 1"1010 ergs/gm. It is estimated that they
will function satisfactorily as high as 5 x 101.ergs/g m. Petroleum based fluids show excessive viscosity decrease as low as 5 x I09 ergs/
gin. This Is attributed to degradation of the
Alkyldiphenyl
polymeric viscosity improver.
ethers and alkybiphenyl base hydraulic fluids
are expected to be usable in the range of 5 x
.01010
to I x 1011 ergo/gin. Use of the metalinked unsubstituted polyphenyl ethers in hy"draulic systems Is expected to provide satisfactory use to as high as 2 x 1011 ergs/gn,.
-. They are particularly desirable in that they
need no additives and no viscosity-index improvers to enhance their characteristics. Pos-slble radiation-resistant hydraulic fluids are
listed in Table 3-23. Estimated dose limitations
in the use of various hydraulic flulds are shown
9in Fig. 3-38.
flvseC
lo , erqs/gmtC)/hr
(Von De Groaff Source)
Fii.. 3-37.
Radial ion stability uf organic liquids.
-ris/n.. Newer greases, such as

to I x 10109
ether
thie in(iWithrrnrc-tlickeed pilyphenyl
Itusi
%t1)o,arc exptecIed to be usal te at radiatiow (:<p)surts as hic,,h as I x 1011 ergs/gm.
Pls,,0ill,. iri'iLitim-resistant aircraft greases
pre ited in T1;lc 3-22.
istimated dose limitmatisin tic use of various greases are shown
in I i:.
i
-3K.
-
yrAc!udbaedo
fillyralc
Hydrocarbon Fuels. In general, aromaUc

hydrocarbon luels are usually less damaged by
radiation than saturated hydrocarbon fiels.
-Also pre-irradiatedhydrocarbon fuels react dirferenUy to radiation than unirradlated hydrocarbons. However, dehydrogenation, polymer-izatiori and degrfdation occur in varying degrees in all hydrocarbon fuels exposed to nuclear
radiation. The following physical and cheinical
-changes are produced in hydrocarbon fuels:
/70/
.
1. The hydrogen content decreases with increasing dosage. At a dosage of I x 1010 ergs/
'
,
-'
II,
-,
lIable
2-22.
Possible Radiation-Reaietant Aircraft Greases
F_
Grease composition
Approximate exp~ostire.
AI I Io.'Ji tit:I r;e.fuiI

tfiiwntj~rt:u, range(ff)
Flukri
Thi2keflor
tolerauce (oz-gn/gm(C))..
1ndanhrene blae RS
4%10 1
20 to 500
Polyphcflyl ether
-40 to 350
Octadecyl byphenyl
Sodium terephtlialsniate
7x 1
Methyphenyl siioe
Aryl urea
>101N
______________f
-.
kP
*Trible
Appr~xiruite URy'ijlFui
tmNripc~turc rangp (F)
-2.Possible
Radiation-Resistsant Hydratulio.Fluids
omoito
Addltives
Dase
-65 to 250
Petroleum
-65 to 420
Di!3oloxane
Silicate Ceqier
(OS-4.5)
Alkyl diphenyl
-65 to 400
-15 'to 5~
Q()
t'~
Approximate exposure
U6W-1l3~n~
characteristi%.a
I1X 1010
Poor high-temperature
Alkyl dipheriyl
x 10
-
~~
Does not meet

MIL-1-1t446
Por low-tomporaturo
x 1011
rproportion
1 1011Poor
lew-temporat'ire*,.
properties
(41w r
5. Viscosity increases with increasing ra-
.0
"~@"~.
~diation
OO~Q~
dosages.
6. Density and refractive index increase

ith Inc reasing radiation dosages.
10"..,
Oil
Mx'I
IO'j."*f*
GdY
Poly$;-
ZERO GRAVITY
.'\
Anobject eprncsa
or wegteses
iamejnt~
1.
fX
Fi i. 3-38.
i:u CisGro~-.-
YEtmimted dose limitations In use oi2.
'd iulc
I,flids.radial
and
van ad5 hvr~eilicfludsacceleration
~c:.~s
~':
Al,_C
1 u
ti
in
va'u,,m.I
hh
It rotates around the Earth with its tota!

acceleration equal arc! opposite tothe
caused by gravitational attraction
between it and the Earth.
I'ot
ercntto9 os
ofvoumewm
The above definitions apply not only to the

Earth, but to the Stin the planets and the larger
of voum
natteral satellites in [he Solar System.
1) pecet
los
willrs/r
.ronment
4. - V'rc is, no ,r-if~hicaiit ciianye in the hecat

6d co::01L;Astio-n up to) 9 x 10- er gm
ir.
A slight
(lrrctI- I
Hi.1occur above a dos age of 8 x 10 10
C1C,:; tm7.
Fa.rth
peren hyro-
3. 1!i-c is no c!Ianiir in the aniline point up

to ai
-o of 2.6 x 1010erirs/i~m. The aniline
10112
r . IL, tum c(\t'r increaIse slI ghily aboVe 9 X
101 1 c~
frilln to
ni
bout0.0
'~
i~mos~of
o
2.
it
zero-gravity
when:
case the weight of the object is equal to the accelerative force acting on it.
IC
;i.
5 X 100
-2
Potybutone
.Ali.
Poyphcnl
-
tolerance (ergs/grmiC))
Experimental
information
concerning
zero
gravityand its effects is very limited due to the

dllficultyof simulating the condition. The present approach to achlievilig A zero-gravity envifor testing has bcen to use aircraft flying in an arc in a vertical plane. The duration
of weightlessness achieved in this manner, however, Is short compared to that experienced by
ballistic missiles and bd&eUites. this is showniIN
i1 Table 3-24.
3-39
%a
Taible 3-24. Charac~teristicsl of Flight Trajectory W Produce Weightlessness of

fiaxiinum Duratiou for Vprious Vehicles*'
*1
Velocity at entry cr
max-imnur epe'nd after
burnotit (mal/hr)
Vehicle
hleight of
trajectory
(nti)
1370
Angle of climb
Uktration of
weightlessnoss
(dog)
(mi~n)
0.49
155
0.47
J -sc
4530
Sn 1/2
0.6
I -IOOF (moidific 1)
650
75 1(2
X-1.1
4300
80
85
1'edstonec
3400
150
(P-0t -'!ti"-vellicles)
10,000
200
10
Jui ter
10.300
>600
11.
Lio~dc~itsI
I8iO0
>600
Infinite
"lie fiqurts givun Inthis tahle are approximations only.

The( n')s, serious aspeCct o! a zero-gravity
will pr~l~kihiy lip~ its cifeet on huTi:- i- covr.crd later in the handbook.
T!:is
i'ei"cfcts
I!,,~p1
of zero? gravity on "Nupip-
nients. However because of its uniqaic nature

it w ill be covered separately.
cn[17'i:-,iitint
urni-LAtIL
1. Yjprin's fcnieCd by a mass will assume

ii'
&,ji~l,~npostios,
nd o mchaica
1,1.1 ad
j)S~i~n,
s mehancal
dealLKsU
Interference can be clefined as any clectro-
-x/71,
t
1~
'nonsrgswlhvecangcd
c:I~,
L~rid"',ference
2. C b'i1* ""illnotrisein
iquds n site
2. -xll
(
ot rse n lquid Inspfe
(if r!'i'- i y dll..rLuncs. Also, gais bubbles gener
--it ,li
will iemnain in contact with
tho- via:
."!" 0
Ontamiriale surfaces, resultin',
it
:-i' iti )u1 uf elect roincchan ical action
,llah~r1ne,-
th-t ha
an unde irabli
e flect on electrica or eLectronic equlpn mnt. It

can affect equipment~ ranging from simplo relay
-~control circuits tocomplex radar and navigationt
systema, Communications interference can b
eit-her man-made or natural. Man-made interresults from irteraction between Signals from different circuits or equipmente. Na-ural interference is caused by things such as
atmospheric electricity and magnetic Btorrms.
/35,'
'''
Man. ' lade Interference

3.
Licr:i'J
'
to
nIifunctlr)n.
t rans;fer will cause seriouR

I holieitixg
oidcooingof qui-
~r)~ :5
liiii
11 -1p i1 to
lvinvrte p~s
onIn
oquiipoioit that will not funcan inred
pos'c.ityo
ion Earth
a
ii
envirnment
niqu siuar c~jjpw-ntares
i whch
whih uiquesita-
I raras
nonumni
n
'it
1-:
ourd (toI
de to zero gravity are lubricin,ml: oaiis and ixxa1tCL ia stresses.
o''iu~iA'ro~s
NTEFEPNCEbroad
1111
3_-4 i
Il
0
.'ihiwe',
it
oI~ix C
wimnunm'ations interfer-
l effecttofother environ-
IS'
1. Continuous-wave Interference, which usu-
v.kjjj be no convective movement of

de-nsity gradients. This 1-ck
C' o';tz'miLl
:i (hohat
ti'l-
Maiimade interlerence may be CUVidOU into

the three following types:
foxi uxamplu, will nut function due

f N1
wight in the indicating fluid.
K
Fz.10
4. "I'CT
will
1-v'iIdt-.ices
ally eminates from transmitters and receiver

local oscillators.
-2.
Pulsed continuous -wave interference generated by equipments or circuits that operate

a pulsed mode, such as radars, beacon sets
and pulse-type Jammiing equipments.
3. Broadband Interference,
which generally
originates either in equipments where arcing

takes place, such aj (I-c motors and generatorto,
or In equipments containing relays, vibratorB
or gas filled tubes. The Interfering Eignals are
random. naxrow-pulse voltr.ges that contain a
band of frequencies,
The effects of man-made interference may
range frorn sporadic noise that is only annoying,
to complete equipment inoperability./35/
'
N~.tural Ti~tcrferelicc
noise
ffetcts.
A'rospierc
&JWTsfiiMer ere-ic,. with commumaTy-T-wcaJse
nxcjtiovs. The highiest noise levels are due to
scaittering of radio frequency waves by tue atmosphere. This occurs mostly over land in the
tronical regions. Atmospheric electricity, conFinctirig of Y"11 static electricity and lightning,
;!_-fect co mmuni cations. Static precall a
zipflatlun, cspecidly in the lower frequency
ranjgcs, may block radio signals and cause corona and electrical arcover. Lightning will
block communications and may also damage anter.na cquipnicnt./72,731
-Atmospheric
el.v'irojA
omcNie
Ionosph~cfet
hidi'l
~CnCMtiesi within the. ionospherq
cause reflection of radio signals at lower frequencies as weti as radar refraction errors.
Durint- periods of igreat solar activity, such as
sunspots and aurorae, the lonosohere rises and
in'terferecne with communications becomes mcre
pronounced.
Thc aurcorae are sources of opticzl and radio
%kavcl~fltvth interference. They occur mainly In
.iramrnd !o':thcrn latitudes and are directly
rclated to suncilput activity. At medium and
hinji radio requencies, aurorae cause complete
N1ackoint, v hicl. may la-st for several days. At
i~iv; ir*.]ncies, the effect is not as serious, Ai:
vury-hih7t and ultra-high frequencie~s reflect1)0
orb~cksptcr
ayoccr.In addtoa
a irora cau.sos absorption over a wide frequency
ruur. :,uitirii in attenuation of signals intend'-l to pas~s through the ionosphere. Electron
dnii:;within aurorae may exceed 108 per
cubic rrun~imnieter. The high electron density
r
nl adrng
r, rws,7?,:n73,7 4,7i5
'7?T3,-,,,that
r'rs
111p
y . ij'
~NN;
ONMYNTS71
itype-r cnvirroilneits may be defined as those

nl~I'L
'
'irnmetsexisting above an altitude
'I 2)~n totIlnd those inlduced environments

&c'l~udby vehiicles capable of op-ripting
at iv t!,)! ,1titude. The following is a list of
Atomic particie radiations

Meteorites and miczmtoie
Magnetic fields
Gravity
Induced-Ilyper Environments
Acceleration
Acoustic excitation
Mechanical sback anid vibration
Extremely high and low temperatures
;A Hypvrn
Nut
';s'
Enivironmenets
~svsmeteorite
l
n
i~tnd
as'Shile
Y,!,i -d t~ases :uH free electrons

0Lu
I*xti ornf Fmw pr( !;su r(, arid (flunuty
1 ". inn1 'xli'S

I Itt,,
miinnn!wtic radiiationn
Thermal shock
Ioniization
Explosive decomprension
'
Nuclear radiation
Magnetic fielda
Zr
rvt
The hyper environmenits encounterzd by var-'

ious types of flight vehicles, an well as the soquencc Iin whicli they are encounteredi are co-
vered inthe "Flight Paths" section of cEhapter2.

The effects of the hyper environments, le fthe
extent that they are present~ly krown, have been
covered previously in this chapter.
Exam~ ENVIRONMENTS
Exotic environments are those environments
are strange or foreign to the Earth and are
based primarily on the findines of astronomers
and astrophysicists. The very fact that these exotic environments are strange means that very
l ifflP im kninwn nhncni them- Whbile the~American
and Russian satellites and Moon probes have added to the knowledge of what may be found in
sp~ace, much Is still in the realm of speculation.
There is little doubt that there are environments
Jr-. space that are presently boyond our comiprehension Find imagination,
The full. effects of radiation belts and
nag.-
tietic fields around the Earth and othier planets
are mrnecly conjecture. Interplanetary gas and

dust cloudB are known to exibLt jlj
space, Lift exactly what will happen witen a yepasses through such an environment in not
completely known. Other planets undoubtedly
have atmospheres which are deadly to man.
Such atmlosp~heres may also atta~ck the tiurface,
of a space ship, with the possibility of eroding,
dissolving or even disintegrating the nicktId
that are now in. use on Earth. The compos~ition
and criaracterst~ics of thn! Lunar surface, as
well as other planietary surlaces, are also mnat.ters of speculation at the presenL time. Mani
will experience the strange environment of si3-41
.''-
]encu after lainding on a planet tlipt hag little, if

ala y atmiosphiere, sinice Whe lack of wind 2,nd life
wail1 residt in the. abseince of soand. The human

con,,'(iousness may experience a sense of forelxiodng,, deSolAiton arid eericness that will cause
disorienta~tion. Tiie same effect will be present
In orb~ting vehicles that do not have eqaipment
producing some Poise. Rooms, called anechoic
cllanibers are made to simiulate the condition of
to
iif crambr i isposibl
no
no SJUTLI.W~nr,
oun.
tis W~u~'
namer t i osibl to
Lear tIL:- sound of one's C;wf heart beating and
tire blo;od circulating through the veins. After a
few minutes In such a chamber there is a feeling of oppression and the silence seems to have
Weight. Some subjects lose their balance, then
expericace nausea arnd vertigo, and fina-Ily are
seized by an irresistible impulse to escape from
the (hainbier.
Exotic crinironments may be encountered in
a dircc Lion perpendicular to the plane of the
Solar Systemn. The Solar System is disk shaped,
thrilanets do not lie in the same
Uii
and~
plane, the diameter of the Solar Systemn is considerablyl grcatur thani its thickness. EnvironrnentL; perpendiculair to the diameter may be.
fantastic.Lliv dJifferent thaua those that exist in
the pino
ai~r'lrn~'
o thesola sysem.
envirnmentthatvironment
unkimmi nviui
AIIcftht-l
tta
has been
the sdihjC( L ?f con) idor~ahlie theorizing is the effuL),.
,5:I
sl-USC zipocc
'wa
xowarii conquering space when the effects of

theie and other presently unknown env iroon ientiu
are succesuefu~ty overcome.
COMBINED ENVIRONMENTS
The prior parts of this chapter consider the
environments and their effects as occurring ono
at a time. This format was chiosen, first, to
facilitate the pre~3ent~xtlon o.l data, and second,
because most of the information available to
d~ate Is on single environments. Very little data
exist on effects of the various combinations of
environments that n-ay be encountered in actual
rsahisnddints
ue.Mcmo
area.
In use, a system will never encnruit~r any

single environment by itself. Jiowevez-, e,.031
though combinations of environments are en-,
countered, the extremes of environments generally occur singI y ana it is the o-xtremes that
--are most important. An extreme of one environment may inittensify the effects of another
environment, or In some cases, one envi ronment
may tend to neutraIize the effects of another.
a given extreme of one natural enis not. often encountered with that of
another, several extremes of induced environ-inents maty be encountered simultaneously, and
:omnbi~nations
anid inudaced environ-
01ntua
metalysxitoghr.I
of jirlit. The~re is c'oraj-t ure that as livin
tfhinrs moave
';ur
and closer 10 the speedmetalyseitoghr
lialiht, theyI' Will a,c less as compared to living

Ulalin fil 1E1a.l!).
The exo~rtic cr-':-onme(nts must on probeda and
catadof_L,dand_ theie~ ultiuiiaat' cufect~s fully under-
stoocl 1bulore --p-ice travel, espec-'ally manned,

em
a 'safe rieality. The 'environment,
can
cngin,-cc -will..~
the 1preatest contribution
______-
~natural
C~ombined NaturalEirvivonsnents/77/
A list of the natural environments is given
-in Table 3-1 at the beginning of this chapter.
No one of these natural environments will ever
humidity arid
occur by itself. Teprtre,
--pressure are always present in the atmosphere,
and each alters and IG altered by the3 others.
This varying combination, including t~he otheCr
environments, produces what i_- known
ni z wspathey'
Tct?~~r
~me
I
6
>Chapter
Lo
'I
--
.30
Yl,. :S-0'.
3 42
30
*-
60
90
Latitude
N
in, oltd
IONdata.
____
LatitUd~inl J:litu'n
eli.determine
of crnviron-.
i~ina
in
uaaithr fri-rir
f ma toi
and place to place result from the varia-%

~tions in quantity, intensity and distribution of
Ihe individual natural environments.
Distribution of Extremes. 'The extremes of
the individual environments axe covered In
2. These ext-remes can be combined
on a graph, as shown in Fig. 3-39, to illustrate
how they mi~ght vary in relation to latitude. FiFure 3-39 refers only to Whe Sarth's sunfico.
The distribution of extremes for various 11ttitudcs at these different latitudes Is s~hown in
Fig. 3-40. It should be noted that Fig. 3-39 and
3-40 are es~timated and are not based on actu~al
In addition, Fig. 3-39 and 3-40 uhujuw only
how Individual extremes vary, and since t-he ex-r
trerries 1rpr.ny occurtogether, these two illustrations do not Indicate realistic combinations (if
natural environments. The natural combinations
to be expected can only be analyzed through an
understanding of the many Complex factoru thlat
the combination.
'
i~-aci
gtQ1J1i1IJt
c:ons~iderting
'rThecorn 1cxit of comn-
how one element is varied.
For
.,-
example, tnipcrature ils controlled by LncomininzI~

solar radiation, which is a function of laitude
'
and tim. Put the amount of radiation reachingthe ground Is rerulated In pa-rt by the cloud coypire
and the alsountof watervprine thowamuhof
plire -A'
the. amSou oflwatermvprin thewamuhof-the reradlateci t.tat is retaiin~d in the at-mos; --'
*~,.phere. Combining to further m-odify the tem.perature are3 the large and small scale morve.......
merits of the air, both horizontal and vertical,
*.~
and topotzraphilcal characteristics, including the
d
niature of the surface, elevatioin, and the proxi90
GO
30
0
30
60
90
mity of bodies of water. Also, a change in ternN
peraturrP may set up temperature differences
Fig. 3-40O. Semi-spatial distrilthtion of ent,~r
that create prl:sllire gradienitm, which, through
the resi21' _rg air movement, alter the tempermetlextroiinns.
JAi
is
*
---.-
ature ac-tin.
a
Alcss direct-example
Ilhyvid~ freezing o f rozen) is a priianry element.

in Many cieterforatin'e combinvAtoni. li c auzsO of
the immedlacy' and magnitude of its effect.
of interactlrg natural
envirfiiments is the evaporation-condensat~ofl-
cycles.
prccipitat son
Evaporation Is directly
proporttiirial to tetinpernature and air movement.
i,
How an environnment vairiea and baw It Ii

measuxedare indicatione oA its combiining formi,
AmountL frequency, rate force ,.Lri vlllcight are
v~ariouniv used to descrftbo erivronrrifit Wiien~sity. Some environmeits can be exp~rosr~e( as
linear quantitiep; (preseure, temperature, h'ii
f curneI
midity); for citheri-tert
sigi~iileant train, J.r~et)~iig MaID, anow); '? few are
cormmorly observed only ae. a fact c.1 occurrence
(light~ning, tornado, blow'ing snow). The corn.plexity ol combined 1.interrelationships may be
value of one element
sezn by the actatthe
may iritheate the~ presence or the intensity of
another. 1-1,0l indiIcates turbulence aloft, Freez-J
r. rain rf~evels the presence of wyarmer overruning air. Restricte-d visib ilty nmay ref le~ct the
rate of rainfall,1 the Intensity of log, or the seof blowing sand, dust or snow.
W? rm air can I;ol J more water vapor; winds

constantly repid,':c the 4i r adjacent to the water
4
4 with dr,.e- air; adturbulent motion transports
One result of the
the wai er val-kr upward.
cvaporal ifn proccss is the cooling of the surfare laI, or of air-. Trhis caiuses heating of the
air aloit, sirice Lie heat lo!--t at the surface is
.en
c')itieflsatiofl takes place, Surreratim LI %&
face aid atmo.~pl'rric temiperatures' are again
nidi Vd..un protipitat~on occurs. 'Ihis hy*droloitii
id at ti a;, whi ch is abetted by air moIr temperature changes, prot~on~
t' m~i-ri
ducts; further tuinporature chaniges.
The
nicu
i-
vvAirnprtatt
orcein atual evirn5) ar;tdiitin.
t '~1etrntnesthe
,'d
at(r and air; fixes, In
j-
LL1TId..
-verity
of cvaporation and its

ro:id'm s;)tioi r; controls thle winds
frrrl.
llanu
courtcr p . i,
;.n
*
(l.i
f theC a -, such as tern~t
nhr'i
ccur in all
h
idity, anid j1tsi
ir9
pcra
,:ornii
tti-.s 'ni th orufor: niust he considered
( I-,
cx'kCxtr( Tw':. Teniperature is closely
with]
Iirii.cd
!ziaa
influll
ri-- 011l:
tc~ ;Cih
~ ~ ul:.~ 'IIcl
Larn1.
Iiunrolity, or water
yiit'.twant,
u
Waltr valpor varies
itt ~iito
m Lii'' o pic andti nc t tie
1 -,1','
7f [-,'v al-nut fiic pr-r(:cnL by volJIM11i
tlat ii ,itlsplicru. iThis variability
ii I.t
is ii n i ii s dnic iemI inttdiaite effects anid
i 1,,ir ji~iluttii ing othier elements,
inl ilsTh
'
ottf v.lit 'i-rvip xz in :n 1,.ven miass of
thf. ltinbotipici-C's c~ipacity
oC(I
atir .I; a Pi' i 'lul
i' r pi. nj 'iaiou. Its absoyptive effects on terrl.st viail iA i~t tiAn crt-itn1 atv tt'-t loss anid thereby
vapor represents
:ti't i l-iu";ttulmc. W.Ittr
Litentto a v s i (-d in Ulf- at ritospiterec for tVie
..'d i:nra Uth if storinrs. /i / Precipitation
VJV )I , I. *
*uujto
J'oril~i
.-;idiation. In addition to Its

and snial I scale wcathier pat_C* :irc, felIt diretl as a principal
'tijihit
'
"?J1,
M"
J!.
.~r
lr
i 1,~a'.i,: h, ,,rrviter or icess degrer every

()ti0I
Poss~ilte
rl
77. T:.rt 'I
Combinatoions,
vt 1 117
,.~anelr.
ar,'
Because
vI rr.~rn,'a
.9
of their
sirrnu,
PIP-
tinents are likely to occur simullkneously. Ec-anip);s Include: hum-idity arKI rain; pressure
gractiierit and wind; wind and blowing, dust, sand
or snow.; solar radiailon anld I.( per?,fure; and
wind speed and wind s~hear, In most cuombinations, however, the exirerneui of one element do%
not occuri together with the exi-romres Of wancther.
For tins reasion It Is hecessary Woconsidr- vrious con-binationa Uthat include sortething less
than the exlvrc.-mvs of somne elermients. One 2pproach is to assign an extreme valute to one, tP~e
highest value of the secon(t whir~hever occurs
naturally with the first, the ttilfIvat Value of the
thi~rd concurring with- thle assigned filtensities
of the first two, etc. in the descending order of
extremes. Aisslgn;&ient of thle absolute worldwide extrcinea may result in as few as one s~et
of valuen in eachi case. In practice, therefore,
thec f irst assigned value must be arbit rarily re95% probability).- Tfie number of
duced (egto
plossible combinations depends upon the numbher
of elements coexisting ac ishown on Table 3-25.
3-43
er repeated. This Is evidence of the vast numner of possible combinations of Vhe eiemients,
x~ n(n-1)Qi--2)(o-1a...f-n1)
n!
which together shape the .vcather, Thorefore.
Nunicr
o NimerofIt
is necessary to consider tuje more practical
rather than the miany possible
Mimier o Ni mbe ofcombinations
ones.
combinations Wx
(n)
Table 3--25. 1'oeri~iuI' Combination& /77/
[frnilion:
vat'irbk..r
R~~la
omiitoo
One element that
mnustI be taken into account in all combinations
since it is present Lai all environments is teinperature. Weather-wide, everything transpires
within a range uf temperatures; thereforb, it Is
probablywise to-use temperature as a basis for
determining useful combination data. A one -toone comparison of temperature with every other
element in turn is a Aecessary step toward miultiple combination analysis. 'Figure 3-41 iUlus
trates how such an analysis may be presented.
Temperatureliaplotted against the other nittural
environments. The scales of the utAhcr
vriioc-a
can be of Intensity, amount or im-quwflcy
of occurrence. The curves shown in Fig. 3-41
are hypothetical examples, and may not be indicatlve of actual relationships. More work is
needed In thIs area to determine actual condi-~
tions.
I
2
ii
3
24
120
.-
G720
5,040
-ments
540,320
-362,8850
li3
6,f29,800
.7F
~,* ~
From the comp leted analysis, extcnsion may

made to include a thrd element. For examnpie, thie probability of rain occurring almi-lta-
.be
__________withgiven
_____
---
~andwlnd speed
_____________
____peculiarly
--.--.-----.---_
and smog, on Uih.other haidi, is more
_spray
caracteristicn.1y adapted to local peculiarities

an rea
iontr the nea !Lr! po-1h:ii~to
(A0(u
teri
--
.J
ion and speed, uolar radiation and lapse rate.

inclupion ot environments that are solely
the pr,,-uct of lotrl Influences zmay tend
to confuse the relationships that normally exist
among elements in combination. On Lfhe 3ther
oddities of terrain In
hand, wind that throu
create and environrment that lies outside the
Ideal low temperature-wind curve. This type of
extreme Bhould be retained in anmy
extreme environmental study.A
KrThe
0 -20
I'I C)O F30 Go) 40) '1
hemperutue,
-40 -60
-80
4
.~11.
4
'1dlIwj'Oratures at which various other
mr r occur.exceptional
lirmi
till. table it can) be s-erm that such
To enalyze
1~
~
la
:,:c a nurriher of ornmIm.I~r.And autually, th esc are only a smiall
Iriticr1
f tihe l!is~ibu combinations; omitted
environments,
[1
:irj;all thl rei-r;n'e,renwns in which no one
1:
dcl-
combinations.
J1011Anli91 it~iiuleeet
llLu
I`
4-
(!ater11
practical combinations
of
In Imost to examine environ-
Wh~en making a practical anal-
to determinen: (1) whothier tie two eve'r appear

ofiriultancoualy, (2) whether one tends to Iiten-
do
(Lil
It
42
ysis o! a pair of environments, It Is necessary
ti~(t'Xticrelmtotal environments.
11U0
the
mental pairs. Then, any one of a pair can be

pairedoff witlh another and this process repeat
ed to determine various strings of possible
nallyof Wich
NO
11SII Lhl
apl-aL
Ic'5t
oftompezature
Ltta~
extreine proportions may be found over spver

relatively large areas. A combination of salt
________________
--
Another point to consider In determining

combinations Is that an wxtrnire environment may be one that is likely to occur In
any of several geographical areas or it m~ay be
associated w ith a cprtain locuiity. A
hot-dry-windy-dusty environment approachini
salpractical
__
--I=
ly
Wlthta the limiting prof ile of Fig. 3-41, lines ci
equal probability may then be drawn.
__________
___
conditions
'!"'
1P
s
nv-n!-sit,
th
toal
ify
w_-aen
te
oher
an
(3)wheherthe
J.-1
aemore daynaging jointly or sequentially. This
Louw (enip-rature and
typTe of naldvsio is shown in Table 3-26 for allF

dualenvronents,
including natural, Induced,

and hyper environments.
Low temperature
pressure.
ut
Low temperaittre gaid vibration.
Combjined Induced Environments
Low tenrcrature arnd shock.
list of tihe Indkiced environments Is given

in Tabi. ~'-; at the beginning of this chapter.
Like the natural environments, no one of these
induced environments will probably occur by It-.
self. Unlike the natural environments, however,
the occurreace of the individial induced environments are nut too dependent on one another.
To date, the interrelationchips between the induced environments are not exactly understood,
althouqh it i:; prof~ahle that their effects on each
cthop arc as great as .s the case with the cornbuted nat.,iral environniorits.
jrjw,
ndsanqri
Humidity and low pressure.

Humidity and solar radiation,
Humidity and vibration.
'
Humidity and ozone.

Low pressure and vibration.
The many combinations of induced enviionmcnts tat may exist depend mostly on the type
of equipment being considered, Its function, and
tie various possible missions of the weapons
systc~n. Since there are many types of equipnicut and many varied missions, the possible
combiriat'i~ns would have to be determined on
an indiViiual "uPalVSIS ba~,iS. Whi su1ch an
an-aysis is made, though, It is more advisable
to deter-wine 0Wc natu, al-induced combinations.
An an-ysis o inciicedl environmental pairs is
incl!de iTable 3 -26.
Low pressure and explosive atmnosphere.

Solar radiation and sand and dust.
Solar radiation and vibration.
Solar radiation and ozon~e.
Sand and dust and vibration.
Vibration and acceleration.
N%11ral !4ni InducedCombinations
A complete analysis
32iomnsis
adIdcd8tiomnsI
and26x.edeirnet
Tho probicmi of examining thie combination

fuf IN-Ah 1,.duril and induLced
cuniplex u~u, s,;nce two interrelated complex

rc1str~nhi)q
rcinvolved. Too few studies
in the area to determine
havu 1,r, :i flin.vi
Clt_' Iauct o.s to bu c,;nsidervd. One study /719/,
'nibencompleted, recommends
thait iniv Oie 2 own environmental pairs be
rI Sfl~ S~~bi
~i~
pars 1.)do
CLL5I'
hiit in'wi-ify (21[cts, (2) nieutralize one another-ir,3)
i
iiccur
In conibination.
p~~tue
lie
mistre.2.
ad
Ground handling (pro-launch or psre-tutke
n,:p-r-aturu awl salt spray.
tnij
wratu to
4. Launch or takeoff.
5. Flif~fif,r
8. Reentry or descent.
and sand and dust.
Hhl~imWIiiperature and] v ibration.

shok.
11 i~h an' 'ipertui
I j hadI- shck.ter
ir jeature
iiili tt niip'ra t ure and acceleration,
lw,% tuniporaiure and humildity.
T tm;'Pr a? ure wid lItce mjoisture.
zi
shonnTbe
Storage.
li -h tn111W 1-iiure! anld s~l ar radiation.

lih ill
natural
Trangportation and ba.4~ling.
lw pessre.3.
1!iiti ad ijoratro
IIiX,:
soni
Environmenta Analysts
Each weapons system mutit be analyzed to
determinethe OBssI P.lhe.- an coiI binat ton
ofienvironmenfa that may bo enicountered during
operational life. All phases of the mission po
file must b~e considered, suchA as:pr
~IjThad mpeatui
hmidty.1.
a
of combined
Detaled-~ information oia how an environmiental analysis Is carried out is presented in Chap4.
Trans ortation and H~andlig. In the Initial
stages otransportation aid handling equipments are usually kept in temperate climates.
Thle principal en~vironmnents they encounter arc,
shock, low temperaturc mnoisture, temperaturecondensation, solar radiation and possibly rsard,
~~Table
3-26.
QNalltativc Relationsldpni of Con-btned EnvItontmoklr.
Legevid
cioud:J
Roi
f;p7g in
*Combi?io to intensity Mj~qh..2flj1 deterioratiionwit

P-*Combine to Intensity Opra2nol deterioration
F io ezin-io,
_________________-_____
-
t+
---
Fungus4
Hail
IJ6of
SL~4um~d,ty
Lgh~n~
36
4 1
Air
_____Rain_
3I
~ S~d
~41
D~st-~
-
fTemp , Hih
5 .'G 3I
I
Wekndeffect (one environment weaken& ofiec~s

other)
CA3Inicompatible
7Unknown (unlikely combination or Indeterminable
combined effect)
(Plank) Combination riot considered (independent
[]
~O~on,_Sonr
Alminus eign H-following
enumbtl!*
1.
'
tl.
X?
;not
obfit.s eko
Temp
'66
ow'
122 ifi?
t,
41
'4 4
IPod-alotr --L~~ m'C

iRcd~otion,
Coexist with 110sgnifl~eml combined effect
uef-e
%Pollution,
Inlerdepeindenl (one environment dependent on other)
----
E.ctwon li
17171
--- Gouo--4
-,'3-5-'-*-.--~..-
nue----
'A2.
ZJ'm
C.
~.
'.
and dlust. Ordiniarily, because of packaging

Ynost of these environments are negated 2an
5hock due to handling ithonyoecnslaered
to 1w .s':riuus. I-owcver, eiicounters could Include shock in vairying combinations with (not
21al sizaultaneouslv) moisture, solar radiation,
tempratre-ondnsaion sad ad detlow
.-pcrat-ri- and hligh tomperature.
4 ,
As equipment moves on the surface through

various areas and climates, typical coinbinations likely to be encountered are vhock andd)
gA~t spray; Ili&- temperature and sAlt air; high
"~emperature, solar radiation. and shock; low
ternperato-e and shock;P and moisture and shock.
When eyi,'cpii-,irtncni is encontepred bywir, then
com'4 in.'ronent
encuntredwil geerally be the same asi thvn3e encountered In flight
operaionssing
*
Storacve. Combinatfors of environmental extrerr.s are rarely encolintcrcd during storage.
Those crivironincrts rotA include high temperatilre, lowx temperature, fungus, humidity, ternperatura-(ondfiisation, and, depending upon the
*type
of storave, r-in, Mlowiin- snow, salt-spray,
sclar r'~"
sand ard dust, aird possibly
shock.
phi~.olhe .;ssori;rficflight vilhicles may

be xpC e to cobini'ed environmental extremes
such its (1) i.oi, tf inperatute, Nlov. ing snow, and
sho' kar.u vjhra~lon; (2) high1 temiperature solar
adt i-ni, and Ewock :uid vbrhratzon; (3) hligh ternpraitu'.(
sxO(I 'ind dust or- rain, and shock and
vibad'm;ari
4
eiprtr-on
sto
arvi sh'-c! and %v8,ratlon,
Iirr:actual
systuir operationrHig
11111inlcil'd-s Uit' launcuh of takeoff, Hihaa

t,-, or des( wit portions of the mnission profile, a !i :t nit vcci. ie
CX
rec
the mosut comn-
flex a~id :-nvcrc (onibinatkios of environments.

'1his tci dlue primarily to the fact Uiat during
opurati i w i'uv tit tfie induced environments
vximt. rin tdofO lci~rver, continuoiusly. A typical
exanmpl i.
v euvinr,.mmental coinhinat Ion occurring
durin:,Ow
of a
!!L
eln rature and Acceleration.
This
combination produces the same e-ff-ecT as 1ig:.
temperature and shock and vibratiou.
!!igh Tem erature and Explosive Atmosp here.
emeatr
ey
iteefet
on
ffhe gnition of an explosive atinosphere. But It
does affect the air-vapor ratio which Is ar Ln
portant consideration.
Hig0i Tempnerature and Ozone. Starting at
at6'F3-OTFF-(1OC), tem-perature starts to reduce ozone. Above about 520 F (270 C), ozone
cannot exist at pressures normally uncoutitered.
3-47
'
'.j.
1i
Temperatuite and Shock and Vibration.
Sinice bothof these evironment afectcomninon
material properties, they will intensify each
other's effects. The amount that the effects are
intensified depends on the magnitude of each
~nironment in the combination. Plasticb andA:
polymers are more susceptible to this combination than metals unless extremely high temnpertue
re Involved.
operation O'aSse
pof ile are shown Iin Fit,. 3-42.

pn~,in
A
of the environments encountertid duj iinn launch, flirlht and reentry Is given
tlie 'IP iiit latfin" section of Chapter 2.
*dvtal'-ddlsuoasl)n
*in
rounid h andlin
ilw;d
SolHigh
iat1 n This
on that causes increasing
-- ihTmnrtr
and Sand and Dust. The
eoszi~riFiad
tmybecclaedby high ten~erature. However high temperredarce sand and dust penetration.
Opcr iin,
%ec
is a
iks in triinsp')rtiit~of,
shock due to ha-ndling
to wid fruni sl'!irige could orcur in combination
widi Wny of the Other combined or single enviroamrutc.atures
Duriiri ground handling,

ni-e-aih ornetkof
<
peerto.
h
eealdtroato
fet
ofhumidity are increased by high temperatures.
!i2eaueadL~jsr.ec
of these environments is dependent on the ouier.
For example, as pressure decreabes. oilresssing of constituents of materials incre4sLb,
an stmeaueIceae
h aeo ugs
increases. Hence, each tends to intensify
thefctofhete.
Hihem rau
ndatSra.igtruetenist~nres
ecorso
h rt
byatr
tnsalto increay e th aeoIoroin!
iry
cue
ysl
efcio
rai
aeil.,
High Temperature and Fungus. A certain
degree f high tmperat re its necessary to perA-nit fungus and microorganisms to grow. But,
above 160 F (71 C) fungus and microorganisms
cannot develop.
A
ln.
wliri'vflT]us m
The following paragraphs disclusa the effectsj

of various environmental pairs. The coverage
dcep not repeat the effects of each environmnent,
butdliacusses only how the coirbbiation may intensify, neutralize, or add nothing to the indi
vidual effects. Many combinations not considorel significant are excluded.
~Hg
en
HetighTemperature and Huidity. ofg
mitrem
In a very b~ro:.l sense these environmental

extre~mes could be encounlere-d in comnbinations,
such )s: low, t "zperature and blowiing snow;
hihtflnperatu'-u ond solar radiation- humidity
'11d fungu;,s; and hiigh temperature and sand and
dust.
(;rou.-i
Combined Euvironmeiitql Effects/7911"
2.525
CjN
20
I~'Inches
-r,
F
Hg Abs
V
_974H.
--
AJ 5
400 F
U_
" 400 100

-95
S,
g0 % Rol Humidity
300
200
80
80F
Cr~109Oc
Skrma
iyArdn
(PialyTurbojet No~se)
CarrieI
E__<_F_____
120
(
am~AalbeDt
r 2095
s
0c
20230
Minmriyutesnm
( orey
it4
LwTmeaueadAclrto.Ti
0.hete
cps
and1
copesato
5-37tur
-oncI e
__
Ro. -Aire
r_
Tr! ....ratureaidswand
Iu
___
~~ ~ ~
~ ~i-ttr'nnI_"i
ai~i-unu
iid'
y.
andowpresreto
eadln
hteprthre ingestin
ond
orrshove
s
hwevr,
roughE~
veryrtues
lut tozroun.eohngt
zn
VI'
This
fti n
lo
Ahtcmosphibrtion
ams. hee
u itdit oels the
t
urnidofan d Funoiv
i-an
or rorganism buth1L
addsin
everwt affect th
ar
and
Pcm
acind ofiheratio.
andaulExplsiv
TeTenr
ni
hsso
Lowidiy Low relation tour alcrndiccrelecatrion.

_'etIoee,"i
is_ _des
. culefctvns
Vnled Iairgey biytetl
s
same
pertur o thero r'Imeas
. fl~iw temper-
t'Lo
t I,
n k i~IViti~iiiii.
eaures
~ lwcombInation
~
~ ~~
mosr
-. (:4Fit
0,ii
nJ"r,ti~i cic in
c4 'i~
en
grun
e
nonerddrein
3-2.
Cmbied everonment
geI n
eiicto
Trlocier
atOfpeefI oshw
o
e
rain-A PotCoed
Missil. Fligh
Ina eryia Pltform
arMl~
Minte
virt 0nd on
and h ck
peatr
ofdan e
cond
steortartntnl_,
Carrie andeMisil Fllt
I~i!
viabe01
Coi p.)
BiIi~Olp~il.
undary Layrcraf
of
T3""iatradHmdt.Hmdt
511entuc
M-irnito
Mc
re dii tvfflc
ai2 owe
cocnrto
nraeswt
olarRadatio.
atres
Lw
oe
opr
JPurn idity and -Sand-and Dust. Sand and dust

waefdorti
have , natUra-l aiiilt
a
Co1i~nd~iaLloli iici
cases deterioration,
ozone.
1IirniditX anjd SI RK21diation. Humidity ineterioratirg effects of solar radiatioir on organic materials.
tCnUijrC s th1 C
flamicitv and Vilration.
7The
combination
tcnUVto1)_-illc~r e-ae the rate of breakdown off electrical1 material.

n
cclrton
e Accaeleaton.sTher
atd
pimid5.J--ity and
c
da- -hck
e.~idtosorfo theske acenv
neratio ar e onsiertJedtoo1,orfy Ilmdthes
toiaio
bndaffatonect-r
* te byhebidiy.
Hurn~di'v any - _iosive Atmocsphere. Hurni~iino nepo
_an
h
feto
dityL
silve atnmosphere, but. a highi humidity will reduce thec pressure of an explosion.-
Hlumid~y and Ozone. Ozone reacts with

mnoisture to form hydrogen peroxide which has
a gre;iLcr deteriorating effcct on pl'astics and
of
ela-,oinwrs than the addiive d~i~L
effct
Ci CC~moisure
and ozune themrselves.
LowA Pressiire and SalcSprLaX. -This cornhination :!; not cxpr?'(-tcTir) occur.
Low lirvssure and Solar Radiation. This
corlii
~f acL or in t Le veIl-effects.
Low,, P re2-ssure aiJA Funnrus. This combination
adafcs i;il
to hils: Ove~rall effects.
I osx Pre!ssure auld Sand and !irust. This cornbinat it
'Or'
i only oci iP inl extreme storms durriglIwlJ~ic small dojst particles are carried to
highi alt tuneos.
Lo-x
c--~r and Vihration. This conibinati n i titn riies c.t
W
upet
aeo
rres, oil nmOStl
u..d
lectro)nic and electrical
eq Urim1)
1.
Lo-x I'rrssore aid Shock, or Acceleration.
ii":
(.!.
Il'
aBAq
I-..
.
"""
the hyp'-r ey iroutmental1 levels, in combination

With !1lu1tlnp
ttii"I~'i
U].
Yxp~losive Atmos here.

.Is(. large 8
icct'ci
xlsveamshr
h
i~w'r:searid
At_;k
16t:Sl~c,
-
iashavoc; t("oot
FzdI LwSr,
s5.1
jl1j
ti'
:-a
ui
'Fluris.
ar .1 Sin
Sailts
~n
:2
Th~is is (onisid'rfed
Solar Radiation and Fungus. B~ecauser of the

re,3dut~ngheaUtfro
sosiradiation, this cornbiriation pro)bably produces the same combined
effect as high temperature and fungus. Further,
the ultraviolet ija unfiltered radiation is an effective fungicide.
2_ltRadiation and Sand and Dust. It Is susptemperatuthes.cmiinwllpouehg
tmprues
Snvolarnt
ola Randiations soand ViraTion, Uderiovi-P
iaraaioderozrp
bato
ndios
plastics, elastorners, olls, etc., at a higher rate.
______ador
ht
ece
Soa Rditnad
ThsolarRaination poabld
Thsmoboaiisturlyeodcs
effect 0 .
0,C.
~h
v),
EI Ifs
ini im
tr) AtmosphPre. This

ttIihlfld combnisration,
'
-Sol ar Radiation and Ozone. This combination

Increases the rate of b;ddalon of materials.
'ugsad
ozone.
on~e.
Fungus is destroyed by
Sand and Dust and Vibration. Vibration

might possibly in-crease the -w-ear"'ng effects of
sand and dubt.
'A'
Shock and Vibration. This combination produces no addedWeffecs.
~~bainad
Acceleration. This combination produces Increased eff-ects when encountered with high temperatures 2nd low pressures in
the hyper environment ranges.
"
MultipieC~ombinations.
-rhe results of one
evaluatiion prograrn /797 suggest that the fe1-
l~owing environmental combinations produce essentially the samne effects as all of the environAii;nt pairs described above:
Transportation and Operation Environments
1. Vibration
Temperature extremes (cycling and%
shock
Humidity
Altitude
2. Shock
3. Acceleration
Sr;
:~
plsvAmshe.
produes
Atosadherd
oade
"Sa!t Sti- r. Xd .''u k, or Acceleration. TheseTe~,rtrexrms

St
high-.~
SI'iiii~yadsn
w l V hrat ion. This will have the

1 n
I ii hinvidity -'nd vibration.
5-__________
hsc________
-Sciar Radation affd Shock or Accelerations.

These combinations produce no added effects.
anid 1)05:1. This w il have

'ict
Satt Svrav and Ozone. These environments

etesmecmie
effect as humidity and
Temperature extreir ns
3-49
C.
4.
Explosive atmosphere
,a)
Tempj'erature
Ar-fiel
jc)mituregreatest
(c) Air-ifuel mitture
Ground Handling Environmcnts

1. Humidty ext_ emes (cycling)
It may hiterfern with his ability to hear.
="3.
"
This is called masking.
4. It may cause progressive damage to his

hearing, eventually leading to dealness.
Damage to hearing depends upon the intensi-
The
the noise.
andto duration
ty, frequency
In the freoccurs
heea-ing of
damage
quency range of 500 to 200G cps. Sudden damage
may result from the noise of a blast or an explosion. Gradual damage may result from continual exposure to noise over a long period. A
steady noise, such as from an aircraft engine,
.will be less likely to damage hearing than an
impulsivenoise, such as from a pneumatic drill,
/37,84/
tA
Temperature extremes (cycling)

Sunshine and/or rain
2. Sand and dust
Solar radiation
Luw hunidity
Acceleration
The effects of acceleration depend on the
body position relative to the direution of the accelerating force. The effects of a longitudinal
accelerating force applied against a person
V face down or on his back are as follows:
0 g Weightlessness will occur.
I g Normal gravity.
2 v Hands and feet wffl feel hen
it difficult for a man to walk orcim.
!n,,1,ing
ENVIPtO?;.NMENT.,'-L EFFECTS ON HUMANS
3g
Walking and climbing will be Irnpossible. Crawling will be accomplished with
Alt.',,u;h the wxepon systern itsell may be

prnpnr',y d''J, :,d Ito with stand Uhe various environnilnts, it a till fail to perform its mistil,, (nt'-,-imcnts prevent the operators
.s!Utn
fron, d,,iti, tU,.ir jii,. The system, then, must
bc huvian- rtcred Thi-; section presents a
sunmtm .I-y (,ftl'c important environmental effects
on ham:"z, 3uct ias noise, acceleration, weightlossnuss, total, rature and humidity, racdation
The material
gci vi
eWA]
1J.vsical cominort.
mtradthera
i
inateodeort. Th
iz !,ily,tr
prcsdnuri
in
formdeation
ita(
. is t.u
Morend
etailt
Ipres~lcm
t
pu,I)czis z ,
Mo.,re d,taih.ud information
is
o.,.,
r,.1:11rccs
'], 82, 83/.
difficulty.
sag.
Niie
Higher g-levels have less effect on humans in

a prone position when the accelerating force is
t,*j,,'i n.':a",,-.'.rnts are usuialy given in

dcil-is (db). T'.pira.1 sound levels generated
Ib" such sour as jet en:ines, traffic and factorie..s ait ic
.,- r in "TThe iiandI.I)ok of Noise
Mea!,uir,.o','
Ca n'.-,,
1
i,.ililshed by Gene "' Radio Co.,
It i: djliii vu t, judr:e the effects of noise on

hunta.n', t-.ine',el,0 1dfecttn nre g,:n'hrally related
to tic. nit. etA" :,ttitude of the individual and his
pr'vi,,is
surteolleto or
various
However
lnise Illay -xp
ha'.'c
"all of noises.
tile following
elnicts ,a
l)' ,nono
l
tiw:
1.
L olyc; on annoy hiI.

2. It zat :y di!4tuo
iriII leep.
ht
v*
Ge
I.
'
Soft tissues ln the body will begin to
it
tr
Great difficulty will be encountered

4g
in moving the body. Crawling will be almost
impossible,
5g
Only alight movemetts of
head w!ll be possible.
arms
, ,
an
The effects of accelerations greater than 5

g's can range from labored breathing and blackout to structural damage, especially to the
spine.
'
'
tranverseto the body. For instance, oniy slight

confusion of the subject will occur, and loss of
consciousness will -not take place untal a force
ol 17 g's is reached. Also, no structural dam-
age to the body will take place until an acceleratingforceof 30 to 45 g's is reached. In general, a person in a sitting or upright position will
idsobe affected less If the accelerating force is
".
I,
transverse rather than longitudinal relative to

the body./85, 86/
Certain ost-acceleration affects, such as

vertigo and nausea, and occasionally rapid in-
'
'_
occur,-:'
of the ey-ball
voluntaryoscillatiind
but theso symptoms usually
last onlywill
a few
nil-"
nutes,
3I-50
............................
,.-....,.-.......
Weiittlosnessthe
Vdrri a human enters a zero-gravity environnwent, hc tends to lose his sense of orientation.
Fo.- examnple, he would not know whethier his
armi ish'mnntingathissideor stretched out in
front of laim. 11 he wanted to pick up a pencil
a'wud is
av oloka
ishn t id
otit wher,:: is. Then, watching his hand closely
he would guide It to the penect. In the dark his
senses could not tell him if he were lying Ao
0fl
or standing up.
The worst psychological effecliof weightlessness inight be felt when the Individual is asleep
or trying to sleep. There may be a. constant sensation of falins' cor perhaps floating. This might
IcAd to ~iuirea', cf sieep and a resultant pattern
of disturbingfaTAlSies. and even panic. Weightlitmsncss can only be simulated on Earth for
shoi t periods, so additional experience is ie~ccssary to understand more fully thi;aec of
body is in contact with a cold ob)ject. The

heat loss froin the body surface to air by Convr~ctlonIs proportional to the difference between
their temperatures. In moving air, the convection eifect increases rough~y as the squaro
-- oot of the air spieed. By radiatlor, the body
exchanges heat with its surrcundings such as
_walls, at a rate proportional to the difierenco
between the fourth powers of their absolute ternporatures. However the radUiait surface of the
-human bad~y is only *i to 85 percent of the total
surface, or about 14 to 17 square feet. Evaporation contributes to body heat loss to a rapidly
AncreasIng extent The closer the temperature of
thenio
etco
stottofhesnad
the smaller, therejore, becomes the amotuit of
-heat that can be lost by convection and radli stion.
In air at or aboi~e 95 F (35 C), practhlcajio 2i)

heatloss of the body in due to evaporation. The
rate of evaporation is proportional to the diLfference in vapor pressure at the skin and of the
~eigdessess.85,8,88/surrounding air, as woll as to the speed of
-movement of the air. To lower the body ternperature of an average man by I degree C reLo., Tomperatitre
quires the evaporation of about 120 grams of
Low temnperatures c-aisc loss of body heat,
w t.0/;
resuli'tmni in shivering anid tremors. In addition
tMere may he I reduction of blood flow to Lhe
-Radiation
limbs, which (-nuld result in injuries. When expubUrv, to )9w ti .....
rature follows physical exSpace vehicles and their crews will be exhaux.'d ion, t-he prrsieresulJts
arc- wealmcss,
posed to many types of radiations. Some o1 the
Sleep), 1aralysi; and finally death.
more important types are X-rays steady ul-.
traviolet radiation and cosmic radaiaion. Most
It is niot pfos~ihl,- to state precisely the low
formus of radiation, including solar radiation in
tcnqp'rature limnit for the performance of varthe visible, ultraviolet and soft x-ray region,
do not constitute a hazard, since they can be
ibus 1,':man fuac: i,.!., because this is iriflu~eIaced
by many i'rihos
owever, if the hody ternstopped or weakened -by thin layers of structpl-rate re is nmaiatained at the normal level, a
urai- material. However, cosmic radiation has
bar,- lanud canm hr ept fairly comfortable for a
great penetrating power and can cause radiation
few mtiiulker P, a .:mneraturi of- -34 C (-29 F).
sicKness and other physiological effects./44,91/-. _.
A ho''t
mlpcrature below about 21 to 23 C
(70 caue
o ~j2)~jl
daU~/3/The
ill effects caused by various amounts of
cosmic radiation are still undecided. A human
'
':;,and
11...
141t11.V
'ihmns~,
6,111
.) hih tmpeatues,
s-c-r,_1%Af~ct
'tht
1ir~vrn2rai
ufecs o bih tmpeatues,
dipe' r;oa decu ai-d lenith of exposure,
!:Ii-;, l-;!, ut efficien.:y, weakness, headAt
arez J~~t:in
h)rcathiing, nausea, increased
bo'v tn~pratrr~
tet srok an coi'uslos.
11nmiditv affcr'tz sweat evaporation, and so
has aI!- Ui' ii n 1he ef-fects ef hif-h temperatures

on(,i
'lv I'-.m- ('xamlplc', a humwa may endure
a tcuil-r'tture of 125 C (257 F) in a dry amn-oslbe.C
Ikrrv rif
t rrit
nianutes
without ill effects.
the humidity reaches the point of

Saturate",, a trinpc'rature (if only 50 C (122 F)
ian b" (.1dUrrd f Ni-cillht mninutes without ill efIcits.*,take
Ilcait loss (.n )ccur b)y conduction, convection, r;'da~ion and evaporation of water from the
hlzn,:s .1 'd si.Cmiduction
plays a very sinafl
1hart ill I o'hn" the 1vody, as it only occurs when
iation and not suffer any genetic ill effects.

Fcr example, exposure to 0.3 roentgen (r) per
we,,k or an average dosage of 5 r per year Is
cnsidered acceptable for industrial expwure,
]However, if a person Is exposed to cosmic radiation i'n excess of these amounts, various radiation symptoms *i11 appear, depending on the
dosage. For example, a dusage of 100 r t~o 200
r causes hemorrhages, a low white bloodccll
count and livid spots on the skin. Full recovery
may be expected w it~hin two months. A dosage
of 200 r to 400 r Is sievere and requires hospitalization of the individual, but a full recovery
IF; probable If treatment is started immediiately
after exposure. A dosage of 500 r' causes diarrhea and fever, and death is almost certain to
place iviffin two weeks. A dosage of 2000 r
causes convulsions, tremors, lethargy and it
general lack of coordination. Death Is certain
to take place within two days after exposure. In
eneral, a perfson exposed to between 400 and
900 r has a poor change of recovery. (85,92)
3-51
"l Comfort
'vi,
The proceeding paragraphs have indicated

some et the cnvlronmental factors involving
human comfort. There are also factors such as
composltion and pressure of the atmosphere
food requirements, problems due to confinement
an,, isc!,wor, untcrr.crtalile clothing and numerous others, Puysical corrfort varies for
different midividuals, and each person will react
differently. In general, comfort is a quality that
an individual is unaware of until a feeling of
discomlort is introduced. For example, if the
,rabin temperature is 20 C (68 F) a pilot may be
quite oblivious to the sound of his breathing;
but if th temporatur 3 is increased, his former
comfort ia interrupted becausa of compensating

body changes, and breathing may suddenly be.come a serious burden. A complete understandIng of dhe comfort that must be maintained in a
manned space vehicle has yet to be determined.
/85/
,
-fA summary of the major environmental
fects is given in Table 3-27. Most of the effects
covered pertain to materials. However many
of the rsulting effects on componen6 and
equipments can be deduced from the "Typical
Failures Induced" column of the table.
/93i
Typical failures induced
Principal effects
hI-iLh tf.npcraiure
SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Table 3-27. Summary of Environmental Effects

Fnvi ronment
Insulation failure;
Alteration of electrical properties
Thur-wd aging:
Oxddatlon
Structural change
Chemical reaction
Softening, melting and sub limntion
Structural failure
Viscosity reduction and evaporation
Less of lubrication properties
Physicel expantion
Structural failure;
.,.
-,,
Increased mechanical stress;Increased wear on moving parts

I
-..
v
h ,I:pr;1
Increastd viscosity and solidifica-
Loss of lubrication preprties;.
tion
Ice forination
Alteration of electrical properties
I.nbritilement
Loss of.mrnchantcal strength;

Cracking, fracture;
.]
'
Structural failure;
Physical contraction
Increased wear on moving parts

IIhih TC6.2A,..
Ii
Swelling, rupture of container;
Moisture absorption
iiii-.
-PhyslcaJ,
breakdowin;
Loss of electrical strength
Chemical reactlon:
Corrosion
Electrolysis
lw
rIt
humidity
','t.
Ikaiccation:
Ejilbrlttlement
Granulation
Lose of mnechwfleal strength;

Interference with function;
Loss of electrical properties;
Increased conductivity of Insulators
Loss of mechanical strongth;
Structural collapse;
Alteration of electrical properties,
"dusting",
or.
'ft
.;nvi ,nmnt
Jprincipal
Table 3-27. Summary of Environmental Effects /93/ (continued)

effects
Typical fnilures Induced
111gh prcssure
StructurAl collapse;o
Compression
~Pen~'tration
of sealing;
Interfere-kce with fanction
!_,,x pressure
xpanslon
Fracture of container;
Explosive expansion
Outgassing
Alteration of electrical properties;
;,
Loss of mechanical strength

Reduced dielecti 1c strength of air
3nsulation breakdown and arc.i e r;

Corona and ozone fora.ti...
,Solar radiation
Actinic and physicochemical

reactions:b-
Surface deterioration;
tDiscoloration of Materials;
Ozone formadion
_r~d and diist
Salt s;pr.i
Abrasion
Increased wear;
Clogging

Alteration of electrical propertiee
Chemical reactions:
-',
Increased wear;
ioer of
Corrosion
........
_

Interference with function
Electrolysis
Surface dotoricration;
Structural weaki. ning;
Increaaed conductivity
WIi: d
Force application
Structural collapse;
Inte- ference with function;
Loss of mechanical strength
DI'lxjsitio of materials
Heat
--..
Mechanical interference and clogging;

Abrasion acceler ated;
(low
(oss velocity)
Accelerates low-temperature effects
li'at gain (high velocity)
Accelerates high-temperature effects
:Physical stress
Structural coiiapee;
,'a
itor absorption and imrnersion
Increase in weight;
Aids heat removal;
Electrical failure;
Structural weakening
r'ir,)s on
Removes protective catlrgs;%

Structural weakening;Surface deterioration
-.
Corrosior
Enhances cheidcal reactions
3-53
d'
S....
T-bl],
1-27. Summary of EnvirormentlAl Ffoct" 1.3/ 'continued)

Pelncial effoc-.
Typica.1 failures induced
Temperature shock
Mechanical strens
Structural ooiilipso or weakening;
S--pced p)articier
(nu clar iredhion)latin
Ileating
Therinal aging;
Trn,-amutation and Ionizaion
Alteration of chemical, physical
"
end electrical properties,
-'
Production of gases and secondary

particles
Zero gM,
t;
Mechanical stress
Interrupdton of gravity-depend', nt
functioa"
Absence of convection cooling
Aggravation of bigh-temperaature
effects
();eone
Chemical reactionsCrazing, crackdng
Alteration of electrical propertioe;
Embrlttlement
Logs of mechanical strength;
G ranulation
Interferenj with function
Rckiced dielectric etngho
"\
:{l,,iv!
o.dation;
Rad
,verc mechanical stress
a~nb~dw
i , cs.
Arct I-a
s,n
Vit
darcc-ve
Rupture and cracking;

-Structural
--
Chemical reactions;
collapse
Alterallon of physacal and eluctrical
Contardnation
proprties
Re,!uced dielectric strength
tnsulatlon breakdown and arcover
Mechanical btreasB
Structural collapseo
echnca
'
stress
Loss of mechanical strength;
Lntcrf'!!reroe with function;

-.
Fatigue
"\I..,,,t,,
(: ldsi
lndmuced magnetization
-Structural
Ire~
Increased wear
collapse
Alteretion of electrical proporties;

Induced beating
'"
I'^
' Kj
:
Chart 1. Vibration Environment At Va~rious Locations '~n Turboprop Tiansports

air
2
MM~
,woon
.n
WS1 0
*VW
Pam
.48*
JL
.1At
~1I)
u
.xn. i
n.
4I4
.4P1I4
ao
1 14
I4 M
11
IN
4 M
11
U
1314
"VI61T
I&
482
MAUI
ft
ML4JIM
I.
I4
I48IWI4oI8
'0
__--_--IM
.1WA~
1
1)4 111
14
LAI
W
:L 41181 iii
1WA 1LI49t
%~
M.
WU1ZJ
11
I1
'A
191
44
1i
11
It.
M4 u8
I2
I~'
r"
Li4
I-- I
IV
A4I
17~U .
1"
.4
M4in4
80*
W P
4H1
_
.4~5
a-4...
.4
JoII;,I
I+"
Chart I.
VibrAtion Environmnent At. Various Locations on Turboprop Transports (cow
16- -1
Wt
t-TT
1.
nlued,
.11
tt
.I44.t.
is 1 6
Ij
...
;..-l.1
.~f'......
C
:.u...C-g
.41
4,
. .
4-
1 I_
-f
-I
--
I1I
I I
Ip"
"
~sft
/7++
E
I.::::!if
~.. ,
-- E
I
|
47
I ll
Tfl *
-,-_
-.-.
LJ--
"
LII
~
aMdr, & 4
.. .f nU
n l 5 F77 *1Ia~770 7 37 707 7 5
--
-,"
ch-i-t 1. V!b-aticn Enviromnfl2t At Variotis Looskticnn on Turboprop Tranmportis (continued)
5019313W20? WA
UP W631.5f
MJI2lIt
1"K
t*1
M-itt
fr
.o
0"
19
It
"A
IM
mt --
.3
14 1
17,
9"
km
tv
I
i1.412
II'
~I
21
-i
---- 1I
'
57
3?3-57
Chart 1.
VLbration Environment At Various Locationa on Turboprop Transporta (contit.ed)
11)
-S~NA~*U~
S.1.... "-.
.
',
I
u
t'I
.584
n
I
,..
--
. -~i
Mon)
0u
36
sI
tI~
'
Vibration Envir(,nment At Various Locations on Jet Bombers
Chart 2.
T. T-1a,
S. .. ....
-...
I,
j.*...a
44
_I'
.2u
.__
._,
AI
1..
41"
*1
,I-.
224
S......11
lt
nI
-.-
-- 61
II
94
TIi
TO
V0 L w-I
--
17--
oi
',
Z4
-a-- . ,1--,
11
1*
aI
2~
ia
,
Ii
a1 ) 19 2 w
..-
,2:
IT I)
I"C
4 I"
.
Its
It
WI~
.SC.t,
':,;
__
TOIf
T,,h
C44.
11
4-11-
- -~ -
- ) -
0-
--
4.
59
"
%S
Chart 2. -VibL ation EnviromnenoftAt Various Locatiom on Je~t Tnorbers (continued)
1,
M.,. )
w5
C41U
is
11
LA Is
33)
I9)
U.
5)ILkS
r4
IV
05sT1'S
I".
'16
a,1l
W_111
M)
(Ulun
7+
n
O A
Li5'
v
f
W A
1X
IIW!r m
SU k" .5'U
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I7
171
js.---~.Ia
'S~~I
i
S
55
v"I
lll
AM.
55
In
-&
-,,:.
k~
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9 36
Is
45 IM
Im
5)'S
"I
x 11 'A
5
S
'2'~
X".
:f:i~t6
V11)riitton Envivru~nmont At Vwrious L~ocations on Jet Bonmbvrs (continuod)
Cha rt 2.
*
l~t
n~
999
MG
USM
110W-r
m5
U-95P6
(SW
SW
g"
.V.1~S
.-- R
li
-L.
aS
I
:4
11
U0 25
-~~L
IA
.5
1
L,
:U
Us 14
lu 1
1:~;mm''
18
51
55
A
331
17
I.
as-
a.
in
5
U
LO.
U64
in5
1.5
VA7
s'1
Si
----------
3,
I~~
M.
U551
145
naW
"5
471~t..L
l"
3-61
Chart 2. Vibration f~nvironmenet At Varloms Locatlons or. Jet Bornberrm (coti~riuad)
li-
1)*~14 mm,q
-.
4.
.W
IS
I4'
aF
1,14 Am1,1tA
5I
iiLii
19.n114
)1?ZAIA
.. Zr
"
MIA
"4
~~~~~~~ I~~~~a~
.
00
"JM
ja
--1..
.410-0 44
1],
O4
112s 3OT
sm
'a
ui"aa *
* Ii
L 1
-s
w"
INM
IFOa~lu
sfl
I~
-- i
Ija
t",
555
:7
Chart 2.
Vibration Environment At. Varioua Locations on Jet Bombers (continued)
,
ba
16 al wI~
t,
Zn.
w
i4nalm'ip.u
I
idR,
1I,,
}'
rt
tt
( U36
k.
' tUI. It:

S
I "'' -. :
-7
~7
I.
If
M)
T4
"
I
3-63.- I
I:-I:t'
I [_
--
'I
--
'-
'
II
1
3-63
..
Cilart 2.
Vibration Fnviroinment At Vairioua L<oeationa on Jet Bombers (oot3Unued)
MI.
(IH
11
tr9
---
ti l
__z.
tat4
1I
4 " i
I1
17
I
.-
51
to
-1
It
3U.AA
*v
"1t
AN "a
It
In
a?
II
.1
Chart 2.
Vibration Environment At VarIJae8 Locations on Jet Bombers (continued)
tel.-
tam.9 I
_,.
'I'
Al~
,iI
.OOa=..Sta
L7JC-L a-
T,
-
I fl
rIi 1
NAVY
l: '---- -- --
MIM
1 JII
.0.WI--i ] YNAM-"--
WAS
I'MMP
IN'In
-I4:j~mPn
-i i -
MN
No1mMT
ITV
'
--
,1
,r.l......
iI
In
1".U"
1_
++
. . I ] I I ('
,,I
I
. l . ,-'t1 LI '
'- -- -- 4 -! t- ,
ISII
a.
:,
........
t:
I
S.
PRlln
a i
a"
0ro w wun
-w
It
L=
I
_
aau,m
.-
-Mu~(m
"
-,
II)
r-"..-..
3-65
..
Vibration Environment At Various Lovations on Jot Bomnbors (continued)
CuaTr 2.
"snI
m.
Xi
.~
M1
'a'U-a.
MD. W
33
)f
4
U.
I k
W-
tw
MI-
fm
At
'
S
1,
g
I
-M
.5
'A
II"&
2.
6aI a
U S
IL
U"
XMU~
X?
Mon1a
moo
wi CV
ii
a W
NC
Ile
,-*I IL
.I
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!
I
.1
I"i
i " I
9U-
'A""I
~~
)IS
7
wtad
'a'
MA
64
1:2
72~
ILd I
I-oG9
I1
a]
Iaa,,Aas.
S.......
.
..,_,.-aS,-,
il
-.
,4,
to
"
I1
-,
15
a'
.5
24
MI
""I
Chart 3.
Vibration Environment At Various Iocatlons on Century Jet Fighters
gA-W613
I?-
14
34
If
m-WafL
,
nut)
-
Z0.la
. L'19
J"
I"
19
IsL
v.
...
POItN
,'.-
S..
I
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21
jn.)4
.......
1....
9
aa
fill.
4%~1
PU
111114
I
I
i- ii-.
St
II
16
It "
1.
Vt-
:.d :-
'=1-
I
,,,
,-.,I
.I
I-.
'
--
<,-'-
I_
_I
t
ii
IT
I,
l l ll~7l
S.... ....
33
57
l l
!Ull
!II
l~iF',7.t~
__
N,,,
I.
.,1 . .. -61" M. 13i-,

U3-07
,I _-
I"."4
(1h:Mt 3. Vibration anvironrnent At Varioua Loctionb on Century Jet Fighters (continued)
tasam -,
U2-...f .
- -.
.
. lWS-, ,7'i-
I
.I
i SO
If~4.
1 7 L)
. . .
IL
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*
at~-.-i
is,
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a7
t
1-3
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1: 1
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a a
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57
1
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,,
I
It
14Ii
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UL
I97
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4-'.2
4It lim t
41
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157
.L.LI..
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J'-
I, 1411111111111a
flr~'...ol.~
Ut
N
k~
71
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06.IL I
'J~. U~19
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i A,,
"-"
IAll 7
"
Mo
_ _ _
69
1Y4
i,
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li
f~ 10-
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_l
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131
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:
to
4)
4-
Si
ti
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63
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-a
pe,
Chart 3. Vibration Environment At Various Locations on Century Jet Fighters (continued)
Amaf.
F
1
(qr1":
zxzze
32
MIXC
3 66-7
jl,
IasI
FY.Is 0
M I.
at
.o,~~~-.,uaa~~,
LA IA
a
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11t 11.
0 M
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94
a
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F 'I''l
p 71
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si Iz 5: I
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et
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6
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61
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aw 1"
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--
a - 'd-i
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....
59-a
i
..- +
f
T
ryy
Chart 3. Vil ration Environment At Various Locations on Century Jet Fighters (continuod)
.1","
-Von
1mmii
16 4
.4
.-
W MOMMIM
l
. acil
sm
mil
-w wgr
Mpft-
~..4.
1.
SI I
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Lk
AI
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a
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8
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4
J,
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1 4
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4w
4-4
134.
7 0-t~
-_
Chai-t 3. Villration EnvIronment At Various Locattons on Century Jet Fightera (conthtued)

IJKRM ?".fti
ft
-~~l
Whl
Sons
=Wv
0 ""Pk
A&4
M.3%0
SI
71
.9
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14
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419
at
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it
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a
b
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(NfLIU'S-,
II
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. 1)
IlIUMA
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~-
lit
psuac,'S iflUCA*-Or
IL 3.L II3. SI 9. .. 1. I
~ I- &1~
99
U3.-7)
Cliart S. Vibirit ion Environmerit At VariouiR Locationa .n Omflury Jet IFigbtfiro (coatixnued)
ITI
In,..
Is
s1
II
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16
ImS.?w
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1.
e4
4%
ChIrt ..
Vibration Environment At Various Locations on Contur-y Jet Fighteis (continued)

.44fl5,
cn
(ESIJ
as
55.m;.
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es.,issiu
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54
45 1.
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. . . . ...
IF
At. Vario~us Locatione on Helicopters
Chaurt 4. Vibration Environmnt~n
-~
mm
mCI)
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Chatt 4. Vlibration Environment At Varioua Locations. on Helicopters (contlnued)
c'C
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row~
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to8
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-4
Chart 4.-Vilhratior, Environment- At Various LocattQns on HellcapterR tcontintued)
WIfM
*(MTM.
---.
OMb OFA"UMIN PI^ I)
.-
III
aj
IsW
II
tI
LA
IF.
me
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m
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'tia
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114
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Chart 4.
Vibration Environment At Various Locations on lbelicopters (continued)
"I
a)i(Ira
16
13
86
Y" 4".i*4
V9 "q
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II
, ,
S I '.4
rI
I
" 774.7A2
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14
U
:-
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4
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-3-77
as
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Chart 4. Vibration Environni'rnt At-Variouu Lou..atons ea HeU~opters (continued)

..
cta?
nfl
sh
"
.a~~~d~u
*WUaro
Z.
fl
"
"
"
1.
-Ma
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Is
U
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CI
5.CX
a~r..
.4-.
74
,'.
.-.
-,'
it
REFERENCES
Trowarthia, G. T., Anintrodggton to Ciin~~McGraw-Hill [ook o, 1954.
2.
Grimm, J. R., Effect of Desert Environmient on B-4713 Aircraft Corn artment

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Temp~aueCrtrafrAicatac
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NAX
55-96, Contract No.
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173
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Juy19t~
5.
*GuidcJ
9.
IC.
13.
Barbiere, Robert E. and Wayne Hiall,

Electronic Dcsianers Shock and Vibration
icati n s, WADC
A
Guide-for Air ort
TR 583153, AS'17 Document No. AD 204095, RCA Service Company, Contract No.
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14.
DOD Guided Missile Packagin~g Handbook,

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-WADO
AD
1180No.
Document
AS-1T
TN 67-58,
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17.
Eldred, Kenneth M. and Dernio T. Kyrazis,

1,'Lt, USAF.
Noise Characteristics of
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WTC280, ASTIA Document No. AD1 10680,
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..
.,
Eluutronic
Ct'ede, Charles E. and Edward J. Lunney,

-!8.
A.andJ. . Lmb,~
i~aant,
8.8. R
amb Pr9__Establishment
of Vibrat ion and Shock TeStS
R..D~arnto
ad JJ.
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the Meaqurgd Enyhionmncrt, WADC TR 56Corporation. of America, WADC Tt 57503, ASTIA Document No. 118133, Elec45r,, Part 1, ASTIA Document No. ADtronic Cor one nt Laboratory, Contract
akN.472
No.
F3(16)_ I28
142002, U. S, Air Force, ASD, WrightPadttcso:. Air Force Base, Ohio, July
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h
an
opoain
Santa
19
evnoSherman A. RdGeorge W.
an
C19eso
y9
I'- n!oro.5ria, Rn7c CopraI
Considerations of Vibration Epn~ .. n~Brooks,
i('~
vironmet In spaceFjght Systems, paliurshadei, D.,
LortySude
ofper
pres~ent
at 'annua meeting~ of InstiMissile Reentry Aero-Thermodynamies,'
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ISA.Jo~'a,
IL.
20.
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neeClfriI-101,A
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elCifraContract
9 12 June 1958. LsA
12.
Schroceder, Fred E., Edward E. Towe,

PhiillIip 11. Lake and Robert L. Wunderman,
StUll; _Of r(Li~nltC01n
ytrs
-iuoi
V
Accesso rics Laboratorfy-,
',VAIC 'I'll 59-253, Contract No. AF 33
(',1';)-5784, Task No. 61221, Project No.
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21.
hc
Jacobson, R. H., Virto
of AirboYie Electronic Compo net Pats and Eui nients, WADUC R
rmour lv.-,eai'ch Fouiaation,%
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ASD, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
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issile~SGuld
and Accelera[tion o~n___D
tems, flooz, Allen and Hamilton, AF
77ec hnical Report 53-124, Appendix D,
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3-79
WR
NBC,
J
.Y.
REFERENCES (continued)
221.
23.
24.
25.
26.
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ktILtur .- 7qriajta~iL .ircraft
a d..AirBooz
r nqupment, WADC TN 55-97,
b"
AT , ~i
-e ,V Iiiiiiiton. Contract No. AF
33(616)-2681., Project No. 1111, U.S. Air
7oici!, ASD, WV-iglt- Patterson Air Force
11ase, Ghio, June 1955.
Abst1ract of Effect of Moisture on Guided
and-11amoAllen
Sses
MissiT03
p cTclfcaRert5-2,A
pendix 13, J'une 1953.
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o.
fokCoIn.957.
m~c,~WHl
!ti'v,
Maron, William, Temp .rature-Humid.t T

TSts, United States Testing Comnp an
kyFc.,for Signal Corps Engineering
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34.
35.
36.
1 June 1953.
37.
Henney, Keith, Craig Walsh and Harry

Mlil-af, Electronic Corpnens Handbook. Vol. 3, McGraw-Hill book Co.,
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ai a aFthtDocument
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28. Azrthu,
EnibronetJ.alCrtras
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29.
.Liiler, Robert W., Potential Aircraft
J~j~r
~r~)Oblit~5in
hc ortern1-1m-Pressure,
v!;~e WADC TI
56-659,
ASTIA
5Jheurnent. No. AD 110676,
American
Powerz Jet Company, Contract No. AF
33(61l6)-2605,
Pr-Aject No. 1111, U.S.
Air Force, ASD, Wr ight- Patterson Air
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27.
:32.
.13.
3- It0
(lower, J. 1., "Oil Filters in Public

Utility Fleet Operation", SAE Journal.
Vol. 41, No. 2. Septemberi~
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CoiolMenoIcSy.stemns,
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;mni llinmniltwi, All'
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EIIiTh
rria for Arrf
n
Airborne Equipment, Booz, Allen and
amilton, WADC'N~-l5
ASTIA
No . AD92498, Directorate of
Laboratories, Contract N'o. AF 331615)2689, Project No. 1111, U. S. Air Force,
ASD, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base,

June 1955.
38.
39.
Base, Ohio, December 1955.

Abstract of Effects o-f
Atrmos-.'12. 0 c
1eSses
Pressure -on Gui~
Appendix G, Booz, Allen, and Hamilton,
AF TR 53-124, U.S. Air Force, ASD,
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I June 1953.
40.
Saletan, _.D. I.,
"Static
ards", Chemical
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EngIneering
I June
1959.
41195T-GMisl-E-nernJ!d
42.
t
T-i
Babicz, D. J., Determining the Effect of

Huit,
Temperature, Fuel/
Air Ratio on the Ex~plosiveness of th
At~mmher~e, Inland Tcoting Laboratories,
Division of Cook Electric Company, WADC
TR 56-5, ASTIA Document Na. AD 90043,
Director~te of Development, Contract No
AF 33(616)-2691, Project 1111 . U.S. Air'
Furcte, ASI3, Wzigiit-Pattei-SuiiAifi~rt
Oi1io.
3 1.
of Atmospheric
Abstract of Effects
-Pressurson GUìdZed Miss.le Svstenis,
Appeni4x 0,Booz, Allen and Hamilton,
AF T1H753-124, U. S. Air Forroe, ASD,

Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
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w;lcIn5655.
STA ocmet
.
AVI 10,172. Southwest Research Institute,
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o.1111, Task 11115, U. S. Air Force,
ASI). Wri!ijd-Pattcrs-on Air Forte Base,
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MecGraw-iili iiiook Co., Inc., 1958.
:30.
Riley, F. C., Jr. and P. F. Walker, A

mofei
rssr
e
for Airi~dM EquipMtnt, Iooz,
riie
b
Allen and Hamilton, WADC TN 55-98,
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U. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright- Patterson
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Lopatin, 1. and H. Mileaf, DsnFc
tors for Aircraft Electroni au'pment,
TecT nical Writing Service, McGiraw-Hill
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30(635)-2844, U. S. Air Force, -.SD,
Wright- Patterson Air Force E~,Q%;i,)
bok D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

Princeton, N. J., 1958.
Singer, S. F., The Effect of Meteoric
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102634, May 1956.
*-
..-
-I--
Jd
-.
--
~-
10
REFERENCES (contimN"-d)
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444.
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McC'ol
Javitz, A. E., "nImpact

of FHigh-Energy
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Broadway, -N. J., Th Effecta oif Nuclear

Radiation on MeaD~
il
oi
ad on P-e1y~
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ndu
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Center,
Battelle Memorial Instit~ute,
Columbus 1, Ohio, Contract No. AF 33
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a~c 'roirSi~riiicace
o~ ro Copo-
54.
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-otM
55.
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Eff ects
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P~i'tic REC
ateials
ReortNo. ,
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'11
Ii
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en
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5)
4'
Columbus
AF 33(616)-5171,
4
~ No.
o,~"A
v/.
Project
2133,
31jetN21331My95."
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Jc
'13 fr oa dwa y, N. J. and S. Palinchak, The

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143467,
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'.
..
,.
1'
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"""
W Y'
7W
'
.'7
REFERENCES (con.nued)
o
69.
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fxakajje in Inslators Exposed oa j...-
(;0.
Hnrsen, J. F., Effect of Nuclear Radia,ion on Electronic Transformers and

'Transformer Materials, REIC Memo]nation Effects
oan
eter,
Battelle
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rus 1.
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6;2.
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.....
Inzgaaoo
onCerainMilitary
ffets faditio
C~.
f Inizn~
in
Rep ort,
Fnal Sm
aferiai:.
ASTIA t)ocument No. AD 42185,
Sarah Mellon, Scaife Radlatiun Lpb'2raloi y, 71niiver~ity of Pittsburgh, Pitts10;T
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i,uih,
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on1C
ffvv
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or
IP
of Nu
Hhlembrand, L. J., The Efct
clear Radiation on IFEThe Een
r
Fuels
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The Radia11, T
REIC Memorandum No. 1,
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Contract No. AF 33(616)-5171,
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1958.
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'"
Swellin, P., "Space Cominunications,

7.
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--
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of.--"
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Humphreys, W.J.,Ways of VW/eathl,

Lanaser
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........
v.,.,..,,w
.- "'
. -
1944,
r,--1944,
CoLined Envirwim'nt
t
"i"
ior_
Test .roioran)
gualdicatio_
ui--ment, Montihly Ilrogress He-.
Force
tates Testing Co.,
UnIc
p:1,
Ah'
Contract AF :i3 (616)-G315, U. S.
,Inc.
Combincd Environ mental TeslthiJfs .1,

Corporation. ii,,,rIt--.
November 1957.
tt
lhill A
'J020-11-001,
ii
4.1
.
Force
-29
list r
u r~ n1
9i,
istics of-W -a - n_. -ysle,,is
tiart NI). AF 33(61G;)-5171, Task No.

No. 2133, 30 April 195b0
W(101, l'ljct
~~'iAir
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Lubri'ants and ilydraulic

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En- im_ m
c[r
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*.~
v'''
'"
...
. _=-
,mm..a
r~t.
.'-
-.
~.
REFERENCES (coninued)
~.
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ll
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cnM
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h
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'
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TA7W
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yvw
ytmi
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JI
~~2
Electric Products bime., IDayside, Now Vork.
Fi
.VJM~
~4t r~f
v
'
ekr198
C
joo ethosforlec vtQ
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o Shps
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7!
f
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j.
Bradf bied and J.J.
17
BIBJLIOGRAPHIY (continued)
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itil ii
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.i1
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r~
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!(1
-vptmht
a rV65.ViA.
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F'w
'
'
j"
6W
01P
. .
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irnicmu'2t0X'o
_____Li
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piyr~imici1?p.e~~~~
w
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Air u.rci. fl
hi, May 1955.
10v
Iii!'
~~
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jT , I(
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irFre
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Wrict-1ldttcsor, Aiv iorce Jbaie, Ohio: junet
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TTi't3lJ
1~
I if
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40
BIBLIOGRAPH (continued)
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Wacholder, B. V. and E.ao
tclEii
nstltute of Environmental
de, Poceding
Sciences
Naional Meet~ng, Los Angeles,
Californta, 6, 7, 8 April 1960.
'WillIMIN
'
'd
-
CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUiREMENTS
-4have
The nature of the environments, where and

when they o' rur, and Uiei r effects have been covcree ;T pirzvious portions of this handboo~k. In
this chapter, methods are described for estabhishing environmental criteriz for specific systems aid vehicles. Thesc criteria are necesna ry becaune the designer- or engineer mu~st
statedlitmits in which to work if he Is to do.sign or develop anythinr. in a practical manner.
lie rnust know the produrt'n exact purpose, its
bize and wrighit limitations,. and Its reliability
requircnwi~s. He must also know exactly what
environmenhts ii. wiiJ be i~iubjected to so that lie
ca.-n make sure that the product wJU WithEtand
5272C c~an be used to determine whether the vehicle and its components can withstand -Ik nore
jected environments.
teria 6erv-e as a target at which weapon system

~desipn
and dw',omn eascnam
s~eo-h-dn~yntalwadsg
e
eci
ntlaayifo
Annvrn
hile~s requireg L worci reuined approac-l, since
mnore da~tals ofth evchicle system are known wid
dcf1.nito performance and reliability trnust be
achieved. For this reason, an environmuenta
analysis for a hypothetical Weapoij system must
be carried out, with Ithe analysis covering the
f'light vehicle anid Its oubsystemsa, equipmnesnIt
components nnd aiateriala for both flight ancA
ground conditions.
them. hi effect, established environmental cr1-
In tipecilic ca.*s, it inky be found thatt the
Most often. 1 mevlronmcntal requirements are

spelled cut for the desIgner by the 'nvironmfen.tat enrinecrinrg or reliability groups. On the
hand), It the item is not intended for any
specific system,. it can be provided with inher(,t deSigfn I -atUireS fur broad application in acco(rdaicc-witlh one of several. design guides publishod by the Air F'orce4
Enviroonfu,,~dl requirements, then, can be
spelled out ini two ways: (1) general eavironmen
tat requirements for developmental purposes or
f~r subsystems, equipment and components havL-~~~~,b-Iuad applications; and (2) specific environl
sis.~~~ givei cosieato t
mental ricquirent ents for subsystems, equipment
anecifir.
weannm-n pyrnipm
forf at~.and components
enironi~u.~andy:
I-~at~
reuirs
Eah
)fth.-ereuiesan enirnena
1 )'ossi~le
applications,
Of puLbli.she(d 'Rtzndard
* lhds"iieni,
in ~ latr
formi satisf actorily over this temperatuire range.

Under tnin circumnstancve, there is it tendency to
eurmn.Ti
eprtr
fvrtehg
could be a knietake, though, atiLce for mnany yehlices and miasionB, the lovy temper;Ature requ irement wnay bo oif equal or greater importance.
F'or examnple, agreatnumher of tastm u~nder arctic condftione YY61fliuren becauso, of the failure
c sals.
Where there-ia a doubt, concerning the signinoeainlaayi
nvle
hcneo
anus sowforpexatponalthntlysis
icanc
~~
fiAs
r
t
sol
etrieteo.n
sol
Arz operatisoni
cance andeevalidi~ty of that value.
anl
and makes maximum use

crivironmerital criteria,
uchcritriaareframe
overd
I'ratai-
An analysis for a broad application need not

be asdefinitive as thatfor a specific application,
but it will to! more complete and cover more
eilvii-(Jiinents because o! Its broader scope. In
ti1C bL WC typec of aiiaiysls, therefore, It Is neces-
sary to analyze the mission pru~ilcs of various

ty'l'cs (, v~h icles to determine the associated env'izinifrntis. Pertincnt environment values can
the~n be c-ai.ulatud or selected from applicable
tstanidards,, .pecificatiuns and bulletins to assure
J~'prdesi1 'n and develupimnent and tlicj test pro-.
such speccifications as MIL-ELkii. s Iirn
oc
tend ever the entire xwge of an environmoeAt

Fvr inrsiance, it may be lnimossil~i to design &n
actuator Mhat willifunction roliably from .-65 F to
1400 Fbecaume no one seal Ing comnpound will per-
Iother
,ie~tnvehiaclsi
teprn-nturcso
Ril
r-i~
ftea
,Isltn
h~rceltc
will drop this ternpeiattore to VI0) F, or
with additional insuiaiuri, to 600) F Iiithe vibycangnth location~ of die ractimtor or b
using auxiliary cooline equipneut, the temperature near Vie Actuator might be reduccd coiA
Biderably. Furth ermo re, an operatiortal arvalyd
s is might show that thio si,eeds, ldtltueP8Wil (It,
140
10
~-
rations of flight 'reuiz ed t o produce 81eCIP Skill
Iol occur very lnfs~cquertl~y, or

teprtre
that the period during. which such temperatureb
would exist would be extrernely short., OnA tho
other hand, the duration of low tempemrhture roinmight be lengthy so that from a pralcil__ditions
cal standpoint they would We more detriviental
-.
than the high temperatores.
4-1
'
*.
'
Operat~ow~il aaliysis1
in actjally a part of the
wj'urali tivl r nn en~ft~ian.alysis but is buf&fictent-
ly i mpjntant h) des,rv' 4cpatrate attention, pFU t, U1,1 I in dOubt)ful or controversial areaz.

,riFEI!CATIioNS AND STANDARDS
There art. -nary periodicals, books ruid reports u--ailable that covey- ue subject of environzncntad requircnments. Much ot tlhe data axre
available in this handbook and in the reference
and bibliography lists located at the end of each
chiapter. Tile most impori-ant documents containin~r military (invironmental critcria arp listed
in Table 4-I1. Documents containing general requirernunts are included in the table, as well aa
those roem 1:zn(specific requirements. Some of.
UOi miost usefuil documents of a specific nature
are desci Aied in the folinpraah.
Tahic 1-1.
Air Yorce Policy Documents
--
The ARDC Model Atmosphere, 1959

This document provides detailed information
on a rcvi~ed model atmosphere. The revisiton is
based on data obtained f rom satellite and rocket
measurements which indicated the necessity for4
changing the upper atmosphere values contained
in the ARDC Model Atmosphere, 1956. In addition, values of the following factors have been
computedto an altitude of 2,320,000 fe et (or 700
kilometers):.empurLatrti. pre ssure, density, mo-a
lecul r weight, ceeano
rvtseii
weight, scale height, number density, particle
speed, collision frequency and mean tree path.
Because the dissociation of oxygen and nitrogen
complicates calculation, values of the following
factors are limited to an altitude of 295,000 feet
(or 90 kilometers). speed of sound, eoeiliicietiL
of viscosity, kinematic viscosity axi li'erm-l
conductivity.v
Date
____-~_____General_
Dncr,~
__-
IPolicies
and Prucedures Governing Approval of Air1Au

Force EquipmentI
Ilapclboolk of Instrur.Uona for Aircraft Deaigners,
Volumes 1, U1,ill (tAD))
1 July 1955
AiWCNi b'0-5
lHandbook of Instructions for Ground Equ~pmnent Designers
May 1955
ARX".) 80-
(llIIGED)o of Iriatructiona for Ground Support Equipment

Designers (IIIGSED)
15 Aug 1956
for Aeronautical Weapon Systems and Support

syate ma
19 June 1959
MI-v411
lA
Weapon Systems, Aeronautical, General Specifications for
19 June 1959
~I) It
C,riteria for Envi ronmental Analybis of Weapon Syntem.e
August 1960
llvper Environments Simulation Part I, Definition and

Efftcts of Space Vehicle Environment -- Natural and
.1anuary 1961
ARDCI)C
80-
Mu -b'JHOPDatai
(7
60 'j:-
1W'%Db itH 6G7ft5

a,
Handbooks. :pIcificatitons, Standards, and reports
identiTitleo
AIUX:
,,
'
lr,.i'icd
W'MJAf
I?
Preliminary Investigation of Interplanetary. Uinar and

l'Jeor I'lmict hnvironments and Methods of Simulation
1961
NI
E~nvironmental factors
Al ('IulL ltwnwf~ok
MI<l
ZOA
'kAl)t' IIt 56;- IY,
Ilanclhook of Geophyptics for Atir Force Designers
3957
Climautic Extremes for Military Equipment
2Ag15
Preliminary hiwnsdgation or ilyper Environments and

Methods of Simulation. PartIl
July 1957
IaielnTteDt
Weil4-1. Air Forc- Policy D~ocumentsl
Speclficationna. Standards, wid. Reports (continuetl)
-Hi
Flight vehicles
14
ANC-22 Bululetin
climatic and Environmental Criteria for Airoraft

Design
Juae 1952
N1II- 1- 5 289
Ynqtrluirentation of Climatic 'rest Aircraft, General

Specification for
310 March 1953
USAF Specification
Environmental Criteria for Guided Minafle Deagn
U'SAF ';Ixcif] cation
Space Environmental Criteria for Aerospace Vehilele
196()
Criteria for Environmental Analysis of Weapon

Sy stems
Augast 1960
li~ l
-.3
WADI) 111
60-627
Effects of Space Vehicle Environment
arch1957r
Naturai arnd
--
InducedIL
4
Airborne eqtprnment
MIJ-i.-25647
*1
~ll-E8f~(~)
~Srecification
-
[1
Electr,)nic Equipment, Airborne. General 5pec~ification
4 Sept 1956
Electronic Equiprnvnt, Guided Missiles, General
16 Apri! 1957
for
Electronic
_______
EqIuip ient, Aircraft
I.
N111-1. 9.15A
~tItlitii
15
1-,-So
Test;1is;~
roNdch. Goround
prs
ISA'
~~
Gtrou
-l,
z:P%
IIII-Jni5
2
)-41GFvrnetlRqieet
lcrncCmoet
Apri
1958
24 July 19i56
onent
nd,GElecrica Compir
por
Lnirnmnti
15~JuJy
Componneahndts.VlmsI
Eieeton'c
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
MI~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Jan195
pport
riera
su
orGround
uipment
Eeq
0Jl
91
14 May 1953
Test Equipment for Use with Llsctrorlc Equipment,

General Specification for
Materialsi
d--
Ml.--16
re'3ervation, Methods of
27 Fe~b 1959
4-3
Table 4-1. Air rorce Policy Documents
Handbooks. Specifications, Standards, and Repior-ts (continued)
--
TitleDO
Ide'ntification
Test rncthodolotry
11I,-E-~>497OA
Environmental Te~ting, Ground Rapport Equ~prnent
(UTlfAF)
-52720Environmiental. Tesf~fg, Aeronautical and Associated

Equipment
3 March 1959
13 April 1959
MlL-A-26C69
Acoustical Noise Tests, Aeronautical and Assoc-iated

Equipment
14 July 1959
MIL-T-5422F (A.SG)
Testing; Environmental. Aircraft Elec~roric

Equipn'ont
11 May 1953
MIL-f:-26554
Explosion-Proof Tent Fncility Requirements and.

Pkocedu res for Reconnaissanice Equipment
Methods for Electronic and Electrical Component
MIL-TD-22Telst
~.n"11?tn
24 Oct 19563
Parts
M171-S-445156
Shock, Variable Duiration, Method and Apparatus for
12 March 1953
Test facilities
ICtiamber,
MIL-C-79F]A (ASG)
Altitude, Humidity and Temperatr
Tet
Oct 1953
II..
M11
C-91H35
MLC 'i43GA (A"O)
Explosion ProofTesting Facility
12 Feb 1954
Sand and Dust Teeting Facility
5 May 1955
Mli-C-4 ~Chamber,
Explosilon- Proof Test Facility Rzqulren1.2nta and

prucedures for Reconnaissanice Equipment
MIL-E-26CC54
3 Msrch 1958
,
shock. Variable Duration, Method and Apparatus for12Mrh85
MI]1-4-44'A
IrvestIvAt~sn of H~yper Environmentsa nd
%Y
R X746Preliminary
Part If
--
Part iII
WKAIW
8 June 1954
Fungus Resistance Testing
Ili CO-7W)
-
W API) 'I1It
--
Simulation Mehd
Proposed Ityper Environmental Facility
Jan 1958
IfyPer Environment Simulation Part 11, Developmecnt and

Ik-hign of Simulation Facilities for Space VEihicle
FEnv~rnnment
1961
Prclimninary Investigation of Interplanetary Luinar aid

Near Planet Environmnrins and Methods of Simulation
1951
7'a
*~~~~
4"~d
.~
.,
U''
If nid1hxA, of Geolphysics
Iw
11 'ItonII(,ok of Geophysics for Air Force
1)eines"v~as prepared by Air Force CamUiridge,, Research Center to present probability
aindlIrcqu onry tabulations of many aspects of the
Patucai environlments. It Is cricof thle most conipiuck-cor- lationsoi jo~
,~physical data available,
wid providcs Iaecu..l dala on:

Temperature
Surface parameters
(Earth)
Atmospheric pres- Low altitude wave propagation

sure
Atmopheic
dnisiblit
Atopercdn-Vsbiiyground
sityTeml
aito
WindTheral rdiaton
Precfpitatlon
ThS!analysts
Cosmic -radiation
Clouds
Atmospheric crem- Contrails
position
Atmospheric elec- Atmospheric exploratory devices
tricity
-.
Georlnagrnetirm
Acoustic propagation in
the atmosphere
Military Standards
A number of mOiitary standards contain envitonmental requirements and associated data
helpful In the design of military equipment.
MIL-STD-21lOA, for example, gives the probsabe
surf ace extremes of the natural environments to
which millitary equipment might be exposed, and
establishes uniform limits for normal design re-
quiremnents. It ccw'tilns Rurface Axtremen of

te: eratuie humidit, precipitation, snow loads,
f'sblowing snow, bl.owing sand, blowing dust
and atmospheric pr'essure on the earth' fwsrface, and the probable atmospheric extremes of
teinperatuize, pressure, humidity, winds speed
of sound, density- and viscosity. The hata on:.
conditions are supplied for world-;.-!r4',
short-term storage, and tra~nsit conditions.. Hot,
-cold, polar and tropical sitandard atmcIPIre'4
extendi~ng to 100,000 feet are includd For
involving engine and vehicle perfor-mance computations, or other cases where a continuous profile is required, the polar and tropical atm9spheres must be used, since the hot and
-cold atmospheres--are constructed on a levelby-level basis without regard to continuity between levels. lhe hot and cold atmospheres are
-required in computations -*nvolvinK variations of
temperatures at a given 4;1titude, and _-e useful
in work involving heat transfer and heating andl
C
:
-cooling of atmnospheric vehiclem during flight.

Other ARDC Handbooks
nd eveopmnt ommnd
Th~Air!1ec.~ch
has Made aih!ea
series of hanidbooks that
provide a central source of design data for ongineers. These handcbooks contain general requirements aboift_ !he level of the specification
requirementiS, and give the background data and
Also included are
Iieasis for the rciluirements.
expianatiloos, ro-commendations, nrtomandatory
guiidance azct re-atoad data. The handbooks are
actually a series of instructions for designers
of piloted aircraft, guided missiles, ground
eqeijment and ground support equipment.
!MtItarv Spcc
MIL-STD-446 contains projected environmien-4.

tat design requirements for elertroniic compo-
th2
w
perabire, pressure, humidity, vibration, shock,

atmosphere and nuclear radiation. The
requirements are divided into the following
equipment categories.
-explosive
GopI
GopI
-Gon
-Gon
qimn
qimn
~G~deupetwe
*UI
.cations
eriasabtyi
of~ prime importance
Group 1UI
Shipboard and ground
Group W
Equipm~rent~ for aircraft,

and missile&
Group V - Equipment for aircrafl

The actual military specifications that equipand shipboard (speciadesigned to meet contain
lzdapiain
requirements.
MIL-D43 10 ar-ia IMIL-W-9411 (USAF) contain requireGroup VI - Equipment for nuclearv'ivnts for pri mec co-zitrac-tors to prepare and prepowered aircraft and
sent an u.,vironmnt~nal analysis of their missile
ballistic mift Ues
:iod aircraft veapon systems. MIL-E-4970,GruVI-Eqimnfospcaze
*.hlL-L-52',2 ana MIL-A-26669 a;re primarilyGrpVI
Eqimnfoseilzd
application In aircraft and
t'Si DrwC~d'ire specillratinns, but they outiine
missiles
(.nv 01oi v.iiWa requirements for ground support
Group VII- Nuclear-powered
anid aeror)iaktfca-l and associated equip
t,4,11111111
IACit, rtnpe:)ctivcIy; liowevc-, they should not beweapons
.'tiircin
1-la
Cut ,spcciflcations. Detailed inI on-rat io on test procedures are covered in
Specification Bulletins
6'(
. MIL-E-5400 anid MIL-I-6051 also
iii ldi, t-ii'ironrnwntai requirements for elecAir Force Specification Bulletins 106 and 115
tenlli( I'(11 1 -IiIcn0tust'd prima~rily In aircraft. Depresentgeneral inlormatlon on the ranges of en1.1,, 4p.
1111
freuimn
and components
vironments that must be considered In establishjin I:.lw ti.iionnifuital requiremcnts pertaining
Ing requli ements for ground support equipment
t,, tl''-r tsi. cito: uqiipinrints and components,
and miss~ie equipments, respectively.
nient and systems are
1JayeriviroynOik otal
4-5
.4..
AA
nvir'-jnmentil Test Criteria
ih~rts
'Dhecre are many studies being made to gain
knowledge about design criteria. The resuits of these, studies are made available 1D reports by the varlous service aenceie.
For example, Acronautical Systems ivislion (.formerflY) IC
per en'vironmenits and meth ods of simulation

that can be used as a basis for estimatiUng future design and test requirements.
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSUS
din
The environamental teet criteria, alsodevalupedby the weapon system contractor during
the environmental analysis, should be supplied
tothetest engineer, the test equipmetsf designer
and the Air Force. This allows the test engineer
~be
setih crtei
als permi te
test equipment designer to build the eqJuipmnent
required for testing, when such equipment lis
the safte-or-the-airt and adequate faclp'ishing
Itled are not available, An part o:. the envir-onmnental analysis this data alows the.A~ir Forceto ensure that t'he contractor is reflecting the
latest technology, and also permits thu .~-For-cc
to note environmental state-of-the-art. wer~knesecs and problems and hence allow n~iating
research and inventigations to overcime such
weaknesses and problems.
1-7n. ais uvernil standpoint, the purpose of enviroinmental analysis is to present as complete
a picture of the anticipated environments as is
practicable to the system designers and also to
provide sufficient criteria to permit assurance
that the systemn design will withstand the enviMethod of Environmental Analysis
ronments, For effective usage of the analysis,
eut,
rouesud
the rvsults must be presented in a logical manFrteanls-t
net. Ba~sically, the resulting data are supplied
must follow a systematic plan. The following
two categories:
major steps should be taken:
1. Environmental design criteria.
2.
Er.'t-ronmenmtal test criteria.

ritria2.
~nvronuietalDesgn
The cavIronmental design criteria developed

by the weapon system contractor during the environmental analysis required by specificatior~s
MIL-D-9310 and MIL W-9411 must be suplied
to afllltbe system desirners and the AIr Fol-ce.
The desig-ners use th e data to design the system
and its parts. The Air Force uses the criteria
to irsure
at ihe analysis is correct and cornplete and that otiler equipment used in conjunction with, or as part of, the system will operate
within the same environmental limits.
-.
cr,teria supplied must
tai~ in~. onsdertio
allconitins hatwdl
hc cneruritervd in the life sp~an of the system.
It i~s best, then, to consider environuie -ts as
beint, encountered in separate phases. For exe a s a pacshipmus be
amij- sch
ampl, a"ei~clcsuchas
spaeshp mut ~
l~i;whe, he~tmuphee,
tavese
ollw a
!;paicc 1--4, enter or rceener the atmosphere,
traverse that atmosphere and be set down. In
adiditionf, hbitibefure and -:[ter flight, the system
wnd its parts inust be transported, stored and
S v iced.
Each of these phases imposes a dlifur cot set of environmentm on the system. These
('ilvjr(nrnvntiiS must be outlined as clearly, cornplctciy and accurately as possible.
'rho. environmental
Thic jvir-nernll!tal analysis will generally be

useful 'if() the envirfninents are present (d scparately as naturatl or induced (2) they are
d-sci ibedas to what operational and mnechanilcal
O~ft(ts thoy have, and (3) these data a-re given
for external ctnvironmyents and compart merit enIT-rer
vi
4- C
ini'it~.shoiuld
1,* Secure data on mission profilep and alternate mission profiles.

Outline significant system data.
31. Establish environmental criteria.
4. Conduct amalysis tests
vironmental values Dot coveredto bydetermine
standard enenvironmental cr!tcrLa.
5. Prepare an analysis report and environmenttal test requirements.

M18CnP~lo The rniE sian profile Is one
of the most important fa.-toz 8 In making an envlronmental analysis. The a~dtuden at which the
vehicle mustperform,theapceds at which it will
travel, and the flight paths and regions in which
performance-wifllbe expected all provide the environmental engineer with a set of buund;arlie
Ut2
A
KLV
WILsL UA pn11bd
WiiiiiiiWHaICHziaiitdl
environmental definition. Thu word pierformance
is used deliberately here. 1. is not sufficient
Uiat the vehicle operate; it must perform in a
planned mariner to spfecified limits of env.ronment and reliability if it Is to be a auccesu..
The mission may be simple or complex.
commercial aircraft may be expected to operateOd
world-wide, but only over established routea.,
The mtlltary-vehicle, on the other hanid will take
many varied routes and encounter dtlierent environments, many of which may be extreme.
When the speed at which the vehicle climbs,
cruises, and descends, and the range of altitudes
at which performnance Is expected are all spedllied, the area in which the environmental enigineer's efforts will be exerted is outlined. Alternate mnission profiles should also he covered.
Possible as we-11 as expected alternate profiles
be included.
I'
III C II mtI r 2 lyp~cai flight paths are out'linod

0" E'N;;irfl~('.S of how profilcs provide an ainalysts
I e amut oi profiles mus3t be ex~amined
tO Li~t'rI!I MnC thoconcurrence of natural environ.-
nit'nts to all locations during the various seasons.

Also,t11(!activities of the vehicle during its vanio.,1 phaIses of flighit, such as launch or tackoff,
irlh, croise, landing and reentry, must be anaiy zed to detr:.~i;1,c the gen~eration of induced envirorimniits. The entire list of the environments
covered in Chapters 2 and 3 mujst be covered at
every poi)nt along eachi profile.
Enviomental Criteria. After compiling as

muc dat -as ra~ct~i~c.ble aout the proid)es and
the system, the carvironmental engincer estab_lishes
environmental. criteria for the system, as
required by specifications MILa-W-94l1 andl
_
MIL-D-9310. When doing this he must exa-mine
Ute data ciosely--to Insure that all ramifications

and pasnibflities are understood. For enampie
a high-level bomber may ind application J
~.lower altitudea,-nr a space vehicle may have to
glide for a considerajole distance in tfie atmosphere. The analysis must be mads as accurately
j
~as possible, and- shou.ld delineate the facts for
Subsidiary prftties for the system and all its
each env ironment on a phase basis. For example,
parts trust also be covercd. These Include: (1)
specification MIL-D-9 31013 stipulates that' ilthe
handlinog, (2) storage and (3) transportaenvirsnmental) analysis shaillcornsiderthe operation. [During these profiles different environtional concept (basic misniuns, possibic 13se
nicnt fv'nes s.'d levels -,;dl be encountered.
of operation performanoe, etc.) to determine the
4ground
I~at. Te
sysem
veicl tsel shuld
a __d
trme()wht.vrnes
to ai~y2edtorites,
,;xill be induced by the vehicle, and (2) what parts
of the system are most critical from an environ.mentl efectstadpott.
his an e acom)ishe ~ by utliing:temperature
ypeof
The
ehilenoise
The
ehile.terior
ypr of
2. The layout of the vehicle.
3. The mc'Jiod of propulsion,

U1-1qi71-nf:)v-n,-14iirn i, it
and location
(Tliq. Utnc l~l
Inhr
s'>, ondary propuls~ion devices such as booste,

* orreto rokoi, ad oter
evies tat ave
at,-odynamnic cifects, such as drag sumfacea or
ejijetill
devies.)
5. Environment-generating equipment.
eqipmnt.ment,
7, Coiatietto
of vehicle (including in
eac01 compiartmfent the location of all environenvi ronment -sensitive
nct-,',nerating and
cl~i)
m r~t).larlytorulie
8.
..
environmenta c
adtin
Le weapon
-wi,~
encounter in its regimes of oper-ition, such as
extreme temperatures Ionized gases, lneteoozone etc. lFurther, for th air vehicle,
itremeoflgtwlasoeureondetoofteyaniridudenrnnrsasociatedwith flight and operations, suc~h as skin
field.
-accomplished
internal air pressure, vibration and

eft is imperative that a complete ex-
and interior analysis, in this regard, be

so that further analysis of the cn-
vtronments to which the equipments are to be ex-
poeisprial
anrdnvomntlcterla shall be used where applicable." As 2xplairtedprevioualy standard environmental critnacnb
bandfo
h
ouet
o
scribed under "SPECIFICATIONS AND STANBRS"Teyofefc
hteoea~uu
or mcchanical, should ason be indicated. An ex-
4i an environmental analysis corverage Is

ample
shownIn Table 4-2. These factors should be re-
4.The type of fziel.

C. Evirnmeit-'nstiv
~~
Wjetb~e, theivehicle will be manned or unnisined.vatht
The typ,-of vclhi e, %k

lettet-r a ballist ic missile
1,;,a ,,:o:rt l ife .)r a satell ite or bomber w ith a
t.*n-: li!Lt, W~idctermine the relative importance
c :iv~ircumentai factors. The layout of the
vchid e, nmetlod of propulison, awli size and loc(ltion of prop~ulsionun it will affect the dynamic
hlaracteristics of the vehicle. Nuclear propuls4in syst emc present one, type of problem;
hilIlily *volatile fu(Is create another, and liquid,'.cn fuels still another. A full understanding
-f[hc charaute2ristics of eavironment-generating
-I i~ptlco I., ruIrpii rcd for the determination o!
lb
~ ~ ~ injctvriiurt
di internally. Relative
im atiorl W this equi~pimenit with respect tosensitiO '(]i~i':ititiiLthu
vehicle determines the
d1,1 1 uit,' in sco.uring environmental protection.
ll'in~ii or( upLincy naturally brings about a new
I Ad 1, )ir fii r CXiI irnonjital coinsiderationn,
viewed for the vehicle as a whole, for each comn-r

partment in the vehicle, for epch class, of equipand for comaponent parts which make up
qupens
Analysis Tests. In many Instances, particuinuced environments, the standard
environmental criteria will not be helpful in eatablishing some of the environmental data. This
be particularly true for deriving "xact e!!vir-onment figures for he Interiors of sepa-rate
compartments and equipments. In suc~h cases,
the criteria must then be detertained by calcu-
lation or by empirical methods. Tests may be

made by instrumenting the various equipments
and compartments und~er simulated conditions,
and measuring the environments directly. Often
mock-ups can be used; In other eases it must, be
recognized that the environments at somie locations may have to be hypot-hesized until full scale
tests cant be conducted.
Test Report and Reciulrements. Once all of
tenvronme ntal d~ta have een compiled and
analyzed, they must then be documented In re1JY)rt form. This report is necessary for evaluation by the design engineers and the cognizant
military agcncy. The analysis report should be
4-7
Exanrple ,I Environment~al Aria.ly,,fi Uos'era e
Tal
-.
Efc
E- ect____
Profile "alaysin
Flgt
AtmosSpace Iphere
Albcdo Naturaxx
__Takeofif
Reentry
x
x
Cosmic radiatlon
IN i~ty
i
;l~ectricity,y atmosphere
MechaniCIS
P1
V_
A4
x
X
x
Ax
ItzI
x
x
a
x
a
x
x
11.0l
Humnidity
icc
Iv
x
x
X
x
Ijset
Mvicoroids
Frost
T'ung'
GaIses, dissociated
G ,s es , i on i7ed
Geooiagictism
Gravity
Fog
.
I
itA
xA
x
Xx
Ozone
Pollution, air
Pressure, air
RIMn
Salt spray
x_
o la r radbwini.t
Xoe
Tom!;vrfItilre abock
X_
Turbulence
Snow
x x
x.
ax
IC
xX
X
A
7x
x
A
\'aciunin
Windsrng'
iim i--A,
WinA sheur
A
x
x
.1
x
X
infuloeed
Ac~celeration
Aecrdynamic heating
I;aicni, d11c~.,,ciated
'Gasc2. 'onized
cliipcraturc: shock
cni
Operatiornal
IxL
Viihration
Zero gravity
Storage
x
x
Dlew
3E
I
4
K I I
x
--
x0
and comp4lete.
Specific values
shuuld he given in a logical form. The methods

suscttdo rive all values and the references emptoyo-d shiotld be explained. Where tests were
iilscdtuc stahll;h soriiecfiteria, the test descriptvin should be included,
4-8l
LAnding
Transportation
Clouds
clear,
or
launch
(jround
handling
11emostlznportaiitpart.of the analysis is the

preparation of the environmental requirements.
Vaues for each environment must be ot~pulated
for tho entire systeni and each of it~s parts.
These values will be uzied to develoDi test proce-.
dures and equipments (Chapter 6). Thitevalues
slmi) I d I ( sucth that any equipment that withstaudii

thle tfists can11
he countcd oil trw give satisfactory
i' '] rci~ljjcq. throughout its operational life.
Tytdphil Stops in EnvirotiroentaI Analysis

'1'~efolowngparagraphs describe some typic.,; i~ta-ps py an envilrcxinental analysis. A propiz~ricd to achieve a speed of Mach
p's
2atedanaircraft
ahitude of 50,000 feet w~ill be assumed.
The miission of such a vehicle would genefally
to def ined further as renrompassing a serJe3 of
ph'ises such as:
tokntsto
50
ndacelraetu~re,
I.Taeof
In degrees Rankin, for a vehicle traveling at

2 can be determnined as iollows:
~-Mach
Ts
To
.~
390 + (2(7748)(.24)(3202
()78(2)3.2
390 +314
TS= 704R
-
Actually, the procesp Is never adiabatic wid

_some lc~ises will occur. If the air Is considered
remain a perfect gas, the recovery temperaTr, can be expressed by the relation:Ir
2. Ciin'h 1-o2.0,C00 iect.

3.
Aeccelerate to 800 knots.
4. Climb tu 28,000 feet, accelerating to

kil its.
d
peso
eue
5. Accelerate to 1000 knots.
Tr
6, Climb to' 591,000 fect, accclerating to 1148
7.
*warily
900
T~(solT
Taking the recovery factor, r, as .85, the expr9io0edcs0o
Level flighit at 50,000 feet sit 1148 kpot5.
.85 (704
-390)
+ 390
51
The Reynoldb number, R,

the expression
is determined by
~V
JAV,
Re
F~ach of these Ilight levels and performance
r*!requirem-ents most bc reviewed to establish the
rnaxiniinm lo~ads on flie vehicle. Depending priair density at vehicie, slugs/ft 3
where: p
on the specific- mission, the vechicle may
b-tUibjected to maximum dynamic loading at low
V =velocity,
ft/sec
altitude wid ria-imurn aerodynamic heating at
1
fcw1ntf
l-wenti
Ta~d tion levels will generally beI
Iiij,1 1 aititod'. 1.
bieter in Uie uppe)(r atmiosphere and in space
ofIcetfviosy
while maxiinuni noise occurs most frequently a[=cefceto
icst
takc-off.
The air density at tWe vehicle can be estimated
as:
ILcatirli. Iii pidictions of aerodynamic henti'w, vIeofa.r :icnt temperature, 'l', air denV p_/T 0 '
suvp, id hera.1conductivity, k, can be fouindV
intc-ece//
Ile stagnation temperature,
(Tr)/
I',(r Vie tcriperature of the air whose velocity
is ctuic dict~Myt htof the moving
P .0063
To0s
.1 rrnciacal
It).
t,
W1,1
tiralu
111
tm;
t! 2
PTU
spi-rifi
.000216 slugs/ft3
Kh
.
equivalent of heat, it-
Ileat at constant pressure,
u
f c %ecured f rum references
',lie stagnatiJO temperature,
au.3
Therefore if the coefficient of viscosity, is, is

taken as 3.0 x 10--' and the flow length is 25
feet, the Reynolds num-ber becomnes:
(.000216)(1148)1.68)(25);
Re= 1.1 X 106
-~
4-9
31wIie:.
tran~fr cefbiet or lamninar flow, I,,
j 1AII.)C heC1,11111UtCd f rom the expression:
ki{ei'.8
11.026-6
(.126)(2.3 x 10- )(l A. x ]Or')0whraisn
ii1.6
25thickness
2
Rfactor
zo4 BU/sectt
DT/e/f2
x.-
Ill addition to aerforynamic heating, radiation

f rur the sun produces an incecase in the h~eat
input. If theaircraft has a coeff icient of absorpt i /ity, a , and an exposed area A, the heat Inpult, Q. ueli to sulIar heating is given by the
than 2.5rulcrons are stnall, so that only the re-,

gior. within tCiceclimittn needby conrkidrcd. Thie
decrease An intensity Is a logarithmic funcionLui
expressed by the relatioti;
nattenuation factor ar~d u is the

of thle atmosphere, The attenuation
is wavelength dependent but for the s'.ko
f brevity an avcrage value o? 0.0003 per kilothe absorption
meter wil be sune.Aiso,
due to ozone bvelow 50,000 feet is considered ne'Thus9, if the radiation energy at sea
glig"
3 watts per square meter, the levelP
re'i
eet is
at 5v,
whr
1 x 10'
Q~SA953
In reconstant. S, are given
Values of thesolarfuruit~~~~
:C//afolw:1965
At sea level, air mass
=.055
32 8 0)
BTU/sec/ft 2
At the same time, the vehicle will be radiating

heat at a rat6 determined by the fourth power of
absolute temperature, or:.
assits
In sacealt
S =l.026(1322, 1 = 13.60 watts/rn
A),ti
:)'
watts/rn
S - 1.021(027.9) -watts/rn
i.
feet, ene-rgy jeVeis3 ofrdaitlQ=~T
a W~C1(fl~
s~orc'rthan0.2
mironsari loger
The Stef an- Boltz man constant,o', is 17.3 x 101

BTU/II r-ft 2 R, so that if Ole emissivity of the vehicle surface, c, is t akei as 0.6, tile heat radiated per unit area Is:
30'~ (.6)(G 7)
17.3 x
2
Q=19.3 BTU/hr/ft
-.
Adding the various heat liiputa, Including in-
-------
ternal heating, and subtracting The' I~al.
7'
'00
(q,
o9f
mem
38
ruent - will operate is known, anid, L' required,

auxiliary cooling or hecating to niuintain
the
spn~cified
lirnilti; will be evident. The results
be lnrorp orated LIn dataUl on a diagram suchk
as Bh-wn in Figure 4-1.
r40OF
-j--may
~Viration. The complexity of most veuicile

tnst structures is sufficiently great
atai? E
that a purely analytic aoiution of tie ylnamnic
loading is not generally fcaisible. A large autount
of data on ilhe excitation andi responise of typical
I
400'
thiat the environment in which Individual equip-
Area
38OF
--
Ul
bl-'e loses by radiation, condluctionI and coi~vection tice resultant h~avt inpuAts to aectionti of the
Vehlcle can be computed. Detalikng tils LWormation on plan and elevation views permits the
designer .ovisualize theconocUtionshr. must conlsidtrarid enables him to design a sultable strucAs the design TproIgres~ts the heat Lrailstu;.-.
ferto each compartment n.t it be deterrmined so
NOF\
3~Fall?
1.I. IKst tnaicd skir

'd~.
(~ts
4_OF
Turuptratures at
77"1
nirf r.oit and i itt"qi~es han been ncounrrulated by

Up' U.S. Air Force at the Wright Air Developtij f)ivisimr.
This info~rnation can form the
, fero)n which projections may be made to
w'(1051115l.
Typical vibratiot, data for various
tlyj(ts of flight vehicles, as well as information
()i Mhere more detailed vibration data can be ob-
tai ~ ~~ .SI~
layer noise reppeannta another st-g-
-Boundary
nient o the flig~ht environ ment. A numrber o~fermpirical expressions have been dev.31oped for the
predictionof the noino level, one of which is the
following:
'
fe0r-03pyinCatr
~2 o F
4.181x10
Vehicle speuJ-c-Lf",-ons outline vibration envirnnn11ifr extremnes, and documents such as refficriero /5/ provide limits for particular types
of einniponwnt. Whecn tentative configurations and
C )In)cit~oSare
selected, testing must be re!-tvd to. In this manner, proof of the coneept~oniis oitajfled, and if necessary, modificstions
na~iy Ite Iiiade to insure th'e required level o1 relability under 'hie inpecific conditions.
ThI& exprressiion wniy he reduced to the l'orm:
=aynbient. pressure,
Piort
8-343.SPL
To estimiate Lhe noise level in the cockpit of
ao aircraft flying at 50,000 feet, the cockpit
icing aisuniecf !o have a total surface area s
o~f 5,1 ,quare feet and to be pitessurized to 5,006
1--
-!,
~~
-Iitiiat
25
tem.
Sysf
Jets
(o.73-nnnch diamnoter, d, withi a total area, A, of

I sq!:i ire 0( ti) and ;in exit velocity, V, of 350
le(t Iwr secunl, the follow ing procedure Is used.
Jhc.w'
1 ,werlevel
ESPL
120 + 20 log (1,692) (2)2
=136.6 dh
K..-1
U.
UI
IF1)
log 4100 4 88-
PA366V8
where Po = ambient air density, slugs,'ft3

V = cffeccve flow velocity, ft/sec
V0
Ai-
tht-vi
watts
sea level conditions are assumed, ntid the,
effective flow velocity Is 1800 feet ocr second
1.5 feet, the acoustic.
-oweris:
t1-ueoicy i:(152
180
0.2-
/W
0.2->-
S~IA-I,
14
0' $
SI 4o i
1)
i'
HI.~
50
l'-~
x 10 '
9500 watts
=3.66
I iix3 50 epa
i ill SOUWitprf.osiurt. -lzvel is:
1i.
ambient acoustic velocity, ft/sec

at
w=pwr
1!
%~~
AIbI01
=, poer
--
I NM
',
On the ground, the engine isthe major noise

device. The acoustic prwer of a jet engine is
is givenr 1y the expression:
PN)witiraecxhaustdiarneterof
V!
11 1
1K.na~iIn
,'W
ThuB, for avch!cle tra,,.eitng at hleb 2 at an~ altitude of 50,000 feet, Uhe BouflU pressure level
wvould bv;
F''W t
PAL
1/2 (0.0659) 1~ (35

.j2.2 144
300 ft-lhs. seec 400 wat~s
1)
lb6/in2
1 A~ch number
TVpwrin the al '* jet stream Is:

P =1/2 PAV 3
r
M
Noi,e. Jet and rocket motors proiduce high
Iint'oni1ty n~oise levels over a wide band of frequkumnci:?s, thus crent~rng severe dynamic proXenma. Ueneraily, the effects are most severe
:nf takeoff. Nevertheless, the total noise enivir(:nn1 !nnt must be investigated during flight also.
An example of cockpit noise prediction during
fl1tlit at 50,000 feet is given OiWADC Technica
&
-711
12=20igp'
wee
wee
'
0,2377) 7(.)10
The acoustic power level in docibelt, above a

ref erence level of I1G-13 w atts Is:*6
PWL
130 + 10 log W6'
FWL
130 4 10 log 9600
PWL
170 db
4-11.
AL riva wle, witha hemispherical distribution

ilonn pregsure levul IIs glies to a practical
(hgii"ni
cu racy by the simnplified expression: -
IhCp
SPL
I1L- 0I) log S
area., or 2nwr 2 n
ditribution. If a diecase
inmtpliricr.
m
taxrccf romitile source Of?22) feet Is assumned, tile-,
sound pressure level will. be:
"HereSis the total tIhc
SPL =1710
10 log 2500
Wave PropgAjtton.
Wave
tifated~ pa r~cularly when dissociated and lont-.

Tat~n tke n paceas
tie cse f rente. ~
7thcn takerala,
has ~inh-rcase of reqpentry Ifa
flight regimec, relerence-oerthe
mus
oprac mustopeate
verronmental
/4,' prov~id'es data from which the siprI attenuationairdback-scatturingmaybeeatimoated. Forexample, at an altitude of 50,OOC feet, if equipafreueny o 16110 mta-ment tisopc'atng
m.n s reunyof1,0
p~tnga
mgcycles 1 reference /4/_gives thie following twova LeiCLALJ,1 Cii 1C~
'ater v;aptor
Oxygen
Total
0.084 db per mile

0.040 db per mrille
6.124 dii per mile (two way

-0.062 db per mile (one way
If a ran. ofI
mil"-.of5'(2)
is desired, the total
attenuation will be 3.1 (11)one way. ~quivilent
valncesarevrovided for more severe conditions,
Such ;is in a polar a~tmosphere with heavy snow,
in an initenise thunderstorm, or through a dense
water cice
Each of these conditions must. behr
~~~ ~u! eqruipnmeni urild-r .L1 conditions st
e elzd
':anbnliy
i~ucstredthe
imit of
IL-sDientiific
2lIUA shiould bxy considered in tire design of al
Itens iubiejcted to the natural environment,
'.ir(ertain environmental, factors, such as
acrI~dlsinsrts
prciptatonsal spayand
. ind and dust are not a imajror importance at
11' aLftitudes tlicy are important at low aiticE~d~
o r oil tHi 1,rmurid. In generatl, these factors
am1. dfefined in reicrenresi /4/ and /6/. Where
1xoneedcc low alt itude flighlt is a consideration,
Ilief. t~p- andl prevalencle of Insects must be stuCd in the ,;pecciific localitiecs concerld Tran -t
ii'iai.is
describedf in reference /7/.
I At ,i SS~ 11~i
3S dissociated and Ionized gase
a rfe I imp' ri Soc eir :~r0- lwer,
atmosphere, and
Analyis Problem of Environl

L
Tin" philogophly of operatione analysisj, like

th at ofib e szI entIf ic methoil Iis no t a shIIIgic, Ycljtmn2 stat-mieff thant may bit foilme withe-u,
&-ooght or insight, but rather a coilI toc~n of
methodn that have been fotwid effective.
''
Operations anialysis is based first on the fact

any situation can be measured, andI
htams
that even qualitative measures are an essential
step to knowledge; second, that measurements
are not certain, since natural and induced envi
encounters are not rigid and predictable, but rather are only probable; and finally,
that it is preferable to lootf at a system as
whole In relation to the environment. taken as a
hole.1
The goal of operations analysis waa, well put
bySrRbert Watson-Watt -- to obtain "the
byaSiru
efec from available resource." In
we might add: "in the study
present
the
of natural context,
and Induced
environments."1 The
methods used must insure objective meaonire
mnent and the prediction of the probabilities connected witli(1) natural and Induced environmnents,
ailberesounrces, and (3) maximum c-ffe.
The necessary facts are then available to those
who must make Jie final choice, and decielonF
mnaybemadewith minimum prejudice and ma~ximum foreknowledge of all the pertinent, factors.
Imtdatn
An
-
nna~r
17
ques towhich the operations analyst Isrestrictd

nor is there a specific "cannred" apuruach. In-A
method with special attention to the
analysts of complex situations. The essential
framework In bynio means strange to the milltary. Indeed, the Staff Officers Field Manual<
gives the f ollowing form for the3 do ielopment of
amltr
eiin
1XSaetemsin
I h
iso sm]
sml
iso
h
h nsio.J
1
tt
tiple, specify pr~oritiIeS. If Mhere are intern,cdl ate tasks eithier ipreacribed or naecessary to the
mission, these should be listed.
2. Analyze tire situation and state the vari-ous
courses. Develop thiebasic data on assuruptironst.
Cover enemy capabilities and litit all p~ractical
courses of act ion.
4 1.,
* 7~T
'-
NLSST
ion
The
InT~t
ell"
Gencrally, !hepattern of jet engine noise will dev ia t e P,-i-wW at.fr oia
o rI oi1l patte rn, re ach ing a peak ol about ptu!s, 7 db at an anf'Je of 135
degrees, off L.he forward axis.
1
OEAIN
SPL =r1363 db
Elcctromlagnctic
c-hers such as asteroids, cornric radiation, solar

finrer, V.-wn Allen radiation, vacuum anid zero
gvity heconic of critical importancue III space
Wlight. These environmntr~s are not as well fiefined a many otliers, but current ixnvestlgat~lons
Data on
are improrving the predliction &ccural
hyper-environm-etatl corndkiiins are contained tn
reference /8/, as well. as in WADC TRIIU-627,
WADC TROtO-1854 andi UASF Specification Bulbetin 523.
I, Opp.
%~
- nisslli' arid guidance

S. System
6~rC.I.
Weapon System - air defense.
3. Anal vze the elffect of the philostphy factors

Ile
Compre time Coursies of actioa.
04.
Individual parts make up components that hwre

specliic functions in an itemu of equipmemit. Eoulp.
ments are made up of componentm, and carry out
end function wifthn a subsystem. The sut)systern is aworthwhilo breakdown when the system Is very complex1 , and severni eqtdiprents
combine to carr ant a givanm function. A Hyrtem
iaasmlyrbytmtdahsse~
5. MakC 01e deciBio1n.

1:'
ie~danu3
~
~
~an
an ~xisingsy~i.
hil' Ue satea
fr wich
eni'irotnmonltal requ Irenients raustbe corstriucted
ha~ve availaule a far w ider scope of potential
(I Alrr;cs of action.R
-I A
the accomnplishment of he weap~on ay~itcU2 desig/o.

mission. A weao system is an airseinblyou
systems essential'%o accompliph a specific Air
Force missioin. Not every system will require
voruplete a.breakdoiwn. Morenclature nma. ho'
as appropriatte, alrice th'e in-sIght
wh Ici recognlazen the existence of t.~ade --j!,y zuto
their Interrelationshlpc Js the reklly perti~ient
fac tor.
Thie scope arid severity oA tie environmental

imrol~lnm has paralleled the rapidly increasing
ccnplc::ity of rrodern we~uwomq systems; specifrallyas
fm~ aly:hull-divided,
1. The scope oi envirotiments considered has
Div reased.
2.The x'cquirfed VPer-ating limits within any
ore environmeil or group of comibivied environmentILs have twoaftened.
3, The n-nnber .ii;d
Of
CUITIpiIXity
n
90t! =2 2t 1_2
el~r.
affected hal.- niukItplid.
A logi-Al
tc~~t'anhadlethse
cii"~~ll
'algei.And
inan newu
cmntsve trime, undern
cst
co1nzddev;i~onm plies thaot simplertin mprcv~o'isy
-unneown
The
rang ofrxiid
rejnr(.n-im-oioflthe
~vi~te~uc'~A
necifisry
o shur
ir;arohermian
su-a;~Imbi 'J~ue~
wAtd
'.'ns e
acoystqenesm reany
o
aecisioy affectiv-ivironient
yms~reqio semo
thavetie cost,
andd(:lmV
rnf3itWcorcomple~ftely n13kprcraft,,4I
Ah;!iwn,'.Vitriw'
ip~
~ o a ebitIt
'ut rwra5Jlig
eigi
'7w~ai~~,
t te p-iccof
Itthat thi'l
aitem
caidot 1)0 r
ine 111210sBy eartan
ifLar~aofhe ma~ir huoimic tviri.
oExacctly wrehnt
trjisdtuti
d~syst)n
;I
rirtainto w grat
coniuea
tinl~ wo'Uat
-v nch;
Ofth
sy'stemis Mt he
ijsii
u;1(is-r
2.il Co::iji'nomi
u
3. iqiiiis;
X111ls
c.
-,
eIrom
-Te
deciniurm circis bai

lj
ir
nte
fo
the
'm
~ ~
col[e
iys 1tm,,
iw
fntdsml
~ ~ ~
tinues
3.
....
0.
lrodutimia eng Ierng adoe ncu end wioth.4

estabitgthe aube or,omicuitor samples.
tcont-rinue itoe thre fiel rpraiotoe
pmattcoreducin
the eoleroncenbtal
ren rl
sosethad tni
hr~ea
aInf
oWnlsystem.u
ot
'Pilactual uto thferencceBs occut
E:u~
nheronmnttarabl nity,
b-t beeoua ofthen
wfcitshie:
of! iepan Icrnpiieint, or plexm Iytecon4-13q
lumntrti
1. a r ruist~r
.1~~~~~~~~~~~
emnlgiac
Co11'nlcrutbadtevolti`n,
,.r.m
,-
sie.
,stowacosiue
rilk.Ti-(c
nvef-copto r
Uivedapom' Ios Imstwheleve, o hc a particla

timj_,ot
sfuntein aho
bexle~
opimied Pa of time~wortonmf&Jt1operaotions~ butnalyt is lto vseiict
h
unit-ong
oreromac rAeLyguwUin
- Is'I
-al
te mostcepolentl -ingoly a f
bamQgIiven touthis prolem is '4enmb-ofti
poitwepusub-optem B ationc orasbeOL~ a
sidngzle
ryet it
Ispossblettrtofhnmave th problzsof erip
.*-me~nt
soa funeiners exhaltuy
no
"z. of Uiaer
canviontained.
ornbgidation
t p ut nopern
ours btoviiic
tha ar
wtt cosbet
y
wi<tve tore apropriatel to tin
ainidedsample
siet iIsproducletio staging
t the
coulpment con
-- taliph th enumeral tanof aaiabl samles.canbIfmtioen
ta ined Othe mgximd m amthpopet cofrs
thke ample i--1o#1 o-e. y armattr of stallsthcat treconsisuentbutho cothos a lie
ithestotheg
n~ft Itgher
e
lomevealofprogwapri~s tattheinfor
toe tht sucee,
the
1,, j..
r,,,d
I,,r,,ni nfn!e- luwu
A;inc sevintie u
wortwh
tj
lie
n
buooiturnoe
(a ill1 11i1(-CA 9 1i .1t t i ( )rjCC[f; to
IÌ il
1 Wee~r
Iint
ghIj
Lht
cano
I~pO
raystem.e by ce
Ilsu.
Paito
v-1
les.
hse~ -'iisaent
t~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ea-
of appreciatinig the
The' igher level

tofthis
wepoune
oehnatonro
-vtzto1//O
Thent olr'r
-othemJattenras
is
of
unlikd e aicrf
mrd-11ffs twot hmecy
consequ~ence
MDoe~cb~1-nasei'
acua
us.Dfeecsocr
4eatospaerdcn
-.
nirrn
itol
Irt
h-u
*"fil
Morlover, (lie environment of R weapon Is esiu'ittally competitive; that is, thle enemy seeks
itsj df,,1at not only by direct means, but also by~
!o)rcin1 I, to operate where Its performance Is
iiargnalchoooing
he
facspeatinsanays'
Tho
Uitittatio
faes he oeraionsanayir
iiretivrrnmnt~al testing of knodern systems may
be silnrzdEsfl'w:sclous
of stochastic or probabilistic models. A modol,

therefore, may vary in sophistication fron- a
to aLhig~hly developed
qattiewdpcure
mathiematical theory, Tbe analytic value of
a model Is that it sharpens our understanding of the po ints at which experience and
predictions ar-e likely to diverge. Its eif.tt~llre
value Is the strengthening of judgmnent by conmeasurement and logical anlalysis.
I . Sy~stcnms areclarger and more complex, ze

quirl-ng integratedpluinitlg. The performance Ol-.
the svstem as a whole cannot be predicted solely
1uif
itscomonens,
2. The value of each set of trade-offs must
be crossr al ciliated to dcltermfn: its value. andc demonutriting its perfuraiwice
of.~
theo best
Th!~e.gof Opecrations Analajsin EnvironmenE~nee

r
aeenhtteevrnetlts
W
ram is essentially a compromise between conIlicting demands and pres~iuircal. The historv of
operations analysis has shown that It is most
usoful In spell~n- out the various conflipt~ing demands and quanTtifying the relationshipb ktiiong
them, so that a course of action cat~ be sqelevere1
at
that meets the requirements of Lthe. actual
tion In the time required. Operations analysis
begins with sett~ig the frame of refcrence and
bringing together the Informnal and formal apeciI ications, developing an envelope of natural and
induced environmental encounters and then rc-.-P
candiling them with the factors Lhat limit the
scope, Intensity, and duration of the environmental test. Operations analysis is not limi1ted to
the test phase alone however. Ths. resulto of%
field experience shoul'dbe collected ane led Ihacil-~
into the test program in the form of moduications in the required environmental envelope.
'This Is a point of real Bi~iificance iii the dovelopment of complex weapons systems, where
itemg arete *tied and introduced Into operational
uise well be. -)re the development phase is corn
lete. The I nal conitribution is made when the
Vessons gaine:d on one weapon system are used
to develop the environmental program for its
successor.
3. Environmental test programs are performed with budget, facility, and sample limitations, al). under the pressure of time. The optiinum strategy must be decided upon.
4. The results of environmental experience,
inl thof ield, particularly the effect of hostile comnpetitionL, miust be fed byack into system improvemieit,
Consid-rratirjn of Uncertainties In 0Opzrations

Anaysis
A tradciark of operations analysis is thorou,,1Lgoinfg cvaluation of the Importance of un(certailtiPeS. T,, the old, classic physical proI~lyims, uncerta.inrtie~s were relatively small and
aiCcuracy of mneasuremnent waE high compared
with the cffecl that were being studied. Beginriingwuititilie stucyof the behavior of gases, hewever, a realizat~ion that complex events could
only rarely bc describetd in a deterministic form
led to
!. ginnings of statistical mechanics.
P11cciscly;hecausc- it involves so, many variables,
all o(:curringwitih varying probability, the opcralioiial. situation is a natural area for statistics,
a;
`;,t
atopcns tie way tu war gaming, tsimulation, and similar techniques,
'(Lirecrdta are brought tonether and or1:1Miz~d. ill a Imitrticular way, a nosci is imp)lic-t,
Upe-ratiuis anialysis is unique in stressing the
'i i th niodcl's nature and charac inipotaii
iv) u;tr s. Thius, the law of gravitation assumies
Oro h.c- -f graviltatii)nal attractiont falls off
;is tie miiuare oif t-he distmnce between the masses.
my it eat a pljanet as a point mass
on
A,i, ii
I(;-u1ry-pses of predicting its orbit, but the asIi
mi'tnakitiig a landiii, must take account of
Hic siie ol the planet aid its physical con! i,uof heii situation that is valid
i
dli.
Ihie doe
[,i
ii i~tO ii~vi cutaitn~ EoiiiputatiutIS is not suffit ( li illfitlers.all
uNiinple, Newthii's law of tgravi (o
d,' Is Goi
iC dt1e riiii1nmi; that Is, IthVW fac 11i;1'
n 1y
.1
eiloiwni, then tbo results may lie ac'miiipoiid. Ptut is has been previously
kii iat Iv
ioefulit. cr1aility [foces tie one
pT
'In
Itl
it, (hoI
lt
,"
'4i
'
.t:
4'i~
'
Mission Effectiveness
-~"
In the detailed fujlfillmetnt of the environmen

tal program, mission-eoff ertiveniess has proved
Lobe apowerflultool in determining how envirommental test resources should be allocated to meet
torogram reauirements. This is done by settiniz
ini
realistic evaluation criteria (particularly
working out the distinctLivo between the iudi'vidual and system points of view), dc,vloping the
envelope of probable envIronnv~nt11 encounters,
and assigning relative values to various regions
of the envelope thczeby establishing the trade-.
offs and figures of mecrit. In this process, the
occurrence of low probability events is a point
desjerving particular attention. The uiid result
of the first stages 1.3 we establishmient of tl-c cai-.W
vi roviniental test plan, which may be crnvisioned
assa mapl of the onvixon.nental combinations related to the facilities testing times, and costs,
of which will be allocated.
The map is accompanied by a recommended.
strategy and tactics for fulfilling the p~lan. It is
a basis of tho stratel,.y that statistical rallie-r
than determintistic data are b~eing d'tait with. iThe
degreecof uncertainty varies so miuch from Oner
-opI
.~
el
*il
*
is'ot (if Lite problem to another that approximatins ire niot only possible and necessary, but
artttidly dcrahie. All ailbeknowiecdge re
Hipiemadlat
niomn.
Thi
sesi
Ulronlgthe
test pa.T
is nvolves the
applica,,tion of scientific micthod a conscious use
oLhe tr.chniQues usually labeded "the design of
e:xperi-ientls," and die use of a sequential apJproar!: S
he
4~.degained at one part
of t~epro'gra.,i Is immeindately fed back Into the
other pairt~s. Thle basic philosophy 18 to continue
the programi until the results are stable within
thle degree of accuracy reqiuired by operational
requirl'ruents, wihse
ifyteprxB of Ole
weano:,.8)stcm~l
an inicte th
ot%;Its
Ise
V al, the contract "'statement ol' work,"
which is the basis for developing either compoinentsoracow-plete system, refers to specificationsand Apecificatlon bulletins that further de..
fieevrnetlrqiex~t.Even
wlitin
this convtrrgent chain, however, there is rooim
and, indeed, necessity to translate the mtssion
rinto its environmental Implications, and to re'
view the applicability of a given environrmital
requirement in terms of the mission.
w~e.The
Utiliz.ation of Results
The final *'itrlbution of operatiotial analysis

to env1%'.'e_ 1'tci,tid enginnering iti in the utilization
of rs15fit,
to assst in guining future research bjy establishing areas o, uncertainty rec~arding environlments, materials, processes, or
ierfortnxlces; and secondily, to Indicate the payoff areasj in which product iftiupivement wilU be
ret oneta lve.lyst
The operational analysis pirogram fulfills its
putipose whezi a reliab~le model and good predictors are evolved that carL cope with changes
Experience with the natural
i., requiremenlts.
-rid induced environments should permit predictio not perlurviance in future situations thereby shtortening; the weapons dcvelopment Aeadtimne atid extending the period during which the
Wtclpof sySterV '-9effective.
--
copeof the review Is dictated by the levelcocre.It Is a matter of national planninirg to

decide whether to have weapon systenix that are
suitable for use only in the Tmerate Zonet the
Arctic, or the Trupicu; or wlzethur (bey Lu:iuul li
omnin-uniivrunmental. Present policy of the Air
4oi
Force is to build aircraft for globai)
Missiles an space vehilclea depend on the aperational concept, and In turn, onr die environmeatal
analysis prepared in thle ea7rly stages of t~c-ir
devetup-ment. This is not the ~coreern of the anainvoestigating the eriviiomntenl requirement
for a coniporient. Work) within the fra-mework.
of the decision, 'he alI's must assess the pruo
bability of encoo.ntering given extreme envii-,in nents,
m
and w.hat cost, weight, or perlorniance
penalty I&accepiab~le to ove3rcome a given risk.
'
"
~
4,,j
'
Changes In Envi~ronmental Specifications

-
Thrre Is q rosrx-~irhilty for P~tzilhlpehcn Pn. vironmcnt~ai rcquirc .iwntg at each. leveA oi tile
weapon systerv development, but this Is riot a
ScopCl~ of Op,'tations Analysis Participationot-aysre.Ufren
ittondtr
mined at. each level he
a reciprocal feasdback.
For example, a bomber may lhave bceen requircd
The specificatian is thie starting point for esfor' the basic mIssion of high alit.1ude bombing,
tatt~lishingthe~lenvit-ronmenital prog~ram, By spectand ELsqtlisfactory vehicle cesir'ned, developed,
fication is meant not only the forma). docunien-.
terrneasure developments, Itis concludedi Utht
very ('ortsid(ra.ie bo~dy of kaiowleige concerning
low altitude nilssiona are also feasible the ensystem purposes, usvr de'sires, etc., whiich do
vironmental specilicatlon is changed ;nn&the airriotL111ltwilhin the scope of formal requirementa.
Thu, scciicaion,
uinfo;maJandinfrmi
crafttrmust now be further c..uable of perforining
ato given diflerent weigjhts, depending on thoeirtueubieci~dwde
e mn
ver anw load conditionsB. This Is an Inetance 'in
intiortance and the suppottng, authtority. It
which technologicait developments In one flc'd
the rcfore ar-rooriate to hriefliy review hepr thle
demand anew mission capability Itn another, ard
piocC,Sic5 ;jy which ;a zpc::lfication comes Ino
it a new environmental requireanrrzt for the
licitig.with
weapon systern.
sphec ifi'ai,i of the msission and trisriion alterlnalives beg ins, at a national 11vol. The frame%work fOr -,p(cifying nthssiocs may be traced
up Utrou:~It tite celnsof
0c, Army, Navy, and
titL Air I orce, Ut-rough Vic Sccretary of Defense,
In the- Nafltonal SecujritY t(otncil, At this levclp
(it re( t isi lii tornis of mtissionis anid tJheir probable
ct,-irtmint ntts
.is ge~neral, but, ieconies increasitily spec ific as the directive is translated Into
5Iv
lo bytheproot tug agency. Thus, the
Ai ltI or (vc atl~it
ltuure of ARIJC tttcini*.t.oh
jies
ahic stsfi-tth in general terms
O;11it of,
topt'enlt
I
In key a7a
and the proIdetI-und of d'lpustt.Weappon systeins
'.1
od o sttfn I; genveral operatbo~iaI
.,"
Use of Environmental DatThe Imnpo rtance of inforrmil an well as fcrmal

ripecificatiuns has alrezdy been noted. A copRtant Information exchange occurs [matween th!
Armed Forcer and lndtimtry throughi the in!'edia of
pubiished. articles, briefings, symposia, Vi811.6
speecheH, etc. Thle operations analyst must tbring
these iAigefiher into a logically organilZed Wnd
usable form. Formal and informal specifications
takeni together provide u ioose envel op fromn
which allof Ole envlrontinwts that willbe edcountered, the relative duration wid frotquezcy
of such encounteril, and the relative valuc of 6uccers in each of the combinations miay be catali1 Iileaf.
4-15
-%x-A
'ter
V,;'
,1
envelop~e, vdiich Is usolialy far tio

Corri'ipondbig to each part of the performance -viironnental
complexfor tenting within the 'acilities, budget,
zvqi'lreinernt, assessmnents of the natural and Intiie, and samples available. The task of recoilJicvod otivirivi rnents are needud. D~ata regarding
culing these facto~rs IF, the operations analyst's
the induced tnv~lronmnents come from perfor contribrution. His participation Is sequentia[waiicu ariJlyscs, anddcatz concernihig natural enthat Is, it begins with the specifications and
vironrnents frorn otliersectiofls of this handbook.
th
te research, experimental,
carries an throu
'Ihio dI cmn then he translated Into probabiliprototype andenc pouct phases, utilizing data
ties of encounter, and miadc specific according
and Insilits ol~ained at each stag as reciproUite niission aid ~reographical locpc.ton, An
caideterminants of future steps. Environment-al
exatnple of "i this. can be doneo Is contained in
does not end with the production
,io/.engineering
rcfeev..:e
Item, but continues L'mwugi tWe system IlV rove-.
ment and application phases.
Ijefore leaving this discussioa, it Is necessary
to njote die differences between those specillcaEstablishment of Mission )Effectiveness and
tions ap~propriate to the:
2. Extierimcniat p~hase,
3. Prototype phase.
.Poutqualificatton phase.
'1. Poductof
lDirinp the rvecarch p)hase, eryeffort is
made to obtain dLaw regarding the characteris"uis of the phys:ical environment and the current
d.:veoupnicr.ds i'i) physical and engineering prine~ic
! exploration In w'hich in.ciples. It Is a
major roles. Pilot explay
R]Jtadjudgment
aridquestions
~~ht
purirncnt.-are filied out only to the extent necessary to cstablish knowledge Bufficient for the ex-
and
bestpossible
allocation
eflvliO'.'feni JA
mentalof compete~acelof
This "environ
test the
effort.
the design is attained by making the relative value
each environmi-mital design feature an integral
factor in attaining capability Iii the minssion. To
doti, to major qluesttons munst be answered.
(1) what is the probability of a given set of environmental encounters and how important are
they, and (2) what are time trade-offs5 a~mong the
mission capabilities? The answers to these
form the basis of environmental engi-
perirnental p)ia~e.
Lest the task rf specif ying so complex a series

of interrelauions seem too formiciable for practi-
pase~~entatsone-
ftasIibi~ity u- U. physical equipment. Here, enV roiinintid test results become useful for preo
sse.
dictinf-prrformaico thIs
ruaiunm,
the t rna towards increasing participa-
Irof the eiivironmental1 analyst in this pi.ase
~e~el n reucin
hN'
~fitale
toal lad-
4~I C.a
-
.'
decision i. always madce even if only bY

~ neglect.
Th,
.rm
Wol'Aai
"'
mc
equipment shipped to England had to be rebu1lt
before il. could be rendered serviceable. This
neglect of the storag~e and logistic envirc(4met
was an environmental desgndecision aii;ufortuikate results; had the designors cons~ideredit
na. ptcurcse
to define 4he s~cope of the
-itema
01 sybteri.-- Ttx', broad a uefinitict leadn to
annecessary complication; too narrow a eil
tion omits r'elevant factorn. A practical ci-oice
is to sclect a functional ertity that depewlis .
level at -which the environmental design isi
p. rformed. Thus, a miavigational systemn must
all-weathe.-, blit a spc itit: optical corepo~ient
~be
Sum~aY
maybe restricted to a daylight function. lVene,p
ilic~;ctpe f operations analysis paLrticipzathe designer of time entire navigational1 syswAith wvorking (ot the frame cif retiv .i)ir
tern must consider h'owv the various ('leulents
f(ii .ce~rIf the Ctlvironzl'.ewltal program by br'ing-*
fit togtthcr to give hlim all-weathvrc p11w In~t'ioCii r all ol tiC ciclvatit specliicat icris
but. 'he Ces igner of the cr11 c at cemvu of
-bililly,
thein injto (:onsisttitz detalsh.
mo
l-rt si .'ti
the Bystemn ma' reistrict his attenition to day
ad ri- 111:L. Speif 'atio*.s; rnusf be coy%,l~ ma
operations. Failure to attal~i t4-- V,(al of the cIv;aL-ijI-nd to' each,
cl 11( rciA.tiVU W0ihtit
mnewL has an Imm ediate rcpercussion at the syr;, trrazilsatL-d Into an en1hriiz
~p'4AicaI'r(a
I)urir~g ipr~iuc-Uor, emphasis shiftS to the folwi. 3-is

1ifla iritenance aind adjustment of
quality conetrol for thv envilponnental stresses,
"ba'z)toiliz d-iun-i-vfuedhau frountdeappicstiand
o micd!y
''ta~e!ivrortnotalboudaresand
(1) esta!,IisiirnrcnLuf bases for cortinued product
'u.th.the
II.,r13.01i~Li
.id
'
eeignayspcfcotx.
subject, they wu.mld have rcsi~ied that The

L.Ote
I.
ill
equipment Awoluld h-ve to survive hazidling and
Thu Frtotype lI,, the system embodiment
oceua. chipment ',-efore it would ever be used.
~uccs~u,
wllhebroi~t o fllscle
iiuitun. Tesf
well-he b'roughnivt contriute
sc
This, rather obvious instance suggests the im..
Tofp~aioar -a c ofinm
nii
actu .Liyjrakm z ing explicit and docraotiueota
mt1po
~ ~~Cp prudiction.~~dstrbuio
encounte-s andtPicir imrpoztno
cr~vironmental
tobain i'3!21lz mtion on the-inost critical parts
has been seen that the key goals of operations analysis, in terms of faculities, uuA. mid
money, are the optimuim environmenital 'iesign
I. Rsearh phse.It
fntooSc
th74Y-R3,TJs~pf
''3
level. Th'us, 11fItle optical device fails to

achieve the desired resolution -Lnder, say, con.fijt.itm!jif' tvimperaturfe inversion, then thiere is
cii ininludjatc fueebarck (or We~ system designer,
%khiniost sevk an alternate solution.
cess by identilyirw the nosible outcomes and

penalties. Taken literally,"it involves forcseeinst and setting forth, all of the probabilities of
environmentai enewrnter and all of Lice Guicorncs
that correspond.o a given degree of environnien-
Atv.1
Asigmlent of Values. THie value of a given
prnhabilityof encountering the envircrimc~it and,
suecond, u:: the importarce offunctioning minder
tile gircin cond~tlonti. Inforaionoitepo
hkihility of cnvironmentai encounters is increasinitty available, and sourcecs are given In other
sec~tions5 of this haLndbo~ok. Thtip;, equipment int1hJto function in altcrnative envirortments
tnd locations may have computed for them the
probability of encountering given environmentH,
and, whact is of equal imprac the probability
of enconntrlier , given coii~_environments.
Ili c..'e6 where detailed' values are lacking, it=
capability, aaid then comnputtrig the contours

of the outcome.It s assumed that the environment will be en-.
countered In 9.reasonably denumerable nurmber
of simple combinatio's (A in the following equations). The designer mrny aelect alternative courses of action; that Is, chcoOa tc design his equip-
temi
mertto meet certain erivtronments (B in the
equations). Obviously, a table cam be set up that

gives the probability of enceuntering elach of the
environmentF. specified in the nmatrix during the
mimqlon phase. To do) this, a siries of solutions
of the ftoigform
is obti-,6
vanit~ l~ay'e
ake ofthepo
Thbe cmorrltiont
uih ete-kon nvr
amns.
Tempotiontb
The alternative courses of action art now set
assmpton3to elae te ~~'forth numerically- in terms of the unit eftort to
mad
s tht
exlicti h9posibl
torelte he
cope with requirements of intensity assoc'ated
whichwith
different probabilites of enicounter, and a
minimum may be sought.
The "weightitnig" of the envirn-mental enconter regrions by their importance to the missionoliwsloicalyloinsccilcaionsandtue
preliminary system studies. As equipments have
boro~e or~ comlexandsysems ncrasigly
large-scaie, suOt, values are increasingly diii- cultto
Oe rasonblewayof
ssig.
asiging
thiem is Uosed ri, Ilia consequence of failure (or
q.;t cess) to the user. Thus, failure of one, part
of a redtundant flight power system may be a
nildsanoce, but failure of one in series with the
other equipment' may be catastrophic. The
value of environmental survival is complicated
!'yth qucstion of establishing bouds of "satIRiat tory' plerfo rm-4nce. Thus, the environm"ental
engineer nctx~t .'e aware of just what limits of
perfeurnance are acceptable from the standpoint
iof.9
the~it
arrng
on.
mahin use ofsc
tul,,h
(anctarrtaige thle desuiredfunvtironallientof
untoa
lf frent
NMaki-i
Given the weighted proi~dliI~y o e~kronlenai

nconter, te sage
is st'-t for thle appropriate decision in the partiiila
Ad~rnionis
u'c.
lway mae inthe
lozlIt ofa given tisk, time and circumstance.
tim, rsorce.110
aclitesavalltl( i'. dec1TTC1iwts
enter
as truly in-rtcs
to Meto evcrnmrnta
denvrnv~lpdiian ts
te
de~cision as do conditions
IX"sioxis.
of :. spit (iS
tionl natur11e.
ally eviginoericiii
ot -nission func -
design and t~es(Ing

ofvie ofdiiisir.
tii'oryRI witab thle techte
of
joint jirwobaneiityof
th-1mcc,
nAi~inaiL w~cjtericA joni~ted
poagAint the
Minen)ul
U1'l
mcu andv YutimeLo zgivatlnst th
avi:ur v
so.u I(Pnt dU1
to
givie
esg or les.b
o! i,,rt
flaive0siln
to
o te~t~n,
14lvirmnroentwl
civp
tae r te'ft oin
.hi
5-'
-tiit a'
li1itn
theory attempts to ioae
! Mi.11JIpjintls of tto_ decisic.ni-raking pro-
'
.
,.
M,'
*-
't
There are threecitissotisrceue'S

The first is simply the unavailability of nufficity
ealdifo
ainrgrigtheni'
ronment to specify the probabilities
This Is a factual m~atter and the answerinvolved.
be
obtained by referring to other sections may
of this
handbook and to other literature. When factual
daaalckgiisn
mett
niainof.'
anreforserhhoerithitrm
esiaemyfrunybe
aepovedft
the alytis
conscious fteucranisi
anslystiofateion.
hi stmtin
*nesecond polmis
thtof
placingen
velopes on the outcomes associated with each
coreo<1in
hi
ugeti
.'
lat
coude, ofe acto. bydfult.hs

ecisio
dugthe
a systoya
state equipment specificationsthis
such that
tern must operate at -40 F involves the value
judgmtautedeie
that the need for operating at-4Fis'
w orth thie design, development andi iabrication
.'
'
coErts Involved.
The third objection concerns the very concllderable and difficult computations required in a
articular case. This is In many
naapowerdecision theor apruachonly
for
bounds,
or exndi etaserd~
sn
h
tremes, of the probable environmental eucounters.
There Is an important point to remember it,
.'
any pr-bablistic or trade-off analysis; systems

mnut.ircquenti',y oper'atel Inahostile envirunnimnt;
tatis in ituztlor~s where there is an intelligent

oppone-nt who strivan; to defeat the system. One
resolurce against him Is to operate undler environmclital conditions ujifavarablo to the defender.
Therclore, low probability events must not he
neglected;- insicad, they require careful detailed
study in the light of the hostile enrvironmient.
4 -1l
N:
,*
'Fi?tl
hforegoing proce5sJ is a map
program and sele'ct the most consecrvative values

(upper confidencelimrit) during the CXPC iiflc.It~tI
stages of the progran; for it is Cluring this phase
that the extra cost is rrodcst iWcaiap;Lri;un
the effect on the program as a w'hole. Then, as
knowledge regarding the operationalienvironment
is fed back and a more precise knowledge of Whe
requiremrents for miissionfloictiveness is gained
the requirement Itself may be optimized.
A I rad--offs and figures8 of mecrit that indicates

i''Ibe
'.~gnl'and thec test engineer just what
c 1oust i.' attaiir~ed whiat the consez'1 triof
-imo'l -,, o,' failure are, and how much effort
!iiuld hie allocated to its attainment. The map
-iisf) iocica~tes the Inter rVlat ionsh ips between the
ission, environment and resource
pispecive
Jl2til~l 1i:,iw(nt oif Environme'ntal Plan
Iti must be renioim1 ,ered that the appropriate

o wethe Lh eqipptii wil diur~iccrdiig
ii' tot is i~i the experimental, prototype or proJudio
Inthe svi.xpern~enal sageleasi
loliv~s'in'cs'blihedacl undmentl kowkdlt-js
gaind
sevbidig hed tecnicale
n
po
niowiie
and~~~~
i
nued
thh~lci
telnvica onmeniits.i'e
andpa iinvi-a
l~
,a sethe ofolwol
nev
rIizmosdcndcziat~gwd
i~rtlcl,
al-ngwid Inervls
siis to obtain quaiitatixe knowledge of the systoti
r05,Sp, nse to the enviyonnmot a"d at least aA
ig c~ itu,
e rottyp stgetheensDiirt~
~'clpo s lireCl~'iyspeutie, ad tc seps
aflp,i closery
vre
spogether
arhe
and
poiete sthfialy
heproucton
-. In
tUinthedcign
;C~ 5101
l'li v, Ce1lsptsiunncthe btign. ha as
lite proaucioat
plia~tti, fiiln.-iig: (iil prorrac haIsiteostin.~lsa
ti~iidpi)I~'tquaiification, (2) quality control,
1)qQa2 ity
I:iri ore, atid(4) failure analysis and
'1112ilst seeks to demotistrate
ti0tttbi *Slt'joIFiEt.
ftedsnadipii
qiiy
(2
le i~let".
lhat ilosc nticati'in h1;s beenl gi'ven to the item
uerlt.Mor-u,, cr, the expci iiuental and pro.~c~&up.
avilale fr
iyp
tet
ar rsu~t
It ,ts
0
aomiero
availal~e frny beckp
testedo
ittena rilical
c ~ Ofcsaoints.In the sesonted
I
I
ilts
~rlial
I t~iostetS
holdnotony (ve
b~it ;&.i s(xcren Icr proces,; degradation.
s %kcilcovered in standard works
iiiir
/5 /
~d v uch
cntrl, s rfer~tcs
'ii
ad
w
'17 '. Failure analysis and troubleti-i i.vbviously foucused
on the particularcrtiaslte
Iiou bie.
ric
I't
owceas:.ry to disrisq the piati fee ontI'sj!'i, s ince it Is a consequence (as

.1-1t c) of the f or of literil and tradle-off
1i, dli'si'!lr iAill, however, corsider
,1: -1
Isit lit
14111IiA
voi
9. L
4it.
It is emphasized that the environmental goal

must recognize and distinguish between the required and the discretionary elements at each
stage, and that the miap of required rnvironmental
competence must be fulfilled.
Thlc establishmnent of the environmental plan
fIlloAs aiF a consequence of the figure of merit

anid trade-off malp. There are areas, particuLirly ir the primary mission, in which complete
icnvirijnhdcital competence must be attained;
tj ;t is in m. ichi thc. equipment must have sub~"cr prin4iityof
ailre.
qualy,
hoeuyr, tter. is a 'feedback between the desire
if) maktis region sa. broad as possihle, and
time available to complete the system and make
itfully oper?th'nal. Failure to assess this ret!.on dnririr the course of dev elopment is paid for
lchiev
exesiv
it)ti
oss,
o btt ad ecesie
lnl.o~o
ea toe
"71!* p ruc e~tre Feccrfri mended in the preceding
palat~ap'esiabe si, hisrepec, n tat
a me~ax alalAe to t-lv,? designer a"d to the test
~uiirerthecuaeqcocs o te dcison
failure orn other partFs of the
teosqnco
{~
Strategy and Tactics of Environmenatal Pr.ra

lmn
-
lize the characteristics of the technical problem,

prvoskwldeanthrsucsofcitfr etious knoldeandev the resoures
goflI tede
toste
thed deire god
ic ethod to
required time and with the available resources.
No fixed procedure can be recommended; histead,
there Is a body of viewpoint, insights and tech-:A
n iquies from wh ich only those that seem especialrelevant in the present context can be selected.
.......
7
0
0.18
In regard to the technical problem, first, It is

cla
that In Ithe- practical situation there are
many more factors involved than can be xnea8
ure& or experimented with. Therefore, It is
necessary to find means of unif ing or "collaping"~ these extensive sets of o ervatlons into
regions of securely won kriowledge. Second, test
measuremients afd assessments of environlmental
conditions are likely to differ from those actualy encountered in practice. Therefore, actual exerlence nust be fed back to calibrate and scale
e test. Program fulfillment must be iterative;
that Is, the environmental engineer must usej
each stage in learning about and solving h Is pro -
'
lem as a platform fromn which to achieve the
nxtsae
sln
n
ie
The formulation of fruitful questosad ie
as'mtin
oattack requires-that the data and
that are used be actually chosen and not merely
arrived at by accident. Shice really serious
errors and misconceptions emerge early, It is
stay as simple as possible, and to begin
with aseries of exploratory runs, preferabiy beginning in an area of known responzac. As soon
as irrelevant, undesired or highly correlated
factors are Isolated. they can be eliminated,
slrice iheir effects cithierdo wot matter or can be
prdcefomtekwn
The decision and evaluationcrtiaeltd

at any level should be consistent widi those at
higher leivels, and the level of sub-optimization
should be chosen carefully. Finally, there Is a
catuien that canknot be overstressed: 'it Is thc
real world and not the model or the sp~ecification
that is your object."
Li4
I. IA~;~leKnowiedLc. The role of pre6).l.;

rd:
Utccil noted. The eni'F is:nims d, siln ades
sgnrhaavIl;th:1 ronsitiv; jhie body of physical knowledge
ricol, '%,f mo wh ich to tingin. The degree of
-fittv ways vary, but he will almost never
.sIart totally in tic dark. It Is therefore possibild
., run coeck 1,olintS fin known areas, mInens ifyinig
aid
he 'niliis'
oveagewhee tchnlogcal
surps+.cof
The existing body of knowledge reigarding the
prvide phsicl lws hat
physcalunierf
wihysrathe mowe that
physicae iniveraedpanvde,
tiiay bexitrapolated toad wirth rsiater
Alore castivn exrapuate
to fist etimte.
lso as
h),s been noted previously, the goals in each phase
%)fciivironmental test difier; those during basic
ru.svcaLci have ) primary exploratory nature;
these are foll.;)wFe ny the other phases, which
vield lit rea-singiy specific knowledge. 'Ihe fortiisllation of tlic strategy oWtesting first involves
a ,;ut-ey of th'? phxsicai laws andl engineering
Tustheproerileitem.
datn;iplicbleto
rpr
h
h
t theitev
ls
n
iv
djist~fappiieai
ii~sufgivn rctns i hih temperature are so
wr IN-known that the degree of variability to I~
c.Nprcttcd would be much less than that fosay,
for,
c~d~~n
test anid oper-,ition. This Is true because, while

we may not be sampling the equipment, we aru
'In fact sp.rnpling thi equipment -and-its -ope rat Ing-time. The decision to regard successive
operation at different timnes as equivalent may,
-bf course, be inadO, but shousld be a cons'ious
one.
The desire to extract the niaximum amocunt
meaningful Information from given tests tInplies a sequentia noproach, in which data and
conclusions from one test are used to decide
the course of action In the next; that. is, whether
increase the si'mple size conclude the test,
or narrow the test interval. Mvodern experimenAldsg
togynrse
hs"vltoay
appralh
dein
stxcnglyentraeunthis
gievoluionaryapperoach. An excellentiacoeuntiAs given
we tre-'
n
Jrnel/
eunilm~
r
eltce
In refer-ence/l9/. Much of this material is jpkimarilywithirithe professional competence ol !hestatistician; however the environmental designer
and test engineer' will find the underlying viewpoint well worth assimilating. It will aid hiin'iin
attaining the benefits of doing the statistical de sign before, and not after the experieni;tal w-3rK
is done. If he follows this course he wili avoid
regrets common to much work in thlis field.
l~isomein.the
In man , cases, i: is possitlc to extrapolate

fr(1111tici sinisl~ir itenis. Here again, the stage
to the pL-ui41ni is impl[ortant. Much less extraprmnising, and estiniating may be necessary dur!'U proika~pe st 'ge than in the research and
e~pr1~1atsta,,cs;- and the end product perforin~unvt estiia te dcocr~rds ev'en less upon judgment.
A Note on Statistical Technique
Tthe ready availability of statistical texts ac

almost all levels makes it poseible to dispense
velth a. lengthy discussion of basic siatistics In
this handbook. As a minimum, the environmental engineer will wanit to be able to comnmunicate with the operations analyst and statiswho support his work, and others who
most integrate his results Into system evaluatio" Tilt Following is a check 1i8t o1 recoinmended topics with which he should be familiar:
Seictl~
Ut Mthod
of1
Itis t tis
lni
-~
-be
mde a toticians
liii &icisim
li
asan whether theW
:ipprojlriat teti1.snlefor a combined
orIuuetest
Is
thr s-
ointlercin
amon
ore fnctonsintheracsionsl among

or- Q.uiuteniunther
Jr. ;, riofuusinnt ore
functions then singetesatso
Ar:alrplt.Tedg-eoUsineato
dtitcrmn~rcs tle itcfC5ty for a combined 34p-V
1. The idea of a randlor variable.

2. Statistical notationl.
01.
3.
aria properties of the avet age
va-riance and standard deviation.
The J-.m)isnin to simulate the actualenviroln-
il, -!, !,: !t) ciipluy arccleri'ted or Lurdle test-
ill'- 1- puisds on Ulue availability of a scale for

1W.1,1_1Ill;- tile ,f(:t t of tile acceleration or of
'1* )tw
hure. 11f.spns of inost items under
e~lsrslilsal ' c~ i] narunder only a port.i ilt it tnon, and in sotting the hurdle or
d a ~(tt('
Te it is necessary to avoid violent
ti, : lojltw('>,~Jtie respin1se, Yor tile best use
pird hurdi"le testimi: it is desirable
I 1!lc
l~a
Ci l-il~iity f ;us iisturval Scale; that
"k 1II: Ahi, It a riventiiti(r(iinft it, the enviV ~ *.
iiit
r;it be i ( :,ttd to t orrespondil
i.
1.
t t",
p l."2ff
III
tfhu itenli.
:~rj..t'i~
, i'vct
j5 ,,,I.110
tiP. sm do:i
of
-' k'
' sfth,
m'
11m
It.
.Standard
statistical distrihuttoi-s, icludingthenorinal,lognormal, rectangula-,,x (chiFVl.ttre), binomial. Poisson, t, an~d Idiatrib,.itfuns.
5. Curve fitting and least squares.

6. Confidence Interval estlimation..
7.
8
B
Tests of hypotheses.
nlsso
aine
n l
so
a in
L,. Nonparametric statistics.

cour!;C, per -
W"ll-ri only'~ Otto item Isr.

us(,( both for
otis
fi
Ij.
hri c U; avosid the cumiIli i.1y ti v-part, coni?m ;111..

SV.Sytem11.
An excellent general Introduction to the application oif statistical methods may be found In re.1~crenlcc /18/. This buok also provides usef ul and
wise advice on almiost the entire rang~e oi pro blemistencounte~red In prac-tical sCieit ~fic and engineering Investigation.
44
Viguire 4-2 presents a block diagram of a

typical system development sequence. The pro-
Utlr tusefu! references arc listed at the end

'Ilothis ditcr.
A
l-articularly recommended 1is
,-jtd rc 20/, oile of the miost complete anld
v,'t ISefUl works. More elementary but eirrell-ii, :irt references /2!/ and /22/. l'Dia imip<oitant Zieidof non-paramectric statistics is -eovered
ill an Oiliroductory, but thorou.ghly useful, fashion
in ro!erence,/23/1.
St.-t;' ti-a I esti;oa! Inn also t'as its trade-offs
in t chtnique, ..:i the analyst will always wan to
(-finidur the relative vaJue of a rapid estimate
has.cdonafew measurements with a larger conf id cilc o int er" asaopposed to la re sample tehp-L-t guide in this area Is reiqs.A useful
ferc'ice/'l/.evaluation
The desihn of experiments is dealt
a p~l'.~o;h~cllyetpraticj,
oin
referenct, ,2,1/, xnd a larg~e number
,~cahcinsacicineee
X-R
with from
ofvie in
of expert/16/. Re:.
(of
E~nvirorlnmental Plan Fulfillment
At the detail level of assessing test fulfillment, the environmental engineer mnust deter-~
mine, for the particular problem, the allowable
uncertainties and, by utilizing appropriate statistical techniques and engineering analysis, select
the proper cut-off point. The price of increas
ing confidence comes high. Figure 4-5, for example, give3 reiiability levels for a series of
tests with and-without failures. The rapid increase In the number of test samples for highconfidence coefficients is evident. The decision
as towheim the testplan has been fulfilled, there-
The puri-.'se of system development is to Linstire ffectjv' iterforimance in the mimsion environnient. Therefore, the imrplementation of the enivironnicn t al plan miust be followed at each
stage, first to asscss prospects, then to insure
the atctual fulfillmient of the plan, and' finally to- v;'i~n :i hasis for predicting the future. The evaluation is perfo)rmed at two different levels:
across time as the system is developed; and for.-ai~iven itemn in a given test. The two aspects are
slffic,,eztlyi diffc-rerit to inerit separate consideraoi,.
Chorcierslic
Alernot ve j
I
Ii
Avoiloble
Jg
echnology
Ie
Research
Areo
Technical
I
I
I,
I
j
Solution
(At Given Time
nd Cost)
L......Prototype
Figr. 4-2. System development. interrelations.
4e.
~.
to the actual development cycle). The results of

this sequentiaLconsideration are fed back to the
mission and the desired system characteristics
bloc~ks. The environmental plan should receive
the samqe intense scrutiny as the other key systern aspects. The informatlio obtained at any
one stage may then be fed back to guide the suc ceedIng stages-r, If necessary, to appropriately
adjust the mission or the means.
ronnient-A engineer, whether or not lie participaisdirectly incdesigning the underlying statis-.-tical structure of the test sequence. Reference
"26, is a ctissic. B~ecause 01 the frequent relevaInce of the lognormal distribution to experi-menital data, ref erence /27! is also listed,
Assf-smie~it
h-vino;with the mission, wh Ich is translated
by meanis o! opera~tions research studies Into the

desired system characteristics. These characterisilcs then lead to an engineering selection
of the technical alternatives, which a-re either inr
the realm of available technology or else consti-%
tute a research area. The two taken together
lead to a technical solution. The solution is implemented by prototypes and production quantities, which go to Fservice test and operational
aW avrnnetm~n
Th
use. 'ra
value, previously discussed, is the basis of the
process. As shown in Figure 4-2.
opportunities for assessment occur in at leas,
8ixstages beginnlngwith the enginoert-ni consideration rl the technical alternatives, on through
the erational use stage. For most larz :cnli;
dvopments, this process may b-envisioned a3.
(
,f'
41
I
'
3Y
1.0*
90%/ Pnifiden
0.89
0.7-
99.5%. Confidence
'
Without Failures
0.2~J
One Failure
C 10
20
30 40 50 60 110
Number of Items Tested
flO
K~t
go
Fig. 4-3. Reliability levels for series of tesat
rta-Early Ph e
Brad-
Bra-
Oraonri2alion
board
">mponent uevelopmen
type
Produ!ton
100
wit~h
_____
_____
Poduction
Fil
M71
Moleriols Evaluation
Productron Evaluation
Quolliy Control
Product~on Evaluation
Peceivi.1y
Quahl~iy Assurance
Fig. 4-4. Organizations requiring use of environmental LaciJJUes./28/

ffire, it-ian ritegr... part o)f cnosn the allowable
If,%(,I of uncertainty conir ri nuratc with the grand
cj'n-h uf the systemn.
1. Determination of further research uirec-
tions..,l
2. Product imrp-rovement.
T"1 jf71'1-ir
(Ifles
it
'4-4 shoxs soine of tile various groupsNVitiurvr

1thm rcqlirt- test evaluation work in the various
tlf (.'
'4isign
arid duvelopnient.
'111( systcrIs Point of viewx applied to t1he utih ::it ni of 1neiz-orirnertal te!t results is highly
o,1f till1
III tll( fiiillnw1Ifr q?'reaS:
3. Quality control.
4. Formulation o! environmental models and
pi-edictors.
5.
Changes in mission value weights.
6, D~ares for future environmn~stal planning.

4-21
T-
77 M'
--
MW
.i
--
Evidently, the sequential asseDSsmVnt, Of ern,'iromental comnpeteace through the life history of
asystemnultiniately luads to a comparison of the
initial judgment of the mission envirowninim widi
that encountered in practice. The correiupodring changes iii the mission values act to shorten
development lead time and. attain the goal of an
effective system at minimum cost. The sanie
process lays the basis for planning uueev
vironinentudi raquircments. Thesse becomec in
creasingly consistent, explicit, predictable and
responsivfe to the ne'ads of modern technological
dlevelopnicnt.
The avtgrof comrparisami and feed-backs

to the fore aretas of igmuraiwe or 'inter1,1-1
r:iinty. More over, tir" valuie wei hts give the cc-I ,trvc I rrportarnrc that shrjuld tic attached trn a
rivt if wlcreas(! of knowledge oi any g~ven point,
rhtrrefore, n ot only a-rc researcli areas diStinguislrcd, but also a reiatiVe -priority is indicated-,.
Product ttnproveinent areas~ follow logically
attain tire m~issionr goals. Fereati
A motn
arrintewlhspa
fguidlioc thre allocation of resouirces. Conversely,
tlie approuach also provides a mezisure of protectron against tire disease of tinkering with the
de(.;i-n, and rmpendinV resources or, pr~4uct nimpro, einvnft flor its own sake.
from rrot.,
Ile Future of, Environmental Operations Researcii
Opereair r~csca;rch methods ar cnhle? of

maki~ng a profitable contribution to einvirornnumu-
cenru!
F npfo-fetie
v eltoliz
C)IrjlpCLVIflC
z:i
.it
en-r7rronment to th
c~r~i;ceS wih01must be mpinltained at the mran u-
tal engineering. The preceding dis( op!r'nn -ti

Tire evaluiation procedure disgiven hifits as-to it- proper utilization at eachr
nVs
stage of the research, deeomn
cuoseod above mray bi' integrated with the convert-s
n
evlpet
I
tiornal, well -estabi i shrou quality control techn
phases. Ithsshown how the approach leads to
(nd
tlerncs
ajus
u~rsth t ar~pabe
qence the 2uto
the acpabetolrne
the
a explicit understanding of the environmental
in relation to the system as a-whole, and
ereplan
had.
cost
p~i~oe
provides a basis for working out the optitnuni
cmiidc no onl th im
dvsirr~
wat t wil
:veeate mission but aiso tire secondary and fiA
trade-cffs. It -leads to increasing Informiation
ti~re niissiofl5 to whichr the equipment marbethe operational. environment atid momy ~arding
lie.
it rj'ef~jdrir~
irssicrrd
d~rkl; ife.dels
it 1iF~il
ap%,ropriate for its simulation.
A major pav-ofi area lies within the scope ofV
Environmental operations research will evienvirfrnInental technique itself. The present asdent~l grow and develop within the scope of en.srtnrent oi s;,rglt, combined, accelerated and__
it mF, make will grow as sysitems wvij enivIronlishred series o! en. ironment:A models and pre- -ntributon
thec
beninemoeringleand
vrninenll
sanoa
essea'e
hurdl terst ma
faruLurwt'r
level.
REFEREN~CES
f6.
R,.I A.. K. S. W. Champion and H.

eremcnt,
4os
h'
Pn' Modl
I. I~D
Sur1)59, AFUZ( -Tit- 5b-267, Air or
ve-s iii uvopiry~ics No. 115, Geophysics
Reseatrch Dirf-ctorate, Air Force Cambrrdrtieserci~enerir~~earh nd.
ihIIvocopnrent Contin ind, Bediord, Massa-
L Mrn'.r
2.
1ii Isen rath andA i3e( kett, Tabli s ol Ther !iaRl lp~rr rrtres of Gases, National bu e
No.54
,R' -T"I
No.64,
~
~
~
3 ~.ad3.KyGsTbe.~thoKIS
~~
151).inar
Climatic Extremes for MilitaryF iiiiI

Military Standard-210A, iperiir
ton ent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington 25, D, C.
2 August 1957.
of G uided TAisKlei EasFundamentals
irto
n
I~aa~nS-c
sie
j
rlm
ab
.. anJJ
iarno
Prelim
DionirrntoR.AiandJar
8.
Investigation offlyper Environments
of Simulation Parts I It . n~1 n Wer-r
of Air John
rrarw
n'rr~ I'rup rtiL
\~'ui.
6-111i, i.to. Ncx Yoirq,, 1941..
~N6
NsAD
'---~ 142002
Contract No. A
~1111,
ADl42j67,andA1Jl423:W,
3 3(616) .3915, Proj ert No.
Task 1300, U.S. Air Force, A8J),
-Patrerson Air Force Bafie, Ohio,

4.rt W~j~~s:
~rrlrork s GephyicsHo-Wright
~.,rI: Th iM~h~rt~AT~rceCanr~rigtJ957-1958.
tr!;arrji Ccrriui
r~ Reacaz ch arid D(--
-. lorron t Cornrrnd, Bf-dford, Massa

Vr F)
)7.
rIr
I"TINIU 'r
* 7'
ru-I
ru'ri
-,
1,epi rerumert s for Ei'-c-
Fars-,-Ydita-r-Stan!irereit it* of Documents,

(,r~r~ntng
rrrcrr Of ic, Wuir-U.S,
ii
P.
(.Air
9.
10.
Hitch, C., "Sub-optirnflaation in Operatloirs

Research,"~ Operations. Research, 1953.
Thompson
Jamres K.
Fifth Ph:,r,
filint
W'eathier Itigjht Test &rt-ei-a-WNUAT)Z

142155,
57-387 , ASIAourttN.AL
Air Force, ASL), Wrighit-Ptes

Force Base, Ohio, November 1957.
I
I).'.'ieS, M. and M. Verhulst, Qerational

.f,:scarch inl Pricte,
Pergamon~
ress,
20.
Kendall, G., TheAdvccd Thieo

jo,_;
tistics Charle5iati"n andCo.'o,
Ltd.,Lo-i
rc-ised
dn, 1948. Two Volumes. Vol
1958, Tvo Additional Volumes in preparation.
21.
New York, 1958.
12.
Fl;ile, C. D)., W. H. Huggins and H, Roy

s.F`('`tors), C-;-raitios Research and Sys1tets
,
n,The Johns tropkins
-ss,
timore,
93.
13.
Goode, H11.iH.andR. E.Machol, SystemEn-n

rinertng, McGraw-Hill B~ook Company,
f'nc., INew York, 1957.
14.
Williams, J. D., The Complete Strate, st,

Bouok CunianUly, Lic., New
icGr'w-Hii.
"York, 1914.
15.
'5.
17.
Pox, G. F. P., L.K. Connor, W. R. Cousins,

0. L. Davies, F. R. Himsworth and G. P.
Sillitto, TDoi m ind _n.aysis of Industrial
Exper..mn ,]a-fi-er,
f-eow-----rk, 17f~-.
Cochran, W. G. and G_ M. Cox, E.VerimenEdition,-Jo}hn-W'e-T
ttl
an
__ Dci
Sn. ns,
ii'c.,Second
New York,
1957
1K.
23.
24.
25.
26.
S Ii
-I'V,
Loll,,
1939.
Wilson, r., Jr., An Introduction to Scientific Rceserch, M cGraw-Ifill Book Comipany, Im:., Nc York, 1952,
Wald, A., S_Suuntial Aaslysys, John Wiley
orr-o-, 1947.
anId
InIs,
-, -
Introduction to the
__._
ooti-l%-(iuodniy,
S., Non--Parametric
Siegel,-Hilt
~~~Grew
Book CompanY.
,,
Statisticsro.c_Ene .
r':,_
o_
Quenouille, M. H, Fundameptals o Statistical Reasoning. Stechert--[aircr,,In!.,

New York, 1959.
Cox, D. R., Planning of Experiments, John
-Ic.-, 1957..
..
Wiley and
Fisher, Sir R. A., The Design of E'cper,ments, Sixth Edliiva
London, 1951.
n..
Dixon, W. J. and F. J. Massey Jr., Introduction to Statistical Analysis, Mciraw1"Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, Second Edition, 1957.
1956.
ahownrt,
W. A., Statistical Method from
the V1i'PQoi,t 0f
Contr.l G'raduate Scior", Dcpartment of Agriculture,
W.
1.
22.
A: M
t istcs:,McGravw-Hill
N9e3. York, 19
P,
.A.
:,
Boyd,
':
13
..
,-,.t
T...
normal Distribution Cambridge Univer-.

sity Press, London, 1957.
28.
Hooper, R. S., Evolution of Environmen tal Testing, presented at anniua meeting

of Instituteul Environmental Science, Chicago, Illinois, April 1959.
4-
9,
tI
II
i~4
-23
I3IBLIOG RAP HY
*ti-al
Andir-;nn, Rl. L. an~d T. A. Ilaneroft, 5'1atis'Theery in Research, McGraw-Hill Book

uni-il, Y,)rk-192.ume
bc.,Fle
!c.,NewYork152.Baltimore,
Colip~dy,
Barutlett, M. S., An _Introduction to Stochasis
1'roc~s~ithSvcr~l
cfcrncetM~todo U~d
~piiaIoz,(::'mnbriagec,
London, 1955.
Ciiurcincun, C. W., Rl. L. Ackoff, and E. L.
Arimif, Introduction to Operations Research,
Johni Wiley and SonsInc.,N(-v York,7T"5.fIh'mjn
John' k"d1
W.F.
Snme Theory of S3amplinz
an~d kons,
9
ci7CYrk,
EZCTjCI M.,Metodsof
Crreatio Anl
W4fLeRton,
sis, Secon d Ediftion7
N(,w York, 1941. ionin~eerc
Fisher, Sir R. A.. Statistical Methods for Reiji-or{7-v-er -a-nt

Eecarcii Workers. ThIirtcen!ltiH
Ioyd, ondon, 1958.
40
Goldman, S., Informa~tion Theory, Prentice..
l~ll
3.dity Inc,
ii,
H~arman, F. J.,
Times Series Anajy!!js, John

.0K7V
-V.
~
ilyand Sonic, I;W., N
McCloskey, 1. F., and J. MI. Coppinger, (1'ditor-s) pc~ratio.,sResearch forMania;emcit. Vol11I,Second E rtion, Johns Hopkins Press,
1956.
McrriU, G.-1l. Goldberg and H. Helmholz,
'Operations llcsearch, A'rnament, Launching"
Princpi es of Guided Missile Desin Volumne Ili,
D). Van Nost~rund Coripany, 1rc7~6.
Nichols, 14. B., and fl. S. Phillips, Theory of

Servomechanism McGraw-Hill Book Comp'iny,
t4 7.
In'c., New Yo
Saaty.T. L.. MathematicalMethods of OperaokCjn,
esearch, McGraw-ITl
Uion
I h.7New fok, 1959..
Sasiene, M,, A. Yaspan and L. Friedman,

Research Tohn Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
RewYok199
Methods of Operations Research, Volumne 2A,
Sufmm~ary Techn~ical Report 61 Dlvsisn 6, National Defense Research Committee, Washington
1). C., 194r..
a
"ttsia-oeueufrDtriin
of Suppliers' Attributes Inspection, " m~i-i
tv
ronol andReliability Handbook (Interim
H109, Supei~rntendent of Dcuments, Wat ngt
*
'
Ii
ZI
r
7'
4;
'.'
CHAPTER 5
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECrlON
Pes'.l.rg flight vehicle systems to operate

reliably under the many expected adverse environments prescrits many problems. The problenms are generally more difficult to solve for
aflight system than fora land or sea-based systern bevause(1) the flight system usually has severe weijit awd size restrictions imposed on it,
and (2) the high velocity of flight vehicles ofter
results in more extreme combinations of environments. To further complicate the problems,
flikht systems are rapidly becoming more cornplex anA sophisticated, so 'hat not only do hyperenvironmental conbionat.,ns become problematieal but rmich more equipment is being used,
whicf) also rc'iulres protection.
In many Instances, the design complexities

and weight and space limitations are s8e: -r"At
thatneitheroneof the protection appo>Achies will
suffice by itself. In these cases, judicious cornpromises will have to be made. Proper choice
of materials and design may be carried out to a
practical point where only a minimum of environmental control equipment is needed.
MATERIAL STUDIES
There are two basic approaches to environmntel aJ) lOr,,t-Ct

;
-
1.
Use of materials and designs that can withftand the environments.
2.
C ontrol of 'fe environments to within limits

where they c-rt he wit.hstood.
To aid designers in choosing the proper materials for varlovs applications, military agencies continually sponsor material studies. Various types of studies are conducted: Some determinethegeneralreactionofcertatn materials
to various environments; others determine the
environmentallirmitationsof materials; and stil..
others investigate the feasLbLity of using certain materlals and alloys for future applications.
Some studies are higfly specialized, liestigating only such -items as parachute materials.
Others are broad in scope, covering a large number of materials such as:
Pla'tics
"rhic fir.-t method is the raost desirat~e since

it ,:.raily does not requiretie use of additional
equipnnrnt; added equipmtit increases cost and
weight, uses needed space, and Increases the proC ltiON 1ci)
'...-nF.oIfaU
vCLi1V adltU
U
iL)lL
eqLuLip
Metals
When it is not practical or possible to desigii

cquiprnunt to withst;nd the environments, eavlrnniental control should be exercised. This
inirluds miesulies such as temperature control,
shoch ;indvibh ation isolation, radiation shielding,
ttc. It is implortant to note that control oi enviiuirircnis does not always require additional
1,njipmCnt. Many of the Ind-ced environments
a I(. (I (ated by tUlu vehicle system itself. treat,
ho(cIl arid Vibration are solnie examples of such
i -',ants. Ily the careful choi(c and design
)t s5(',i' nec(v of cquipment, less heat, shock
oir,l ".':,rationwili be pirehced.
Metallo-organic corn-
et:L
it,;ai so exposed to the environments. The use of

proper nteerials and design calls for constant
atwareness on the part of the designer of the con*tinnin9 ILw developments and studies made by
induitry and the military.
pu
,_
..
,
'
Antiseize compounds
Gasket materials
""3
." :,
"
Hydraulic fluids
dUZ.
'
Ceramics
Chemicals
Transparent materials
Sealing compounds
Textiles
Semiconductor materials
Coating materials
Dielectric materials
Lubricants
Insulating materials.
Adhesives
Hydrocarbon fuels
,,
Magnetic materials
The results of the studies can be obtained in
reports made available by the Armed Services
5-1
,.. . . .
.,
jetf2hinical Information Agency or f ront the ori."~IeS
Fo
17
xmlasrat
MATERIALS
Selectior. of Mat~erials
eh
(--.i-tvirt:3 written for the Materials Laboratory

Two points must be considered when choosing
materials for high -temperature operation. The
first is 'Lo choose a material with a low specific
heat rating, which dertiotes the heat-absorbing
quality of ~the m-iterial. Choose the materia
will operate coolest in a given temperature
ermvironlment. Tli zscvndc Is to choose mraterials
thatwil.lstillhave theneeded physical properties
at the anticipated temperattures.
of Wrijht Air Developmnent Division from July
]1G to Junc lU157 can he obtained In WADC Ti'R-53-3-77'1 supplement 4 (ASTIA Document No. AD
!.!l0UIS. Thesre abstracts present a review of
(lie Aii 9c materials research and developmcnt rnrogram during tha.L period. A complete -that
list of all known organi7Satins or agencies, both
mil itary and industrial, that may be designated
as miaterials informaition centers on the basis of
their collect ing and disseminat ineup-to-ciate data
on materials research and development in coni
~taijiod in WADD TN 60-246. Specific problems
on1 rui in[ now type. of maierials or applicationPlsisdcmoelwyadn

3izo
oif rmaterial. huuild bc riirePct~d to the Materials
Patc
eops
lwy
n nronzs
C~i~aiDirctorte
f Avaned Sstes Tchthey ab~sorb large amounts of heat arid generate
TV~~~i~~i'Y~
Aon'iciSsesDaconsiderable volume of gas that interltc: es v..-Ln
WADD
vison formrly
the convective transfer of heat to their a.iiace.
Erosion of plastics varies markedly with ternperature. This Is shown for a selected group of
plast c a in Fig. 5- 1. Th e g ro up inc ludes a nylon JII~IEMPEATUE
PRTECIONreinforced
phenolic resin, which contains no inUICA-I'EPERAURE
ROTETIONorganic
materials; two glass reinforced phenol k
ollwingpargra:.hsdesribemetods
resins, with one rich in glass and the other rich
The The
olloing
aragaphs
vhciles
methds
in resin: and a RefrastI-rehiforced phenolic resuuui~iu
o poet~i
lgtsin.
At each at three temperatures, the best matheir as.1
ocated equipmnent from the degradative
tra
srtd""o
h rpadteohr
tioniof ii 'erials and ',omponer~tse apable of withI di

d
The
pcraure t 5
CUS.
~mance
passiv e protetm atazdix~hi
ion techiniques, such as compartmientation, use of insulation, ard choice and loNext, -J
ocrd
cation of vq~~pict, ar
(o~ioi il is~cie~'of
vaiou mens f hat erucival and' the Cq~upment used with each. And
igt
tat
f'nalytlidiferet col~g sstes
L used iniflight vehiclcs are discussed, together
wi.li the advouitares anid disadvantages of !ach,
an- the COnISiderations involved in scelccing one
of tl& systeuvis for a particular application,
___________________________ous
4
Gluss -Phenolic, 2 7% Resin
cj 3
I
0~
~os-Peni
Refrosi-fhenoh
65% Resin
41%
ea~'eoc,~
Rei
eilltu
- *Ing -.--
2001 u
v miieoue
7000
S-i.iteatie
eosin rtesfordifer-For
1 w 5-1. i oionrats
tt.latve
fr dff r4'ri pl tiisji as a fin)(tion of titifperature./l/
-;M
Plsaktic Lamninates
Phenol ic-f orrmaldehyde laminates are able to
withstand temperatures up to 390 F (200 r).
These phenolics are always reinforced with varifibers, such as glass, silica, nylon or asbes-
1'
ylor.-Phenolic
14--
are then rated according to their relaiive erosion rates. The curves Indicate relative perforof each imaterial compoared to the others
atapriurteneaue.AulyhenIataprtifcedlartemprialuoe. notua
thdemoe
nylon.
oesol
reifoce maeil-snterd
as the temperature Is raised; on the contrary,
it rso
aea
00C1
ae
'uii.wa
at 2000 C, but Is less than the others at 7000 C.
..
tos. The fiber reinforcement aids in pi~eventing

catastrophic fai~lure under extremely high temperaturets. The high-temperature performance of
~phenol isIs due to phenol-formaldehyde conden,Ratinn prnrlurtis dernmpnniniv more slowly aL
higher temperatures3 than thte other n~rgan~c .polymers. The condensation products are simple
gases arid a refractory carbon residue. The residue protects the underlying material, to a certain extent, f rom the heat. A composite laininate,
consisting of alternate lamirations of asbestosphenui'c and nylon-phenolic, tihows possibilities
for use iii missile nosa cones under reentry conditions. Fizgure 5-2 shows the thermal insu~lation chrarateristics of this lamninate in compari son with other--types of laminates. The curvesN
were obtained by embedding a thermocouple In
centet of 1/4-Inch thick sheets, and applya temper iture of about 2300 F(20Qt
the surface o. tie sheets.F
l0C)t
BerVieC under extremely high temp~eratures and corrosive aiction Wie to flames, modific.Rtions with styrene~, diallyl phthalate, diallyl
Mi
j
,
*
1:0o
---
~-prot'~cting
1000
8001
Some commercially available electrical materialr that are able to withstand high temperaGlos-Melmineturen, together with suggested applications, are
ls-eoiegiven
in Tanle 5-l./2/.;
/1
Gj
'
IU
metal parts, ceramic-base sheet. insulatiou, refractory-typeflillers an~d castables for hermetic
constrtuction, and encapsulating coialpounds fur
entire units.
0Jl/~css-Phen:)Iic
~ I
~~ 4(0)1
/7/
sbe~fto5-17henolic
-Asbestos -Phenuiic,
VtCompos;tes
-.
Anew
12
16
Timemintestant
20
Fig. 5-2. Thermal insul-ation com'parison of

ii iJgh -temiperature phenolic larnlnates./2/
isoiit-halate and trially] cyanurate have shown
good ressulta up to about 5000 F (2760 C).
Several piad;tic lam mnate materials wit'h th4
~iulty to survive temperatures irom 45i00 lu
6000 F(2500tr,3300 C) for a fraction of a second
a re in product ln anid are intended foshort-time
npplicatior. :n&rmissiles or rockets,
Coxnound, FlersandFibes
Few, i any of the basic resins can withstand a

tepeature
fiate3 thanip4r0tuF (c50stC)c Withf
go up to about 660to 700 F (350 to 375 C), but for
igr-temnpez ature service, suitable loading or
re nif or cement w jib inorganics is ess~ential. Tests
ot"FE-fl-jorocarbon resin with various concen10
1~ 2da'hRo
raWn Go~'"fhI2
206,2 .16J, arli {0 pe r(*co of weight) ha ve shown thia[
at O-pjercenti glass -! illed TFE -fluorocarbon provides an optimum combination of resin and] filler.
Thiswas
determined in a test that simulated the
tiicrmni eff~cts of mnissile reentry; the filled

samples were exposed to 2700 F (1500 C) for a
J-1crl1d of ou s-.conds.,'3./
Ceramiu enrapstolants iur tise from about -75
t,) 2000 Y (-40 to 1100 C) can be applied in the
!4ti(iioiie;.inc
1150r sot
converstionaI encapsulants.
(ci aink spheres, either hollow or solid, bonded
with 10wronlic rcsins or inorganic binders providc- low-dens;ity materials for a variety of applii aiLotis. including~j I iriht -w ei, 1'h t potting and embedmeiet. A family of such low-density moldable
Aluminum AlloyX02O2OT-6 contains copper and

lithium. Its room -teipe rature properties are
somewhat higher than those of 7075 T-6, which
up to wa w.a man 'Uh stogs
atn
ard2ou
num alloy. Alloy X 2020 has superior tensile
properties in Uoc lower temperature range; xap
to almost 400 F (205 C) for a 1000-hour exposure. For shorter exposure times, ite superionly is extended to over 400 F.
Table 5-1. Commercially Available
High-Temperature Materials /2/
Material
77'5-F
11Evaluation
jte mpe rh -
jApplication
ture F (C)
lmn
miromphnrea
0(5)
Encapsulation
Reconaututted
phlogopite mIca
Interlayer
Insulation
(a) Glass braid

(b) Ceramice
Magnet wire
insulation
950 (510j)
(a) Magnesia
(b) Borun nitride
(c) Alumina
Capacitor
dielectric
950(50
tin) Pyrocerarn glass
lRadomnes
1300 (704)
V,00(510)
cerami
(b) Alumina
(a
oseieMta-ceramic
(ii) Alumina
comri-mids is r(eportetd to have given satisfactory

st'._%iccv or 30 to 50 seconds at temperatures ex-
vIii,.100n F' (2200 C). Ceramic materials for

201I. 0) U) operation hiave i,'-n develioped for
cexitiets to 1pand insulating surfaces to
Mtl//*
For flight vehicles, the ideial met~al would b(3
one with a ;igh melting point, exzellenrt strenfpth
and ductility, and near zero density. Unfortunately, such a metal duea not exist. The ntext be3t
thing is to modify existing metals and search for
ones tnat will approach the deL~r..òlc ..
perties. Some of t~hc Letter temperatu.ue rebise:isttng metals are listed in Table 5-2, together wfth the source from which d2ta can be
obtained concerning each metal. The specific
heat ratingis of these metals at various temperatures are given in Table 5-3.
Auiu
i'herinftC
-Nyu.-
<',
750,(3119)
electron tube
structures
Tin dioxido plus

antimonv' -ddI
Reaistor film
..-
950 (510)
7
*
Metal
---
K-Mannl
International Nickel Co,
!',monel
international Nickel Co.

International Nickel Co.
Republic Stecl Core.
Inconel X
Stainle:is steel,
Typc 301
stainless
steel,
.ous s
A significant aluminum development is the

sintered aluminum powder (SAP) type of pro-
Timken Roller Bearing Co.
SAE, !0'0 mile
United States Steel Corp.
andvolumeof oxide. In general, they are usable

up to abuut 1000 F (537 C). One such compo2ition is M257. The creep and ruptureproper-Hos
of the aluminum powder products at Gul l"
(31 C!
gare superior to conventional aluminrikn a.,ys.
Aluminum Companyof America
alloy,
Type 755-T6
AluminumCompanyo America
-1Stain-
Inonel
less
I less
steel,
steel,
Type3.6 Type347
Aluminumi
Aluminumi
alloy,
Type75S-T6
1010
mld
steel
alloy,
Type
AN-M-29
alloy,
Type
24S-T6
-200
0.2
0.065
.04
0.070
0.009
0.071
0.053
0.160
0.112
0. 11.I-S1
-150
0.73
0.075
0.075
0.081
0.080
0.081
0.069
G.182
0.141
0.142
-100
0.083
0.084
0.085
0.091
0.089
0.090
0.082
0.200
0.165
0.1G4
-50
0.091
b.092
0.093
0.099
0.098
0.098
0.093
0.216
0.184
0.182
0,097
0.099
0.100
0.107
0.105
0.105
0.102
0.299
0.198
0.196
1o')
0.107
0.110
0A10
1 0.118
0.117
0.116
0.115
0,248
0.218
0.216
1i
0.1 7
0.117
0.122
0.116
0.120
0.127
0.132
0.125
0.130
0.124
0.130
0.126
0.263
0.231
0.231
0.134
0.274
0.243
0.248
---
-- -
---- -
---
--.......--
--
6.;2
0.126
0.124
0.136
0.134
0.134
0.145
----
0.262
0.270
....
....
....
...-
0.276
0.286
----
2
300o
"
40
........
---5))
-:,;I"
0.123
0.130
0,128
0.139
0.136
0.138
0.159
0.125
0.i13
I
0.133
0.142
0.139
0.142
0.179
0,)
.1115
0.1.1l
0.143
0.145
0.143
0.146
0.209
0.11C,
1Q)
0.150
0.156
0.149
0.148 ..
0.152
0.203
0.167
0.152
0.1b2
C.156
0.283
0.1,
S.n
v('
hl(':,
N'
g,iVit
in grami calories per
gram per degree C.

'7777
)1
--
----..
temperature___
slum alloys in their recommended_
alloy,
ranges.
Alloy AZ-31,
the standard sheet
has the highest
room.-temperature
properties,
Table 5-3. SpecIlic floats* of Ter Metals /4/

SAEI Magnesium
StainStain-
1.-Mot,!
m.
Alloys containing thorium have
Man
increasedthe usable temperature of magnesium
up to 900 F (482 C) for short-time low-stress
applications. Figure 5-4 shows the best magne-
Type A-I-M-29
less
steel,
Type301
_I
of thee powder products vary with particle size
Dow Chem ical Co.
Inconl
X
'.
ducts, which usealuminumflakes containing varamounts of aluminum oxide. The ,roperties
e1h!y,
Alu.inum
"Te2.IS-'lR
'remperature C
'3
extrusion alloy, It can be rolled into sheets and

plates. Figure 5-3 shows the strength-t,,-weight
ratios for the beat aluminum alloys.
.tainless steel,
lYpe al3
Al[inity
".
(205 tO 315 C). Although primarily a forging and
Tinken Roller Bearing Co.
Maig nesium alloy,
perature service, It contains copper, manganese,

and small amounts of vanadium and zirconium.
This alloy is best in the range of 400 to 600 F
Source
I. .
AlloyX 2219 T-8 was developed for high-tem-
Tdil'" 5-2. Some lietter Tenrperature-ROsiittant

Me__tals /4/
-
-.7
90The
60
A
Alum~num
Magnesium
Alloys
Alo0ys
AX000A-lj
F -HK - 31
F HM- 3f
=X2;210
C M257
7 0
0(APM)
maximum temperature at which titanlium

can be used appears to be about 2000 F (1093 C
for very short-time exposure and 1100 k 53C
for long-time exposure. Cretep strengtLh is not
necessarily the-limiting factor at high temperatu.'es. Above 1100 F (593 C), titanium absorbs
0~0
oxygen and nitrogen at rates sufficient to inter-
fere with its usefulness.

Beryllium. The thermal properties of beryla melting point of 2343 F (1280 C),
make it highly desirable for heat-sink applicaLions. Its strengtkh -to -weight ratio is high; few
metals can approach it. A unique advantage or
Is Its great stilL.zr-;, wittn a m oulus
of elasticity exceed~ing that of many other metals,
including steeL
--
-liumwith
E
I
B
B0
201
20.1
!01
0
200
.,
400
600
~beryllium
FL
800
1000
Temperature, Fwell
-and
Fig. 5-3. Capabilities of aluminum and

rnagncsiurm alloys for high- temperature
Despite Its advantages, beryllium In pcez...itly

in limited, but important, applicRttions
utilized
because of inhierent undealrable properties as
as scarceness. Joining beryllium to itself
to other metals presents a problem, as does
..
.,~
the entire area of fabrication when it is compared

to the more common structural metals. In additioh, beryllium is toxic, and specialized equip-
mez~t Isa required when working with It.
applications. Strength-density rAtio is

ultimate strength psi to density In pounds
per cubic in,-h./4/
Tranavarnt olids. Some transparent solids

withpossible high -temperature applications are
listed In Table 5-4 together with sources irom
which information concerning them mray be ob-
tie,; by IIK-,-. 11-24 in the range 300 to 550 F

(l?50 to 28,.1 C); and by HM-21 XA T-8 above 550
1'. Alloy HIM-21 is exceptionailly stable at elevated tempcratures. For example exposure for
as long as 100 hours to 700 F (31l C) has very
little effect oin itei properties. Its creep propertics at 400 F (205 C) and abxve are better than
thoseof
lI-31.Hot
parent solids are giveii In Table 5-5.
Thorium idditions also extend the temperature

ran1 ,e for magnesium castings. EZ-33 is typical
of thle rare-earth -zirconium alloys, zndHK-31 of
the iboriurai-zirconium composites. The former
has applications in the 350 to 550 F (177 to 288
*raniwe, v-' ic the aiioys conrainting uiorium are
definitely superior above400 F (205 C). Magnesiurn alloys work out well for thin-wal-led cas~tiran.s. Wall thickne~sbes as low as 3/32-inch are
nr,)x approivef' 'cir aircraft use.
0100
L
140Future
Hot WorkI
Di80Steel
All-Beta Ti
Allo~y;,1eat Treatable
eylmOV
EYdruded
*~TI-6AL-4V
1L
600'
Semni-Auslenitic
T~tanium. The strength3-to -density ratio of
Steel, Precipitation
titanium is its most publicized property. In this
Hreal
r,,spvct, it is isuperior to many metals orver an
20-Beryllium,
QMV,
iintccmt diate, alth(ugh wile, temperature range.
Hot Pressed
l'ilT1
e5 -4 r'ive-s a comparison of yield strength-___________________
to denit~iy ratio as a funiction of temperature for
0
080
WO
tiltt iri~n he~rylliuina~ndferrous-base alloys. On0
l
0010
Tempercture. F
the 11oL work die steels are the most
this ,V.
iunipelitive materials. fieryllium, with Its low
dv'n ,ity w~ill bt competitive when it becomes
Fig. 5-4. All-beta titanium alloy com-pared
;Ivii thf in greater quantities. The top curve
with berylliumn and ferrous-base materials
in Vu,, 5-4 rc[)resentit5 tie new all-beta tita-nium
on a strength-to-derisity bania at high terni0'y
1vIt
lm!; tlie potential of being heat treated
peratures. Strength-density ratio is yield
t n ilt tin~ite ton1
54l,
strungth (tJ, over 250,000
strength In 1000 psi to density In pounds per
1
I t.
cubic Inch./4/
WIT-W5
,r
Tdtlv 5-4. 12 'uno Tr.nailarent. Solids /5/
J Material
Magnetic Materials /6/
Source
Clcv'r fused silica
The curie temperature of metallic core materials is relatively high, and for the present
silicon steel has been used succesefully for- 930
F (500 C) operation. For higher temperaturos,
it may be necessary to LnvesttigkLt cobalt-Iron
alloys, which have a higher curie temperature
andvery desirable mafnetic characteristlics, although their activation characteristics under fluradiation might be prohibitive. Nickel
alloys have curie temperatures in the vicinity of
935 F (500 C). At temnperatur~es above 935 F,
grain growth in the material is expected, which
will change Its magnetic properties. Its use.fuldepends upon the resulting orient .tAori 2nd
of grains, and the application for which it ts
B~etter core materials sl id U,
ele
for operation above 935 F.j
flanovia Chemical Co.
(I IIa rt 7)
Corning 'Jlasii Works
Vycor
W~vhite (clear) plate
Pittsburgh Plate Glasis Co.
laSsclear
Ow~
iwmical gliss No.
Cincitsnatl Gasket an'd Packing
Co.
774
Plate Co.ness
Gtse
Solex'~ ittsurghsize
p*~t~
ga~used.
!Sol'x 211o8X plate
pittslburgh Plate Glass Co.
AN-P-44A.
q"airlaty}___
__-
Table 5-5.
Ti.r~u~
Specific Fleatsa* of Seven T ransparentSo lds /5/
Clear fused
stilea (q~uar'1rAVyo
White (clear)
Pyrex
jSolex ""
Solex28Q8X
plate glass
Type 774
plate g
~asI
Plexiglass
Type AN-P-44A
0.102
-200
0.047
0.041
0.075
0.045
0,072
-150
0.081
0.080
0.102
0.084
01101
0.103
0.274
-100
0.112
0.114
0.1129
0.117
0.127
0.130
0.219
-0
0.1138
0.142
0.153
0.145
0.151
0.155
0.252
0.174
0.170
0.173
0.176
0.298
.1
.42
---
.6
.6
100
0.199
0.202
0.210
MB
200
0.22G
0.221
0.236
0.235
0,235
0.234
100
0.241
0.240
0.255
0.255
0.254
0.251
400
0.059
0.251
0.266
0.271
0.264
0.262--
500
U.269
0.262
0.270
0.289
0.268
0.271
277
0.277
oo0.
---
0.302
000.28G
0.299
iftiw
---
----
.-
0.3
1,* at give Inii gran,, calories per gram per degree
028
C.
'
plate glaiss
0.071
WI
5 -0
materials are available over a range

of -240 to 480 F (-150 to 250 C). Nickel-zincferrites with additives aeue
pt
9
2'
C), adit
may be possible to extend the operatIng temperature to 480 F (250 C). Curves mndi-
Ple'Kf~as-,
oh an HasCheicl o.Ferrite
an llas hemcalCo.
Plexglas, obi
104
t jtinl, pernieahifflity, rnagnetticQ, and their proto40F(15
Ii250 C) for sonme ('nmflj)O9itiOns, While for others
Owc curvus tend to po.0 around 390 F (200 C).
There istneed for additional work to Improve the
chiracmotrist irs of ferrites for practical applica-
__more
panisinn can be quickly selected. This table is

sflor
narrowing the chieohaeia
ut
specific dal~a nhouldbeobtainedfroin m1181
facturers.
,
CMOET
COMPOENTS
Selection of Components
-lejt ftIc and Insulating Nfatorials/6/
Pg
4loa
Lead Larium-titanate with Pdditives shows

prorni s e for us e as a dielectr Ic at 480 F (250 C).
F ex)) ihits a 25 to 50 percent variation in dielectri on-fst aint over the temperature ranige of -85
to 480F (-65 to 250 C). Si)licon monoxide main-
ains rood dielectric properties up to 390 F (200

),andi incica'e.
570 F (Ouk) C).
IFilniE of zirconium dioxide formed on substrates oi 'luminum highly polished on one side
test purposes, hiave been investigated as a
possible diciercmtra
o
3
50C
Paper or plastic dielectric capacitors, too,

are unsuitable for 500 C operation. The only
present day d-electrics that show promise are
Leati 7frco-ate-titanate with an addi-
the ceramic, glass, and mica types, but the elec-
if
-
.40p'am
of existing components in, military cqjxzz=nt,S

refer to reference /8/. The following information
deallawith the feasibility of obtaining comionpias
for 500 C (930 F) operation. /9/
Capacitors. Operation of capacitors at 500 C
atprsent appears difficult, particularly
(9TO
with gas-dielectric and electrolytic capacitors.
AUi present-day electrolytes boil below 500 C,
and gas-filU ed units develop Iad seals and become
tive also anncarq feasible for use at htizh temncraturc.3. D~isks of this material have been held
ot 4 BOY (253 (' :i der normal atmospheres with
anapplied fivldof-":0volts per "Il for 1000 hours
Aithout excessive deterioration,
d.
for the application. For data on the application
Teflon may be used as a ji-lectric up to 390

F (200 C). Its temperz-ture capabilities mpy be
iincreased by operation in an atmosph~ere of oxyfrequencies from
In a rneof
!,,iior nirtci
50cp
t 1-'cpthe dilcrccntn
fTefis fromn 2.0 to 2.2 and the dissipation factor
is iess than 0.0005.
Koperation.
1;for
possible future operation at
problems associated with operation of

components at high ambient temperatures are.
_basically
those of obtaining suitable materials,
and, where necessary, finding suitable fabricationtt:ehniquesfor materials that may be unique
,~The
Vqrlous forms of mica afford good electrical

insalation properties at high temperatures. The
h12st grai95t of natural muscovite mica bonied
with glans wiw willistand temperatures from
ahbiut 645 to 690 F (340 to 370 C) without distortim,;with fluor-phiogopite mi ca, the rangre is 790
to~9 F(2'Jo4BO).
ecostiutedshet mca,
ol.-i!iedby 1irPding small1 flakes with an organic
or silicone hinder, is subject to temperature limit,*ions of both the binding medium and the type
of mii a. VIne particles ofsynethietic mica hot
p~~Iressed into homogeneous blocks result in a
deouse, ceramic-like dielectric material that is
Fuftllld InaIChir-3ile, and has transverse strengths
t'
00psi at tempieratures up to 735 F (390 C).
Ps (:icleoh i , .z.nstant varies a little with tern~ raure
ist ompsitins,
~r heatedn to75
haning ess
fort mioseret
copoiton
s,
l.es
fia er rema%ins lesse thnon perc.Thentu
3.-)3F (2 80 C).
(io'ficlotul
Epanionof Mteralsare
Wi'en difterent materials are used together

thef
of'i~ins0
expansion must be known. 11
jrieio
wuaturials have widcly different coeffi(Is1
of expansion, buckding or rupturing may
-torur ans the niatciials pass through a range of
5nlIa oin
infrimaioBnd
given
fLiipt'J iwv~turos vro
ith s
lincoforaincivent
e-in
~~
trodes stillpresenta problem. ZLnc and aluminum are now used almost exclusively. Zinc melts
at 420 C(788 F) and aluminum at 660 C (1220 F).
The Internal temperature of a czpacitor in a 500
C environment would probably be higher than
660 C
(1220 F).
To produce capacitors that will operate at

500 C will most likely require the use of materials not previously conusidered,
Reitr.A
wthohrcmpntsde
operation~l resistors at 500 C (930 F) becomes
primarily amaterials problem. One of the more
mnethods
suitable for
500 C
common
ap~ainIn const ruction
nlt,:.
e~,!th
smt,.
badtechnuuinseadut-41
lizedinabnatecenbtinieadooioi
otno
h e~tneflm
ie
tion Is then deposited on the ceramic, ma!i.lng
contactwith the bands. Either the inside or outside of the tube., or even both sides, may be used
depending upon the resistance value anid wattage
ratingdesired. Thefeasibilit~yof this type of resistor has been demonstrated using a special forsterite ceramic form with titanhium end-caps.
ThA expansion coefficients of these materials
almost Identical up to 900 C (1650 F).
Variable resistors have problems identical
with fixed resistorsi, in additilon toniechiarmical
problems. It the variable resistors are to be
sealedfor protection, the groat problem of a rotary seal at high temperatures is also of concern.
is
200 fprsnl
C (39 F),tngtmeatr
wthe upversopeations
temperwayoetuenof preset.y
5-7
''I
P
-.
N.
~.
C'.
N.
N.M
'
Table 5-6,. Coefficients of Linear ExpansionriIn Dencending

Order (Iin loch/Inch/degree C X 10-6) /7/
95 to *5 (continued)
100 and over
Viy
ctpe265
*25
Viiiylin
65 *15
Polystyrene, prefoarved
65 A10
Vinyl formal
64
160 *90
Polyniethy alphwchloroacryiats
62
150 70
Polysulfide-epw4
60 40
--
19
e y182
Vinyl chloride, flexible

P'olyvinyl butyral
--
Vilnyl carbazole
p~v'?1yk~.140
A35
Epoxy. flexible
60 *4u
U, r~~oie140
1
130
L~thiu m
56
Cellulose anctate but~yrate
140 30
ulyceryl phAutlaLe
55
Cellulose cvtate
120 *40
Hard Rubber, mineral fillesd
55
Nylon
115 *35
Caneisin moldimg
55 A15
Polypropylene
110
Polychlurotrlflu~troefthlene (e.)
55 *10C
Vinyl chloride, rigid
110 *60
Epoxlea. unflhled,
65 *19
SI.1conee, mineral filled
54 *4
S.)Z
T!2n0!O)
.-Ilullose nitrate
100 123
95 to .55
40
Styrene copoiynw.-
95 x35
Phenol formaldehyde laminates
45 *25
Chlorinated polyether
80
Urethane, prefoam&A rigid
'15 *20L
Polycster, unfilled
80*:20
Wood, across ftber
46 *15
tirL'.l-m,
80*10
Phenol -formaldehyde, unfilled
45 *15
AllYls, ca.'
75*125
Vulcanized fiber
42
lfltd rubber, unfilled
75 5
Melaznine-for-maldohj'de, cellulose
42 *2
foamred-In-place
Plyvinyl alcohol
Methymthacrylate
l%',,,ii s. unfilled
S-tyretee,
heait resistant
k I.Nrene, unfilled
\o,)ifi,'d acrylic rnoldiing
Lii
filled
70
Polyester liprainrtes
40 *5
70*10l
Silicone ruibber foamed -in-place
40 :15
70 *10
Selenium
37
70*10
Micas
37 *10
70 *10
Diallyl phthalate, mlnersl-fliled
35
Polyester, filled
35*15
0 2
iltt~65
71"'Ir
45 to 251
Cellulose acetates, foamed -rigid
'
'I
9p
'lablo
~:
5-6. Coefficients of I.near Expansaion in D~escending
Order (in inch/inch/dogree C X 10-6) /7 / (continued)
24 to 10 (continued)
45to 25 (contintied)
34 *5
i
1l1nxy, prcoanmd
ihh'nolics
33
Rsixston filled
.33
'
Gold
1.4*0.2
Nichrome
13.4 *0.3
steel
1q.3 *k1.8
Nickel.
12.8
Indium
33
Thoriurn
12
Epoxy Ianiln'ite, glaes.-filled
30 1~15
Nickel alloys
12 :0
FEIxxy. sAiica-filled
30 10
Palladium
Iron
11.7
Beryllium
11.5
28+1
I"d
t'rca-forinaldcIhyde, filled
27GryctIrn1.
M!m' csiu
27
Rlubber phen~olics
27 :L12
SoJdvr, 50/50 If ad-tin
2t,
Under 10
9.2
Soda-limne glass
i,
10
Glass-bonded mica
silicate glass9
.hv!'.filed2515Lead
I'hno-fomn'
Quartz crystals
9 *4
Alumina ccrmiets
9 10.5
Platinum
8.8
24 *2
Forsterite
8.5
23
Tournmaline
9.5+*0.8
DiImlyI jilitlialnto. glfA;Ss-filled
22
Rho>dium
8.4
'I in
20
Silicones. glass-filled
"7-o 11
20
Alumina ceramxics
'7 A0.3
I lvo!pphr b~ronze.
18.9
Iridium
6.8
18.5 *0.4
Steatitp.
6.6 0.6
18-11.5
Tantalum
6.5
Osmnium
6.1
15
Wood, pmtratllel to fiber
6 *3.5
15
Zirconium
5.5
Mu lamiint'-formaldchyde laminate.
25 *:10
24 to 10
Aluminum and -loya
....
SilVE
C('pper ailloys
0.4
C~1 p:'r
C' 1Iat
ramhy',filled
cimm n~fm
Prh'l~t.
~i
pm
SIm
fiber-fIled
St elb
sjl'cm-mme )mmmifat'M q
5.5 4*0.5
15Germanium
14
4
Silicon
Silicon carildem
-~5
*2.2
4.3
5.9
*-r
T'aCl 5-6l. Covtfttcel" of Lir'oar Exlginsion in Descending

I- Iet,r (1 ,Intn7t/ii(.1/dvgreo C X 10'6) /7/ (continued)
toil.', I 0I (iorinuclfli
Under 10 (conltinued)S
1M1olybdo,Iu I
Tar~-,tii4
3.7
F"wlii3.5
:L0.8
)1rronI caubbi(c
3.1
Carlion
JClear
Invar
0.8-
silica glass
0.67
Fuoed quartz
o~
opaque fused silica
0.56 *0.03
Vitreous silic-a
0.5
funed silica
0.49
fot piastics are gencrnehly appruxiinate, obtained by ASTM test method D696l, and arc pltal
over
3 tCn0Ipcraiurc range of -22 to 4 C F (-30 to +30C)g.-or higher temperaturns. more detailed data Snoq!-'o K.
obtainod (rom rnairfactu~ers Sitnce the CO(ffiLients chanve. ahniDtlv for somne plastieft nt 9 'Peririn tnrmperature. Values for othier muaterials generally apply over the entire range from room temperature up to a;,I
leist 7501 F (.100 C), andi much higher for most metals. Whenever coefficients vary with formulation or purity
of: 1I.Itcririt, thc- average value is given, tollowed by a value indicating the re-age of variation above an.,
hu-l-n this value that can be expected with commercial materials.
%Vircand Cablu. To date, copper isi still considered to be the general-purpose conducting miaterial at 500 C (930 F). /9/ Because of its in--,
fic-rent property of progressive oxidation, how-evcr,t It c~nr.aJt be used unless provisions are
Inat e for protection against oxidation. The moost Ii;.:e v appro~ch. to this protection is to exclude
Inc~~~F
1uu)~p.:
y sui iow-idu.ng ute copper w10,
ai material1 impervious to oxidation danmge. 11
this material is applied in a suff iciently tiiir,
layer, thec conductivity of the entire conductor
is nut m1i1h less tran the conductivity of an equivalpnt unclad copper conductor.%
In genceral., tiec use of aluminum as a conductor
muaterdit at A03 C ib 1iim~ited by the fact that it
has a relatively low melting point, and operation
near the melting point would undoubtedly result
-..i a degradation of its miecha~nical properties.
N, -crtl cI-,ss sonie special -purpose, high-ternperature applications of aluminum conductors
are ant iciontec.
Oimor materials with relativiely 'nnd ronnlueLivity that tiigirthe considered for conductor ap plications at high temperatures are silver, gold,
mag11nesmo n,, .riotybdciurn and tungsten.
resistance characteristics andpoor workability.

However, due to their bigb melting points, th~ey
have been used in special high -temperature aplications. The oxidation characteristics of niolybdertur can be improved by using a SiLiconized
coating. With this technique, molybdenum can be
protec~td agalinst oxidation in air tip to 980C
rj
Sonieof the more Important high -temperature

characteriatics of various conlductor materials
are listed In Table 5-7.
ElectroCT enS.
Eteciromechnnical
iJ~la
o~oetsIcuersrce
o
to
opnns(eas
oeodsice
etc.) and rotary motion components (motors,
generr-tors, Eynchros, etc.) The spring action
of restricted motion components is greatly hampered _.t temperatures of 500 C (930 F), and Inthe robiatbeoeaordblpbemin
tarymoton
nitsat hattempratre.In both
t~mna -1 rnm~na.rta,
~
t rfln f, -e-..e
contact, brush, commkiutator, and siip-Alng 4ife.
It appears that a complete re-evaluation of miaterials and methods Is necessary for the de-
have goodvelectrica
of- elec~tromechanical components for
ir~datonresstncecoertesat elevated tern-
PrintedWiinganid TerminalBoards. Suit-mtrals

for use as& aerioted
wiring or as terminal boards at 500 C F930 F)
are available. Both "Supramica 500" and "MicaramIr"are adequate for this purpotse. Many
ceramnic materials are also useful. silver conductor strips, etched or plated on the boards
with binding posts of pl-atinum, magnesium Blver, or some othier mechanically stronger miaterials, should be considered. The rnetlal and
ceramic combinations must match eapansion coefficients as closely as possible.
a-~t
u rc-.
lOw,-c(i , ustfcoymechanical
properties, hich cost and p~rocurement difficult~uc, %%ilipru barly linitthe use of gold and silver,
Mau:nusiuin has lair electrical conductivity
i!l d L'01 rOSein-re(SiStance prop~erties- but,
lie- alurinirun, it has a relatively low mielting

r-int -khi el riuey pruhihbit its use at 500 C.
., +lI~vihnunr armdLugstc'n have only about one-ndkiduti.-m'y of copper, fair oxidation-
'I!, rcl ii.'.'
ab
N Ni
J,
_%
i
I
k~,
P
;'.
"!
bhj, 5-7.
High-Temptrature Chalacteristics of Conductor Materiali
"1Volme
"_:,,_'rid
Mell Irg
point
C (F)
Resistivity
at 500 C
(10-6 ohmi-cm)
.,
(1760.9)
4.1
I%
ratio*
Resistivity
ratio
500 C/20 C
material at
500 C/copper
at 50OC
2.52
1Weight ratio
/9/
Comments on
material at
500 C/copper
at 500 C
operation
at 500 C
ambient
0.96
Suitable; more
0.8i
costly and
heavier than"'
coppe-r.
.\lutninun
(;60
(1220)
-A ,
cLIO copper
tl;0
(1220)
10
3.82
6.3
1.96
3.1
0.6
1.23
1.20
SlICr-3agnt-siuln
)to
(177t
(.8
1083
(19'I1)
7.9
3.35
1.65
1.55
5.1
5 .1
2.90
2 .9 0
~icke'l
'itt
nickelopi-r
_
6 u
13.8(1202)resistance.
3.0
1063
(Iu ;5.4)
l'1:tiii um
1.33
1.63
j_-resistance.
t, lr
10.s3
(19331)
Mu;nc$st
2.96
6.C2
1773
(2L1)
2.71
J.
1Must
be protected
;' '
0.53
Good corrosion
1.3
2.82
Costly; may
have limited.
application.
31.3
2.9
6.15
3.53
13.7
Suitable for
contacts and
binding posts.
8.4
Soft; corroalon
resistant.
_____)______
7.46
'
"
Permanent
change }n
2.72
( .
Easily brazed;
ductile before
heating.
5,7
3.4
MeltLn', ooint of
aluminum i..
limited.
agalnet
o xid a tio n .
2.9
18.5
..
Z9.I
_5370,
Temperature
rise In apparatus Is critical.
%
%
Good arc and
pittlig
(9).S)
resistan."
"\.,,l'ivd.!nr
9-1,20
15.H
",.I17-)
2.77
3.1
3.56
Oxidizes at
elevated
temperatures.
I tI.(,1111T
17h5
(3137)
76
N'I
1155
(2631)
7R.3
1.
14.9
10
15.3
7.50
15.1
'.
Ceramic- and
glass-to-metal
seals.
Useful as Cle-o
trode or
cladding
yi~ilii1
\*,,.lT~t.~
" ',,ui~lt.s
pe'r unit lo nlrthl ywitlith

1-r dnj
lecii
yti-clgdi
tic
w-
xjjj
l~i~i
-mAteriail.
the same electrical propertis,the sanie electrical properties.
11
m-
'.-
'~~~~~~,
..
rhcpriaryobjctie f tmpeatue prThe

objctiv
pimar of tmpertureproteetion s to prevent excessive temperature
ad
riseon
wthinthevehile.Whenh~L
burilidup is kept down to a practical m~inimum
eoedofes byssremova
the~,l httihhe
tetaveo
syst-ms which may bc clbrifi
mae ~reduced
tpe. sstes
actieassve
nactural tyeat Psins,
hlive
mk
systems useo
appar
apprats eatpups
schas
r rfrgertio-units to create artificial heat sinks.
-
Methods of Temperature Control for tmfoapezic

Vch; cires/f0/
Application of aerodynamic design, especialJyof the nose, airfoil, and control sections, will
reduce the temperature of the vehicle skin. A
blunt or rounded rnosed vehicle or airfoil will
buiddtip lower stagniat ion tempera~~rezi Lhan sharp
Amuto nuain(Btu/hr)
Aon fislto
Standard Inairatilin - 1/2 inch
vr2%o
o iega
compar-tment area.
-____
temperature than the equipment which may be

olAc case for very high-speed fligtit.______
,
nut automatically solve

JIe flht
to Fof_011
the heal -buildup problem. The temperature mayi
stillI rise in the cooler compailtments be-cause of
-)indrctiori thr-~ugl' the walls. This may be re-
-( by
~~~du(
insula ing thre walls to reduce conduc-
tin
i/
rfoducng theter.Verature differenfythe use of intcrcompartnrent or intrawall air
flowA.
Insulation of Compartment Walls. In order
too.flectively reduce the heat transfer to a cornpartmnert, tlhe amiount and placement of thermal
inqruLaition b~ecomres important. Just an airspace
ill a hollow wall has good insulating qualities,
1-ut 01C use of insbulating riaterial is better. The
1lib, ker the miaterial, the -better the insulation,
[,lt the greater tire weight.
'rI'(
vrnri!;!iivity of the( Inrulating, material is

fi
sintrce radiationl can coriti itAite a
u ei~rr
I T:
1:
Aircraft With Varying Degrees of Insulation /10/
sipated, provided that Ure skin is not at a higher
Table 5-8. Redcticton in Wall Load for Production
Corn~armenstio.
I th inerio oftheyei&h
s ne lprie open space, the heat from hot
equmment will U~w toward cooler equipment and
oevrficat them. By dividing the lntez for of the
vehicle into compartments and properly becating hu-at-vci.,;rating equipment, it is possible to
direct the heat to dhe skin, where It may be dis-
~~
*-
The effects of insulation on the total thermal

load of a compartment are Illustrated by cvaluating aproduction aircraft with severst!dif erent
amounts of compartment insulation. Table 5- a
shows that the total heat transfer th; ou1 ;. Lhe
walls, Qw, is reduced about 40 percent. y completely insulating the compartment walls with
M/-inch of Fiberglas. It Is reduced another 24
percent by doubling the thickness of the insulaInter~compaxtmnent and Intrkwall Air Flow.
flow is very effective for rapid heat removaL.
Intercompartment heat removal is accomplished
by discharvging cooling air into adj acent compart
heat transfer through common
merits to reduce
walls. Table 5-9 shows the eff ectiveness of intercomnartmnent air flow.
external heat i8 s'i'ar radiation, which may be

kept to a minimum with suitable reflective skin
coatings.
Wi thiin !-'-e vehicle, temperatures can be kept
to a rninimuirn by compartirientaLiOli, inisulation,
intercomjpar-tnent ari intrawali airtiow and the
choice and lotration of componentLs, 13ULasseiriNies, an-i eqioirrenls.
.,.,.
10
tioni.
nosed vehicixs or airfoils, particularly at supersonic flight speeds.
considerable -portion of the thermal load of a

compartment. Where appreciable temperature
gradients exist over large areas, such as lxic
tween 1the belly skin and the compartment floor,I
the use of alumtinum foil -back irsulation w il subtantially reduce the interchange of radiant
ee~..
4
In practice, the eff ect v'~ness of insulation iii
somewhat by moisture absorption and
compacting. To account for this, it is conven~tional to assfume the eiffective thickness of the
Insulation to be somewhat less thian actual.
TEMP'ERATURE~ CONTROL OF FLIGHT

vi-;iicili's
.i~
..
Heat flow, QW
35,200
______
1/2 inch of Fiberglas overall.
20,070
I inch of Fiberglas vierall.
12,100
Tbe59
Tal 59
feto necmatetArFo
Fltoor Hnealpramnsfer/Flow
Eff
-____________
Heat flow,Q
Cniin(~/r
Nor intercompartrneiit air how; belly
skin and floor uninsulated.
ljG
5,450
No Intercompartment air flow; belly

okin insulated only.
lw el
s-kin and floor-uninsulated.%
,2
Into eoriop'trtmrent air flow; belly

akin insulated-only.
1,785
--
-I
%nec
-,
.A.
The heat-flow rate from one compartment to

me ncxt can often be further reduced by disr hargingthe cooling air through intrawali ducts.
A view of a Farctlon of Intrawall1 duct tos hown In
Fi1g. 5-5~. Air from the compartment entera the
duct at A, flows through the duet, and is dia-A
uearged at D3. As the air flows along the dtict, It
prevenr - he~at transmisaIon front the outer wall,
with the objer-L bixng to rqduce the temp~eratuire
of the inner wall. Because of the difficulties In
equalizilngflow through the ducts, air well as the
nued for leakage control., the intrawall system ts
consideredapractical possibility only for small
c~n4artmntsIn high-speed vehiclas for which
uJfficictuceof the availablo cooling is very tim-Fg
d Loc~ation of Lquipment
K'CI:-qu
The amutof
heat generated bry
-.-.
equipment
can bc mnarkedly influenced by the choice of cornponents, while the location of the equipment can
determine tiLe problems that result from gencrated heat. Every iUcm should be studied from
two viewpiointa: (1) can a sublstitute be fouand that
w ill vecnerate less heat ? or (2) can the item be
locatced so that heat from it wil not be dh',ected
~-tion
to other items?
'1
-.
Itaal
hc
ytm/O
space vehicles - However, methods tlhat
A:lo
natural convechon will be Ineffective unless Sin

artificial gravity environment is created. Even
then the strength of natural convection 'wilIl depenJ upon the gravity-force system.
Some cmoetprdc
leshatan
components~~~~
etta
others and ..!.ouild be Used where heat buildup is
aproblemn. F;r examplep transistors generate
Ie-q heat than Ploct ron htiiws rimorescent lamps;
p~roduce less licat thart incandescent Ilarri)s, and
rotating powor-Pupply components produ~ce less
1,vat that, eiectrrrnic types. It sh ould be noted,
Uacolnsytmhtdensupniqd
I
oln
ytmta
eed
pnlqi
and vapor phases is used, such as a ref rigeraunit, special care will have to Li~ taken to
separate the vapor bubbles from the liquid, since
thebiibbtea will not rise without the inituence of
prdc
es
gravity. Likewise, if a closed, pressurized-liquid circulaiting system is useci, care %ould be
required to eliminate all gas pockets friom the
s~ystem so that tht pump will not become vap'locked. fleat removal systems are discus-ed in
later paraSgrapthsrt.eprtcto
asible, since it 1r, po~ssible that. the replacement
HEAT REMOVAL
of present-day ve.4ici !a
tecmlxy
eth
is scththawilstill
build up In the equil
In certain applications, It may be possible to
metoierre
sifcoy
*sbsttutpncrnaic r ydruli eqipaentfor--and life. This heat must be removed by somt
eicdrical eauipmtxit. Such a substitution ie likeHeantreoalinsam
prates
at
thichmittisg
geerate
.~~~~y
to b~e dictated by s~ystems consideration as
Hetrmvli
pocsofrasttn
from a heat source to aLheat sink.
well as by environmental consideration.
\'
-,
t-hirietprtcuarempraur.
"I
To preventl excessive temperatures at any lo-.

cattont, the placement of one equipment with reshi((t toatiothler, Ps well asthe- placement of subdtnlMs wiuiin -n equipment, should be care;ullycoiisidered. Equipment with high heat outpill should he located as far as possible from
cooler units. fleat shields should be used betwee ho uits
andcooer
andconuctin pths
to the, hv;tt tiini for hilh-heat units should be as
s 'r ad drec a pes Ic.Also, heat-producini: PqIipments s~hould not be bwiched, witless a
forcod (w'l'cction heat-rernoval system is used,
i, -.,hic tiia~sebeiiellng miLight-be highily desirable.
M *'hohfTr~~pratreontol
fr SaceVe)(.rtureC
__________Spae___
Thermal Systems
A complete thermnal system involves the object.from which heat is removed, a transmission
medium to carry the heat, and a heat sink to receive the heat. Actually, thermal systems are
seldom that simple. Usually intermediate sinks
are required, along with combinations of the three
modes of heat transmission. These three modes
of heat transmission ara: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
C ucieeat
Transfer. Heat is transferred by conduction from one object to another
when they are In direct mechanical contact whitl
otilier.
"~each
Mort of the piissive methods of temperature

ill,i r irvioul;y des.crihecdfor atnmosphieric yelhi Iri; ;Ipply ,dSO to the Insidev of pressurized
Convective Heat Transfer. Thie process of

beat transfer from th~e iurT~i~ce of a solid to movIng masses of fluids, either gaseouls or liquid,
5-13
774~,
t.
"97
e*p
Theriin~lcontactresiiatariteshojuld be Millutnized
by soldering, brazing or welding. If pressure
joints are used, special care to insure tight. fits0
is required. Also the conduction rath Phould bekept ras short as possible.
.oniniititols convection. ']'his inode of heat trana-7
i'iu~lit about mainly through circulation

of tHii lrl. When t'.e circulation is caused onyrb.y dJflfrences in density, t1he process is called
natux-al or free convection. When the ckreula-.
jtj,
tion is forced mechanically by blowers, pumps,
exam ple of heat removal by conduction is4

caledforcd
etc. It scovecton.An
tubes. Metal
cool electron
the method used to arou~nd
It. int Illz Fransfer. Objects emit thermal
the tubes providea
placed
ohields
tube
inlong
ra-diit ion ranging in-wave6lengt~hfrom the
path LNom the tubes to the chassis.
~~conduction
frarea to the short ultraviolet. Radiation fi r
The chassis, In turn, conducts the heat to a strucan lb Cert can travel through a vilcuum or through
tural member of the equilpment from which it can
gab-es with relatively little absorption. When rabe dissnipated by conduction convection, or ra
bet ato
yaote
diation is necpe
diatic.n, or a comnbinatiO.1of these. Conduction
as thermal energy, part of
it ma',' be 21bsorl
from equipment structural mrrinbers to the airit maJy be reficeted(, and part of it will be rerais geaerally unfeasible since it 1:equires
d ated.frame
direct contact between highly conductive mat-onflA,
terials. In addition, it is difficuit tuon
Conduc-tion Cldn
tion if the equipment is shock mounted, 'Aiduss a
conductive material, or convection or radiation,
For conduction :(ooling to be effective, highis used to provide a path "around" the sho ck
conductivity mateils must be ufsed. Thermal
prtna1to electrical condictivity. Table pr-10uns
gives the relaitive thermal conductivity of variousniaterials. Wihen clnp~loynconduction cool.ing, good rietal-to-rnetal bond8 are important.
Iteatieonuctviy o Vricla
heral
labi' -1.
/12/
AIatrli' at Appyoxinm~tely 15)0 F (65 C) /1/uscof
Thcrml59?dUctivity
/L
tlisu/nfl /u#IL
M~at-_'ial
220
Gold
171
Alut!rwAni~ j'c)
125
Alumninumi, 62,S
116
When a fluid moves along a solid surface

the drag caused by the surface makes the fluia
veloiit zero at the sur'face of the solid. With
Increasing distance from the surface the velocity Increases as asecond power function of v18cosity and distance until a free-stream velocity
is reached, an; shown in Fig. 5 -6. In lamainar or
flow, the fluid can be thought of as mayin layers, each moving faster than the one
under it, and slipping on each other. Heat from
the surface must paassbyconduction throught~hese
~~Iny.rsA of ~lolv moving' fluid before it can be
carr~iedwa b-y the rapidly moving fluid.
gril
I11i1.1-bueryllla ceramlc
I
91Ing
38.7 to 88.7
63.7
El brass
c lwIIa:156Iti
li ~
47.8
Ii I kllrotC
29.6
I~ Tylliur')
]'II( iton
I
1,1wpo;
III
vi'iii13.
07r
. I,, ,I C.
Little or no reliance Is placed on natural convectionfor removing heat from equipment. The
loads in confined spaces require the
~high heat
forced convection to keep equipment ternl
within acceptable limits. Forced conratures
1 pecto
transfers heat from an object at a much
:~~ate
r
than possible with free or natural confate
copl
~h~gresiumsmooth
~.
vcin
ht
e't Lcrd~ictiv.c)
F-rEpd Convectinn/12/
241.
5,
"
the free stream velocity Is Increased, as by

a blower, a critical velocity Is reached at which
I the layers are broken up. The fluid particles
then move in swirls and eddies, and the local ye ~locity Is irregular. ThIs is called turbulent flow.
D'~
14.8
BoundaryBudr
7777
r77
Fig. 5-6.
of Fluid
t~Bulk
20.5
ae
7
Fluid veloct profile../12/
*.r/
.
,
.
'
'
.
*
'~-
*
'I
literns
surfaceso( heat-producing parts. Air flowi pat.-
-~~
can be observed by hinjecting smoke at sevral points ak~ng the flo-w path. if at any point
~4Ilow turbulence exists, willhbe evi~ent by a con)
entrationof smxlke atitMhat
point. When components of different size and shape are placed in
series, the turbuence Will vary Pnd may become
~- undesirably
JoW- in some places. If such spots
are found, the
turbulence waiy bie Increased by
putting "t'irbulptors"
into the air stream. A
Lomio Tur~lentFlowwithsharp-edged plate set perpenidicuilar to the
[Lomio
Laninlen Fblow wit
stream is an effective turbul ator. the action Of
l' lowLan~iar ',v-Loy&which
IF show-ijn Fig. 5-8. Both 'upstreamn ald
downstream turbulators are shown, It ~s apparent
Fig. -7.an aminr
turblentflow/12/
that the tur:)ulator gUhroites the hLFirU Mow
id inFig.5-7.Lampar
nd trbuent low.12/creases
the required blower power by increasIng the number uf obstacles in the flow jh
-,N
Another method for Increasing turtiuXln.:z Is
____
tusign
rule
of sml
osplaced hi front of a
tions of turbulatars should be tried until an ef

fective arrangement is found.
_____________
Fi,
-.
Sharp-edged plate turbulntor./ll/
.*
In small spaces, air flow velocity cannot be

increased beyond a certain amount no matter how
power Is used. This limits the amount of
.k~
-much
that can be removed from an enclosure or
-~_____________________.heat
--
Ai
F~1()
**')
He-ourc
Sorc
_7
- -
turulaor.l1/or
Sir - the fluid velocity at the boundary must be
z7io, there is still a thin layer of laminar fluw
unde thetirlulenc.beat
'
'[hfe lDiryiiar sub-iayer is greatly reduiced in

tl~i( kiess whun turbulent flow occurs, and It is
hclieved Ohat 1this s"eduction in thickness reduces
* 1 e rsisaneeuf(~re
to eatflo.
Assoo as
rcele ii"
urbulent fluid, the heat is rapidly
car
vid .it-y
6-r!~ mixing due to velocity fluctuiitioiis. In( reasini:. the velocity increases the
tul ir iLuc uand reducC.3 the sub-layer thickness.
'Ill ru is.ii, actual dis, continuity U-1theC flow, but
tu noil vi't1zadijaliy iii -reases and the boundary
eri
-,-ly a.e
ntikns
-.
subassembly. Proper placement of heat prociuc5

~ in.~these
~-u~~iy
pua
wAL.
A Wi
1L
requirements
cases are that one carnponent cket; not shield another from. the air iow;
and that air already heated to capacity is not used
for, cooling another.
Fins. The effectiveness of forced convection
fIns, over which the air is directed. Finls provide additional heat transfer by conducting heat
Outward from the object to which they atre attached, thus increasing the surface area of the
source. Th~e additional heat transfer provided by thefIns more than off setsa the slight Increase Inrersistance due tnthA inptiIIir helf fInw
path of the fins.
.~
':
V,~
The following general factors should be consider.ed when using fins:

1. Fins should be made of a metal with a high
thermal conductivity.
2. Fins should be either integral
stc
with thre
metal contac-t so that there Is a minimum of conTI irlu 1:1toirs, Turb ulent rather than Jaininar
all j tw is dvsi rahle bocause the turbulence re-. 11ts inia niuch thintner li~yur of air at the boundLh rruol~i vl~ili the he;1t moust flow by conductin,. I~~
Ifre-ovcincooled
equiputsil
lr'sostrettrrhrul-ice
near fiei
tc
eitne
3.* Short, rather thick fins ar'e more effective
than longthin ones. The temperature drop from
the base tothe tip of along thin fin may be appreciable, and tends to make tie flin less effective.
/11/
5-15
L
j.w
Blowers used nR a source of air woAion for

runiovingheatfrorn equipment fall into two general categories: (I) internal devices in closed
components or by blowing over the surface of the

equipment, the demands placed on the operating
characteristics are considerablF, more severe.
It Is possible that sulf i.ent air ..ow may be unobtainable, for the reason stated in the preceding
equipment. (pressurized and/or sealed) produc-
paragraph, if the units are to be cooled over a
.3clectin of Blowers_13/
ing circulating air flow over the components,

and(?21 devices elprlying external air for the dissipatkon d hent by forced convection from the
ultiniate heat-transfer bur(aces of the equipmetit.
Internal devices of the first category are used to
establigh uniform thermal conditions within the

equipment. They aid in the transfer of heat from
components tocase surfaces of the equipment or
to other heat exchange surfaces, which are uti-
lizedfor external heat dissipation. The devices
.'
wide range of operating pressure levels. CarefuL evaluation of the equipment heat transfer and
pressure drop is required as the basis of blower
selectlo.i. Once the characteristics of the equipment are establised, the perf irmanceof a blow--
er of known characteristics can be predicted
whenoperatedwith the equipment under specific

conditions of air temperature and pressure. The
biower should be st.i eed
on tle basis of corn-
puted air requirements at the maximum altitude
".
of operation. The Uiaractcrlstlcs o! its rLveriv

unit will depend on the degree of
.t.
.urfl.ureO
control desired at other altitudp-, 71-e co,'rol
requirements are particularly severe i! !1a desired range of operating altitude in wide.
separate heat exchanger.
fan
The requiremen~ts imposed on

surface.
caie
the
te
d blowers
s
face suh
requirem~ents areconstaon
internal blowers of such equipment are constant

for
all opc.dting
conditions.
Such will
blowers
may
In
result
speeds, which
at constan~t
operate
the same air circulation under all operating conditions, sircf the Internal pressure level of the
equilr-ent will remain essentially fixed. With
closed vented equipment, internal, blowers hayIng vo me--s of control -may be used, provided
that at all operat:ag conditions, the external heat
dissipationfromn the equip~ment case is sufficient
ta prevent overheating of components within the
equipment. Since the presrure level within the
i-quipmupt is reciced as the altitude increases,
the weight flow capacity of the internal blower
and its ,bllity to improve the heat distribution
widmin the eqrulpment are diminished. Under conditions where components tend to reach their
temperature limits, the problem of inadequate
air ('ircul'.ion within the equipment, resulting
from the reduced pressure level, becomes important. Cue'inued reduction in component ternperature can be brought about under low pres-sure conditionsby Increasing the flow rate o( the
internal blower. In such a s!tuation, a requiremont mayexistfor control of the internal blower
to provide an Increased circulation rate. However, such usage is limited, since at low pressures, tho blower power required to maintain a
rasaHflowof air consistent withUiat at the higher
pres:ures results In a significant temperature
i-iso in the air as it passes through the blower,thus limiting the cooling capability of the air.
Z
Whirr bhowers are used to supply air for d1r(o('t dirsipation of heat either by flowing over
Blower Types.
--r~
/8/
"
f
..
of the second category are used with open or

clofedr-uipme.., In the case of open equipment,
they mayproduceair flow directly over the surface ol component-, or, for closed equipment,
they may supply air to external heat dissipating
surfaces, such as the case surface proper, or to
extended surfaces forming a case envelope or
In choosing a blower for internal air circulation in pressuri7ed or closed vented equipment,
the selectiok, is 21fected principally by the pressure level within the equipment and the air flow
requirement. With pressurized equipment, the
Iasic problem of heat removal under variable
operational condltion3 rests primarily upon the
heat dlsslpationn fa
,adequate
.. iliy, to .ovide
..
Two gereral classes of
ers cover all commerela.iay avaUi-
able types. They are axial-flow types and en trifugal types. The centrifugal blower Is best
suited to produce constant surface temperature
of the cequipment. Ta meet other requireme.tz,
or to cope with critical space limitaUons, th
axial fan may be a better choice.
-F
There are two braiid vana f
Ther
preltw b r no , end
the propeller f-n, and
.a
fl
i
a more refined, suaumwhai moru uiiuILu
usinglnlet, and outlet vanes known as Uto axial
fan
both types the air enters the impeller in
a direction paraele to the Impeller rotrr i\xis.
In current applications, the axial-flow fa.i-Oy of
fan im
uneti
widel
i air.Lak
mpeers
uons
y n
capacities and is well salted for flushing large
volumesfair overequipment components. This
type of fan impeller Is available in a variety of
sizes and capacity ratings.
Propeller Fans. Propeller fans are widely
used for pushing air through chassis compartmentsand overheat-generating compunents. For
it physical sizeandrhorsepowerrating this typo
of fan is capable of moving relatively farge vol.,
umes of air. It Is not recommended wierr; air
is to be moved through restricted areas that JO..velop back pressures In excess )f 0.15 to 0.25
Inches of water. Higher pressures can be pro-
vided by special high-speed lans, but they gen.
,i
rt
,.
*. ,K
.
"
erally produce more air noise. A typical pocpeller type fan Is shown in Fig. 5-10.
Axial Fans. The axial fan represuntr. A 1-, 1
des-"igFnr7 -gher
efficiency than the propcL,
type, from which it is derived. It features iM;ri.
and outlet vanes that cause a whirl in the ait,
which provides more static pressure than altalnedbythebasicpropeller-typefan. The vanes
also keep the air delivery in an axial direction,
eF.Lablish more uniform flow, and maintain high
efficlencywith quiet operation. The range of air
delivery ratings extends from 20 to 5000 cubic
feet per minute, with static pressures up to 10
inches of water. Atypicalaxial-typefaa is shown
in Fig. 5-11.
y,
:A
i.:
PONq
$Ar,"
Cei~trffuj!al Blowers. The blades of a centrifugit

I
lo;)I
re ar-ranged to provide high effi"clency by driving the air in .2 circular orbit within a st'roll-type hous9ing. Considerable centrif ugal force i8 imparted to the air within the housing, and then the air is expel-led through ttn outlet In a direction tangential to the circle described
by the Up~ of the Impeller blades. Centrifugal
biowerm azi''oc
where hioh pressure and mo-.
ticrati- to- low- air- hand Ling capacities are called
for, and where air-ducting may be required.
A typical centrifugal blower is shown in Fig.-1.Fig.
Bla des
:t.
a'o
71
oi
ouig-
'
5-10. Typical propellcr-type tans.P
D~irect Liquid Cooling/ I1/
Housinia
Outlet Vomes
Motor
Direct liquid cooling is an effective method
of heat transfer for assemblies having high heat"
concentration or those that raust operate in a

high temperature environment with a small ternPeratore ~i adlent between tenm and the cooler
surf aces. Equipment can he designed for several
types of liquid cooling systems, any one of which
May have cooling capacities greater than those
f forced air convection systems. Sealed assemblies can be deiigrned ior direct immersion In the
coo~lant, the assembly can be filled with a liquid
such as silicone fluid, or the assembly can be
designed ;-;tth passages for a liquid coolant adjacent to the. !.at-produclng component._Cooling
i~r (,it
_-___
ecj-UIyII
The weight ol directly Immersed equipment

miaybe reduiced somewhbat by spraying the coolant- over the heat producing components, colleciingt; c heed coolant in thie bottom of the container, and then punipi.ig it through a heal exchanger and back to the spray nozzles. Such a
v(*)iinr system represents a savings ir. the
.qmount of coolant liquid required, but needs a
higher pressure pump, andl, consequently, More
power to ron the pumn than does a completely
:rai~se1:.uimet.It sheculdbe noted that free
or natural convection systems, as well as the
spray system, will not operate under zero gravity conditions,
ool ing
Vaporization cooling is thu most effective

removal miethod known. It has the advantand disadvantages of direct liquid cooling,
to.-vtlicr with greatly decreased thermal resist~uice. Expendable systems are simpleI, but in-olve di-posal of the vapor andreplacementof
,:w ooulant. Nonexpendable, or continuous, systuns ato complex, cxpensl ye, and necessitate
t''Muse of aheat exchranger to condense the vapor
thelz into k fluid. Vaporization cooling systems
icat
:iccv,
ii
pa.irticula rly suited to Installations withi exiitg, 11beat (w munt rat.ion s.
n~lI
I.
inlet lRotorand Blades

Vanes
*1
Fg
__ 1---F
the addition of a pump.
a ic
I.
Lai.y LM U1LLE;a t
by forced ckrr'ilation of tne coolant. However

thiis increased cooling requires some power ana
1);recut Vapor izypz
5-11.
Typical axal-type fan.
osn
Hosng
z..
ArOte
irOutonet
Air Flow
Rotor
A fInlet
Fig. 5-12. Typical centrifugal blowers.

.
I'L41ULIAIIII
Fundamelntally, the amount of heat radiated

by an object depends on the square ur Us absolute temperature and the properties and area of
Its radiating surface. In general, polished ourfaces make poor radiators, while rough surfaces
make good ones. A lampblack coating makes an
excellent radiating surface and Is used as a standard of comparison for other radiating surfaces.
An Increase in the surface area of an object. will
increase the amount of heat that the object radiates. There Is a rplationship b~etween the rate
at which a surface radiates heat and the rate at
whichi the same surface, under similar conditions, absorbs heat. A good radiator of heat is
also a good absorber of heat, and surfaces that
radiate slowly also absorb slowly. The amount
of radiant heat reflected by a sur!ace Is also dependent on the properties of the surface. PolitShed surf aces reflect best, and black or xrough ened surfaces reflect poorest.
5-17
A'
Natural Cooling~
Free Conve~ction
~~~And
RadialpioiIl
~tl
Forced Convection
Liquid CoolingI
Cooling
I~--.
Direct
F. .4VOPOdzttion
50
0
____
Walls/n.2 (based on 40C rse)
MtcLfec
Fig,. 5-13. Ieat-dissipatitng tube shiield for

miniature tubes .
nba
Direct Lqi oln

Vaporization Cooling
0
5
Watts / In.3
1-of
~~1 ~'nottake
-
~-~:~4(
~to
(for
to
15
2
internal cooling
sealed units)
Jl
Fig. 5-15.- Comparison of heat removalI

xnethods./l 1/%
Into conslIderat ionw eight, cost, spaov or

elfficicncy. In_ many locations, because of space
&wui weighL Luka~utu'w, it uz:ay idbeptuaLUi
use natural coaling means. In practice,, scveral types of cooling methods will normally
have to be used to produce an efficient as well
~
L
Fig. 5-V
Heat-dissipating shield foraseeciehtrmolsyem
power tul*.
HEAT EXCHANGER /11/
Ileat rottiv-0a Iy radiation may be increased
by: (1) using manterilas with high ciflissivity and
absorbency; (2) increasing the temperature dtU.
lerential between the radiating and receiving ohjocts; (3) choosing the geometrical shape of the
riai"and recevn
ufcs
ota
h e
-ei vi ng'ol iipt
ic erpt s hi-t
at
faster ride. thani
the radiataing source supplies it; and (4) proper

placuiocnt of components, with special attentiongiven itiiielhocat'oio f coniponents radilatinig considerable a'in~ants of heat.
To~iie :;%'Ods are excellent examples of heatreiroval by radiation. Figures 5-13 and 5-14
shvow tube shields specifically designed to dissipiate heat by radiation. The shields are black on
the inside, to absorb heat from the tubes, and
1ilackon the outside. to radiate the heat as quicklya:;psih.
Notice that these shields have Laserit3 Niti numerous tabs punched inward to make
J~hyS Ici C;1mn~rtavi wItli the bulb, so that conductive
oiat trainsfer is also used.
Comp:,. i son ol Hleat Removal Methods
Yiicure 5 -15 shows a basic comparison of heat
The diagram, however, does
rNAIPvo~l metliods.
A heat exchanger Is a device used to cool a

liquid or gas by transferring heat to another Ii-L
quid or gas. The exchanger Is commonly a wall
made of m=tertla of high thernial condactivity.
Heat exchangers are normnally classified according to their Internal coaelructlon. A type of he~at
eyr'hanipr
namert
for
ftn
nnorou$Ina
wir.nviIn
rather than its construction is the "boiling" or

change-in-state exchanger. In thicn type of 'xchanger, the ultimate fluid undergoes a change
of phase during the process of absorbluag heat,
and the resulting vapor Is then either expelled
from the system or is condensed back into a
fluid and recirculated in the systern.
Conventional SleladT-eTXeHa
hxchanLers
In this type of heat exchanger, one fluid flows
Inside the tubes 2nd the other fluid flows across
or along the outside of the tubes, depending on
the construction. The classification of shell-andtube type heat exchangers Is further subdivided
into parallel-flow heat exchangers counterfiow
heat exch aners reversed-flowhea exchangers,
and cross-If w heat exchangers, based upon the
direction of flow of the shell -side fluid relative
.1104
=Vzw5'.
i-
-j.
.%.
-=4
~'-~
iL~fF~ow
Tcoll FlwTpYlllli-rp
_____or
Contertow
ype
othvw type (tube-in-strip and rul~l-bond) consislts

sheetof metal, such as copper, brnqs,
R
offsinrle
2lumln'irn, rolled from a casting or graphite
coated sheet and then inflated to produce flow
-channels.
Due to the method of fabricalion,
tube- in-strip panels or roll-bond panels call be
patterned quio aintricately to suit the needs of

any particular heat removal aystern.
Compartv
Type with
Crosst'kw
Type with
Reversed- Flow and
1 Shell Pots and 2
4
2ShellVs~i
Posesor
Tubet'.scsTub
rbe Pssesto
Tube
-'oses
Iit'. 5-16. Shiell-and-tube type heat
cxcltm~ers,'l1/placing
to thetube-side fluIid. Fifure 5-16 shows the fouir
yp het echnges.
typs o sdllandtutExtended Surface Heat Exchan~gers
eat
reaer
Forompctnssaddtioal
For reperSaddtioal
ornpac.tris hat
tranisfer surfa'_:v can be olAained by the use of
fins in good thermal conta..t with the primary
11vat tran.11er surface. IThere are muany iypeb of
extededsurace
fo hea exhaners Fiure
3)-17 shows (ofyninonly used extended surfaces
a11,!,liable to heat exchiangers for equipment
c'.lt..Fjnncd-tulbc heat exchangers are ia-rti c-uarly effectivtu when the tube P uid is a liquid4,.
and the se cond fluid is a gas at ordinary pressure. Thcy arc, therefore, suited for the design
oiair-to-wile''orotlihr liquid) heat exchangers
air cooled equipment.M
in forced- conveclloio,
Features of Common Heat
!Lxcihantiers
designut are well adapited to
Shel~l-and-tub~e
pressurc and can easily he deigafned sn that
high
the Inside of the tubes can be cleaned by t rushses
reamers. The outside of the tubes is dliff icult
clean; the shell should contain cle~rn ,er noi..scale-forming fluid. Expansion is easily ziloweci
for by making one tube header floating and by
an expansion joint in the shc~l. Shell-andtube designa are heavier and bulkier thais other
types.
Figures 5-18 and 5-19 show the temperature
gradients existing in tubular heat exchangers.
With counterfiow, the temperature difference is
nrearl~y constant, and the exit, temperature of the
cold fluid can behigher than the exit teukperature
f te ho flid.Allportions of the tube surface
have about the same heat transfer effectiveness,
eauedifecsaent
te
anexrm
present. With parallel flow, the heat transfer
rate Is high over the first part of the tube length,
and then decreases. Initial cooling or heating is
therefore rapid. Parallel flow exchangers tead
to be sho~rter than counterflow exchangers.
Gos
.7
'-
t:
"
W
'-
'
i
'"
A relatively new modification of the extended,

,xcliangur is thec "inner fin" surfaec.. The iongitudinal arrangement keeps the
prissuru clrnp at a low value. The inner fin prostiurtace heat
trzm.iler
(i[
N~II~
heat.
Piole Fin Surface'

Cored hcat exch.uigcrs are usually quite thick.
'fur'are' tw' basic types of paniel heat e.-jYin i~r s. (Oi, typo (thnernt'i-pa-riis) consists of
~his
wth uinble einnbssings weldpd to-
Inner-Fin Extended Surf~e

Go!
Gas
Spa~te Mrurrially available in equipment for

rhn1_
lio-t em(Ian!,ers is ofteun limited in onie dimnensin anid &'es nut always permiit the use of wideAi
(:iilul'tt heat cxchanugers. Flat heat exchanger
p~i els (also (ailed'"tuhe- instrip,'' 'roil-bond,"
anid "tvirri'iiiaiep~ls"~) are befst suited for cooliietO
elipjmienut with a low he-at concentration.
11 xchiv~ rshave a hiiigh effectiveness, are
in.% 11nwo-whi, and tie'ause oltheir thinness, fit
w i,1i hm-iii' the ixalls of equipment enclosures.
Air
Finnci` - L be Surface
with Round Tubes
Finned-lute SurfoAc
with Flattened Tubes
and Extended Fins
-
Fig. 5 -17.
ha
Types of extended surfaces for
xhnes/
/I
5-19
Hot?
inThe
SCold
Hot
out
Ccld
___(1)
.......
Counterftow Exchann'e
Hot
in
Hot
out
---------
out
4Natural
C~old
Lxhngr
Pot ollel -F low rchnesinstances
Fi'-. 15-18. B~ulk tteml rature variatla3n in

betat exchangers./iYe
fie low
attrn 19-
th flo paternisIn xchager,

cosslow
comrlex and very difficuRt to calculate, so that
empirical iorinulas must be usied. Turbulent
flow intliesc Side is easily developed. Crossflow exchangers tend to be "boxy," and roerhly
Countrfiowper
xchngrs re
squre n hap.
long and of raz~all diameter. Parallel flow exdimetr._
f
lrge
chanersarcshoterand
chager
sortr
ar ad o lrge dimetrIn crormfl Y; as in parallel flaw designs, thehighest tcrnperat-ure ui the col~d fluid Is lower
than the lowest temperature of the hot fluid and
the temperature difference varies wildely from
;ito
tpoint on the core. Extended surface types
c an be r ade nuch lighte r in w ei ght (for low pressures) than sheUl-and-tube typier, and the con....
ctor -! ottndR ure frtenut-nfly cheaper. Mechianir'a1 removal of scale Is difficult or Impossible, hut dust and dirt accumulated on tWe gas
side are easily removed.
.<~
should be tilized to conduct heat f romn

the equipment to the ultimate sink. In certain%
the enclosures can be attached to
structural members that are thermally connecForced Convection.
Aheat sink is a body or medium to which

the heat removed is rejected. For example,ou
the cliI.isqsI to which a heat cotxluctinr tubeOu
5lhialaI Ls attached is the heat sink for the
,,hiAi. 'rhis example is a local or Intermediate
sivik, as the heat mnust also iue removed from
the chasis otherwise it will attain the ternIvuti~ f the oicat source and heat. transleur will stop. lHeat must therefore be transferred from the interinediate sink to the ultimate
Forced
*.
convection is
more apipicate to thls phase of cooling than natural methods particularly lifthe ultimate sink is
nearby air. he air should be properly directed
and distributed over the equipmenot. Forced convection at sma~ll florw rates can readily provide
~~n
;-ti
7i re-
ia
~
ZR
A
nntind
n;7_____i~~n
eerl
thera
freeisconvetion tnd oradiation,1n Ceperwa,
0Cprat
nh reo
reitre
square inch can be achieved with a reasonable
certain con-t
will,
under
airflow. Increased flo~w
ditlons, lead to smaller gains, and the point of
diminishing returns will be encountered.
'Indirect Lisuid Cooling. Through the use of
cooling, te heat sources can be
indiErect Liqui
Wri
InI*~
a
os
Hot
B1EAT STINKS
5-2(
ted to the ultimate sink.
-.
xchager,
Mcrsslow
Meihods. If possible, equipment en-
10Closures
Ultimate Sink
ultimate Sink is that body or medium Intowhich the local and Intermediate sinks tranlsfheire there for fonar udissiation For -- os ve-*
out icls thre re our ltiatesinks available:
the atmosphere surrounding the vehicle; (2)
fuel suppliud continuously o the power plant of
the vehicle; (3) liquid carried for heat absorption only, and discharged as vapor; and (4) space
receiv Ing heat from radiatie:x from the outer surface of the vehicli. /13/
The method-of transferring heat from an as-L
sembly or unit to the ultimate sink is dependent
upon the method of heat removal from within the
assembly or unit and the type of sink available.
Its location, and its temperature. The ultimate
sink must be considered, since Whe temperature
of local or int~rmediate sinKs may incre~Aie when
additional heat is akled./llI/
Cold
Cold
In
C
Fig. 5-19. Bulk temnt ralure variation in

croasfiow exchangr/l1
orrange~din! fe flIow system Independent of their
Heat Exchang~er Equipment

Dc
Dc
11 lyjicaI im atlons, since the interconnecting pipe
cn Ix- instIalied and .7outed almost as readily as

IectricaI ivi ring. If (arefuliyplannied, thin minini ize.stheflow rate and pumping power requirernents and allows part placement for greater
e-)npactrless. Because most of the heat transfer
Lhe lini, dlis by rorduction, the heat flow paths
-ire welt de14ard', and tlhe interaction between
~partis i.3 smnall.
Inak DfUcr
Outlet N4ozzle
Fig. 5-20. Basic arrangement of a raw iads

systom.
:
One of the most important gains achieved by

-indirectliquid cooling Is the resulting flexibility
in the installation. The small space requirenients of piping ma~ke the ijse of remote heat
Sint's feasible. For maximum compactness and
ednot
becoe
cupetto
"flxlthllity,
hiI
*",'n ilequtprceans ber cooled needla
These can be
heat exchange.
Lono ultimate
Lion*L~n
Ileifthe
ean forliruldIntermediate
provided more efficiently and completely in aR
scoarate unit, or as part of an overall cooling
System.WesseiscleanIdrccolnsytm
drn
h
naepoes
h
ytmI
ytmi
h
rces
gteitk
eZduid
an rr
sytmch,
ai
i ytm
abarctrdleccinyte.We
arasteuimefldisonyddrelyo
andpanse thrcaigh the equipment, the system is
classif ied as adirect system. When another iliald
o
iuedoaisrlatrmtheqape
component, which would be a ufi-It
xhneadtermarcosteecagr
theexctnem,
calledram inirc coolsn
txheasysemr,
FLIGHT VEHICLE HEAT REMOVAL SYSTEMS

/14/
When the indiividual equipment heat-removal
systems have been ihsntegatedwit their sinks,
the ulimt
the-iy miust then be biertdwith
sink into an overall vehicle heat removal system.
The heat removal systems used for this are ram
iblwrfe
air, cxrdd-m-ibee
oxe.ac
ndd vamapor,colind aysems Tlo
er fue
systems are for both direct and indi rect cooling
of rnipent itemns. The fuel, expendable and
vofx
eqystem
r
osdre
nya
ie
The weight and volume of direct ram air systems a?re def ined by the weight and volume of the
diffueijr, nozzle and ducts connecting the heat
exchanger witl, the diffuser and nozzle, since the
equipment is not considered as a physical component proper of the heat removal system. Both
the weight and volume of ah.: system represent
penalties on the flying vehicle. In addition to
these penalties, the thrust generated during the
escape of the ram air Is generally not sufficient
to completely cancel the drag resulting when the
Sy S' CMS
air is taken onhboard, so that a net drag Is Im-
1lhic advag.;oges and disadvantagtes of the various hept removal systems, together with a brief
description rf how they operiie art covered in
the
the follow iro, naragraphs. A dicsinof
dinscusstiongRhare
11 oni-Iraion ivoe
-no, al systom for a particular vehicle is alsoviven. A morethorough analysis of heat removal
Ssesis contained in refernc/,
.-.
bzc t'aaee
Uulirt:ci ISYMUem aLieartod
thnepenalty onthevehicle because of (1) then a. "d
weight and volume of the intrmediate heat exchanger and distribution fluid; and (2) the power
required to circulate the fluid, and the somcwhat
larker weight, volume, and drag of the ultimate
system, this is not j;lways true. In the installa-;A6
tion of complex -electronic systems involving a
number of equipments with varying temrequirements, the use of an indirect ram
air system may 6ave tipacne (because of reduced
ductlrg vilurue) reduce weight (because of reduced dkcting weight) andincrease reliability by
reduct-g dust, niaiaininming better temperature
control, and allowing simpler coolant duct connections. However, the temperature potential
available for the ram air in indirect systems cani
never be quite as large as with direct systems
for the same desired temperature level of tWe
equipment.
ILLIJUMUK1
______
Sstemlarge
10m Airnouting Sytmperature
--
5-21
7.7;.
A block diagram of an indirect ram air system

is shown in Fig. 5-20. Atmospheric air Is taken
on board the vehicle through an intake. At the
exit 6f the intake, the f irst duct conveys the ram
air to the heat exchanger. The air passing
through the heat exchsiu.er widergoeran increase
n total temperature, because ol heat received
produacing a cooling effect, and the heated air
is then conveyed by the second duct to the air
onutet.
Even Viough parts may not be desaigned spectfically for liquid coolin~g, suitable mo-ins can be
provdc'forondutintherhettolqui-coled
surfaces on whl.-h the': nre mounted. In this manner, the liquid may become the primary means
utimafconthe equimen foLrn
So~ferencatcthe
icrece
t theultiate
ink.in
Al riicophieric air taken on board a flight veh iue may b'e used fur cooling, without prior conLkitioioc is long as its total temperature is be1.)% the required tempgerature level of he equipr-'ii'cyitbim Served. Whom the itmospherit 4ir
i., u~wd as the ultimate fluid without any intermeidiate rof riperal ion equilrn-. o, and the source
1lressure for overcomnfime flow resistance of
t!c iiltinumtt4 coriponent inj total pressure recov-
'
dt'anta,es
me al :vaten s are:
loadandso is directly coupled to a compressor

the heat
inIn tiethisflow
loca
from exUio
removed
way, circuit
energy after
changer.
air during cxp5bslor. In the turbine Is dvcred
back to the air at a higher temperature level by
A system of this type using rain
the
compressor.
serve directly either the equipment or inaArto
anexpanded
termediate
cxof anramblock diagram
Syf3tein. Ais called
air cooling exchanger
1
panded ram-air 5yetern is shown in 'tg. -21.
of ram air heat re-
1. Siniplcity.
2. Low penalty in subsontc flight region,
3. Ease of control.
f:cedom in location of ultimate
4. Possii'1
D1sadvantaeS
1. Relatively
of the system includc:

severe flight, speed limJtatioria.
--
2. Need of auxiliary equipment for ground

cooling.
3. Large spatial reqoirements of ultimate
---system for high-altitude operation.
Expanded Ram-Air Cooling System
_______________________________
The temperature potential on which a cooling

aystem operates is a direct function of the tofal___
rempcratureofthecoolinglluidat the inlet to the
Any reduction u' this 'qJipnic'it beag e1ed.
temperature can serve tolower the fluid flow rate
recuired and to increase the temperature differentialior heat transfer in any heat exchange de- -vice. Thus, si-nuld this temperature be reduced
hysoinc'meansrnCrnayexp(2ct smaller heat CXdongers and ducts, and lower external aiei momentum drags, because oi the jower 110W XIb.
however, Lherc is a counteracting increase in the
penalty from the physical devices introduceci to
tnt rease the temperature potential of the system.
Nevertheless .i'yineansby which this temperatore potential can be increased permitr operatiu.rol the system athigher flight Mach numbers.
In general, lowering the total temperature of

the
requires acto the equipment
inletenergy.
lie
fluid ofat heal
'['his is commonly
:cnioval
a
mechanifluid
in
the
expanding
c:.xpiishedhy
cal deviec' such as a turbine. The ram air sys
tern can be modified to permit reduction of this
u by introducing a turbine after the
crnperatu
rain ar intake or diffusion process and ahead of
tic' heat exchanger. 'l'he turbine must have a
Common
-t
l'iae
ii.' tae
-N,
Compressor
1urte
fled
5-21.
r:
Outlel
Nozzle
Duct
uc
n-all
Eechorger
Equipment
lbisiC arrangement of an expanded
Penalties on -the flight vehicle resulting from

the use of expanded rain-air systems are due to
weight volume, anddrag, as with any other systern. 'Ihe weight-and volume of the ultimate systern '- dcfinod by the weight and volume of the
inlet, outlet, ducts turbine and compressor.
With indirect systems, the weight and .'1 o"e nI
the heat exchanger and distribution fluid !TiuSt he
included. Drag of the system arlss 'Ow cxternal and momentum drags associated wIth the
ram air flaw, and the equivalent drag of the in-
1,1
.1
creanedfueltoa
powerplant ofwhen
power
is
fluid
transfer
the shaft
for circulation
extracted
through the system.
The primary advantage of the expanded ramalrsystemisthegeneralpossibilityof using ram
airfor heat removal at higher fiight Mach numbern. A second advantage ci! the system is that
therainairiscondttionedwithout the system rein the vehicle.
lying on any of the powerpants
Thlsallowsfreedom of pcnaity directly imposed
on the powerplant. Disadvantages of the system
include the difficulty nI using the system for
grodccoIing, the added complexity of controlling the turbine-compressor combination, low
pressure levels in the heat exchanger of the ultimate system, and, in some instances, the fact
that effective use of the system dopends greatly
onprovidtngaveryefficientixttake diffusion proceas.
___________
Fileed
Air Cooling System
________________________
'
'
:
'*
Like the expanded ram-air system, the bleed

air system modifies the thermal state of the air
the air is defluid before
used as *..the6k..,ultimate
brat orrh'arapr air
I.,Gn.......AInGa
I :...A
LAY VA
SJ
m.
.. s.-.--'
..--.
-.----
--
''ens is lh
bleed air
mint. ofHowever,
Inpurposes
the air forin cooli
abUity
creased over that of the expaned ram-air syntems, sinceforanyflight speed it is possible for
the temperature of the air at the exit of the turbine to be lower than the corresponding temperalure hi an expanded rain -air system. This means
that bleed air systems may be used at higher
flight Mach numbers than either the expanded
ram-air or the straight ram-air cooling systems.
eu
The general method by which the air availaair by

bUity is increased
taken on
boardthevehicle. 'theairat the exit of the compreosor has hoth a total pressure and a total
t.mperature greater than its total pressure and
sx5leni
'
5
-
S.
a'-.---
----.
"..
'w-.---.
-.
"'V
tctipl~rni~w urc at the exit of the ramn air inhn i; vi rttle of its higher total ternperaIt) th., riinp re~ssedai r imay Lte cooled and have
11t.1at I empezlaldre low ered by i-am air which
do "i [lot pa,;,;thirough the compressor. The c901liltj ;WoceCsScan taku place in a conventional airta-hcat cxchangevr, where, by using the high air
ci rectiveness of heat exchange on Ithe high-pressure sidc -r dicexchangcr, nearly all heat ener1,y added to the kar during r~aftsage through the
comopressor can be rejected to the rain air on
thei opposite side of the heat exchanger. Thus,
at tue exit of the heat exchanger t~he total pres-
Bleed
PowerAr
Plant
1I~:.
R~
Peolr
v
Omm
Coupling
Exchanger
RmAr
mAi
Compressor
Tbie
Eumnt
'
_>-.
Outlet
'.
*
Fig. 5-22. Basic arrangement oi bleed-air

system for direct or indirect equipment
coig
ofthe air that flowved through the compresappr-Cciibly greater than the total
p~rcssure of the rarn air, whi~le its total temperat-arc wrould
beCthe~i
onily slightlyai.higherheair
thathtoa
temertur
can thenl
lie lnW2through a larger pressure ratio In
turbii-ine, so thiat with an ef ficiency of energy in
the turbine comparabule with that of an expanded
rmm-air system, tlie total temperature of theQ
air at the exit of the bleed-air turbine is lower,
,"d the system t:ooling potential is greater. Usin,, adlitional compression, a pre-cooling heat
~t~~I
sor can by,
takeoff is possible without additional equipment.

Apossible disadvantage of the system is tile ;,,t
that it relies on the use of a rnechanlrsl corn-.
pressor, and this mlay restrict the flexibili~.v
locating one or sevreral of the units.
!
BlwrCoigytes'
When items to be cooled ame located In corn-
echangiier,
and secondary ram ai-r permits

lre-ater' energy remnov.1l in the turbine than is
sy-stems of this type Cie compressor or corniirc!sors
of the vehicle powerplants are used 0
prvd Ueadiinl
partments that have a natural throughl-flow, of atcaused by a cooling system mayi be eliminated byi
providing a blower to overcome the flow restopesin
Arv~
stance of any heat exchangers associated with
traddfo
h
opesradt
the cooling system. The penalty of this type of
system results only from the blower and
the orecoolitiL heat exchanver, For tnis conveyedcooling
reason,
its O WCr Oupy
.-isclled
a bleed-air system. A bWock
th-sste
d-22.
ftebee-i
ytmIssonI
i
Blower systems, like ram-air systems, are
~severely
llmitcd in application by the flight speed
Ps-nnlties imposed on the vehicle by bleed-air
andaltitude. The limits imposed by flight speed
systemns are the resil"t of the weight and vc-lume
-are the same as discussed for ram air systems.
ex.terna~l anid nionicitumr drags, the etiuvalent
The size of the blower at high altitudes is quite
large. Also, control of blower systems over
drai, due to air, and shaft power extraction from
the ptr-ierplants in the vehijcle-. The weight and
-wide ranges of flight altitude and speed a~ppears
x-ouin%r-atesysem
oftheul
re hos ofthe
unduly complicated. Blower systems can Only be
ducts, peoertubncmrsoarIused advantageously with small heat dissipation
t
preandootlet,
turbinsem compreossor ahwirh n
at subsonic flight speeds and moderate altitudes.
etand
outleforte
and sytemuio
cotuls. Tnhea
weigh
Blowers des Iged for high- altitude operation uschar ->-~r niust be included with indirect systems.
ually can provide mnore than enough coaling on
A iaj~or poriion of tue sy:;tcax.'s drag is repreL--he ground.
:)
,-I
5-22.
.
ni
.
%
I
-iented by the equivalent drag vi Lhe irzei-eassed

ftic flow, for maintaining constant propulsive
FuelColnSytm
thrust. wh;en air is extracted from the power-Coln
yt
s
plants to serve as the ultimate fluid in the sysThe use of the vehicle's fuel as ant ultimate
ternfluid
for cooling systems has often been pro*
~~posed since it represents an ultimate sink of
Thcn viisits
iiint-d
the bleed-air
abiility ndvanlatmze
tu pirovideofrelatively
high sysisystern tempe rature pitentials t-flight speeds in
the range between Mach I and 2. This makes it
tios~ihle to provide cooling of equipment items
llring temperature levels in the range from
about 130 to 250 F (55 to 120 C) wifthout the need
of e,,( ess ivi-ly hiigh ram and bleed air flow rateR.
1,, provide this primary advantage, several adilti, n il parts must be included: namely a precooler
:mc a secondary air flow circuit, each of which
imici 'ases the: weight and vjolume of the system
-
:ici,, imepenalty irposed on the flight performance

tf tie vchicle. Another advantafge of the system
i that cooling of cquipment. during taxiing and
conhiAerable
thermal
Many arrangements andtypes
of fuel capacity.
cooling systems
are possible, such as: (1) heat transfer to fuel flow to
the powerplants, (2) steady-state operntional con_ditions, (3) indirect systems, and (4) no change1
in phase of the fuel.
77$~
The temperstuirp of the fuel at the inlet to the

cooling system is assumed equal to the adiabatic
skin temperature of theveh Icle. This is the ternperature considered most representative of the
equilibrium fuel temperature for steady-state
theirnal conditions. Indirect systems are best,
since it is not considered practicpl nor desirable
to convey fuel away from the immediate vicinity
5-23
4"-.
0M.Ad
of thiev'hicIe's fuel system.-jrihe heat exchanger._
iuhlocated close to a fuel line, and a distribution

fluid Irzanfers heat in the equipmaict to the sx(hiani-r. The fuNl is considered to serve as an
ultimate fluid without change In phase, so that
the pressure level of the fuel in the heat exchanger is assumed sufficiently high to prevent
boilinui. and the hept absorbed is insufficient to---'
crase cailburottion dlJficulties.
A block diagram of a fuel cooling system is
show,, in Fig. 5-23. Th,! system consists of the
equipment, a distribution fuiu, a heat exchanger-an Ithe ultimate fluid. A pump circulates the distrP ut1::fI',id between the equipment and the heat e.changcr. The distrlbutionfluidIs healetd in the
equlpmentar1cooled in the exchanger by the fuel _
pasi'nl: 0hrouigh the opposite side of the exch.it ger.
fuel as the
The principal advantage in using
ultimate sink is the r-elatively low penalty Imposed on the vehicle by the cooling systen,, since
weicht and drag of the ultimate system is neglkgible. Furthermore, no air inlets or outlets are
required, and operation and control of the system
is relativelysimple, because it provides the necessaryfuelflowforco-.linginabypass arrangement with one or more main fuel lines. Without
change in phase, the fuel Is capable of receiving
heat at the rate of about 850 Btu per minute for
each 1000 pounds per hour of fuel flow. The
ava-iable C-,---ng
-n-ni
.h fuel is pabot
1.5 percent of tiie vehicle propulsive power at a
flight Mach n,!nmber of 0.9 for each 100 F ternperature rise of the fuel; at Mach 1.5 the availahle cooling capacity for each 100 F temperature rise is on the order of I percent of the
required propulsive power,
are essentipIlyJJk aaii as for ran air cooling

systems. Thus, for cooling equipment in the
temperature range of 130 to 250 F (55 to 120 C)
under steady-statethermal conditions, fuelcooling systems are restricted to use at relatively
low flight speeds. A metfhod of alleviating this
limitation is to use the fuel as a heat sink and
connectarefrigerationsystem to it. The greateat availability of the fuel as an ultimate sink
is for vehicle operation corresponding to the
transient heating a the fuel system.
Factors, such as the effect of an Increase in
fuel temperature on the solubility of gases, fuel
pumpability, volumetric expansion, fuel seals
andso forth, will introduce problems in the fuel
supply system. The general problem of increased fuel system vulnerability could also
affect the use of fuel as an ultimaii, rnk ':"
heat removal
ysytems.
Expendable Cooling Systems

Often, relatively simple devices may be used
based on the acceptance of low efficiency or a
low coefficient of utilization. In principal, a
cooling aystem of this type Ii one where the ultimate fluid is extended in absorbing heat. The
useof expendahle cooling systems appears more
and mere advantageous with increasing flight
ed ,becauret f the rai!dfl(y Incr_
nt
fI5i
t
with flight speed of other types of coo'Ing systems, and the decreasing flight enditrance of
vehicles with increasing flight speed. There-.
fore, a lower coefficient of utilization of the ultinate fluid can be Justified with decreasing
operational Ume, providing the weight and drag
"
of the cooling system is minimized.
The primarv disadvantage of fuel cooling

systems P-r operation under conditions of thermal equilibrium is the relatively high temperaturp of the fuel in comparison with the desired
temperature level of the equipment. iInce "he
ioLutbrium temperature of the fuel may be assutued equ3l to the adiabatic skin temperature,
S,.- .............
.endal
An expendable cooling system is one where

the ultimate fluid Is carried within the vehicle,
undergoes a change in phase during the process
of absorbing heat, ad is then exp
rom the
vehicle. Liquid-o-.vapor phase change for the
expendable fluid is considered. A direct exsystem
of the
equipmentThe
as
ieIL
as storage
andconsists
flow control
equipment.
ultimate fluid in direct systems is delivered to

the equipment heat exchanger, wherty blling of
the fluid occurs. The resulting vapor is then
exhausted from the vehicle.
STo Powerplonts
Oistribtion
Fluid -,
An Indirect expendable system consists of a

Heat
-ea
cha rig
E
er,I
heat exchanger and distribution fluid in addition

to the other units. The expendable fluid Is eva-.
porated on the ultimate side of the heat exchanger and a distribution fluid Is circulated
between the equipment and exchanger. A block
diagram of an indirect expendable heat removal
Exchonqer
quipri0menC
-Circulating
PUMPp
system is shown in Fig. 5-24.

ui LrF
5-23.
tum.
1i!:.
-- Power Supoly
iD..sic aria!i:ement of a fuel cooling
5-")4
7!
The penalty imposed on a vehicle by an expendable cooling system Is principally due to

the weight of ultimate fluid required. For
steady-state thermal conditions, the weight required is In direct proportion to the ope ating
'
4,
Ultimate
[liid lDischurge(
1
K.
j,
Dsrbto
UlimiCUIInot
hxipen
UltrnlcUlimleExhage
iLtd
Fui
-t
vldea a high temperature source for the r-ai

Tanfe
t~
0
Fig.~~~~~~~~~~52.Jaiaraieetoanndrc
Bscln systnemen, fa Idrc
expedablyste.
coo~ng
"brak"bik
P,en"l point of this system,- n comparison with
--
other typc3 of systenns can be evaluated in

terms of operating time ?or the cooling system,
The break-even time increases with increasing
flight speeds because of the general increase
punalty for other types of cooling systems with
flight speed. In general, expendable systems,
(-qn be dcsigyed frorn convent ional aircraft parts
and are rel1titelvy simple in operation and cont rol.
-
~-
Vapo Cyce Rerigeatio

SysemsConsideration
pmridhle cn-i:oLtng mystemn.i

e.r
sink In a vapor cycle coolims-
system.
The
Oln
(Oxilim, systenis erupicying a heat pump can

iiv;c a vaplxr cycle reirifgeration machine for the
vx:hiuiem ada ram air bystein as the ultimate
n.The evayx'zator In the vapor cycle ma-
aaiy
2.Tmertrslvl
3. Weight.
4. Size.
*
eorscepnli.
-..-Rom Air
-Outlet
Distribution Fluid
"
Vapor CycleHetX
Refrigeration
Mochinei
Exchanger
Machine----,
heAi purnp serves as a heat exchanger for the

coolintz system, so that the systemr is of the
indirect type, regardless of whether or not
tOe heat pumnp is It, the vicinity of the equipment
t. iflg- cooled.
'Power S~jppiy System:
Circulatiot
ng
up
Pm
Ram Ai7
Inlet
Fig. 5-25. Basic arrangement of a vapor
cycle cooling system.
5-25
-R.
sinre
lw
rrdi, ziiga heat pump, the temperature
Cife4Zti-'cneqrs, effiriency, or copefficient of utlill7ation is inmprovcd by sacrificing simplicity of
the System. ThS Overall Cooling Syb1u.m cculd
be a ram air syrleni, or an air system in which
tIbeth.rmal ztatc of the ultimate air is modified
prior to serving as a thermal sink for the heat
pump. Fuel may also be used 2.9 the ultimate
primary advantage of a cooling systemn

using a heat pump is Its ability to pro/vide coolIng at high flight speeds. Theoretically, a cooling
system of this type has no flight speed limita-.
tons. However, from a practical viewpoint, It
is limited by its complexity, weight, power requireraexts, and avatlability of suitable r1:ri&cer&ints. The reason ior this is that with Increasit
Igfih
peI
eonsdsr~i
o.~
crease the temperature dlifferentital created
by the beat pump, and to consider units capable
01 modLfylitg the thermal state of the ultimate
sink. A detailed evaluation of vapor cycle refrigeration systems for use in flight vehicles to
contained in~ reference /14/.
In Selecting a Coolin.g System

In the design of a cooling system to provide
adequate and practical protection for flight veiikieJ~t:1L
LAuid
oAld
-hi
be given to many va~riables, ouch as:
For the previously described cooling systems

using air as........
ili
-"--na~
tarsperature pol ental is provided by limiting Ukie
vehicle fL,,-hi %speedor by creating an energy
~~transfer by the use of turbines, compressors.and heat exrhangers to modify the thermal state
oi the air before servt0ng; as a thermal sink. In
addition to any m-ethod by which the thermal
s3tate of the ultimate Mir is modified, a heat
pump can be used to lower the temperature
level of ',he faii; nierving, the equipment or distribuition fluid, and to raise the temperature
level of the source serving the ultimate fluid.
Ii. this way, the overall effective temupe rature
p ctvtiial of the system is increased,
cool ing
sy-stem of this type is In direct contrast to the
piosnv-
'
shown in Fig. 5-25.
IThe
s tha th
i#!
timeof
,)li,; Esten,
timeof sy~e'~,
i~ cv~in s- tha th
for
driving
compressor of the refrigeration
machine
is the
provided
by the power sup! Ss.
temn. A block diagram oi such a systeni is
Equpmnt
P~owe Supply System

Fexpcnd-24.
chine furnishes Lhe low temperaturo alink for

the transfer fluid ser-ving the equipment, wnul
ths2 condenser of the vopr cycle machine pro-
li
"
%*
In additlen, the type of vehicle must be con.w_

,qjidrd. For exzarnple, a ccoding system t~hat
wAould I~e qatisfavtot-y for a subsonic aircraft.
Illigiit be entirely inadequate for supersoni c
sd
f;lgh. Likewise, sor';e cooling sytm
iclietively in atniospheric vehicles are uinsatisfactory for use In space vehicles.
1)robabiy t.i' :nost important factor to consider

z;iving at a cooling system coni'iuratlon is
flow tile cooling system can be integrated with
other systemns in the vehicle. An example of
this is the combhined air cycle rnooing; system
and cabin prcssurizatio.1 systL;a~ used in miost
gas-turbine propelled aircraft. In generz.1, the
lli;c of more efiioiontly integrated systc;ms re,suits in n reduction of the performanice penalties
to
c~..(-160
to th tho~"ch
"Chic!low
ii.
LOW_-TE~MPRr-ATU)RE PROTECTION
Because in-flight compartmernt temperatures
rarely stabilize at levels low enough to cause
seirious adverse effects on equipment operation,
extensive coverage Is not given in this handbook to low-temiperatare protcediov nicthodG.

I
bisieud? 4 9tirmi-ry of itnnnt-IAnt low -temperI
ature protection techniques Is presented in
Table 5-11. A more detailed analysis of low%
temperature effects and correspo)nding prevent-%
iye measures Is cov2red in re~erence/l5/. It
should be noted that the brief coverage does not
mean that low-~temperature protection cani beT
neglected. On the cont-ary, factors such as the
1.
strategic importance of the Arctic and the advent of missiles and nipace vehicles have increased the neeci for reliable law-temperature
It
equipmnit. One of the most extremae exampe
of th~s is the fuel system of many missiyles.
The~e vehiicles store, pump and Lurn liquid fuels
,.
at temperatures as low as -320 t,, -4v5 F
yv
to -218 C). In ad'dition to th-: extrcemely
~
temperatures, the materials us. la 'u.ese
fuiel systems must withstand high preL~,ures and
impart forces. Onzi metal that might posslA!
Ue used in these appllcn-ficn~j is titanium, which
increases in strength wl~h decreasing teiriper-%
ature. Teets have shown that at -300 F (-148 C)
A
the str::cingth of titanium is twice as great as ~
that at room tenmperature.
'T
Tahle .9-l1. Low-Temperature Protection Methods

Preventive meapuroe
I contactimiCareful
sel3ctlon of materials
Provision of proper clearance between nwnving parts;

Use of hpring tensioners and deeper rnilleys (or control ca'5rte;
Use of heavier material for skins.
IAtibrication
Proper choice of iudbricants;
;tiffenlng
Uspe greases compounded from sllicones, diesters or siliconedWcsters thickened with lithium stearate;
Eliminate use of liquid hibricauts, wherever possible.

le' if, hydraillic
Stiffewnr;n
syc~tem-j
of hydr.atii
Use of low-temperature sealing and packing compoutnds, such as
syctteirs
luct6 - tnagr, _aised by freezing
Use uf ,prcpA
'.owtemperature hydrauUIC fluids.
Elhimination of moisture b:
~;terProvision
;l
.td
of vents;
ut
-rnpledraining facilities;
Eliminating moisture pockets;
Sultablo beating;
Seaingi
Destice-ation of air.
I )f-'r Ali~t,)t
(.1
1[,-
ai
oft
(I'ir
Ii:I1turil propIti tel; ability
6.
CAreful1 selection of ninteriple

low-temnpniature capabilities.
-2t;
an~d comporents with satisfactor;,
Mvitiods of protecting the external surfaces of

aftimo.'pjheric fligfht v'ehicles from cold weather
jIvi -,it neitai effects such as icing and frosting
aire (-uvereti in later pairaraphs.
avoided during mianufacture 2nd proccaling Of

the material, as well as by proper design tech!liques. These Induced stresses include Stress
xaisers, which are f.-."nr'3 fitih aR R):4r
changes in contour or surface defects that Lonlcentrate stresses locally; internal stresses that
take place during heat treating, forming, machining, etc.; and built-in stresses that result
sirOCK AND VIi3HATrON Pf1OTECTION
fo
riicr-~ are two broid methiods of protecting the

veh.Iicle and 1,e :quipmnent against shock and vibrationi. Where possible, design techniques and
(ornpoannt parts should be chosen that will with.sIand tile shock and vibration environments.
Where tfie environments are '00 severe, Judicious location of equipment and parts, or the
Ilse of isolation protective systemts, is required.
Sources ofm
C' -ck
rd Vibratioin
-skin
The airframe structure requires protection

fronm shock, vibration, acceleration and acoustics occur ring outside: Of and inside the Structure.
Highsped
ma inuce
figh
luter hatis iMficicntily violent to cause almost instantaneous
thirough gusts, results in high accelerations and
d
stresses of the airframce. Certain maneuvers

result in severe load factors being applied to
tie vehicle, and intense aouistic pressure loads
usually dam.-age the skin as a result of a large
numbnier of relatively Srmall loads applied at a
hilth rate, limbalance In reciprocating power
plants and noiue irom propellers and jet streams
induce vibration. Inside the vehicle, rotating or
movng
quilAcri, s h as pumps, compressors, trinacuos,
et.,
generate vihrations' of many' frecquencies and amplitudes,
wihfrhrcomplicate teproblem,
Shock and Vihration Protection at ihe Vehicle
L~3F
l~asc deigntccnlqessuc
sr~cura Basi
as
st-actrasuh
a
using suitablie materials and frame design, will
plotzoct the flight vehicle against moit of the,
environmental stress l evels. This, however, Is
tnoi, a p~art of aeronautical engineering aina is
not covered in tins8 handbiook, The part of environrnent~l engineering th;t deals with stresses at U~ie verilicj ievel is concernct mnostly
w i'J fatigue, which is the tendency for a metal
t" break11 under coii Iitionb of cyclic stressing
corisideralbly' ,L~w its ultimate tensile strength.
-did
.1
The effects on ti vehicle's fatigue lifo of varfous methods of mounting the skin to the atructural members of the airframe are sihown in
Fig. 5-26. When mounted as shown in (A), failures In the skin-occur first near the bolt ',eads.
Mounting (B) Is the same as (A), except that a
laver of bonding mater~al is placed be-tween the
and the structure. With this mc~nzd, the
skin first peels awayfrom, the boridinv, ar~d thpr.
failure occurs near the bolt heads. Thinsoo~
ng tends to last about 50 percent longer than
mounting (A). To eliminate peeling, both sideb
of the skin should be bonded and clamped between two rigid surfaces, as shown in (C).' Failtwice as long as it would with thle (A) method.
Of fat igue life is obtained by lea

ingth edges of
th framne sharp, instead of round. This causes
the failures to occur at the edge of the frame
insteadof at tire bolt head, but the fatigue life is
doubled as Indicated by the bar of dashed linies,
Mounting (E) is the same as (D), except that a
pesr
ifrnilo
onsprsur
Inch in put across the skin. Thin high differ
entlal pressure causes the skin frequency to
nearly triple,
and life is greatly Increased.
deign
chnq~es
When the skin thickness is doubled from 0.032inchto 0.064-inch gage and mounted with method
(A), fatigue life increases about twenty times.
/16/
Yati;u,, i))amg.Ft 1 u damage occurs to

.iTr iam--;iUIicures Ui;,t ire exposed to Intense
viliratiuan and acoustic preisure loads. Damage
to the vehiide skin can be minimiz~ed by (1) using
liii
proper ,4kin nmaterial and configuration and
(2) cmnt rollitig the vibration arid acoustic stresMsk thiat are applied to the skin, It should be
Ii did thlat tlhe faitigue probtlem IF; iot limited to
tie vchiele skin but affect& every part of tire ye1, l e, fromn thre strut ture to thec smallest cornSi-8 iii
ein
1
Method (D)) shows the Akin rolled to an 8-foot

radius and fastened to a curved rigid frame.
Skin failure now starts near the bolt heads as It
with methods (A) and (B), but curving the
Skin increases the average life 1& times over
that shown in (A), even though the stress cycles
increase skbo.t 50 percent. A further increase
--
mrprasml
'
MQ~erial and Con~i ruration.

Lindur ed
.
sc~,iiili uIr
sk-7fin
aterial must becrta.//
(A) ciI
Blonding
'
-2
(C)
RadiusB
-8
(D) f
'
.
L1
Difrnl?0
10
20
O 100
Pressure 6Gpsi Relotive Timne to Fniiure
Fig. 5-26. Rielative Skin fatigue life. Skinl
gage is 0.032 inch; linear dimensions are
5-27
-~~~~~
--
- - --
-ir--
iP
Coot rulliaiSkin Stresses. There is little that
actuating system and the control surfaces, or y
by
caused the
stressea
reducee- 6e but
to
ca.nfortunately,
envkronment;
the extrn'l
a'.is.
the hinge
ingbeabout
hydraulic
using
by pla.lng
prevented
can g dam
Buffeting
most
cause
stresses
intcrn.l0y
ti-,oble andgenerated
can be contero
led to
sometheextent,
of
wake
lie outside
they the
so thatwhich
lift. surfaces
other
parts from
air flowthemay
sep-
The vibration and acoustic levels that reach the

and
equipment
down less
by using
be kept
skin can that
~methods
generate
vibration
and noise.
-)r example, prop!ller noise may be redced
wider
blades,
the numtitr
by increasing
bindseL
and removing
theoftips
from using
the blades.
arate as a result of eitner flight attitude or a

high Mach number.
Also, acoustic loading from jet engines can be

placing the
engines as far as posminimi7zedby
sible from vnlnerable
areas.
lected that can vithstland the anticipated shock

and vibration forces. In many cases, no cornponents are available that have been specifically
designed for operation in the expected environnments.
Then,
only recourse
the designer
has
isto
apply
the the
aval~able
components
In manner
soplhevabecmoe
1.r.anr
Ihat minimizes thc environmental. effect's or to
use components that are avmailable. -rl !-,- lu
dicious design, conLrol the envtronfn"it.
Selection of Electronic Components

Whenever posalle, components should be se-.
Vibration
Vibratisonant
dan noos-eeaigeupetcn
isegen"erai
ongI toqu iipmiena
!;; uring
by
l
c-pec1tal mounts to minimize
the tranBrn,-rlon of strcsses to the skin. This
is co%c:d laj.r in this section.
Studies have been made, such as reference

/18/, concerning what happens to components
subjected to shock and vibration, but little information is available as to how to select a
component for use In this environment. For the
most part, the information given in the following
paragraphs is of a general nature. It is intended
as a guide to aid the designer in selecting and
g ompos.
Flutter and Vibration.

ire i-tbia
v
ocan b minIuiimized by:
1. Using high torsional rigidity of fixed and
movable surfaces,
2.
Proper rtatic balance of control surfaces.
3. Dynamic balance of control surfaces and

tais.
6. Irreversible tab mechanisms located as

closeto tle tab ox control surfaces as possible,
Transfriegro. Certain types of transformer

assemblies have definite points or areas that
. are susceptible- to shock and vibratiun. The
transformer shown in Fig. 5-27 illustrates this
point. /19/ As attached to the base in (A), the
-- transformer is vulnerable to lateral excitation.
Add-ng a aup ro
t bruket be~t-wien the hoP nand
.he core, as In (B), raises the naturet frequc-cy
-
L2o j
5-28 are examples of good design for shock
rfirm
U IT Ip
(A)
Ft,
(cn,,r"
,41(,
also cause intermittent open and short circuits
Acc~rCoUC Constwoion
I i,;. 5-27. Transformer design to resist shock

otil ibti(n.
5 -21;
dnd
Capacitors. Capacitor elements should be

-Terllntheir containers to prevent damage to the dielectric, the fol, and the leads to
thle terminals. A loose internal assembly may
-U-
f ise C-re C.I
of the transformer and distributes the strain.
Short leads should be used in a transformer to

reduce the forces imposed on the terminals.
Also, transformers should have the mounting
bolts go through the core, instead of being welded
to the shell. The transformera shr.rwn in Fig.
*ll-no*
k-
are mounted on short, thick supports. /8/ Wiping, or follow-through contacts, such as used In
a stepping rUlay, UIIUUld bUused wiheeale-v
possible. This contact arrangement will not bounce
open when subjected to shock and vibration.
Relays should be-used in the energized positiorn,
if possible, as the holding force Is greater, and
there is less danger of inadvertent opening.
Adequate current should be supplied to the coil
to obtain the moat armature attraction.
5. Uniform snanwise distribution of weight

,dong th[;e span of tbe surface.
w;nd;rq
Relays. The effects of shock and vibration can

be decreased by using relays with contacts that
4. inherent uass balancing by favorable location of structural weight,
Panel flutter can usually tle prevented by the

uc of sufficiently stiff structural panels. If
th~ck panels are undesirable, a possible alternative solution Is the use of internally pres-.
sori::ed (cotrpartments so that the outer skin Is
kept at coustant tension. Control surface buzz
can be pr-',ented by sufficient rigidityof the
-J
during exposure to shock and vibration. In paper

capacitors, the extended foil construction Is
best able to withstand the e"citation forces.
u.
&AA~
___V
9(
-~
Fig. 5-28. Transformers designed to withstand shock and vibration.

(Courtcsy (A Bell Telephonme Laboratories, I~nc.)
Rodial Krlurl'ng
Atten-.pis to Prevent
Turning of Terminal
Inserted in Proper
Size Hole,Knurled
Shonk Prevents
Turning of Te~rninol
U Il/
/nri
ntld
KnuringShank
Ru~
Radial
IKnurl~ng Grip
l Dependent on
1
KuldS~k
Grip Is Not
Oependent on
Tight Swoging
Terminals. The rigidity of a terminal in its

mkn
9!Ii-iile determines, to some extent, the
abili ty of the attached lead to withstand mechanical excitation. If the terminal becomes loose
and vibrates, the lead becomes susceptible to
vibration forces. By vibrating and humping the4
edges of its mounting hole, a loose terminal
causes wear around the edge of the hole and
becomes looser. The terminal board must be
of a composition that will not readily wear or
inal must be made of such matrial that the
terminal shank will not crack excessively when
it Is swaged. A knurled terminal grips the board
better and resists turning in the hole. Termshanks are more resistant to
knurled
Wale withthan
turning
those with radial knurling. Figure
5-29 shows a radial and a icnuried shank iermIng post.
"t
'
-'.4
.,, A.
__X
gl
wogngWirine
J'i~ ~-9.
teminl
Kurld pots.cav.6.
Fig.5-2l. trmin
Kurld pots.and
andCabing. /19/ Stranded wire rind

hve a relatively high degrce of dz'.rping
are preferable to solid conductor wiring in
a shock and vibration environment. In addition

11.sistors.
~~
Very little inlorm.ation can be of-
*-i d on selecting~ fix'ed rusistors to withstand

shock ind vibration. however, as to shalt operatw,, 'ari i;ihic rstor,
the fouolwing should be
'unqiclortd. The slider spring tenslop should
1 lufkifintto prevvvt the slider from breaking
crrit~fcl Aith thle resistance clemnent as a result
(iohfdere
and vibraZtiUT; adequate fihalt torque
Olould I, used to prevent creepage from shock
awl OlinMloyi; the Ohal-t should tkc rediced to the
burl
robot jorotik-itle lenglh; and the lightest
kinh touIld be USte.d. ,L/pexiod
to the Internal damping offered by the insulation,

internal fr'.ction between multiconductor cable
components or between individuql strands of
stranded conductors provides damping that reduces the vibration amplitude at teeonalucO.
Selection of Fasteners /8/
In many cases, even though the equipment Is
properly designed and isolated so that it wil
not be directly damaged by shock and vibration
forces, the repetitive nature of the forces tends
to cautie fastened deviucki to come loose after a
of time. Fasteners, then, should bie
(hoscit to resist vibration and acoustic forces.

Many specialized fat~tcnerti have been dt.ve~loped
for pa rticular purposes, and theso fasteners are
used in la-frge quantities in militaryle udpmcnt.
S-omie 'ommlnonly osed fastesicrs ar eaesribled
III the i-iliowing paragzapiis.
In another type of aell-locking nut, several of

the threads are deforined to an elliptical nhape
or inwardly, as shown in Fig. 5-31. The deformed thread then grips the screw thread over
a portion of Its periphery an~d The nut does not
loosen readily. Still another self-lockinig nut In
made in two parts, as shown In Fig.5-32, with
the top of the bottom portion slotted so that it
cart comoress when the upper portion of the nufl
t
i heddo
Self-Locking Nuts. Self-locking nuts of the

thred iterfrenr~e
ypeprovde orqu inthe
nut tro uss; vibratioia or other forces~ that tend
to soparate the joint. LoUking is accomplished
in any one of several ways. The nut may have
;m insert made of a relatively soft material,
such as fiber, nylon, or lead, as siliown in Fig.
5i-30t. The screw impresses its own threan in
th~e insert, and the resiliency of the insert mateQa exerts a force on the screw thread to
preveit
loosning
i fro
prevet
ooseing.doni
itIrom
Selfl-locking nuts are available in a variety of

foarms:
plain; clinch, for fastenint, the nut irltopaeo
tutr;anchor,
for f aster Ing to a
plate or otructu~re by rivetiiig, cycletiqog, welding, or a similar method; and floating, which is
etin I Isir tM anchor, exeept that the nut b as f reeo movement' for a- short. di(
I~n twe
dIirections to allow for tolorances in fitted parts
Some examples of clinch-'Lype nuts 4tre tilvin
Fig. 5-33.
tL
'
Soft
inser
Inner Nut Slatted
above This Face
Fig. 5-30. Self-locking nut w[it relatively soft

insert that grips threads to prevent loosening.
(Cutsy of Elastic Stop Nut, Cor.
aP~l
Q'.
Fig. 5-32. Two- part soiel-locking nut. Top nut.

conwresseh slotted portion of boottom nut
sce thad
.
ti e
Metal
Standard
clinch nut
fllf 1i mcd mnwvtrlarly to igtrip screw thread tightly.
W0'.1itsv o)f il1astic Stop Nut Corp.)
-2
Nylon
Miniatuie
clinch nuts
Into panel and anchored by riveting or welding.

(Courtesy of Elastic Stop Nut Corp.)
7"
Stud
Slide
~Fig. 5-37. Snap-slid fastener operated by
small movement of sliding section.

(Courtesy of Aircraft Radio Corporation)
t
-_qar
-.
mcy
or half turn of the rotating
.sbi
-turhefaseneruthatlocks
Quart~
ortobjhtsgduringseparation
ofpcto
rotatin
acith
ineairasyequarter-tur n astener fctorsast ofptwoe
ofr CflcFsenrCr.
(Courtsy
piseced toth
f
onjet
partiabl, wndiohescnit ho
kindhave vaindouf
types ofaiheale for operation,
reqithsrewdrivners afoin ore&nthe fasngers Son
Fi. -3. uawrtun
asenr ha lck
faojeters havei de~rteontso.te
eie
olc
eleent
agains inadvertent losnig andtin
r!ethem
othrf
careo hasene
tobetaentoavi
turin
(Ctheme
tonyfarso that thyrlasteer
inadvertently
Moarst and othere
fastnerstnee snepieciall
Bohae
kindshavevariostbes of acstndfor soperalio
uihse
rwries
roun holes.ngrsSni
ali
hnaboth
artstorohrceistolk
holtenes
Fim gurin34strsnadvertenetht
oosnsists ofdan
samerfastener instalbedtketo
holvtoiparnelnto
gther isofa show ina Fig. re35.aTe studvsertn-y
F~~~~~~~~g.
~~~
5-f5 Qure-unhatnrintleeosl
Ms a
e fastailedrso thaeiei specalf-retaiping
nuldtwohcrhoreso
artst
iha iothmart rebed
to
fas thned, f.tseverais
Fig.
rclosing
qurtr-ur
--
F15-35.~
opend. Thebyad
receptacle.
a-ye
iatchdoiTshprt
saner havertene
tensale adtohoar strepaths tof
sthear stents
sown 300 and. 10350 posunds.
fastener
Eymybeit~ds
A frtiona-turn
htIuntle
sing a rubetaininvc
that sIde ofte
heoledin the. pa~nel and
theed
frhe
isc
ahown
inFigttached toitfastene
hasther
c01 wldevc ng The studs
portfn and1
fasc
iavturnted, thenspilang
sihea
ids then Msof
2(Jand
pulsth pounsee tighut. mt esle2
o
hur
tgetagainrst
wo pats
~i
~Y~nit
1-ig.
~
~ ~
of Gad-RbberCo.)
ru'al Trc
I z
of
1Y
c i
stregth
s. ofif~ir
h 30 np-ld
asn'er15 fastners.ow
g..- , istuseurn f asteneruing panrber lecoy
thres Texpanstencr areda diectione
toperitueez
oagaindt
rheplaemenof
thoequipmWentneandoie
hars inecam deviscond
Athe same
potioneanhey
r is turngd tenoughito carry airborei cIpnLi~teca
sha
Af
...-.-*-
rv-TtrllFasenes.
racionl-trn
~ 5e ~ narcreapia
'Ire~
~ ~~~~~I
idl
prate, toefanseRuor rCoaewih)
under seveefsteness. are
movl
eplcemntof
ad
I
i-wti)rm-Tur
racionl-tun
Fatenrs.
prtsin
afewsecnds.At
odesinendto~pemi r
quimet ad5ohe
he
ame
imethe
vibration. The first consideration is the location of a part with respect to the linear dimenslons of the structure or chassis on which it is
mounted; in other words, whether P. part is put
on the edge, the corner or in the center of U
structure." The second consideration is the
orientation of a part with respect to the direct..
ion of shock and vibration excitation. And the'
third consideration Is the manner of mounting
oni
the part.
is so designed that it must be forced open

s1ij~htlv before the stud is engaged. This prevezts t(ie qlide from com(Ing loose.
for
clamps
se -q-uimentto
the airframe
Fastening
or racks
clampa.
Fastenin
quipmen
must be capable of staying tight under constant
vibr.!:onl. It is .3;andard practice v Ith ordinary
ni t and belt !-.3tening to use a aafety wire to
prevent the bolt from becoming luose. How-ever, the safety wire tends to slow down remmwal and replaceteent of equipment. SelfInckini' fastening clanips-axe available that do
nnt reqtire safety wires. A typical one is shown
in Fig. 5-38. The clamp consists of three principat parts: an inner nurto secure the equipmentto th,, rack; an outer nut; and a serrated
loc,!rZ, nut to lock the inrner nut in place. The
ouLer nut Is spring loaded so that it appliee
constant pressure on the inner nut to prevent it
ifrom loosening. The serrated locking nut coup-.
les the Inner and outer nuts, and normally is
seated in the nut recesses. The outer nut can
be screwed up or down tp the best locking positlon, and then can be pulled up slightly from
its locking position without screwing. An internal sp.,ing pulls the outer nut back down to_
its locking posihlov when it is released. With
the outer nut pulled up, the inner nut can be
the equipment. The entire
uilscrewel to releaseusually
attached to the rack
clamp ase-mbiy is
Some degree of shock and vibration protection

Is obtained by properly locating parts on the
supporting structure or chassis, since the loca,tioncanaffoctthe naturalfrequency of the structure and 'he mAint of shok protection provided.
Such placement takes Into account both the
weights of the parts and their motions in response to excitation. In most cases calculating
the best arrangement of parts is Impractical,
since the time spent In making the calculations
is greater than the time necessary to test and
modify an arrangement arrived at by empirical
metocts.
-,
Knurled
Outer
-Nut
*t
Parts Location
Three basic considerations are Involved in-protecting parts from Lhe ef ects oi shock and
Box
.,
The ability of at part to withstand shock and
Equipment
",,
vibration depends on thz response of the part to

the encountered excitation and on its ab~iit-' to
withstand that response without malfunction- or
failure. The-size and shape ol a pai-t, the way
in which It Is mounted, and such material propertiesas density and elastic modulu, affect its
natural frequencies.
with a hinec, so that the clamp can be swung

down to facilitate removal and replacement.
.pplicalior. of Components
.y'
'
The following is a list of parts-location techniques and considerations for designing equipment to be used in a shock and vibration environment:
1- Maximum support ahould be given to parts
of ,umximum weight,
egt
raiu
2.
Sufficient space
r:
should be provided for
movement of parts wnder excitation.

J.
andmounts.
equipment
of plane
parts of
gravity
3. Centers
to the
close
be kept of
should
4. Heavy parts should be located at the corners or sides of a chassis, and lighter items
should be centrally located.
Parts should be distributed about the
'Rack
/f_
C.--'d
j_
P-5.
(,Me
:hrPulld
Up
The total mass of parts remote from the
'
T4] irn.
#7.
itH-ivy parts shouldLbe located low in equip-
mmeritand
Clan p Assembgy
Swurj L)Qr,
J'iit. 5-38.
-
'
I
sible,
iDr]u
of mounts should be kept as small as pos-
plane
t.of unq
A
..
moupting structure so that the chances of their

striking one another are minimized.
6.
Serrated
.i
Self-locking latitening clamp..
Aaced
cos to mounts as possible.
8. There is reason to believe that an irregular

arrangement of parts on the mounting structure
is of value, since such an arrangement prevents
all the parts from resonating at the same frequency and in the same direction.
l2
71MiiP
X.
bration frequencxes PMo ag tie axis, sornecCofltact chelter occurs but the degree of chatter
varies depending on the contact-tip pressure for
1. The natural frequencies of the portions of

Lthu rmunting structure on which sensitive parts
.irz pVf-ated should hbe far remored from the nao5 of the sensitive parts. A f rei
turd rquenci
the particular relay design. Severe chatter occurs at or close to the resonant f requencies of
the relay's contact support members. Contact
chatter also occurs as a result of shock fnrces.
Axis 2 of the clapper-type relay appears least
sensitive to shock and vibration. Unless specialized clapper types are used, there its assurh ea
ac fotmmrlypromnei
Is oriented so that acceleration forces are diaxis 3, the
axis. isAlong
to thisrelay
rected
not considered
c~apper-type
averageparallel
quency ratio of 2 to 3 is desirable,

Parts C>-i-cntatloii
An indication of the importaace of parts orientat ion as a protective measure against shock and
vthration can be gotten from the following diareTlays.
cub",ioI1
LAf
susceptible to effects of vibration accelerations.

Shock acceleiration3 of 30 to 50 g, however,
R~w rlctattn.
he elayrnn~ wih te
cfctror t .Tc as one of the major sources of
realfat..tion in airborne equipment. The operit ion 14 ;1 relay wider conditions of shock and
vibration is generally unpredictable. Typical
shock and vibration failures are: contact chattering, nrmnature binding armature jarring from
p-aditin, and mechanicai warping and breakage.
When cantilever mounted and vertically oriented, relays with long body dimensions cften ampiythe mechanical excitation appearing at
their mounting base. This undesirable cornhination is shown in Fig. 5-39. From the 10-g
motion of the base, successive amplifications
occur until a 30-g level is reached at the armatore.vironments.
___
t~:~e-~s~
Te clpper-ype
hea.y~.
caecoidrleotcthte.
Rotarv-Tvne Rela.
Summa of Relay Orientation. Exprinc

rgsare
us~a-y -orientedaccordIng to available space or convenien~ce of attachnient. Certain optimum orientations of relays, however, exist for various types o! eniThe dynamic forces In convent-
ional aircraft and helicopters are prinnarily

along the vertical axis, but in helicopters, forces
-~-*
At Lowvi
toibrtiu
sockLnd
alog ais . Atlowvi-
A3m0ur
--
TI/
axis. Missiles launched from the ground often

experience large dynamic forces along the longitudInal axis. The effect of these forces on the
relay depends mainly on the particular relay
and its orientation in relation to the dynamic
force encountered. F igur e 5-42 shows orientatlons for three types of relays. These orientations assume that the support is rigid, and that
motion occurs -along or about one axLis Only.
rigid supports are unavailable, sufficient
rigidity must be designed into the supporting
-Flebe Ctassis
Motion atfStructureT
Flg .5-39. .3hock amplification throu hl

ototgbdrelay fastiened on flexiMe
2/
1 ij 5-40.
('lapper-typr
rela1
sand axs
nearly as great appear along the transverse
toshock
i-lnc vibratinalon
fastist wh.
Aiemby
-Conact
s~ert~yWhen
The rotary tyin r"i'ay,
o fetdb
~nral
linear vibration- 11Is sensitive only to rotational vibration In a plane perpendiculaur to its
axsP
Fig. 5-41. Rotary-type relay and axes.
.
'
Fig. 5-44. Credle-t~ype tabe shtei fe-r)i

m iniature tube ,/8/.)
Fig. 5-42. Best orientation for three populaJzr

type -cli.ys.li9,"
can be accomplished in tube mounting is to s-ubJect the entire tube to the vibration existing in
uother
-. pleat way to mount a tube is to push its pins into

a socket that is fastened tr the chassis. VWhile
this method or moxmting is satisfactory in mild
~~~environments, it does not prov ide good support
for the tube. Tutoes that are pin mounted may,
et
is
Ttypkl
i
fleclamps
ieho
the
beynd
a~scbly
the , nvironmenvironmtingts,
yp .AP'
Fig.,-42
Fig. 5-43. Hat and post device for ho~dng tube

in socket. (Courtesy of TirnesFacsimileaCorp.)
;trctu-c
,' r
"
,,
notbut
only
mountin
ThemotJon
the c~hassis.
strict
the tube's
undermust
shock,
shoIre-
S-
,;
.I
largely
_ncrease tbe natural frequency
of"''--
Ircquencies,
Parts Mount;-.g,
Tie r,,sonant frequencies and behavior of any
part, fer csidering its shape, mass ditri-to
I-), the mounting
ethod used. The madting
r:pisthe
e aspect of design over
Sdemter hat, the r.reatest control
'.e.tirr:
methdds for
common eieb-ratin
troinsc
parts
are
t
escrily
d
in
tFlis
sectiop to
s
the wide Iatstude the designer has in so-
tgbeTyertsorampyif
);
"-,
:.,
"i
'I'-
,_
thebase mo
to the chassis. However, bas~e-gripping

~~~secured
are uoradly more rAgd than other types,
thistur
6 ci it..
_Co6t.n
saifatryigood su......ot
ml
&-es full
not...
prvid
an~~~2d
tendtutr.
toeA-o,
transmit
forces dtrectly
to the
tue
.
,,hshock
thp_:_
clamp holds the base of the tube securri y, the
in
envelope containing the tube elements Is stre-a
cantitever and unde'
m ouere shock and vibration
the cement that holds the envelope in the base
often fails. When this happens, the leads will
.. ,
..
.i
'rj
'- r_
"
soon tof,
a-',,
disi
cprotheitubelbctitsl
bsheldn
with
them-aa~
seuI
tonn
the chassis.y Howre bdse-gripped
fto the base-grippin. type. There
p
.inNto general types of envelope-gr ptphg tube clamps:
the
post"
ant the shield
The "hat
hat andher
part typeorampvailable
in bans type.
gular
T ube
lettes, size
Theglass
one envelope.
shtelds,
shown In Fig.
5-43
is for ina adred
ecri
ei
a
cmperature control give te rtd mechanical ty
protection and help hold It in its socket. Many vartthe tube e crael
etype
tubes is
5-44.
ietie ofofminiature
ttbe shels
r shown
aaiale inaig. crdeeeverkl
Transistor Mountin
Although inherently"
l, Oir,.: a mountigarme
ntFaeer
o
re-sistar t o shock and5 vibration, transistors
use in r"untiendg have tmen covered previously
can fall because
-g
improper mounting. Figuret
irc 4i' 5en.1,i'.
5-45
of
tran
tors
h
einrhotegets
oto,
tpeo shows
iitr feve types
ue
ssonI
tg that
~4aremps
mounted
Th various
ways,
The transistor
r
alr tp )n Tus Mountint.sLxcept forthespecial
In(A) Is screwed
to the
chassis.
The type shown
shown
(Ar:nOf.IenIT"
,
i
_h.
atta tus,
the btsa that.
in (oe) has a threaded stud that screws into a
net~c~dsforseveal
tr~~
... cmmondK,
urmnT,
ecix 7
=rt tinOr etont
";
..
"'i
,,
".
"
J.3
sonant frequency, the stress on the lcads civt'

easly~ become great enough to cause them to
break. Lead-miounted capacituisauidretsiaiors
fallmore quickly wlve excited at resonance than
when excited at other frequencies, and their life
may be increased by increasing their natural
frequencies. Figure 5-46 sntows the results of
tests on a particular resistor size and type and
ilustrates theincreased lifethat can be obtained
y inceain
thenauafrqecthog
shortening the lead le
fequncythrug
t4
(A) (B
(A)
(1
(C)
W
4i.
rvy
II
(Esistora
ftassos
hcait sink. From a shock and vibration standpoint, thiesc twc types are desirahlc because
(C), (D), and
thy [-te scrl.Tansistors
(E) do not fasten, as securely as the other two,
anjd other menics moust lbc used to insure their
resislanice to shock and vlfjration. Type (C)

mounts in a sockei like an electron tube, and.
for
irbrneappicaion
itmus bemouted
kith somie form of retainer. The retainer
mayroni:~ofa
sripofmetl etenla acoss-.
IroT of pu-ini transistors and securely
a-re
to wie chassis. ituuber K1011Mmet
boltedi
used at the .-oints of conta~ct between the strip
.rknd the tranis~storr.
Tranc~itors (D))and (E ) aie supported by their~
loas,
maes hic
hemvulerale o s~ck
ype (D, i usall __
boads ith he o
sidchataganst
he oar, ad shuldbe eld
to~ihco.:1rtb:j soring clips or wire straps. The_
flat, hutton type, (E), roay be used without retauners, if mounted on a printed-wiring board
"-itli Lthe leads holding the base tight against theled.Both of these types are less susceptible
to iaiiurc if a coating is used to make the board
and ~l~r~-trigi
Th coting~,in mtakse,
te rwansli or 'adie're to th board.
and Te
ibrtjo.
lng
rined-wrin
WiO~t~dOIL
Transfornier Monig
In many cases, a
tr-)S o-rier istTihe hieaviest part on a chassis.
'Ile transfori.,cr should have strong brackets and
Ibc siicLurcly mounted with large bolts. Fre--.-.
cluunilty, the transformer is mounted on a re- lativviy flimsy chassis, which lowers the chas- z_
-is' resonant frequency to a point where It is in12cp
the. shock and vibration spectium. Thus, Input -int eurations are 4.roplified by the chassis, the
Ssor on the chassis itself. Careful attenlion to)inountivi will prevent the transformer
fromii llrvakintog loose.
(apaicitor and R-sietor Mounting.
Mounting
catu t aiJ~~iliF~W~~TrledsIsat
2 iJecnonnclinstall alion. Components
:onodI ry thinir leadt: are masses supported
hv iuojtiplcx resilient hI a~ns with little damping.

!TJill sii~h an anssern!'iy be excited at its re-
The method of mounting capacitors and reby using short leads as their supports
may be acceptabla in conventional aircraft,
where the high-frequency excitation is of low
value. But, when this method of mounting is
used in a guided missile, where ehans.sla vih-;tions of appreciable magnitude may oxd.A or
long periods at frequencies coinciding with the
ntrlfeunyo
h edmutdpri
may be necessary to clamp or cement the capacitor or resistor to the chassis.I
Proper mounting techniques for both fastened
and lead-raounted capacitors and resistors Incorporate many minor but important considerato.Freamlsshw
Inig -7th
lead should be handled carefully with proper
tools to prevent nicking or scratching, and the
lead should be glven a slight bend to allow for
temperature contractions of the wire between
the component and the terminal.
Proper design of equipment structure can ml!
nimize the effects of shock and vibration, and
cgntrol the transmission of shock and vibration
excitation. The mounting structure generally
takes the form of a ractL. and chassis. Structu-i
ral
th
ak-may vary from a simpl~e mountLeth toaecmlxcntucinta
ne
ngratstoan
couimpentconstruct~io that vate
grome man
s
equipmenabxts; th chaplixmay in~
ar
a
hsi
ht omterc.o
Nomte
a
o hsi
httomterc
Nomte
the design of these structures is esseninaiLy a matter- of providing the best strengtn
and flexibility. A rack or chassis that is too
30
3C~
____________
-15cp
*20
~5-
57P
90P
1.2 2.4 36 6 12
Minutes
36 1
Time
4 6 8 12 20
Hours --
Fivr. 5-46. Fatigue life vs natural frequency of

lead-mouunted resistor./'1/
5-35
..
[-Irrid 4t) Deg Around '"erinifol

Aid Soider
-Shorp-Edge 'fools Shoold No~t D3e
Used to Hondle or Benld Lead
Su~dPostSlight
SolidnPos
w~ust be of a low value. The excitalon Is a

function of th#- environment existing at the
The anticipated environment is the determin-
Ing factor ini designing for natur~d frequencies

of the mounting system and 0 U.pment. ForK
chassis, the following rule-of -thumb Is useful:
the natural freq'ri'.rwies should be no lean than
B~end in Lead for

Relief of Strain During
two times, and preferably three to four times,

the highest frequency of the excitation source.
This source will be either the isolators or the
Halndling, Coonvenience---
mounting ia used. Often, especially in missiles,

xcitation fre-quenciee are eto high thnt it iA
impossible to design the rack and chaocls rf it
rigidly mounted equipment so th~tt the natural
frequencies are above the excitation f1rtqunne1.s.
In this case. the chassis mid rack natural frequencies shojuld be in a range where the accelerationlevels are low and the chasliis and rack
should be dampe~d to ilmit resonance response.
Damping io considered part of the protective
system.
Split P61thce
Terminal
IF'g. 5-4 7. Proper mounting technique for

lead-mounted capacitor or resistor./19/
mray amplify vibration excitation; one
fi(x~
transmit an unnecessary
that. is too rigid may
amlount o1 Aick cxr 1tation,
The number of structu~res in the mounting sys

tern should be minimized. Making the remainIng structures as rigid as possible will further
Considerations./19/
Solidly
increase ti-c rcnanant frequency.
mountedi eouinment maust be inherently rugged
enough to ivithistand the shock and vibration environiment without the cushioning of isolators.
Ruggedization can be incorporated into the
equipment hby numerous conventional tinchniques,
as well an 'by special methods such as embed-I
ment and nifniaturization.
Structure.; are designed to withstand shock

and vibration. forces by: (1) coittrolltig the
response of the structures to the environmlents,
(2) givingr lthe structures the proper stress
tdiaractcritics, i;a (3) isolating the structures
from the forces. A proper combination of these
lb L'Unei-,11y uas".
It~ecciance aff-cts the magnmitude of the load

;;ipphitrii a tructure and its transmission cha-1
r:wteristics. Aniy shock or vibration at the resson'axit frequency is amplified in force, causing
-in itnre-ased chance for damagec and coupling to
other parts. The rat if of the output vibration
amplitude to the applie-d vibration amplitude is
knowni as transmissUibiity. - Transmilssibility
ciii )w cr)nisidere(d a agIi-ificatIon factor and is
or-ts
t resonance. 11, dcreases dlown to
unity b~elow resonanice, and cmi b_-ecome less thai'.
Therefore structural
on'nty above re.soniance.
1,.irts rchosen thould be tested and/or analyzed
to cletermilne their natural rrequencies. Since
i:21 ural Irequonemicie are fixed for a specific mnatfc,-;l) confirguration, the m24ainitude of the exSt 'Hi
real hir
die parts
j
I
I
Rigidity Factors
TPhe response of a structure to shock and vibrat-ion excitation is determined largely by the
excitation frequency and resonance charakcteri:;tici3 of t'14 L,.ructure. The stress characteristics of the structure depend on the choice of
in:Lterialb. type of structure used, and stress
manufacturingtd.ilributioiis resulting Irom
O .iy stress distribution is covered here, sinc;
nmaterial and structure characteristics are part
oi inechanical engin erring. Isolation of the
stru('ure r.~quire9 the use of an auxiliary protccti-.c iysfe~m; this is covered later in a seiparatc suction.
(it
ri
airframe, depending on whether flexible or rigid
1/16 In. Projection for
n.
mounting and the flexibility of the structure.
Cemet orCla
pi
`,
Rigidity in a bti-act ure can be accomplished by

designingthe structure for an inherent stiffness
and1 wher.- neceseary, adding stiffeners to Increase the rigidity.
!Inee n Slt.fnesi. The inherent stiff.Aess of a
structure depends. on the modulus of elasticity
of the material and its cross-sectonal area ana
shape. The modulus of elasticity values, E, for,
qeveral materials are given in Table 5 -12. Tvpical cross sections of structural shapes areI
shown In Fig. 5-48. These shapes; are available
TabiL 5-12. Moduli of Elasticity, E.
for Various Materials /19/
aeilElb/n2
~b/n
Matra
Aluminum-
10.2 x 10~
Magnosiumn
6
6.1 x 10
Mteel
28-31 x 10~
Drass
13.4 x 106
Copper
14.5 x10
-6
-
at UIliure frequencies-
WS7.'#
I
I1
Send
Deg
must
round~rmina
mus
4PegArUsed tormandle
sen
5S-olid-Post
U dt
lerminal
..-
_split
rstthe
~amnount of shiock exeltation.

~~nConsiderations./19/
-..
Struct~ures~ are designed to withstand Rhock

and vibration forces by- (1) ccuitrollhig the
US-mrnr
~-
The response of a structure to shock and vibration excitation is determined largely by the
excitation free~uency and resonance cliaracteristics (if Ube ttucture. The stress characteri,-tics of the struciure depend on the choice of
materials, type of structure used, and stress
C.?iy stress distribution is covered here, stince
material and structure characteristics are part
inn atinqn ni th#3
enr'un.pring'
v!, ,prnec.n~ral
strurture -, quires the use of an auxiliary protective systemn; this is covered later in a separate section.
Rec'unance aflccts the magnitude of the load

appiiedtQ 7. nciicture and its transmission char:ictcristics. Any shock or vibration at the ressonant frequency is amplified in force, causing
an increased chance for damage and coupling to
offier parts. The ratio of the output vibration
amplitude to the applied vibration amplitude Is6
Trans missibil ity
known as transmissibility.
cain hc c-onsidered armagnification factor and is
Irreatest at resonance. It decreases down to
u riity below resonance, and can become less thar
unity abo~ve resonance. Therefore Structural
parts chosen should bx! tested and/Or analyzed
to determine their natural frequencies. Since
riturai frequencies are fixed for a specific matrrial confifuration, the magnitude of the caiataijon reaching the parts at those frequencies
5.
Tenme
fsrcu
In the mounting sysTenme fsrcues
tem should be minimized. Making the remaining structures as rigid as possible will further
increase *the resonant Frequen cy. Solidly
mounted equipment must be inherently rugged
enough to withstand the shock and vibration enwih-u
Si'.mSS~.~
giving the structures the proper stress

characteristic!-, and (3) isolating the structures
from the forces. A proper combuination of these
(2)
j.~,
xcttoni
'
should be damped to lim'it resonance response.

Damping Is considered part of the protective
system.
flexihin- may amplify vibration excitation; one

that is too rigid may transmit an unnecessary
If,-
echassis and rack
erat~ionlevels are low
lead-mounted capacitor or resistor./19/
~ J~ia-
au.
impossible to design the rack and chtA.."i of a

rigidly mounted equipment so that the natural
frequencies are above the excitation f-.3c~
In this case, the chassis and rack natural fre-
Terminal
ben ofalw
xiainI
vlue.-he
the natural frequencies should be no less than

two times, and preferskbly three to four times,
the highest frequency of the excitation source.
This source will be either the isolators or the.
airrame, depending on whether flexible or rigid
mounting is used. OCften especially in missiles,
cxcltatlon frequencies are so high that it is
Cemen-SorlCla
Handling Coenveni~ce--.
low
of
anticipated environment is the determinIng factor in designing for natural frequencies

of the mounting system and equipment. For
setting the natural Irequencles of the racks and
end oadThe
Usedto
or Hndl
_$light Bend in Lead for.
Relief of Strain During
Tdepeatur Chenges
1/IC In. Projection for
th
c~h=1i
o~
1=solatorn.
Ruggedization can be Incorporated Into the

equipment hyriumerous conventional t~nhniques,
as well as by special methods Such as embed-
ment and miniaturization.
?
.
Rigidity Factors
Rigidity ina b~ilucture can be accomplished by

desigingthe structure for an inherent stiffness
and where necessary, adding stiffeners to increase the rigidity.
The inherent stiffness of a
IneetSifes
structure depends on the modulus of elasticity
of the mAterI2l and Its cross-seettonal skrea and
shape. The modulus of elasticity value3, E, for
several materials are given in Table 5-12. Typical cross sections of structural bintpes are
shown In Fig. 5-.48. These shapcs are available
Table 5-12. Moduli of Elasticity, E,
for VarCims Materials /19/
Material
E (lbs/in. 2)
Aluminum
10.2 x 1
Magnesium
0.1 X 10
steel
28-31 x 10~
Brims
13.4 x 10~
Copper
14.5 x 10
,___________-
-A(A)
Angle
1-3eom
Stondnrd
Wing
IChannel
Integral Stiffener
Channel
S if
,L
"-....L./
H- SoonFig. 5-48.
External Stiffener
Zee
Te-
Is)7,
Typical cross sections of structural
Fig. 5-49. Examples of chassis stiffeners./!/
shpes./ 9/
Ir. a complete range of sizes and materials.

Their design is a result of specialized needs,.
generally to give the proper amount of stifnesss
in each direc;1on ol deflection at minimum
w e ig h t .
If a beam is loi1dA three times as much ver-
"
square
"if-beam
fullflls
Structurajl sections shouild be oriented so that
maximum stiffness occurs In the plane of maxian orchnary

mum excitation. For example, sice
chasL is, in section, similar to a channel, if
major exciRation is
!St
-thaBs
or-nt-t-
in
the vertical
e
F
,
30.6*1
axis,
-2 C,
9 0.4t
0.2
"i
.i
tOe
.
St iff ene rs. Stiflericrs increase the natural frequency andstrength of a structure.
both integral :nd external.
,.1
Q8
0.8
,
,.0
these require-
ments. The other structuralaslpes satisfy

other ratios of vertical-to-horizontal stiffness.
the
V.
-
"
tica"!ly ns it iis horiznta!ly with equa-l deflectJons in each dirction, then it should be three
times as stilt in the vertical plane. This means
that the moment of inertia in the vertical plane
mosi*t be three times that In the horizontal plane.
"
.,
are formed into the structure when It is made.

The stepped chassis shown in Fig. 5-49(A) is an
example of integral stiffening. The riser betwecn the two steps is bent from the top plate of
the chassis and acts as a stiffener across the
wiuthi of the chassis. External stiffeners are
beams fastened to a structure, as shown in Fig.
5-49(tD). They are located where needed and
may lbe added during later design and testing
stages. The simplest stiffener Is a beam placed
aurusa the width of the structire, on either the
tlop or bottom, and attached to the structure
aur!g the length of the beam. The point of maxinumm static deflection for a uniformly loaded
or c.,terloaded chassis is its center. A beam
4crofss Ilie center of the chassis provides addi-
t-uu
Ou0
400
ness. ParomeferS
500
Effect of cross-member stiffener
Fig. 5-50.
They can be
Integral stiffeners
ii0
.:Stiff
on box-type chasla./19/
-tional stiffness and reduces the static deflection.

.
The amount of reduction in static deflection

with the addition of a stiffener can be estimated
by determining the stillness parameter of the
structure and stiffener, and referring this stilfness parameter to the chart shown In Ftg. 5-50.
lThia chart Is a plot of stiffness parameter versus the ratio of deflection for the stiffened and
-unstiffcned chassis. The curve in this chart
was obtained by measuring the static deflection
of chassis with and without a stiffener under a
given load.
5-37
oIi,
R*
-~il-'
-)~~Fiti*
--
..
-"...
j-
Tho-;tlflnoiispararneter S Is a dimensiontess -
and Is deteriniecd
(lumlily forniula.
Te formnulabyis:an euipirically
orff.od
d
T
d,, r I
S s (I + Ae2)
Db
wher'3:
*
,
S = stiffness parameter, dimensionless
tefore
fener, lb/in. 2
momentof Inertia of cross seciUon of stiffener -"-'-u axis

thr(;ugh centroid (in.z) parallel
to top of chassisarea of stiffener,--':!
-- cross-sectional
;'ti
'.
Es = modulus of elasticity of stif-
U
Bending
Z,
Formed Chassis
,-
Fig. 5-51. Enlargement of slot ends to reduce
in.2r--
cetroiofsiffeier
e frm
ditanc
stiffeaer-,
centroidof
from
e =distance
stress concentrations at corners./19/
cross section to center of thick-
ness of tep of chassis, in.
ncperly
width of chassis, in.
D = rigidity of top of chassis, lb/in.

E c h3
1~~
12 (1 -or2)
where
."
formed (2) providing bend-relief at corners, (3) fIlleting at all changes in cross section,
(4) avoiding sharp cornered cutouts and nutches,
and (5) planning hole shape and location with a'
view toward their effects on flexibility and,
strength.
Sheet Met-, Be"'Lla_
--
of elasticity of chassiss
Ec = modulus
2
lb/in,
h = thickness of top of chasais, in.
a= Poisson's ratio for the chassis
material, dimenrionles6
It should benotedthat stiffening a structure to

raise its natural frequency is not a cure-all for
Enlargement of the ends of slots prior to bend-
may low'er the equipment's resistance to shock

excitation. so that a compromise may be necessaly betwcen stiffening and some other means
of shock and vibration protection, such as dam-
ing sheet metal into a structural shape such as

a chassis, reduces stress concentrations at the
bent corners. This also lessens the chances of
cracking at the corners, especially where two
ping.
'
:.
.
Large bend radil r4e&1cA
the likelihood of stress concentrations and of

surface cracka due to forming. Because of
ractical reasons, bends cannot always be made
they should be greater than certain
A safe rule-o-thumb Ior
minimum values.
common sheet stock, such as aluminum and
steel, is to make the bend radius about four to
six times the thickness of the material. The
minimum safe radii for specific materials are
given in tables of sheet metal bend radii In
standard handbooks on mctals.
stiffening
uw:-wanited resonance. in some :cases,
.\
bends are made close to each other.
.
.
."
,.
.
.,
.
"
"
:
.
:'
This is
shown in Fig. 5-51.
StzcsR Di~te'ijuttons
The stress distributions within structural materials have a decided effect on how much shock
and vibrationthe structures can take. In a plate
thathas no bends, cutouts, or sudden changes In
cross section, the stress is distributed along
many lines parallel to Oie dirccticn of stress.
If the plate is bent, perforated, or drawn when
Lbeing iormed, these stress distribution lines
have to pass through or arcound the deformation.
This results in stress concentrations, which tend
to increase the deleterious effects of shock and
vibration for chs.
Stress concentrations can he mlnimizedby (1)
nraking sheet mental bends goner(us and pro-
FormingTechniques. If sheet metal is formed

on- a brake, the method of gripping the metal
determines the strain produced by bending.
When the sheet Is bent, stretching occurs mainly
along the surface indicated in Fig. 5-52(A). An
alternative vise shape, shown In Fig. 5-52(B),
uses inserts to restrain but not to grip the sheet.
The same radlus is obtained on bending, but
stretching is distributed over a greater length,
thus reducing the chance of cracking at the outside surface of the bend. Another good method
of shaping structures from sheet metal is by
hydroforming. Pressure behind a diaphragm
forces the sheet stock onto a die. The hydraulic
method gives equal pressure at all points, diatributing stresses uniformly over the sheet.
i
-
,
"
5-38.
.......................................
..............
..............................................-
Vise
Viscous Daminln.
Viscous damping results

U V uppub"a force thal. ai fluid gejiekl l~eS
to resist a change in motion. All fluids have an
motion
internal friction t~hat resi~t-l.t~t
particles. AR a fluid flows aver a surface, such as the walls of A tube, the fluid particles in contact with the surf ace' tend to remain
at rert and the velocity of flow Increases with
the distance from the surface. Considering the
fluid to consitst of laverni, there is an apparent
friction between adjacent layers. Viscosity Is
the term used in designating the amount of this
Internal friction. In a viscous fluid, the rate ofk
velocity with the distance Is proportional to the
force per unit area parallel to the direction of
flow. This may be expressved az follows:
frtvtn
Stretin
oveobetween
7
/f\
(A)
Stretin
urea
'
(B)Fd.
Fig. 5-52. Vise insert distributes bendingF

stresses over greater surf ace./19/
Cutojuts, Cutouts for parts will not weaken av

Et riicturre very much if only a small portion of
the metal is rrimoved. The h~oles should not be
alinued il
uclh a.wVa to "ig"the
watot jal, thus making it more flexible, nor to
perforate it so that it tears readily.
Prtetie
soatonSyte/i!Prtetie Sstrn][/producediy
soaio
In many cases.. shock and vibration forces ar
so severe that it is not practical, from a size
anrl wcig!'t stnndpoint, or evn possible to design an equipment structure to withstand the
environment. In Pkich cases, an isolatlon sys tern must be used to bring the environmental
lorces within tolerable limits. The isolation
:systemn sh(ild 1.w sed at the shock and vibration
source to minimize thle environmental problem
for other equipments, and at the susceptible
(qu pioent to bring the forces to within~ levels
that c2zn be w'ithstood.
reaieeocybtwnly-S
isoften
used to reduce the peak am-
plifirations, and special stabilizers are used in

instances %%here unstable configurations are invol ved-
cof
ercossn
M= proport ion osity)
fce
fvsoly
The viscosities of several liquids art; -'"e

In
Table 5-13,. The severe changes in
cst
a moderate increase in temperature
should be noted. For flight vehicle use, fluids
that undergo a minimum change In viscosity with
lis
temperature changes, such as the slcn
sok
eslcslenAuLB
The typeof device that uses viscous absorptLion
ocrihodKlandr vibratio
ibdatrfraramng
Jit
Equipment i6 usually insulated from shock and

v~batir
y s~kafrd vi'uratiuii imilatorn.
1
Damping
shearing stress on fluid
where:
iamsimiartgta.d
ap
Hysteresis damping I~sA,
theulgra~dual dissipation of energy
Table 5-1:3. Coefficients of Vimcosity for

Vario0US Lqul(1s /19/
-_____-______
w_
______
Liquid
otlin
Temperature
F (C)
of viscosity
(dyne-seec/cm 2 )
68 (20)
0.01
1,14
0.34
Damnping
Water
D~ampin~g is used to reduce shock and vibration

awl litudes by dissipating some of the energy In
thme form of heat. In addition, damping reduces
r2sonrant. tendencies of structural members.
Your types of damping are used: viscous,
tmys;tfresms, friction and air. Viscous damping
rcsults from the displarement of fluldds. Ilystm're-sisd(alinpirng is vaused by energy losses in a
cyclically streseed material. Friction damping
timUlf resuilt Of the sliding resistance of two
umitactinf, surfaces, Air damping is caused by
tiW diip)a(laueznet of air, an~d Is a form of viscous
Light machine oil
60 (16)
100 (JE9)
Heavy machine oil
60 (16)
100 (39)
6.6 1
1.27.'
60 (10)
100 (39)
3.62
0.69
Giycerine
68 (20)
8.60
Castom oil
68 (20)
9.80
_______
Motor oil, SAE 30
5-39
"P..
Table 5-14. Approximate Hynterosiu Values
that occurs within a flexing body due to im1-rfnr'tinnn in the elastic properties of mater-
for Various Matorials /19/
In a perfectly elastic material, sI~ruid ito_____

ials.
prroprtion).1~1 to ntrens, and the strain energy Is
recoveredl fully at each removal of stress. ra
imater~al that is not perfectly elastic, the straln
each removal
eegisntrcvrdflyat
uf Btress. The tenerw.1 lost is due to hysteresis
and is ej,,ir'Pted (n. the form of heat.
The damping capacity of a material is the ratio
of thec hysieresis energy loss per cycle of streess
to the full strain energy at the maximum stress
of the cycle. The energy loss per cycle due to
dampkig Is given by the difference in amplitude
between immediately successive cycles of oscillation. Thc amount of daraping afforded byu
hysteresis 1!?small, and It is common to expreas
it ia If~r-t5 of an equivaleflL viscouri damping
ratio. If the transmissibility at resonance to
known, the euivalent damping ratio can be obg. 5-53 from the approximate
ta0efrM
C1
c
where:
~-
ping in tcrmr Li equivalent viscous dlamping, the

viscouB d.ipnv6 formulas are good approximations for hy'steresis damping only with small
damingvales.The more exact expressions
and
for transmifsL'.llUty at resonance, Tm
max
logarithinic dect-ement, 4, are:
1+h2
h
I h
_______static
--
-20ficiemfl
04
-Material
steel
Ruer30crmo
aom
Rbe.3
0friction.
~friction
rme
Rbe.6
Neorn
.6
.2
04
00
00
02
r'p
i
.
.m'
r0.3
mounts because ofiIts relatively high damping

Although cork in a good damping
agent, it Is seldom used in airborne applications,
since It is subject to a wide variety at physical

properties, depending on its une and age. For
isolator uses, sufficient damping Ise provided b
the damping charac~teriptics -of the materil.
Extradamping, such as friction damping, is required in many other instances to dissipate
adequately the energy passed Into the mounting
system.
~
v
*
j
r
iK.
!* r,
*
T1
of static friction:
5C
Fa- the force, applied in the dlrecof motion, just suff icient
to atart the object moving'
~Cs
C).-
0.01
0.05 010.5
1
Viscous Damping Ratio, C/Ce
1ig. 5-53. TransmissibilIty at resonance as
funcmtion (if dLamping rat io./W9
the resistance opposes the

motion of two moving objectz It is called kinetic
The force requirsA to overcome Rtatic
is given in the equation for xne coeffriction.
*here:
CC
;4~i
0.0005
.2
00
01
F5
5-40
0.01
.U4
.4
floerbr0.3.1
SlcnIubes.3
10
4tlion
7~
*dicous
ts do
ratio
Frictlon Damping. Friction Is the force which

acVilween thecontacting surfaces of two obcts and tends to resilet their sliding mnotlcai.
11the resistance to sliding prevents inotion of
one obi ect relative to the other, it is called
211
Cc:
0
coefiie
(h)
5-14 gives approxI mate hysteres is vsaues

various materials. Rubber, efe~cially synlom~
in a commonly used matrillo
T =trnsmssbiltycoefficient.
W,hile it is con-rnmonto express hysteresis damn-
______________
Hptemala
where h Is &hysteresisdamping coefficient, and

small1 values h4. crj
Cthetic,
ax=__
quvl
Euvl
~~for
2T
pigrtoTable
dapig
atofor
_d
Fe
- the coefficlent of static fric-
tiona, which io a constant for a

given pair of substances under
given conditions
the force pressing the friction
sufazcea together
'
S inilairly, a force Fk, required to m ~ve an obiect with uniform speed arainst friction, is de-I
f inedl by the eqjuat ion-
It-k~Ck~
';.here-. C1, is the coefficient ol kinetic friction.

If Cs is ei:Jto
Ck, the frictional force is defie scoulomb friction. Normally friction
materials do not provide a constant friction
forcc since the static frictioD does not equal the
kinetic friction. However, ini the usual matheinatical treatment. of friction damping, It is as-umed that the frictional force is conetant, regardiess of the position or velocity of the vibrating mass.
,14
WO
12
C
Z~ K)
z
Witn coulomb damping the reduction in amplitude in successive cycies is a conntant quan-C
tity and is given by the equation:Or
E
4-N
6X= 4F/k
where: AX
F
k
te redu~ctioni in amplitude per

-
th friction force
C.,
001 0.005 0.010 0.015
damping force
the spring corstant
~cntn
Since the dampinpg force Is constant, this type of

damping should not be used hin a system that is
excited at resonajnwe iniPF.R the driving force
is hwwii to ibe iess than the frictional force. If
the reverbin'a'.uation exists, the amplitude will
F!,. 55- . Ratio of

~ ~ 4.~~I.
constant plotted against transmissibility./1IV/o
.
increasie Insucces1sive cycles, theoretically, to
irdi it.
The
ofnecssar
moni
dapingcan~
terinined using Fig. 5-54, and plotting the maximur pemisib~
trnsmssiiliy
dsird
against the spting constiant. For example, if the
equipment weighs 20 p.ounds and causes the isolato
itisenwhih
~uned o delec 1/ involved.
the spring constant, k, is 40 pckindt3 per inch. i
Lii.rrrximu
trnsmssiblit isto b 2,the
rati
orc to prig cnstat mst
ratioinofdampng
lie between 0.00875 and 0.01275. To provide
this ratio, tne damping force must be between
-cous
-alent
0.35 and 0.51 pound. Friction dampers are~

available that provide a damping force of from
0.20 ito10.0 pv'w'ls.5-3
Mir Daz~
Air damping results from the
di~recttraiisi r of energy From a vibrating Bystern to air. In reality, air damping is a form of
viscouti dampinig. At room temperature, air has
bOumt I1/50th the viscosity of water and the dampin)(,
obtained Issmall compared io other forms
of viscous damping; thecrefore, aMr dampers are
preferred over f rid iou or viscous dampers only
for isuiatiirg iirlhtweight cmoetwalls
A vibrat ing obj ect surrounded by air has forces
iniposied on iI.
by the air mid these forces are in
a (iir2(tiolm oppUoed to the Velocity Of the ob~ject.
1,or f ree vibration, air dampngii
produces a loI'r ithillic decrement, as dto hysteresis and via-
damping. For forced vibration, the damping force is proportional to the square of the
velocity of the support. Air damping is usually
saefx
ovneci
em
fa qt
viscouc damping value. Ccxnputing the
equivalent damping of an air damper Is extreme ly difficult due to the number of variables InThe equivalent damping value Is ob
a
ined by measuring the maximum trantsmis
ibility at
ofThc
a vibratory system contheresonance
dampth.
thein
4
mpis
ing
ha dampintmus
Th
cm grete
retr
map
tann te
f--h thenamnissib tyo valiue i(konIheeuv
alent, damping valuje can be obtained iE-cm I, ig.
A useful type of air dlamping system Is the
or!ifced dashpot. Trhis type of air damping systern does not depend on air viscosity alone,
since adiabatic characteristics and turbulence
enter into its operation anid make It far superlon to free air dampirng. Such an air damping
system iIs shown in Fig. 5-55. Thc damper iG
componedof a piston that fits tightly against the
of a cylinder that has two holes InIts head.
When moved by vibration, the piston causes
pressure changes within the chamber that force
air through the holes.
Air damping is incorporated into isolation
mounts by means of a bellows tliat forces air
5-41
777',1-
'A
'
tA;. clstied and tinnilie otrength at higher

temperatures Uin does flatU'al. rulbber and are
less likely to deteriorate when exposed to oil.
The deflection of a rubber isolator increasee
with time wnder continuous loading, espe-cially
high temperatures. The axiow distortion is
known as drift or plastic flow. In an airborne
environment where motion space is limited,
drifting can eventually result In "bottoming"
the Isolators during high amnplitude vibration.
For a well designed xrubber nrmwit the loading
should be conservative ensigh to eliminate this
digr
~at
pe,
Baic
Fig.5-55
ar dmpin
eytem.l9/of
through a hole as the bellows is distorted bythe

the
There are two general types df coh.A'Jrtion
now~tza equipment, The force required to mo-in

the air thirough the hole is lost by the system
a-xdlitnit~s the amplitude at resonance. A rubber
ccep fora hleIs eiecive
bellwsseald
for mol~ion in both vertical and lateral directions. As the mass ont the damper moves down
or as the support moves up, the bellows flattens
for rubber lsoltators: open and ctvp types. The

open type consists of a molded _rut.oor iorm
lneadacr.
oamtlmutn
lne
The core, which is a cylinder in the center of
the Isolator, also is metal and attaches to the
eupet
esimet
pressure inside the damper, and air is forced

out thirough the hole. As the mounted object
moves up, the volu~me of the bellows increases
The cup-type isolator has the rubber resilient

which acts as a housing. The core also lis
eral movement of the mounted object, the bellows is elstorted, also resulting In pressure
di"Ierptalpandth move-mcnt of 2ir I-- and cu
vantae over the open type In that even with

complete failure of the resilient element, thu
relative %ict~on between the support aix

-r
and its volume decreases.
This increases the
.'-.d
core. vvI
Mea-pigIoaos
aosaehd
The volurle and the wall thickness of the bellows are critical1 In the design of an air damper.
ill
te wlls
bllow ar thn, tey
Iff te
wen presurebuldup.The
strech
hereIs
a-Imount that the bellows will distend determines
flie ability of the damper to absorb shock, The
hc-ta
tehghrte
misione thfacl.,
* mi5i~Y) ac~r.elements,
ar dmp n~ ormlly
b relizd
shoud tat
htardnpn
omly
it shudb-raie
hutde ad cnno ecuse at
has
imiatins
._.itremocIv highi altitudes or in outer spacE-, unless it is empnloyed within pressurized coinvart-
hold.'
ornruobrhat
ai
cofl
corilg
spriint' and woven metal mnenh. The constructinn of the Isolator will result in a certain spring
ratu that will largcly determine its performance.shorws
aricc.isolator
nag
Metal-spring isondiavntes
Measrng
7;: 7
'
'
il;
!KX,;
2i
'F
,~
Mn
aui
r~~
Metal-spring Isolators are also available in

ea
yeue
n u ye.Teoe
oe
mesh as the resilient element to Include darn-%
ping action in- the isolator perf orman ce. Since
there is no cup, it Io difficult to provide dampn yehrmtol.Tecptpsueeie

coil springs or metal mnesh, or a combination of
the two, aB the resilient clement. Figure 5-56
ltul~her IsolatorH. R'nhber has long been used

ill .,ila~rbwid
unil WrldWarI racicallY alt vibration itiolators were made of natu'al
tI:e wav resulted in the use of synthetics. The
sylitheti(5 prissfessed qualities that for special
applnications were superi-or to natural rubbers.
core.
The scarcity of natural robber during
I
,r
bears no load and funictions strictly as a friction

element. Top and bottom snubbing are providedIr
by a metal-mesh pad fixed on the flange of the
5-42
~~
~ 7. ~thyA,
4tL %=;7~i
'
.,
g devices,
Ericoatr liequisrelatxivery long
which may consist of vented air sacks, friction
or metai mesh. Metal mesh is a nonlinear apring- of knitted wire danped by the
riction between the interlocking wire loops. In
some applications, inesh is used simply as a
friction clcment and bears no load.__In oithers,
an example of an all-MetAl, cup-type

that -uses metal mewsh asi the friction
dampingelement. A tnoliow,finger-shapictme~tal
inEs rubs against the Inside surf ace of the core
andagainst the cofls of the load-bearing eprinr
during movement of the core. The metal roes
ruhlher.
major portion of the load in addition tu providing damp idg.
VibraItion Isolators
euipentmay~
*jedforairxfre
Isoltor
cajegorized dccording to the construction and
lmn.Termate
ubr element.cnu
coil sring.
ae jlUClitereIlin
Aueintersilient
miitetle mesh
c-i
qupmn
coprdtrubriotrs
do not drift, are least affected by temperaturOB
found in flight vehicle environments, and their
Mtls rin
ieI
eaieyin.
sevc
~wflt5.the
*
j1
element enclosed in, and bonded to, the cup,
of the bellows.
'
Vol~*..~b
"~
L
(
CoreTable
-Moeta-ehFito
5-15. Characteristics of Shock Isolators

Compared to Vibration Isolatorn /19/
lmn
SnuberShock
-Load-8cearing Spring
Fi.5-56.Al metal, cup-tp e vibration
isolator with metal mesh as Iriction elenio./1n
sltosaplitude
17-25
Isolat.:irs
Vibration Isolattors
cppa natural
freqiuency.n~na
20-40 cps natural

frequ~ency.
eeet
nonliniea.inrorolna.
Natural frequency
Natural frequency
changes with high
changes lI.ttle or not at
oun''
vibratloa.j
all with high amplitude'i:
vibratiofi.
,elln
-highly
Shock isolators have stiffer springs than vi-Very

little prorvision-for Provision for equipment
bratifon l~i.30 :ZIf aaid therefore, have a higher
equipment movement,
movement.
natnzii
requncy.'lie resilient elements of_________
-'
shuck isolathrs are always nonlilnear, while
somce vibration isolators use linear springs.
Table 5-15 compares some of the character0.1
A Soft Vibration Isolator
ifistjcs of shock Isolators and vibration isolators.
Shock isolators are used to mount equipment

d
/B
ment thian is shock.

Shock isolators, as described in Table 5-15
are r~ot used in protecting equipment in rnanneA
flig~ht vc~hicdes. Under high-amplitude, lowfre'quenry vibraticrn, the use oif shock isdIatom-e
can be more detrimental to the equipment than0.0W
rigid mounting. Whcre severe shock is expected
in conventionil al-"raft, devices that are primarily vibration isolators are modified for
protection against shock. Some shock protective features of vibirption isolators are stiffer
linear springs, no-.Jinear springs and damping.
02-Isolator
0o.08
'I vpicai1 curves for the vibration amplitude of

- mounited
equipment when s~ubjected to
,it) txterrnal lox-cing frequency are 8'iown in Fig.
5 - 57. Curive A show t the respon se of equipment
on sioft vibration Isolators having a natural Ire-14111IIy of 8 upsan'd curve B showvs equipment
nul''uttd ')n stiff' shock isolator-s with a natural
fi qjuvinly of 2.5 clps. Isolator A wit): a natural
f~ it ncy oi 8 cps, beg1ins to isolate at about 12
I ~tIreasisolatr D3,with a natural Ireq-viy 1) 25 tis,
beg-iinfi isolation at abouxt 35
Thcvt'reto protect against frequencies
t;icma soft isolator of the A t~pu Is re'ix I d.
Shock
C
E
Shock lsoliatos .
ibation
t
Isolators. /20/
Vihlration isolal ors are ineffective against shock
00
-hic
huck isolatora do not protect equipment
.0
frorn vibration frequencies below[2-timerE the
ioa''sfundamental, which Is normal-ly the
nighcr frequencies. Consequently, the selection
0.02Fo1 the proper isolator depends on the frequencyI
and magilitude- of the mechanical excitation and
frequently rtcquires a compromise that will best
ol
satis4fy the conflicting requirements.
Neithier
0
ishi)'c
nor vitbrat~orl isolators are effectiveFrunccs1
waijiit Accustic nois~e excitation.
iyufat in
Sti ff
Fig. 5-57.
'
I
10
I
20
wi
30
40
50
60
Response curves for two types
of
isolators./20/
The nature ci shock can We visualized by considering that thesupport to which the equipment
Is attached suddenly acquirea a hig], velocity.
The mounted equipment' Ymust move with Uhe
support at substantially the same velocity anid
displacement. fly Interposing renillent shock
isol ators between the support and the equipmeeit, a longer period Is allowed for the accelerations and fortes on thet equipment 1trE reduced. knergy is transferred to the equipment
5-43
'i-I
ON
system used, the critical f requencies of the

equipment, and the shock andl vibration excitathav are required to isolate and be able to
equipment and the
~withstand. The weight of the
desired natural f requency determine the spring
rate of the isolator. Figure 5-59 Is a graph
from which the spring rate for a lIna isolator
can be selected that gives a uyatem natural frequency for a given equlpinont weight.
'.tlnr
a
0
Deflection,R
Forre-deflpction curves for same

as
Fg. 557.20/different
nisoltor
to the velocity of
up
velocity
its
bring
to
time, and tben tranismits It to the equipment.
epnsuon11
The~~~~~~~~~
oieegytasere
theweight of the equipmnent and the nature of the
shock; it Is virtually Independent of the characteristics of ine isolator,
Fig. 5-7.8.
Mounting System. The tyeof inounting system useQ JLuences the isolator horizontal-tovertical stiffness ratio. For example in un-
Froln ity Level or Critical Freguencies of xan

h irto
ioa.srdc
cii~taiii toP level that can be reliably tolerated
by tho equipment. The fragility level of an
50
0' two different typts, A and B, then the
9\\6
e\\
of the equipment and shock of the supportel

weight
In oo~th cases are the same, and the area wnder
curves A and B are the same. For an equiva-
higrher frequencies of vibratiou.
s0
.E 10
lsoiatoiL; a-re selected on the basis of the

weight they will suppfort, the type of mounting
5-71j
'
ki
'\ON
0\~
9
AO q0
4.
0
-'3
20 30 50 70100
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Noturol Freqtiency of System, cps
Natural frequency an funtiCtonl*'

of spring rate for mansm supported by
linear springs./19/
Fig. 5-59.
Selection of isolaxtors /19/
"'
~lent area, or., curve for isolator A must reach
a greater ne-ak force than the curve for isolator

Ii ' Therefore, greater shock Is transmitted
through the Isolator to the equipment. The
gradual Increase of force that is characteristic
of isolator B makes it possible to attain thesaznenrea without reaching as great a maxinium
force. To achieve th~e lesser force of curve B,
thiis isolator has a higher initial stiffness thanIX
isolator A, and can only isolate the relatively
derneath- and~ Inclined- Isolator mounting syefor maximum system effectiveness.

ing systems, equal stiffnesses are used inthe
Curves A and B in Fig. 5-58 represent the

curves of the same Isolators as
force cfc'a
in Fig. 5-57. If the distance R represents the
amo)(unt the isolator can deflect under a shock
"force,the area under the force -deflection curve
t the deflection R represents the energy E:Lored
by the isolator. 111the same equipment Is subiattirs
The spring cornstant of each isolator In a

mounting system can be equal. or not, depending
upon the conliguration of the equlprxiont sand
whether decoupling of vibratory modee is desired. If the center at gravity Is such thAt the
load on each isolitor Is equal, then sill sp~ring
constants are equal. When the center i-'f gravrity
results i n an unequal distribution ol weight to
the isolators, then adjustmeints cui, !v, mro.'j' in
the spring constants so that decoupllivi irn obtanedwitin the mnounting system.
0.
fA
12compress
the load-bearing spring of a z3ingle-
,[qir~entF~ailiy
Lvelacting
wi/~vth
s-olo lurs)
,Lqu
met
aionf
isolator
and tWe biock i8 iransmitteu
lateral direction also cauties snubber contact if

LEnvirnent
tolotisifeso
hdsl
slw
aI
Fighters and guided missiles spend consider-
0nv200 300n4001600
Frequencyio
cpse~y
sinle-atieingmaevebratsuchoatosstarnedhoneardrgane-vertical
unorntelw
climbsa
roll
equipment,
~
~nxninlees
~
~taIth i-~
fih
d veh(i)leravit aststounmoawithrespc toth
bratgo at60 disceeofreunista
equip-en
fith uv
fro
a the thoulbi osla eread lodwhen boletting isoafovr tseletel iofaorthe mc
vibration
envrnment
(C,
The equipents ofhngnfo
thee manuer nt
nta
in()ad()
shown hr ssldc
vibration isolatorsIogar-eA
Fnigre 5-60 shWs
complish~~~~~~~~~~~~I
h
he
evl
hw
ttetfteve
lhsOjcie
sflbght
(And
the
isolators
arec
areth ve,fagliy
he evl i ibatone
ntM perotecting thdeuripma ent.rt
lmbo
nla h
gaiyacst
-g
of~vibrain reeah fi the()
,an thets
eqit metio
equipment
~ tleve
~~
touhtesoar.Sth
ro
tia p isoleatiorndu toamahuerbotto result
Wheip
vibrtio
eiscrcts onqunce
thoatrs
bro aitla
themons
acsrooum
Isn
ceeatgiong
hon
tti
eqipen
i hhghviomet that ~
tfrgiy
oflevel iba
abhe tqipe
''
, p ins sof icnetontac
na ve w ay d (rother
vbainIoator
belsown40 cpB.
fraunce
Fiues apt t 0 how howl
o
snb equipmandth Isolfor aed
the
teopullo ut
50
belown
ah thre levels
normaeyctie
Vopibrathion
ar Iensfand lity leveoi
al ur
thleve i vibr ato exnop
otingthe eqipconnct~o.
ubrit
ciain andaer
of vibration
are necesar
iechn
tohb
eqipe.Montinroghthee Ipmntonla
oltors. giveatictueertode.t
anuel
eut
his raisesr
confierabl
vibrationIsltr.Weohnevlo
thisi howver
where thel frgiit
nosin
aceesto
leT ohe equipmentfrgltle is highest
A tall pins,
equipment atrwtyfrom thporns stbiizr eponr-on
above 30 pt
csto tralsmiat
fedlece
ibralown4
frqecps
om
motn ucto
ntepoetv
cedtionor shock
system. Underpl-ot treso qipmnt
below
frqany and alsoe
Visbelton te natrmallya
cies.
c~ the
oontn
equipment.o islthes giequp
aouott 20y
frqunc
the fsystem. amehis, traiefos
dpror considerably.
alfeo~y
swayitd
thatra boto
Thee tope of thebquimenion
trnmte toth euimetun hearaeelw
Swt nfablzrseog osrk srcua

br
o te
qimn.Asaiie
rvnsti
forom hapnimotng
t eprfuntorming this funtctione
tem.iUizer roesonont orec thc e icniiency ,o
3 iicp:ht weConditins. Is wendngo the failtyp

f
above 30 cptiTeh
Ttr condmititnsvabryatindo be-u
isbeo a w
e
aua
f I t requ
e
ny nd
a~ILa Vlsobelo
~
A ngthe drglifyI'
feretil
clas ification ofe equiy-1
p
te
uimountin sytsbotem. Th mounstrucio
m aswand
hies', ahrefogher, bhombderor
c argo,traier, he
countingal, attblzrI
hof o
how eqipmn
Fig t an
licopler~
~~~~~~~on
anfisl.Teeae
motn
iiesabizr
effe o trivelyhsnstiffness ionbter
oftesenigve h~ce, seofthehreuimn.Astblzrprvnsti
Fern si Co
tn h ditigns
hieprorigtifnto.
o clxblt
nex
ittions farom the sbpowerhppnn.
Each~~~~~llcec
tyeoOlgtfchcehsadi
n
onigsse.Tecntuto
h
ffih9e
re
ffpo
n te clsiiain
Amongth
licplat,
a~ndie m ansieuvTers, wreind pufftang adiTesalzrefctvyhsnotfnssnte
froduced bn the tyesg ofpower vehile
lnse
. soJ theL
F7
ferentrepnet
excitations
aro
proie
yrcpoawer
te
Ja~din,,shok.Further complications are Inrokets.
*.~-
While i,vlators are selected maintly for prot'uctieri against vibration, shock
must he gvnCnieaontoo,
environments
hfe most se-
vere shock occuig during

and boostertakeoffs.
;i3si;c
or catalijl .It - ast landing
irinportant
asThe
the dfinIutijon of the siitAc
tvrisity. Shock ~.a downward direction does not
()-
(B)
Level Flight
Near-Vertical
Climb or Dive
(C)
Slow Roll or
Slow Loop
of flight vehicle attitude on

Fig. 5-61. Effect
uingie-acting
vibration isolators./19/
5-45
,777M1
.r
Fig. 5-.62. Stabilizer under static and horizontal shock

conditions./iV
space avaJlable for both the isolation system

and the expected sway of the equipment. For
example, if the space dictates that an equipment
be higher than it Is wide, resulting in a high
center of gravity, a bottom-mounting system
should not be used without stabilizers. The
shock and vibration environment, including the

-
--
excitation frequencies the stiffness of the supporting structure, and required stability of the
equipment are other factors that should be considered.
-"
ScG
Z
Fig. 5-63. Six degrees of freedom.
vertical direction throughout its operating range.
Horizontal stiffness is provided by a resilient
element, of predetermined stiffness, that buckles under a light horizontal load. It buckles
arain under increasing horizontal loads, and
then stiffens slowly in compression under nevere horizontal loads. The stabilizer is placed
between the equipment and a rigid overhead
supporting structure, as shown in Fig. 5-62.
Equipment in a flight vehicle is subjected to

shock and vibration in all directions, so it must
be free to move in all directions for tctal ibo.lation. This requires a six-degree-of-freedom
system. The equipment is free to move translationally in vertical, longitudinal, and lateral
directions, and rotationally about the vertical
longitudinal, and lateral axes. The requirea
degrees of freedom are shown in Fig. 5-63. The
system has a natural frequency in each of these
natural modes, and all must be considered when
designing the isolation system.
When isolators of equal stiffness are located
unsymetrically about the center of gravity of an
equipment, certain of the rotational and trans-
Isolator Mounting Systems

Thehoic
ofisolators and the isolation
mounting system Is dependent mainly on the
lational modes will couple. When coupled, vibration cannot exist in one mode without existing In Its coAipled mode, or modes. Thus, a
horizontal force through the center of gravity
5-46
Iil
chie
fioltrMadte
sltin
ig"iVtR~
pe
oeo
oes
hs
%killriot only di splace the equipment horizontally

1"A~'~ will caufie it to rotate. Each coupled
oi(nei hias. ite own frequency and must be con..
id iii Uic
h design.
tios of equipmnift height to Isolator spacing up

to 0.7 to be mounted In this mannier. A basic
underanath miounting system is shown in Filg.
5-65.
Isolatorti may be arranged in many w~s bust

all arrangarriCflta are variations of basic ayetuei.b. Trles,! %3ysten'-s ar~e known as the underneath mounting niyst~m, the center-of -gravity
mouningystm,
he oube-ade ouningsy5
temn, the over-and-under mounting system and
the inclined-iaolator mounting system. E~ach
tyslem has its advantages and limitaitions. In
Choosing the proper Isolators [or an underneath-mouuted rectangular object is relatively

simple. The total weight Is divided by four, then
the appropriate Ipolator Is selected according to
specif ieption MIL-C-1 72 and Military Standards
MS91418, MS91526, and MS91527, and plxced at
thefour corners. However litthe center of gra.vity of the equipment is focated unsymmetrlc-
general, to prevent the supporting structure
!roml disturbing the performance of the Isolation

system, the natural frequency of the supporting
structure should. be at least thr-ee times the natural freq'nliiy of thre equipmnent on its isoFqtors. hin the discussion that follows, a rigid
supporting structure Is asnumed for the mountleg symstemn.
Underneath MountingSystem. /13/ The under-A2
most widely used,
neath mounting systemn is
since most chassid configurations are suitabile
for t~his application and there are less limiting
* requirements. This system Is used in applicationg where tlhe &istance from the base to the
center of gravity' of the supported equipment
does not exceed isolator spacing by a ratio
greater than 0.25. This relationship is necessary to maintaii, reouirrc- stability and isolation.
Fig. 5-64 illustrait&s critical dimensiors for
eciuiprnan
0,'2 58
Mold
-0 58 -0- .5B
-..
Fig. 5-64. Critical dimensions for underneath

Jowit leg
isolators at
each corner will be differont. Fhe load mneach

isolator can be calculated using the following
n
i.56./9
frua
.r
.
l
IB
Load on Isolator 1 W AA2
B
(A
2
l+B2)
1
l
B2
A2
Lodo sltr2=W
on islao 2 -_ (Ald IA
l)
Lodnisltr3=w
(Al + A2, Bl + B2
Lodo soao
Loaons+r=W
A2
A
itBI
2l+ 1 l+ B2
having a uj-i-i~furr-n deiilty
The center of gra-' y height to Isolator spacing

ratio limits the use of the underneath system
for narrow axis equipment. However, In most
applications the hel!'ht of the center of gravity
seldonm exceeds 0.36 of thep overall1 height of the
equimen.
prmit
Ths eqipmet hvingin-
ally In the horizontal direction the
.113/
W is the weight of the equipment with connfec~tors

and cablea attached. The loads calculated with
the above formulas can then be used with Fig.
5-59 to determine the spring constants of the
Isoltors
Center-of-Gravity MountiIng Systenis./19/ In
cent~er-of -gravity mounting systemsa, the isolators are located In a plane that passes through
-the center of gravity of the mounted equipment,
as shown in Fig. 5-67. It Is a refinement of the
underneath mounting system in that while coup'lingof certain rotational and horizontal modes
int9c underneath system is unavoidable bscause
oi thme unsymmetriceal placing of the leolatore
relative to the horizomtal plane through the
co~nterof gravity, these same modes are
4i.7vayB
-decoupler' In cent er-of -gravity siystemsa. With

coupled modes, the spread between natural finequencieo of a system Is greater, reducing iso-
A2
AA 2
Load EquallY withl

Botto~ Iso lotorg
2.0
Fig. 5-67. Basic center-of -gravity mounting'~

system./19/
-4
Fig. r-r; Basic double-Bide mounting

systern./l 3/
lation efficiency. If the highest natural frequencyof the mounting system Is set well below
oet
a ptte
i
th
ocigf~qec
frequency at a level tht introduces Instability
in the system.
Double-Side Mountin 3Ystems /13 19/Double-,

sidemlCif
in
sytmas
iidAuble-level
-sidemounu-iAg, are-normally used on equipments

that havfe a height-to-width ratio greater thaPn
two anid a tendency for excessive flexing.' Eight
isolators are used, with four- each placed syn-.

so Uiat thi" fi'gore formed by the Isolators is a
CUlxiid. The caouble-side mounting system is
showAn in Fig. 5-68. The extra isolAators provide
additional support points that distribute the load
more equally to the chassis. In addition to being
u4tu fo0; equipment with a height-to-width ratio
than two, the double-side mounting sys:r
irater
t~il should be used for very heavy equipment

from a saifety standpoint. With attachment
i-m':f rivar the top and bottom of the equipment,
is inore secure than the other systems6. In

fact, s:tisfactory results have been obtained
with vqiipinent having a height-to-width ratio
up to live. The nistxiniumn limit of this system
is riiachied when the structural rigidity of the
v in ienot allows excessive bonding to take
!~:Ic.
ilt
Fig. 5-69. Basic over-and-under mount~ng

system./1 3/
QOve-and-Under Mounting SvstembB./13/ In

an over-and-un er mnountig system, eight io
A11auxa are used, but inatead of being mounted at
the aides of the equipment as In a double-side.
mounting system, the mounts are placed at the
top and bottom of the equipment. This system
is used when the space for the equipment provides an overhead support to which the Isolators
can he fastened. This system is also usefulL
when the height-to-wIdth ratio of the equipment
exceeds one and a half, so that a bottom -mounted
instahiation would tend to be unstable. Most of
the discussion atbout Whe double-aide mounting
system applies to this system, since the isolators still form a cubold. In the over-andunder mounting system, the mounts located at
the top of the equipment carry an equal share of
th I
the In?.d with the bottom mmunts. TG
double-acting mounts are used, or, the Isolators
are mounted so that they support tbc ernulpizcnt.
as do the bottom mounts. Fgure 5-619 hhows
g~
41
the over-and-under mounting system, with two
Incl ined-Isolator Mounting Sytm When four

isolators are used and they cannot be located in
aplanethrough the center of gravity, decoupling

can be accomp~shed by Inclining the Isolators,
as shown in Fig. 5-70. When equipment In bottorn mounted, coupling occurs betweeri translationai modas becauso of the unsymmetrical
position of the Isolators relative to a horizontal

plane through the center of gravity. This dissymmetry causes external forces, from tihe ifolator horizontal stiffness, to apply a turning
moment to the equipment when the equipment is
displaced sideways. However, If the Isolators
are inclined Instead of being placed vertically.
01171W
'
rnoI ion :.onf either of the principal axes results

t-he isolstnrsi in both the radipAl
in
flccuse the isolators a-re
Ofl'i i'.N.J dliroct~on-.
mt jo, d, the u8sual ref erence of horizontal and
vertical is ch.-n ed to radial and axial. In this
9-'-t em, a tranisf a onal motion results In ex-.
lator s~iifnesp
Figure 5-7& also shows that the torque about
an arbitrarily selected point, P, resulting from
Uc axial isolator stiffnesses, opposes the torque
caused'y the radial] isolator stiffnesse. Thiere
1:' -i point P where the combinationaof the angles
cI isolator Inclination and the radial-to-axial
t iiffness ratio makes the opposing torques equal
In mag,nitiude, and the resultant torque about P
is zcro. If tIjig binmt P coincides with the center4
-,gravity, the vibrational modes will be decuupled, since a horizontal motion of the equiprinent (toes not result in a turning moment being
dpplled to the equipment by the Isolators.
The angle of isolator inclination and the ISOlator horizontal and vertical sttffnesses are
quit. (ritical in this mounting system. It is a
d Special purpu.scL api~lication of isolators and requi res dctailed analysis tc, :,I,-rate succeassfalIy.
Additional Design Considerations. Each of the
mounting systemns discEutsed requires a prediction of natural Irequer.ries, coupling modes, and
dsecoupling modes before proper choice of 180iators tan be niade. Thic methods-for performing necessary calculations, are contained In
9/1.
refeenceI
EQUIMENTLOCAION2.
EQUIMENTLOCAIONMake
Many equipments are highly sensitive to shock
and %ihration frirces. -tud it may be impractical
to rely on the Isolation system a~lone to bring
tf-e forces within tolerable limits. This Is especially tiae at locations within the vehicles
that hanve a very hiigh shock and vibration level.
Beccause. of this, it might be best, in some cases,
to consider changing the location of the equipm4.nit to a noint !!tt
notitA
1pgcqi
nf
Equipment Equilibrium
oii
N,
Fig. 5-70. Basic inclined- isolator mnounting

system./19/
's
method is to choose fungus- and corroslonn

resistant materials that also meet strength,
weight, environmental and M-chianical requirements. This method lis always desirable, but
not always attainable. A4recond meihod of pi.Jtection is by applying fungicidal treatments, or
coating the material or component with a seal
that is impervious to moisture. This method is
an aid rather than a complete solution, and may
also have undesirable side-effects. A third
method is to seal the component hermetically.
This method, while very effective in keeping out
the mcaisture, is often limited in application.
The best solution to the nnolaturA protec~ion
problem (s to comabine all three protection methods as outitned in the follawing checklist./21/
Choose materials with 'Low moisture absorption qualities whenever possible.
Use hermetic sealing whenever possible.
sure the sealing area ise kept to a minimnum to reduice danger of leakage.
'3. Where hermetic- sealing is not possible,

consider the use of gaskets and other sealing
devices to keep out moisture. Make sure the
sealing devices do not contribute to fungal activity, and detect and eliminate any "breathing'
that, may admit moisture.
rpniuirnmpn.
on equipmcnt. This, of course, requires thata

complete shock and vibration analysis be made
to dutermvine the levels that exist at every yehidestaon.
xarAesof heseareg've in
Chaptr
~*contact
lt soul hwevr,
benote, tat quhm~t
locations in a flight vehicle cannot be selected
soleliy on the basis of shock and vibration consioV rations, siticf to do so mnight impair vehicle
characteristics, such as causing an unacceptable
ecenter of grcavity.
NMOISTUIU; PROTIECTION
'Ihf prinlcipatl harmful effects of moisture are
corio.inmi aiu 'lie development of fungi. Esscziaialy, there are three mnethiods of protecting
ai;;n'ttl"~e
trniul b-prducs. Te frst
4. Consider impregnating or encapsulating

mat~r',Als with fungus -resistant hydroca-rhon
waxes and varnishes.
5. Do not place corrodable metal parts in
with treated materials. Glass and metal parts might support fungal growth and deposte corrsiv.
at
rdcso
h rae
Iis
6, Whien treated materials are utsed, make
sure they rio not contribute to corrosion or
alter electrical or physical properties,
Additional information on moisture protection
can be supplied by The Prevention of Deteriorationi Center,' National Research) Council, 2101
Constitution Avenue, Washington 25. D. C. The
center maintains a comple~te catalog uf fungusand corrofilon- resistant materials. Other excef-lent guides are the "Engineering Handbook
5-.49
Sercies for Aircraft Repair, "AN 01-iA- 10;

(4nstrur-tonn- fer Aircraft P-RilmfofIIlA)4
o rs," ARDCM 80-1; and I'llandbook of lnstruc-tions for Ground Equipmeit Designers,"
AIU)CM 80-5. The three handbooks list bask~
protective and cleaning materials, as well as
gcnerai protective requirements for va~rious
mate.~Jd.isms;
-
ELpu-eistant
Most synthetic textiles, with the exception it-"I

some rayons, have acceptable resistance to
fungal growth. The following pure plaztics Iavb:
oml
good resltatance: acrylicE,,peo
dehydes, nylon, polyester, polyethylene, Teflon,
Table 5-16. Rlesistance of Natural Ruibbers
to microorganisms /22/
]RU13latance
Pure natural rubber

caoutchwvc
#
ifghly putlifed
qitural rubber.991,%.
:
'
flict Is due to the differences In test methods
and Interprotation, and the presence oi various

nutrients for niicroorganisrns./22,23/
Materials
Material
vinyls sLnd silicones. Natural and synthiet ic ru bbers are sublect. to iungus attack; their sus.ceptib~lity, however, dependlson thle prednnmat.ing elastomer, the compounding materials, and
the method of processing. Tables 5-16 and 5.l7
indicate the-susceptibility of vnrirous types of
natural and synthetic rubberR to microorgn
however, conflicting data exIst, The con-
References
Attacked
24.25.26,
Attacked
27, 28
Atke
2429incorporation
27
As discussed. previously, fungus-resistant naterials should alwayls bye used. The types of
materials listed in Table 5-18 are generaly.i
considered fungus-Inert and should be used in
preference to the fungus-nutrient materials

listed In Table 5-19. However, this cioes not
exclude the use at the fuugus-nutri.-A. :ni~tc-a.ls
in hermet~ically sealed assemblies Pnd oL'icr
accepted and proven products such as paper ca-
pacitors and treated t-ransformers. If it is necessary to use fun gu-nutriert materials in

othier than hermeticaly, sealed assemblies, fun-'
giciden and 2preservativeb should be usedIt
specified in MI L-T-15 2./55/

Fungiides/23/'
not vulcanized
Fungu
Natural rifbler
%iulcanizatc
Resistant
30
Hcvtf;
AU, &.ul.m
27
Guayule :atCx
Attacked
27
Crude sheet
Cree
Crel
rbbr
Attacked
27. 31
ttakedable
ruber
Ataced
27
Pale --rcup,
A
comis iund(ed
Attacked
24, 32
loine crepe,
IenIP-onde~ld
Resaistant
12
Attacked
24
Attcke
repe
27licylanuire
Attacked
24, 32
rottinw can be virtually eliruinated by

01afniiein
the mater .4a
Prrtecdve coatings that are fungus-proof can be

applied to a wide range of materials. Many
types of iungleides are available, but thcro is
no perfect fungicide for all materials and all
pturposes. The selection of a chemical usually
represents a compromise between ease of application, safeness to handle, lackc of objectionodor and color, and Its chemical and dielectric properties. The most commonly used
government-approved fungicides are:
1.empp~er 8-gulinolliiolatc
l'latnton
Smokedl Bhect, not
--
used for textiles,
2. Par thenyl phenolformnad~lehyde with sa.*

-- used primarily for plastics and'
3. Paranitropheno
--
used for leather prod-
ucts.
conirxnutided
stt
compjitintled
Fln!e
eRiStant
n24.
Attacked
24
rbber
14-1-imd Attcke
33Aside
lkilr~ie
33are
24
Gutt.t -pe~rcha
Atackd
ruber
somre I.t
Dihydroxyl dichlorodip ienylmethane

used mainy in textiles.e
from the four tun gicides listed, there

several Wtier fungicides used for different
materials;
Textile
tack bth
ruberPaper
Clil(iriIIatcd rubber
Rr'alatant
27
IrnI lelrior~iin' of MaleVriAla

Cnlise. a"d Pre~ITvchnilqoca. by Glenn A. Gireathiouse and Carl
v~i~
uoa
enodIii~hr
u. .'1.".l Divrtsion.
* l~'k
--
coppei naphthenate,
enebis (4-chioroph enol).
na thran
Divsion.chlorinated
.-
--
2,2' methyl-
chlorinated phenols (pentachioro-
phenol).
Rubber -- nltrophenoi, zinc salicylate (1%),
zinc bcnzcmnate 14
Paints varnishes, enarnels and lacquers -
phenols, saalicylan~ide.
Table 6-18. Fungu-lnort Materials /35/
T-bl 5-17. Recsistance of Synthetic Rujbbers

*
~~~
Ma1;teri;4
Nroprenc -Ilxlyehloroprnnot compounded
'4!io)[..ZlC. comipoonded*
Resstatnce
RflerencesMelsCllo
Resistant
Attacked
29,.32
26, 27
anLe-
24,28,211,
31.32
Atan.'l5Plastics
24. 25
Resistant
Resistanlt
(1tSbutadlefl-styFrflO,
Cerainlos (steatite, glass.
Nylon
Mbica
Polyvinyl
chloride
with glass, mvica.

or asbestos flelr
Rubber (natu ral

or syntbetic)
glass bonded "ica, etc.)
~*
110t L"0llj(O1lll1led
Attacked
32
GlI-s, tautadicne -styrene,
Resistaint
Atackd
28**,32
24 28as
Tetralluoroathylene (such
Teflon or oqulvalctut)I
Silicone
c It-S. Nita (lene-styrence.
Resistant
25
Chlorotrifhajoroetbylene
(much as Kel-F or
-Polystyrene
equivalent)
Polyethylene
.41V
Attacked
27
Table 5-19. Fu~ngs-Nutrient Materials /35/
NKf
2enl.Ylned
conmpounded, acetcnc
cvctraictcd
Vin-ShutdlceRty relic, uncured
-*~
.
-- N
26,27,11
Attacked
"Ilvcar OR1." butadiene1c iylon11it rile, no
32
-______________"".
Leather
Cottonl
ro-ipl-mflekd
"llv':tr c0I!,. butaidiflCft reloriil rile,
15una N, huuidiche-
Resistant
Attackrd
I'd
32
31
Aittacked
29
Paeancxord$
Linen
Cork
Cellulose nitrate-
:leryloflit rile,
Hair and felts

cellulose
cfllldfdRegenerated
(;Rt-l OutylIIsobufitloneRslsranlt
take
isop~rene, unue
uncredAttckd
n-eslatailt
U-(i~utyi).lljOlautytflCAttacked
isoplrefe, cornflu'.c]ij
"rhiok'dl," organic
Attacked
j~~sifduncu red
24. Z5
"'I hiokol," organic poiysulfide, vulcanized

'Th~k~l,
polysulfide, sheeta for
kasoline tank linings
Resiastant
27, 31
~,r~inr
Atacke
34onite,
lscmteil
d.
cotton, or wvood
flour filler
.-AI--
211, 3Z
24
26,27
4i
Wood preservatives-
28
1P %X
__
Ex)e rli
ental clastowe11rs from):
coal-tax creosote comn-
pounds, carbolineams, wood-tar creosotes,

pentacholorophenol, copper naphthenates, zinc
naphthenates, chromated zinc ch~loride diem"Wolsian" Wat. taniolith, zir: cloride,
zinc meta-cresenite, and copper chroniatedzlnc
cIhiorlde.V
Materia,
.--
Rosistant
;iliecin flllbbr
62.2with
2.2732wood
'
lsimaeas
to make defintite comparisons of
It is15ifficult
I the corrosion resistant vroperties of metals.
si~nce their resistance valies with the chernical..A

"nvironmernts, However, in vehicle deb~gn, Uiiv
26
lsprneAttacked
krrylonmri
Styn.
26resistant
26
261.
________-_____________-
most commnon~ly used for their corrosionproperties are:/23/
Atce 26metals
tt~il~~
Attacked
ttaked
l~b'tyllc
Titanium.
Stainless steel.
-2.
'U
3. Molybdenum alloys.
is-.'ow cne containing nutrients rmay Le attacked,

Ow' hydrocarbon Itself is not attacked. /25/
~iil
4Pr
'I lotP z;,iiii111 1 lror+i'cud by linioroved processing to

1,'ivc ionc,.,l rcsistanect. /28/
5.
lmnm
Cadmium.
6. Chromium.
7. 7-inc.
Materials -- Causes and PruGlenn A. Greathousae and Carl

,.Wi, c. i i ou rtesy of Reinhold Puiblishing Corpora-
8. Nickel.
9. Tinl.r
Irown I h t,,riorat inn (if

I
Il~lil~es.by
vi
'
Copper alloys.
ion.10.
WrTA;
7
-.
"N7.
chromium, silver, nickel, tin and lead.

Zinc anid alltli~ntuu are frequently sprayed on
matierials, and pure slulnirn'n in rolled on aluminum alloys andather less corrosion- resistRn t
metals to form a "clad" material.
'The aluminumn aivd magnesiumn alloys are serh dog

Irad-ed by corrosion and should beDiaalm ~r metals far apart in the
:ivoided(.
galdvanic series (Chapter- 3) should not be Aloined
they must be used together,
directly together. 11l
their joining surfaces should be separated by an
insulating material, except if both surfaces are
covecfcr with the ra'ne protective coating./36/
zinc,
Surface treatmenet Involves a chemical reactIon on a base~ metal, forming a surface oxide or
Other coating that Is resistant to corrosion.
Anodizing and alodizing are the two processes
Protective Coatings
Corrosion of materials, particularly metals,
can be prevented by the use of metallic coatingspit
or 1)y using organic coatings such as paints or
varnishes. Meta coatings may be app lied by a
number of methods, such as electroplating, metal spiiayin7. dipping, adhesion through a metallic p-*de!-forhnwiue, and metallurgical bonding thirough rolling,
prcse
losrea
itbe bustrpain.
Ths
jL
NML-S-5002$ "Surface Treatments for Metal

and Metal Parts in Aircraft.- specifies thata
with exceptions, all aluirinum alloys and cl a
aluminum alloy parts used in mi~litary aircraft
Should be anodized, and all carbon- ade '.ox'
alloy steel, brass, bronze, Cooper and nckr
alloy parts should be cadmium or xin'- ivioxed.
Some good protective finL~hes for various metals are given in Table 5-20.
Electroplating is the most common method and

is usedwith such plating niateriais as cadmium,
C
k
Table 5-20. Finish Application Table (Courtesy of Product Engineering)

aMatrr~inj
Finish
Remarks
Alumtum aloyAod] IngAn
elect rocheniical-vxiddation surface treatment

Improving corrosion resistance; not an cle-ctroplating process. For riveted or welded as-
Alumium aloy Andi~i~for
semblies, epecify cbromie-acid anodizing.
"Airokanodize
"Airok"
Do not
.:,
parts with nonalumrnium inserts.

treatment. Cheap. Inferior
Chemical-dip oxicie
in abrasion and corrosion resistance to the anodizing process, but applicable to assemblies of
aluminum and nonalurminun inaterinja.
Immersion of pariia I.. acid solution. Clear

lacquer applied to prevent tarnich.
Copper andl zinc

alY.3
Bright acid dip
Drass. bronzc, zinc

,;iecasting alloys
Brass, chrome, nickel,

tin
As discussed under stool.
Magnlesium alloy
Dic'hromate treatment
Corroalon-proventive dichromnate dip.

color.
S;tainless steel
1Passivatlng
____ ___ ___
tr--.stmcnt
____
__
___
___
Yellow
____
___
___
____
___
___
__A
Electroplate; dull white color, good corrosion

rebistanoce, easi~ly
-
'
Nitric-acid immunizing dip.

__ __
Cadmium
Ch'-ornium
.N
-1
scratched, good thread anti-
seize. Poor wear and galling resistance.
Electroplate; excellent corrosion reesltanca and

lustrous appearance. Relatively expensive.
Specify hard chrome plate for exceptionally hard
abrasion-resistaxnt surface. like low coefficient
of friction. Use4 to somoeextent on nonferrous
metals, particularly when die-cast. Chromeplated objects usually receive a bias electroplate of copper, then nickel, followed by chrontiurn. Used for build-tip of parts that are
understi.ed. Do tat uge on parts with deep
~recesses.
A
-
5 -52
FUr'
Tahln 5-20. Finish Application Table (Courtesy of Product Engineering) (continued)
*Mat-!rral
Finih
SLeul (cununued)
B~lueing
Silver plate
I.
Remark,;
Zincplae
Immersion of cleaned and pol~shed ctoel into

beated saltpeter oi carbonaceous material. P&ar
thon rubbed with linseed oil. Cheap. Poor oorronion rein.itmase.
Electroplate; fronted appearance, btiff to brighten.
Tarnishes readily. Good bearing lining. For
electric-Al contacts, reflectors.
Di inMolten Zinc (galVanijing) or electroplate
oflow-c-arbon or.low-allny ateels. Low cost.
Gonerally inferior to cadri~um plate. Pov- my.pearancte and weatr resistance. Electroplat,4 .
has better adherence to base metal Wisn hot--dip
coating.Foimrvncorso
eitu.
Nickel plate
.V
Black oxide dip
Phosphate treatment
*Iron
Ti~ p~tc
Electroplate; dhill white. Does n~ot protect steel

from galvanic corrosion. If plating Mrbroken,
croinof base mtlwill be hsed.Finishen
In dull white, polished, or black. Do not use 'rn
parts with deep recesses.
Nonmietallic chemical black oxidizlnu trertme'nt
iron and wrought Iron. Inferior to
No buildup. Suitable for parts
with close dlimensional requirements, such As
gf-Lm, worms and guides. Poor abrasion
resistance.
Nonmetallic chemical treatment for steel and
products. Suitable for protection of Internal surfaces of hollow parts. Small awmunt
of surface buildup. Inferior to inotallic elec--.,
txvpl*Le. Poor Abrasion resistane. Good panlft
baae.
ot dip or eiectropiate. E~xcellent corrosion revistance, but if broken will not protect rPecl
froms galvanic corrosion. Also used for copper,
brass and bronza parts thot mnuxt be solderwi
after plating. Tin-plated parts can be severely
worked anid deformed without rupture of
plating.
Drass plate
Electroplate of copper and zinc. Applied to

brass And steel parts where uniform appearance
is desired. Applied to steel parts wheni bonding
to rubber to desired.
Coipper pilate
Electroplate applied prieliminary to nickel or

chrome plates. Also for parts to be- brazed
or protected against cartarrizatioui. Tarnishes
readily.
5 - 5
--
---
--r-.--.---A.W
I for Bteel, cast

I electroplate.
--
--
O)rganic
coatings
are the
Cords9 (T ie Cords) and L ac in%.
most versatile
Avoi d the use

usceptible nia-
mean!s for piotecting metals against corroeinn
of cordi coni pining unproicit.14
suirfaces. The major protection derived from

such coatings as paints and varnishes is due to
their ability to act as a barrier, and thus prevent moisture from r-eaching the metal surface.
A((ccp,'ble organic coatingws come is
ie a-Ll}rz).
icty of paini~s, vgarnishes, greases, rubbers and
is recommended. Li linen or cotton cord is

used, It should be treated with a fungicide that
will not redu'ce flexibility.
since an organic coating can be applied to al
waxes.*
r
wmt8,1,37/gold
COM2
Arrestors.
Lightnin
Antennas
strem me a reesd
PlOUlJIh
be located' withibi plastic domes or
avoid tl-e brcathing effect. Slot and
tennas may be hermeticatly sealed.
Base, Chassis
Caint sou
Antennas
nshud
covers to
cavity an-
u ieoders. Whenever practlcFuse an

abIec-a -te- Tie-inididing the contact surfaces, and the interio,- of thu !use holder withi a
silicone compound such R~s DC-4. The exterior
of the fuse holder, excer-st contact surfaces,
shiould be coated with fungicidal varnish. if possible, sealed fuse shoul'd be "n-ed.
e-i~ed~t_"ev- nw~ater
fromn heing led in on wires or from other external

or protruding partS. Moisture traps or wells
esiocb
should be eliminated, either in
use of drainage holes. If possible, the asstemblier, oir equipments should be hermetically
scaled.
Headsets. Earphones should be covered with

Mechamois, treated with Pnontoxic fungicide. phetal adapter rings should be used Instead of
nolic rings.
ratteries. "Shelf life" oif dry batteries is

latcflso
napuaini
incr-'~~
by p"Ackaging fn water-tight metal cases. Batteries should be stored lir cool places.
nn
erue o-lm,ic inaiki~
al
Systems Mhould be com~pletely drainable and have
ample self-locking drains at low pulints,
Cables. Precautions should be taken to protect tihe Insulation at the ends of cables from
moisture. Moistureproof Jacketiig, which will
withstand the required temperature range and_
mechanical abuse, should be-used.
__+392
Tuning capacitors should be bermetically sealed.
bekep dr an PJOoilwirs
Cois. soul
Awith chernically inert,Ampervlous materbLed
mis with good electrical Insulating pr~oprties,
Euch as si1 Wont:.9. The inalerial bhould not vapOri7te at ilign temperatures, since the products
of vaporization may be deposited and cause
trouble in such parts as relays and switches,
hicrrnof:tical1ly-secaleduniits should be used whereever practical.
matAll
partsbeandcoated
and COUTpjing.
Connectors
should
,7ectois
iniH~UF5Y
CWrin.
Meta patfalM'
H n
H
Corningctor Mhtuldpart ofale M
iFansdeUH
curietushoud e ilerplated
wd
anid
out. Connectors should be denig-ned with Imprn)vcd couplifngs and longer creepage paths.
W~ienever possible, superior insulating materials, c() rroBionp roof piat~ings andI moistureproof
(wi:)ncutors should be used. Cables to connect0i-s Should be looped to allow rnois~ture runoff.
Whei, irmistureproluf (olunecto~,a cannot be usedI,
the coninector case sihoadd conitain a drain holU,
)Yjni
5-.54
wourit coninectorsq vertically.
Present phenolic and metal crystalholders a~re moistureproof. The better holder in made of metal, and is soldersealed with the leads brought out through glass
beads. The crystal laces should be plated with
and siver to improve toleranlces aid permit
direct attachment of leads.
'~
-'
Ecton Tubes. Resin-filled tube bases

should be avoided wherever possible. r'are
must be exercised in the packaging, bandllinZ
and storing of tubes.
Cabinets andRelay Racks.
Capaicitors. Mica and paper capacitors In

i(hded jpl-aqtir cases have -good moisture remn
sista~nce, b~ut Yletal-cased capacitors aee better,
terial. Glass, vinyl nylon or dacron material
I.
Instruments. -Hermetically-sealed and rugged

instrumients. which will operate from -67 to
F (-59' to +200 CQ should be used. Whein
instruments are repaired, precautions should be
taken to prevent moisture and dust from entering the case. Avoid handling meter parts with
bare hands.
Lubricants. Use silicone or other waterrplatgess
'
Magnetic Materilal. Magnotilc mnfrrisia wivth

ssance should be used. If
this Is not postsible, the materials onould be
treated with a silicone compound~ such as DC-4
a fungicidal varnish. Where close clearances
-higlFcbrrosion-r
-~or
are iiecessary, a thin coat of lacquer Is recoiinGearsa etc. Provida

Mechalisms, Relejiy
prevent accumulation of water. Design equipment to withstand stresses produced by freezing
of surface moisture.
Use high-grade nickel steel for
thZ -iiaph ragirn and ma gnet to~ provide good delecontact imd corrosion resistanIce. The
z.trical
microphone shoul d be protected frcom moisture
covering At with either a lightweight coat of
-by
nylcai or line screens. Whenever possible,
throat microphones, which are not affected by
the moisture of human breat~h, should be used.
-Microphones.
Motors,
Bliowers and Dynamotor~s. All psurts,

r~cct
comuttor
~
anT~t~'Ts hould be
O~ven
Corrosion of transf oriner ritseO can be retiarded

byt;atingthe canca with sucli corrosion-rcal~st.-
MiiueFts-
suibe, hermetically sealed units should be used.
Pl~TclehoeLckfiJ~ai Lam Sockets,
Fuch asD-4 san

d
should be used.
urslo-ed tnt maetal
iarts.
r soluble salts should be avoided. Where
ant n'ia~teril
such as Mylar is recommended.
ih
necessary whenever paper or other fibrous material Js used.
Power Plants. Use waterproof spark plugs to

Hermetic Sealing./8,13/
aspar-_-pYu fouling *caused by moisture
c~~ondnzmn
ealrtr.Weewo
Where practical hermetic sealing Is the moat
thdocntrolling moisttw s; ,tt i,
rlae
is abisolutely necessary, pre-dry the woo and
coatwithmoisureroofvarnshprotects against sand and dust. A true hermetic
coatwithmoisureroofvarnsh.sea! can be constructod only out of metal, glass,
ornnprous ceramic materials, sincetee
nie~ Us fibrglss
lmintes r oher
are the only materials that are essentially
rno istureproof materials. Erosion coatings will
moistureproof. In general, organic material
larglyrnlst~rcabsrpton.cannot
limnat
be used or a true hermetic seal. How-4
hul betreted*~
ever, sotme organic materials do) have a low
Rectifiers. Rectifiers shoul etetdwt
vapor transmnissionl rate, and so can be cofuiigic~ida1i-'arniish. However , care should be
sidered a hermetic seal. Fused metal joints,
taken to avoid using mercurial fungicides on
udrdgasbhisomtlbeosaequimen
eleiumrecifies.
haing
ilione
rangemnents are some types of liormetiE. seals.
coatngssuc
asDC- mayals beuse. A
These types of seals are meant to be permanent.
funrfrlidal virnish should also be applied to the
T
)e~
terinas
cnnetios
fte
re ad. Hrbeau;ccss
broken and
reseale.f
requentl
temial
at,conet
unsaedmaheneverinheyshouldnot
order to have
to hlei~nal
PaxLs.
Tilu
mcticlly shoud
ealedunit
beuse
of 0-rings. gaskets and lanoed disk analsI
.9 flCO4~ji~lpare
not hermetic seals. These' rewaterpool
seals and give poor sealing against vapr.
R-esistorsi. Hermetically sealed fixed resistapplying hermetic sealing, care must be
ore of type areaic resin Agor dpsiedl caron-d ben
fil
pr'frre.
tye ae Agoo sel soul be
taken to ensure that the seal is absolute and
usedfoitherottin
shat o a ariblerepermanent for all conditions to which the unit
Pistor.
will be exposed. A partial seal on a unit thpt
a
r)
N.~T'
'
Senicu'iutc~.
senicnc~ctordevces
contains some free space will be susceptible to
Ser.1 Al
Al
cnlutc~.
senicndutordevces
breathing
and moisture will condense and acshoud h heretiallyseaed.cumulate in the air space. If the space Is small1,
2Ad rs. For opeOrat ion at high and low arnblen.t--uperatures, lead-silver solders should be
Used. Only resin, or resin and alcohol should
be us~ed as a flax on electronic equipment,
ipckers. Paper speaker cones are susceptible-toHii~isture aboorption and fungus growth
and should Lm-treated witli moisture- and funru's-re."zstatit comnpounids. Whenever possible,
Al aluminvincones should be used,
Sv.itcus. Use of a hermetically sealed switch
'AIIIpric%ct cor-rosion of netal parts and warpuinf of p1ia',tjc bodies and wafers auc to moisture
-b011)11 ion houwever, in cases where this 1s not
pramutim ,lcl
frorn the standpixnt of size and
avA aii
ihy,
surfaces shesmid be treated with
ftunimzicdal varnish. Bly means of accessories,
smch n-; tojgie i..uH, 0-strings, or diaphragmsl
idared over the n, itch opening, the entry ol
misujture can be reta~rded.
Tiammiforwers. Adeqjuate-termintal spachig,
?hicIi- t(2)1.po'a'ture wire coveringsi and tapes, as
wirll as p'xopoi 1 acq finis~hing should be.-used,
it may be possible to prevent breathing by fil-
lig it with a good casting rosin.

Cost, maintenance and other factors ohould be
taken into account when considering the relative
merits nf ovrallri1
enilinment he,,.I,.-
as oppose to subasserably hermetic sealit-,

Overall package sealing simplifies the problem
of adequate hermetic sealing to the extent that
there In only one large seal to be made, and all
parL9 are protected by It. On the negative side,
overall sealing makes servietrig diff icult by reW~uring the entire equipmpixt to be opened. Once
Teseali1s opened, there Is a loss of inert gases
and pssible entrance of moisture. Subassembly
scaing, on the ot~her hand, has the primary advantage of allowing case replacement of the
sealed units, particularly
if they are plug-in
'
type subassemblies. Hlowever an equipment

consisting of Individually sealeA nubassembilen
-1i1. tend to bie heavier and more expensive than
an overall sealed package. A gerieral rule that

should be followed Is to limit sealing to expendable individual components or relatively
smail subasseinblies that may naaily We re-
placed.
If 11111919w
7*~4.Mffa
6. Provides supportfor any shielding on cover
________--o~
%kwhe hermetic seal ing Is used, va-rious charof the method employed must be
takcn into consideration. The sealing technique
murt offfc~r proper mechanical rilgid'tv res~ist
temperature extremes, have good heat transfer
cfiarac':rlsticB, atd be easy to apply. In additlon, for electrcmnic equip ment, the dlielectric
constant,' high frequency losses sad magnetic
tihielding qualities ot the sealing matei-tal must
be conside;red. Geacrally, hermetic seal'ing can
be ar~comn lished by (1) embedment, (2) gas f~iliuid filling. A comparison of the
merits of some of these hermetic sealing techniqucs is given in Table 5-21. Tables 5-22 and
5-23 list 0-' detailed characteristics of many
emt~dr-atcomouns
ad alicne lui Wlrs.
cmi)n-r,1tcomouns
ad siicoe fci
illrs,
The dpcision to use an embedment, gas orliquid-filler type of hermetic seal depends on'
the specific application. Each method has nany
advantages and liisadvantages, some of which.
may be important in some applications butnotA
in others. The following is a list of the adviuntagesi anid disadvantages of each method.
7. Requires a time-consuming procedure in

production.-
Finbedment - - AdvanGAges
1. Provides a resilient mechanical support
and so also) helps in shock and vibration protection.
8. Adids weight to the assemably.

9. Some embedmnent compounds show evidence oflong term shrinkage (over a lew years),
which leads to 7tracking.
2. Elirninat-a the need, in many cases, for

dotail mourtinl&v hardware.
Gas-Filling
thtmyeusd
'7. Is relatively inexpenstve.
icteristlcs
Embedxnont __- Dlizicaltta-ges

1. Adds losses to high-frequency electronic
equipment.5,
2. Multiplies stray capacitances by approxImately the dielectric constant of the material.
3
geerlwitntihtadigtemperatures.
4. Will not, In general, withstand Ic,- ternpevatures2 particularly when Irregularly shaped
obJects an embeddted.
5. Provides poor heal removal.%
6. Makes embedded wnilts expendable.
--
,.
-
tFE
'I
Advantages
1. Adds ro electrical losses to the equipMont.
3. Allows the use of less expensive Unprotected comrlCnentB.

4. Alow comactconsrucion nd ff~cent
space utilization.
0-I It
2. Does not increase circuit capacitances.

3. Can wlthethiid bothi high and lorw temper-
atures.
.5. Allows critical parts to be 1protec~ed

arainst. unauthorized tampering in the field.
'
4. Allows moving parts to be sealed.
Table 5-21. lietoUve Merlits of 8j'ne Hesrmetic Sealing Techaiques /13/
[Mochanical
V 1enj~rture
hleat Lyesi tamee
Techrilpe
rigidity
te,~ ridbedinc-'t
transfer
1hiigh
z.O-w
Effective
dielectric
L.osses
at hIgh
constsant 0frequeney
Humidity I
Eas~e
protection
Ui use
p p
to F
2.11 to 4.0
IPto G
Foam frrbcdrnent
1.03 to 1.2
CverarinIt endibedment
10
F toO0
FI
P..-( F
P to F
P)
1.0
G to E
F LoG
FtoG
Pto F
Pto F
1.0
G toE
F to a
F to G
2.51 tG 3.11
Gto E
1.0
O toE
F to G
1;'L'ir. Coating
Silicone iiir
'IIvILC fluid filling
ak thig
t'i-ini Fti ay c:ih'acitniiccs are increased by uppro-tmittely this factor.

F ixccllvrit, G
(,)"d, Y'
FaIr, P
=Poor.
'
5. Prevents
oxidation
of lubricants,
corn-
nmitators, switch contacts, etc.

6.
:*
Ruducen arcing tendencies.

"P
t
ea
ptt
e
p e
d
7. Permits sealed parts to be replaced aud
serviced.
8. Provs
covectiua coolig of sealed
parts (cooling Is better than with embedment).
Gas-Fillinz -- Disaivantag.s
1. Proviies no support for sealed parts,
2. Requires a strong container to withstand
internal gas pressures, particularly at high altituies.
3. Requires svecial maintenance equipment4. Provides less heat removal thin liquid itled units.
5. Leakage is difficult to detect,
S!4,
id-FilliLng-- Advantages
I . Provides the best heat removal.
2. Reduces arcing tendencies.
3. Aliows the use of unprotected, uncased
components.
1-i u id-Filling -- Disadvantages
-rLavn e
1. Increases we:;ht.
2. Provides no mechanical support for the
sealed conmponents.
3. Requires the use of a pressure relief sys4. A leak
can disable the unit and cause
trouble in other assemblies.
temperature,
, hich changesa U-e viscosity efthe fluid.

*7.
f!iu. are solvents for some diusmterials.
Sc~rne
elSctric
8. Stray capacitances are multiplied by the

dit.lhctri constant of the fluid.
9. (':uw(es
l),.;i~t
component 'arts so that moisture traps are

not present. Vertical surfaces should be used
wherever oractical to hold comoonent parts.
Drain holes or other means of free drainage
should be provided sometimes even to the extent of f iling possible well areas with filleting
compounds.
losses in clectronic equipment.
C'(1:deratlwns/13/
hI equipments where sealing is not used and
eioistutc tynds to develop, positive steps shoul.d
t,e tati:en toj ilsure againe;t the accumulation of

i,,i);ture. Care should hw Kiven to the mounting
. .
.'
i
'
Insulating materials should be limited to those

having less than 1.1 percent water absorption.
Overall equipment spraying with varnish must
be avoided. Spacings between terminals and-;
between uninsulited prxts or components ahould
be kept as large as possible In order to prevent
,,
L
W
,_
mold bridging.
Condensation Control
Condensation control can be accomplished

through dehumidification and good temperature
cortrol. Dehumidifiers using absorption by
silica gel should be placed in areas where
moisture
present
the most
problems. If
silica
gel would
Is used,
indicator
materials
must be
Included to show when replacement Is necessary. Cooling systems can be imed to prevent
the temperature gradients that cause condensation; and the cooling system should employ
moisture removal methods. Cooling is covered
elsewhere In this chapter.
--
"
INTERFERENCE PROTECTION/13,38/
areas in which interference suppression techrpn hp annlipd-I
(11
a. thu.
annio--
Interference can be either man-made or ra,tural. Generally, not much can be done about
natural interference; however the Interference
from atmosphcric electricity, Irnown most cornmonly as precipitation static, can be minimized
by dissipating the atmospheric charge. This Is
covered elsewhere in this chapter under "Atmospheric Electricity Protection."
For man-made interference, there are three
niio
Mr'~e u..lnteancc
iffiultinterference,
5. Mries i.!ntejanc
difficult.
G. lh.cant removal varies with
-of
,4
'I
!
.
.-d fh.
~fa the interference transnhls-4
sion medium; and (3) at the Interference.

teesceptible equipment. Electronic lnterFerence
should be controlled in the basic design of all
-units
of the equipment.
The equipment should
;:..
also be desilned to minimize susceptibility to

interference rotm external sources.
-.
J!
The best place to apply Interference suppression is at the source not at the transmission
medium, and then at the susceptible equipment.
Most often it has to be used In all three areas t.3
hbring about satisfactory performanc,, . Hlowever',
when Interference generation is kept to a ml,_nimum, Interference suppression In the other
---two areas becomes much easier to accomplish.
It mustalsobe remembered that many pieces of
equipment, especially electronic equipment, can.
--- be both a source of int.erfererce as well is a""
susceptible equipment.
-- 2 2
.....
.-.
Table 5-22. Embedment Compound Characferiatcs

(as aupplied by the listed companies) /13/
Item
Arl~q Lahoratory
ARI-TEMP 201
StCefmc
Heat
distortion
point
Dieleetric
strenglth
gravity
(C)
(volts/ril)
MRbCo., Inc.
ARALDITE
1.1 to 2.2
CIBA 505
100 to 120
Ik)w Chemical
Co., inc.
STYROFOAM
Dow Corning
0.024 to
0.07Z
C o rp .
I'
1,TV5302/50.03
E. I. du Pont Co.
TE F LON
Emerson Plid
Cmiing, Inc
STYCAST 'I I'M
79
Dielectric
vs constant
froqioncy
(25 C unless noted)
Moisture
absorption
(%bvolumer'n
unless noted)
700
60 CpO
3.6
0.10
890
50 CPR 1 me
3.6
22 C 3.7
50 C 3.9
500
60 cps
3.8
0.10
60 cps to 3000 mc
1.03
0.03
(80 to 00%
rh, 15 days)
lr
1 to 0.14
(168 hr
-.
100 cps to 100 me

2.0
0.005
4 ,
'I
2.1 to 2.2
1.05
166
(useful at
25)
1.25
-400 to 600 (80

mil sample)
-1000 to 2000
(65 to 12 nil
sample)
450
,.
L,*,
0...
, j '-
0.5
(25 C,24hr)
60 cps to 10,000 ma
2.36 to 2.38
, I. [
STYCAST
175
455
100 cps to lOO00me

I.
2P850 GT
S'FYCAIT
iCCO W
.5
2RG
hImprLriatmig
s;IYCAST
51.),u CM
5 --5i
1.05
85
1.22
approx.
200
1.7
170
600
(100 m!! sample)
412
(1 mil sample)
500
(100 mUl sample)
60 cps 1 kc
I mc 1000 nic
2.596
2.596
2.582
- 2.584
100cps to 10,000 mc
approx. 3.4
100 cps to 1 ma
4.3
0 .1
aa
0.2
(25 C, 24 hr)
"
0.1
(7 dayn)
0.10
(25 C. 24 hr)
1ower factor
P
vs
*(5frequency
50cps
25 C 0.007
IOiC 0.005
!.mc
IUnear
tLermal
Shrinkage
expansion
(parts per
on
L~oT temp.
polymerization
limit
7.2 x 10-5
-6-
2.5 to 6.0 x 10
0.5 to 2.3
-60
0.027
Volume
resitvt
For electron tube ampUifiera. Cures at 275 F.
1016 to
1017
0.027
Thermal expansion reducedlto 2.5 x 10-5 by

addition of fillers.
Adhesion to most meai,
to excellent.
ON
1.5
-100
For high ternper&..uAxj 4
tranaferrmerq,
Cures r
300 F.
1 kc to 3000 nac
0.0002
5.4 to7.2 x10-
_______
__________
lower than
-234
Good for many appllca-.

4
tions up to 2,5x10 me.
Very Light, with high
strength to weight ratio.
Greater strength properties available in lighter
foams.
________der"ity
-600
100 (l~f4 to 100 mua
5.5 x i0-5-
Sillcone rubber.
-268
1015
0.0005
'fherinal coitduotivity 1.7

BTU/hr/sq ft/ dog F/in.
No Solvents.
CIO)
cps to 10,000 Inc
5.0 x 10-5
-70
i0l3
0.000,3
Iow,-loss, low dielectric constant casting
L0077 :ot.io100 m
tremely wide terriperture range with large
-~
inserts.
1.5 x10-5
-/27525~C:
Good
high temfperatur~e
x, 1016
0.0
IX1013
eln
[blient of expansion
aluminum.
u0 Cp)s - 0.C.,098
100 cps - v.00602
10-5
10
5.0 X 10-5
0 .0,
r5.5 X 10-5
7.0o
Excnllent machinabillty.
1014
-20
I Tne
- 0.00084
1000 me - 0.000854
1,10 Cps to 10,000 mc
10 ')'.
100 ke
0.015
2x
2.
10 6
Impregnant for trans-
formners,*coils.*and
capacitors. Can be used,,
_65
2012
Blackopt-ire maerol
.0(
5-59
IN
r.
I Ale
",
I'
Table 5-22. Ernbednii&t CornpouLMd Charaffernws
(as supplied by the listed companies) /13/
(ooatmued)
Dielectric oonstant
Heat
Dielectric
diitortion
Moisture
absorption
vs
Specffic
point
frequenoy
(%volume
gravity
(C)
(volts/mil)
(25 C unless noted)
unless noted)
If. I. Robertson
Company
STYPOL 107E
1.253
56
(1/8 in. sheet)

365
40 cps - 3.86
1 kO - 3.59
I me - 3.35
0.27
(24 Lr)
S'IYPOL 502E
1.540
60 cpa - 5.53
0.30
strength
336
378
55
-,
'
60cps -4.57
(solid
resin at
25
'I
I kc -5.10
Im - 4.23
"STYPOL507I
-4'
0_.-
lno-3.74
I me - 3.74
U)____
.. :
,.
Koppers Co.---DYLITE
Lockheed AJrCraft Corp.
Rigid 11ocyanate
LOCKFCAM
NO. 2075
M.W. Kellogg Co.
KEL-F
0.048
to
1.480
2.1
10 lb per cu ft density foam

50 kc - 1.22
500 ko - 1.24
1 me - 1.17
9.3 me - 1.19
110 to 140
opproy.
200
doe, not
absorb or
transmit
moisture
in 5 rml
films or
greater
1 ko - 2.8
1 me - 2.5
100 me - 2.5
530
(short time
test on 1/8 in.
sample)
5000
(step-by-step
method, 6 rol
0.3 to 0.5%
by weight
(100% rh,
24 hr)
,
.
'*:
sample)
Melpar, Inc.
MAELPAK IV
1.275
170
450
4.7 at 8.4 me
200
500
3.6 at I we
1.480
300
475
M'L~~V1.292
NIELPAK V1
M.Iinne'sota Mining
*,nrl Mfg. C".
LXCi11 0--PC
Nitiunal Bureau of
t'Anidards, )ia-.
mond Ordnance
1. iboratorles
(24 hr)
0.034
0-30
3.4 at 80 to 120 mc
0u.27
*-/
A
"
'
1.22
68 to 70
'310 to 660
100 cpW
In kc 1 mo 100 mo
- 2,44
2.43
2.42
- 2.5
(24 hr)
0.01
NBS 111"SIN
I N-2.5
1.06
51
00 cps to l me
"CA:.'"IINC REIIKN
0.02
2.61
100 me - 2.60
_..
..
.7
. ,
'h
______
Power fartor
s
frequency
(5Curuteassntd
_____,LA'S.
_______
(parts per
Shrinkage
on
polymerization
LOW temp.
limit
Volume
resistivitye
deg C)
(C)
tohxn/cm;3)
thermal
Linear
expansion
60 cps - 0.0i3
I ke - 0.0079
1 mc - 0.024
60 cps'- 0.069
1 kc - 9.072
1 nc 0.04D
For impregnsating tranisformers.:
8.7
8.9
3 x 10-5
0.015 at 1 Inc
0.01t at 60 cps
100 Inc
0.0001 to 0.0008
top ('11"- 0.001C

10 kc - 0.0010
1 mo .- 0.(009
111
P11
-80 to 020
4.5 x 1020 to 1507 x )0-`
Polystyrene foam,
negligible
0.005 to 0.010
per in.
3.0 x 10-5
2.5 x 10-
11 x 10
6 to 8
2 to
4 to 5
7.5
9.8
._
.. ,
be per
uontrolled
Density
cu ft.
40 lb
from I tomay
unaffected
at -73.5
~2.6.7
-201
1.2x10 1
(50% rh.
25 C)-
1015
-65
"
C.Qy
Chemnoally inert, high

impact, high-temperature
material. Excellent electrical properties over
temperature range.
Can be injection extrusion,
transfer, or compression
molded.
Hot spot temperature.
Should be 170 C or less.
S
Can be cured at room
temperature.but higher
temperature preferable.
-35
1017
-65
1015
---65
io 1 7
-55
(cracks at
this temp.)
1017
- 0,0010
6.N.'-
Can be nourod and formed

in plactz4 21.1 C to
_.wide
2.5 x 10-5
'.
Harder, more rigid than

er:,: Also haes .r--n0
502E.
0.62 at 34 roe
N,'
Inorganic filler provide.s

Increased resistance to
cracking - higher thermal .
conductivity.
-55
8.4
kc1-0.UZ
I me- 0.006
100 mc - 0.000
(power facto- lower
at 200 C than at
25) C)
Remarks
50 cp -C.Iu29
II ke0. 2fi
rie - 0.013
9300 mc 5 x 10-<'
. .tt ." 0
:-r
Polysulfide elastomer.
t
,.
9..
.74,
.-
'
e,
"
"
.4'
K,
t
Specialized resin for UIhF"

high impedance circuits.
Quite expensive to
manufacture.
A copolymer of styrene
and fumaronitrile. Uses
similar to NbBS CASTING
RESIN; less expenslve but
some sacrifice In dissipation factor at elevated
temporutu ten.
''.,'
4
.4,
"N
W,
'
,.1
-,
- .-
I' ,
L4
Table 5-22. Embedrifent Compound Chara ceristics

(as supplied by the hated companies) /13/ (continued)
1--Item
Heat
"distortion
specific
gravity
N,:pco Chemical
Complpl
y
point
(C)
Dielectric
strength
(volts/mul)
-'i
Dielectric conatant
vs
frequency
(25 C unless noted)
Moisture
absorption
(% volume
unlesa noted)
LOCK FOAM
Scries A
Pittsburgh Plate
Glass C..
SEL-CTIloN
5000-5199
SEI.ECTRON
1.2 to 1.4
45to200
400 to 600
(ehorttirne
test,1/8 in.
specimen)
1.22
90
480
130 cps
3.55
(24 hr)
0.05 If 0,5
0.3
1 kc - 3.15
I mo - 3,08
5001
SLLECTION
5200
(1/8 in. specimen)

60cps-3.30to3.70
1 ke - 3.10 to 3.30
1 me - 3.00 to 3.25
300 to 500
1.5
Pr-oducts--
60 cps - 6.00 to 6.40

I kc - 5.10 to 5.50
1 me - 3.60 to 5.00
.i
0.5 to 1.0
--
Itcse rcn Co.
Rohm 9 Wss Co.

PAItAPLEX
P-13
345
(100 riol
casting at
1.122
(Ot25 C)
25 C)
60cpstolkc-4.2
1 me - 4.0
10 me - 3.7
Sm - 3.4
(% wt, 24 hr,
25 C)
0.1
"
(% wt. 24 hr,
25 C)
2.0
PAflAPLI.X
P-43
.235
7V to 85
(2 C per
500
min at 264
psi)
60 cps - 3.3
lkcto 10 we-3.2
(% wt, 24 hr,
Z5 C)
30 inc - 3.1
10,000 'nc - 2.6
(% wt, 24 hr,
0.3
3.0
Topper Mfg Cc.

C (I ,|1,I A '!"
1'. S. Navy
I hrti tonics
I .di)rvltorirs
1. 177
5 - 02
'3 '
1.235
85
(passes
spec
16 E 4)
500
3.9 at 60 cps
0.10
700
100cps-3.20
0.23
(30 mil
sample,
60% rh.
22.2 C)
.J,
".
Jf
.
100 kc - 3.26
60 mc - 3.09
(62% rh, 23.3 C)
I.N
p'oAkcrfaitor
N
I recri e ncy
52C vnle-3s noted)
Linear thermal
Xpansiofl
(parts per
deg C)
Shrinkage
on
polymerization
%(c)
)
(1/8 In. Ppomev
60cl5 -0.016 to 0.02
I kc - M',,' t.- M,0
60 cpq
.1
1 mc -
41
to 9
o1
,.
Low temp.
limit
-55
--
0.013
-9.0
65
--
--
1 ine - 0.052
10 Mc - 080
-
IV.
Rigid resins with widely

varying properties.
Geneoral purpose casting
Polyoulfide elaatoraer.
Flexible polymer. Can be

m.ixed to obtain intermediate properties.
0. 105
60 pi to Ikc -0.006
3ire - 0.017
If) mc
Itocyarlate foam,.
be blended with resins.
30 mnc
)RemarksAA
'to
kc - 0.04 'o00
I rnc -0.0l5 to 0.05
60 "p'r - 0.005
I kc - 0.0 11
Volume
reaistivit~
(ohm/cm
-7.0
--
0.022
Rigid polymner. Cranbe

mixed to obtain itilermediate properties.
30 rnc - 0.034
10,000 nic - 0.043
200
*,I
)10727.
xp;.07
-80
For use withsmicon-
P,.
Table 5-23. Properties of Some Silicone Fluids* /13/

(Courtesy of Dow Corning-Corp.)
%A~
transiio
gram-cal/eec/
cm 2 /deg C/cin
Silicone
fluids
Specific
gravity
Flash
point
(C)
Dielectric
strengh
(voltn/mil
Dielectric
constant
(at 25 C)
Power factor
200 " -if.; 3
0.8;6
107
250
(0.1 in.
sample)
100 cps -2.412

1 me - 2.405
luG we - 2.39
100 cps -0.000 1

1 me - OAt)iC62
100 wec- 0.0002
0.00027
250
sample)
100 cps -2.74

100 mec- 2.70
lO0 cp - 0.0001
100 m - 0.0006
0.00039
350
in.
sample)
11PO cps -2.92

1 kc - 2.91
100 kc - 2.91
100 cps -0.0001

1 kc - 0.0001
100 kc -0.0001
ceni'tItoken
;it 25 C
'200 fluid;
stoke-3 at
0.972
315
250C
550
1Xi;
lO
)0-10
centist kes
it25 Cheat
(5 C)(0.1
315
---
Rumarks
Liquid meithyl
milicone. Volatile liquid. UseNonvolaale
from -40 C to
+ 200 C.
Liquid vhcnylil(uH
e
of exceka~orai
'
~
i
-,I
''
stability.
Useful from
-40 Cto +250 C.
200 fluid;
1000 cci'
tistoles at
250C
0.973
__
315
300
(0.1 In.
sample)
__
-__________
IG cps -2.7b
1 mc - 2.78
3000mic- 2.74
10O cps -0.0001

1 mc - 0.0C33
3000 me- 0.0096
0.0038
Nonvolatile
fluid. Useful
from -40 C to
+ 200 C.
Dow Cornin~g Corporation. Other silicone fluids are obtainable from other manufacturers, but bocause o!
differer.1 methods and conditions of measurements their data are not presented here. The figures given above
are characteristic of the silicones as a group.
Tntcrf crcene suppression at the source and the

slisceptible points can be reduced by proper se-
lection of cornoonents and equipments, and by
the reduction of harmonic generation, arcing
and corocna. Since interference can be transnutted by conduction, coupling, or radiation,

interfvrcncc transmission can be reduced by
filtering, shielding (in the case of Poise, insulation is the accepted method of shielding)
and judicious placement of equipment. Interf ..rcncc suppression. mrust be used not only betweco equipments but also between sections
with~n equipincnts.
~tI.LW,
J1~~iipflI15not
The usefulness of shielding increases with the

thickness of the shielding material, the square
root of its conductivity, the square root of its
permeability, and the square root of the interference frequency. Individual Phields are also
used within an overall shielded equipment to
prevent coupling, Contamination, and interaction
within the equipmnent, and to reduce the overall
problem of filtering. Bly isotlating individual
circuits with shields and lead filtering, normally
noise-free leads will not require filtering prior
tot~heirexitfromn the overall shielded container,
since contamnifiatlori of these leads will probably
take
nlace.
deignr shulduse
te posibe
Nklinevr
ii terferenc' -free components. For example, a
* ~ Lwcrequ
ana-cindutio
1 ,wdwit
!,:-,wrwiheuijpiai-c nchctin moor~
mtor
ShOUd
intea
b ~kd
ofa bowerwiti ad-c
commuiator-type motor and a carbon pile re-:_
gulator is better thian the vibrating reed type.
Additional information on component selection
isi Contained iin reference/,39/.
Shields made of ferrous rnateriaia bhould not

sdfrfeunlsaoo10k.Tas
b
parent
conduc
tive-screer..3
coated face plates should be
used over
radar
to reduce radiation
interference. As an aid to determining shielding effectiveness, attenuation characteristics of
various metals are given in Tables 5-24 and
5-25.
SuppressionTealniques
Meshed metallic wire may be used instead Of

solid metal shields where cooling is a problem,
or where openings must be provided in a case.
The openings should be as small as possible,
preferably no-larger than the holes in 22-mesh,
15-mui copper screening. If larger holes must
be used, they should be covered with 16- to
2-ehsreig
Stiielding. Shields are used on small assenihue, ucas chassis, as well1 as on equipments
to isolate the effects of arcing, coc'ona, and,

stray electromnagnetic fields. The shield prevents the exit of interference at the source, or
-iance of it at the susceptible point.
--
5 -44
-Y
1;;
N
O
.At
'
,
1.
Table 5-25. Shielding Effectivenests of

Various Metals at 150 Kc /13/
Taible 3-24. Shield Thicknqso of Various Metata

to Achieve 33 da ]_x,.s at 1 Me /131/
Njet'!
Thickness (nilla)
MtlAttenuation
Metailu
(dbfmill)
1.32
Silver
20
Blrass
Copper
Copper (annealed)
1.29
Copper (hard drawn)

Gld
-l~
1.26
-~10
Magnesiurn
16.G
Slier10Aluminum
Steel
1.01
25 to55
Tin
26
Zinc
1.8.5
IB
0.79
Zinc
0.70
tact on m'a~ting surf aces. One method Is to u.-e

tapered joints, as shown in Fig. 5-71. This
arrangeCs electrical contact along more tha ne
~
, ifthir'aer, structurally weakl members
are to i~e -=A the "paint can" method shown
inl Fig. 5-72 can be used. To further Increase
Uc~ shielding effectiveness of a flanged joint, an
annular ring, as shown in Fig, 5-73, can be used
around the entire circumference of the joint.
Tlil- serrated spring joint, shown in Fig. 5-74,
also ivcs good continuous contact area,.
&il.
Fiitoringj. Complete shielding o( an equipnwnf.it diassi3 or plug-in assembly is actually

mever possib~le because of the leads that must
enter or leave the unit. These leads provide

('inductive, poths for interference signals. To
~uj~prrss5tfiskind of interference transmission,
-01 inter- wid iiitra-wiring; Lihould be filtered,
06
Nickel
0.58
Phosphor-bronze
0.55
Iron
16.9
Tin
0.50
Steel, SAE 1045
12.9
1erytilum
04
Lead
0.36
ilypernik
vI
88.5
Mnl02
Mu-metal
Permailoy
a sufficientStilssel5.
number should be used so that approximatelyI

equal pressure is exerted all along the joint.
Cadmium
"'
Mating Surfaces. Mating surfaces, especially

where Vas.wts are used, have been a principal
source of inierference escape. A gasket must
be conductive to prevent r-f leakage1 and it
must be piia'js in order io conforuii the
ncjUining surfaces -,nd bring about large contact area.
The gasket material should not be soluble in
oil, gasoline or water, and it should be able to
withstand teri'pcratures from -67 to 365 F (-55
C to 185 C).
In. -!neral, the important requirements for
mating surfac,s Is that a continuous electrical
contact be maintained all along the joint. TheI
be-st type of Joint, from an interference protection standpoint, is a welded joint. If the Join.t Is
A
a
0.66
rasa
Metallic shafts that tend to radiate interferen~ce should be grounded by serrated metallic fingers or a gasket. If, for design reasons,
tinc shaft cannot be grounded, it should be made
of an inwilating material, and a wave-guide attenuator used aruund the shaft.
h-I'd closed by screws or bolt,
Magnesium
63.2
I.
63.2
'
~'
Harmonic Supipression Filters. Provided the
frquncls4ixd
or1 as e_9ss an a 2 to 1 tuning range, harmonic smippression filters may
be used at the output of transmitters to prevent
harmonics from reaching the transmission line
and antenna. These filters are usually bandpass or low-past; filters, because only the frequencies above the fundamental are to be attenuated. High-pass filters mnay be required
with equipments employing frequency multipliers. In designing bandpass or high-pass fi ters, use a cutoff frequency of 1.1 limes the fundamentpi frequency. The filter should be piacea
to prevent the unwanted frequenc-.-ts from leaving
the transmitter. A Faraday screen between the
output tank and the pickup coil will also aid in
preventing harmonic corupling to the transmission line.
5-65
.7
7=171,
TI
dip.-
be used. To bc most useful, filt~ers should be

placed Inside the equipment case or as close as
P031
*
inhes
tof
;<'-few
xto
wire
ntaieplii.Ee
lefit
orunfiltcedpit
w
radit
c
interference.
Bonding and Grounding. Bonding is a meconnection tat provides a low.-Imped-.

ance path ior interference currents and a-c and
cl-c power return paths. A good bond contains
Chanica
Fig. 5-71. Tapered joint.
Fig.ide an
doeslnot insur accooihdbod inc

ta
verys low4
re-t imeande
by manso reuirerd. Aondirec jumpers maurdt
ba jonngtonducting
rvde
eithe peround
nibntioy
oatr
or
othIeraerty partsanentd be fda
aphoreferod berylium coapn
oont
Bonding jinerareompushed intwoonnec elctirelly two physicansy ofeupatedurfcs.
Aiethbon
jumpesareby
equiired fwo
re
eitaerplermwthan-
Froun can"~i
,,~~~TensiBodin
RJg~fh
Tcnso
F~g.5 7. Anula-rin
tye jontlength
Fki 5 7. Anula-rin
tye jont.width.
________________Arcing
Sprn- Seraedto
II
beca2. thein
isjhokioute.
umperisu reduseod th cnecllpet elerctrlly two rhyscald
sitho ate
bstrucfgtactio.
Th
juondr arpe ncequinreade asr texamlegthoath
o unitoehd.
stgrap in icrausede Alsoipet is shockp
a high ratio of jumper width to length. The

should not be greater t.han five times the
and Corona Suppression.
Arcing andcoroaa should be minimnized (refer

"Atmospheric Pressure Protection" in this
chapter), or eliminated where practical. Where
lPov~erlline Filters. In a vehicle electrical

s~YStet 0, primary power wiriing is common 4owiany equipiments andicircuits, so that the powerlitte can serve as a common Interference pathl~L ~r thre equipments and circuits. Proper
filtering shiould be used at necessary equipment
ec*6i arnd entrance points to suppress the transn)i'ssion and reception of unwanted signals. Merely hypassing the leads to ground or the use of
small inductors will help suppress r-f signals,
Ilut i nimany cases filter networks will have to
14
they c~mo be ent~rely e~liminated- their effects
generating them.
Fig.
Fi.57.Serrated spring joint.
All leads ansociate q with the
unit should be filtered, and located where they

will have the least effect on other equipments
I
.
and circuits.-
SN
N
UTPOETO/0
Proper chioice of abras ive -resistant materials
for exposed surfaces will give protection against
sand and dust. For example, stainless steel can
be used to protect the thin rubber stripping on
rubber propeller doicin4 btoots and Protective
covers may be provld for pfastIc surfaces,
such as windshields and radomes. Materials
chosenfor use In protective devices should also
be able to withstand other environments likely
to be encountered./41,42/
4.
Thelibest way to protect the interior of a flight

v'Ihiclu or equipment is to completely exciude0-r
-4oir
inr! dust. This can be do:ne by hermet-
Irally sealizng the varlC-lis componfents.

How(eit
is uitten more practical to do 0ne of the
followini,:
'A
%x
1, Provide suitabip shields and covers for

wrarlngg suvfaccrn-, sach as engine bearings.
2. Provide filters In the air- Intake syst-Dms
of piston engines and other compartments.
and equipmnent
3, Place delirate instruments
positions.~us ~
protected
4. Recommend frequeit greasing and cleaning
of the eq-i!pinent.
DEICING ANT) ANTI-IC[NG/43/

During flight, icing on wings, em~pennrage,
scoops, radomes and transparent areas can In-
crease! drag, cause control and nower loss, and

i-onder atir speed and other sensors inoperktive.
The icing prob~lem on wings and empennage
exists only fo- subsonic aircraft, or for superz-onic aircraft when operating in the subsonic
regime,
particularly during takeoff climbing
anid landing operations.
The methoAs d pro-
Y'_-___
Fig. 5-75i. I'D' duct.

-
-tic
method. Thje
flowing through the panes is one
of aktransparent electrical, conductiecot
ing between plies of glass and monolytic plaBwindshields is anilher efficient method. An
external jet air blast on the windshields i- PtWr
another methnd of anti-icing and defrooting, ad
well as an efficitent, SiM le and relka1;,e
U,'IJ..d
of ram ice removta wlien sufficient quantitice of

compressed air are available. In the application'
of either anti-icing or deicing systems to flight
vehicles, It is advisabe to eonduct an operational analysis (Chapter 4) to determine the elf
f ects of various anti-Icing and deicing systems
as welt. as various degrees of protection on the
mission effectiveness of the flight vehicle.
Anti-icing or deicing of engines that can be
affected must always be provided./459,46,47/
'hc most wiclely used type df thermal anti, mv '.ystr-rn nrovide~s spa-nwise air distribuition
i lwtruha""dc
n
mond
(lfr~~
thie %
infc s leading! edge, as snown In Fig 5-7
andI ,j~ ~ .6.ilmre
re ls may araneandrtF,f 5-6
hx
r
ls
ayarne
application to superisonic air'x,
,t'-ntial
cimt
Thcc( iticlude :-,)id arid liquid freezing[ponlt dclpressarms chemnical beat-release coat-~ Imdingedge,
idahi
ad deonatng
'-dii
Ant i-icing
srci.a-,
p 1iiaimu
5-77).
Schosen
and defrosting of transrarent

3,s %indshiiclis, can be a'rcomnhy various riicthodLs of hepajing (Fig.
IDouticu pane tomistruction wilth hot air
audi
r_
, 't
;.
'c
tectingaircraftigainst icing may be divided into

twc classifications. First, there are mechante, systems in w~hich ice Is removed by a mechanical operation, such aG the periodic inflation and defalionof a rubber boot, comimonly
known as a deicinr boot. Second, there are
U~ern-tal systenis, in which the accumulation of
ice is either prrvented or removed by heating
the vehicle surface. Thermal systems may be
either continuous or cyclic. The continuous
systemn (anti-icing) supplies sufficient steady
heat to tie vlii ~c surf ace to completely vapizc Ohw impinging water, thereby preventing the
formtio
ce.Thecyclc
of
ssien (dicig)
aflL- s the ice to accumrulate and then removes
it, 'i hie ice is removed by adding sufficient heat
to ri~itt a thin f[imi of ice adjacent to the skin.
This bre~aks the bond betv'een the ice and the
NKin1, WUdtJ: Ail Stream swceps away Uh
c
cunviilated ice./W4
'
"
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSLTI PROTECTIC)N/13/

Selection of M tbriaiml
SeasB and gaskets
shio41definaue of ma~ter!.ae that will not be
easily dlistorted by reduced
atmospheric pres 1
ue.Lriatac
terfudthtilno
diffuse andleak at~the expected pressures should
b
hsn
omnmz
h
ern
fcr
mutator brushes In motors and generators at
highier altitudes, cadmium iodide and lead chlc-ve
ride cau be incorporated Into the brush materal. This will supplement the lubr~icat-ing effects
of water and oxygen, so that f riction w LUbe kept
lorw at high altitudos./22,48/%
Insulation that Is made of uribonded or unsealed tape consirueiiuu tihuuld witUbeuedL
an environment of extreme or rapidly chanvginef
pressures. Solid-type (extruded or molded) W.

sulating material should be usecL insulating
material that deteriorates rapidly undc.r ionic
bombardment should nct be used In high voltage
circuits at low piressures becaune It winl beWI
eas Iy damaged byr cororia. Teflon, for exani~ple,
as lov, reristance to ozone "nd should not be
usdweconamgibepsnt
Fce~no
o~ei./8 nts.h/18/agen and
lcrnmcor
Seiectiiom of carrying
onents using make-and-break contacts must. be
carefully for the anticipated pressutres.
The insulation ma~terial shoulid not be susceptibll3 to arcing and corona at the low press-ures, or the compnptents should be hiernietically sealed whenever possible. The termhinal0
on parts such as tranalormere, Inductors and
5-6
i'4
Al..
LI
*~
-:4
lo
Fig. 5-76. Anti-icing synteni for wing, nacelle and empennxage.
connectors should be spai~ed far ecough apart to

pre%ent arrover at the operated voltages. If
such parts mxust be used belorw their atmospheic resureratngs
thy soul bederted
pheic
resur rainsitceyshould bemilarparts
lde hden according to
t s l.otcssa
tccrdn
expccted oi ~ at
prfssurcB
-fhric
atn
4tnospLd
orf.
ke Vhrrclecoiiparts
sealed units, sucn) as rnet-J -encased parts, the
pressure t~radfcrit inwt be cndrd
opvet
di.,tortk.n oi- LA-irstilg of the, cetaine..:.
*14infiw crvfpave dit~iree In actunl distanc batwean

"Ictr-odtf fi'ra., *Hurfareof hrtaulatiun betweet. them.
trtltiding 1rrivgiularitUs,
Arcover Prevention
The actual potential at which arcaver takes
plac~e at. various altltudeB dqenerds greatly on
tie dilttance between the parts and the conlliguraUoun of the parts. The eff ective surface crec
page dIstance4 and actual air apacinK between,
terminals or parts should neit be leas than that
icfednTae5-6t
h
neddvo-P
as.The
confIguratlua of the partl3 Is Importwit to prevent corona, which woud ilonize the
airand csv'pse? =rcovcr even at the specified safe
aic tipacings. Sharp corners are most apt to
Causs co~rona, while rounded corners are Least
likely it; do so. The degree of roi,,ndnees however, is also an important factor at the higher
voltages. At. sea level pressurs, equipmoezt thal
(I
q;
-
P.'
.-
;A#
7'4
66
44
F~.5
7
s;tmlt
Vt-rn
wb,idhlld
000Vils
puentdr)f lss turjis i~tposibleR wAPIcorvx
11.1lmexom'
twed
sFLrlfshl-
egI
~orjerit
isepenot
I
lenIts, rcastoihy
oraldeaticna;vvensqurc
houll b
r~ttsica
tI~) 4000
rIaiCXi3
widres
o
000vin
qt~~~~~~~~~rud.~~~~~~~56
il
~~~ hv
ei
dvelped, afi
fitold
hil~ 0iuld
d.
nusildms
~rrund
lob
-VCR ho b
uidngarThcrvxsieduutAw
tth
~v
t ondcte
rk~e,-
-he
iel
d coZ'OJ' 5diOa
arcover
-- runded. Mai mu~' mSbE
d,5
rhusur Iwrountee
pjte aturs a The ~i~
chargqar
poor
of 1.uety, the densit
1 0 -5t
neesrfA i*
Ilthoug
elowtrod'sppr anucoroa 36char a opr.
i~s tri
nte~~
vn n i a~~uvlaegain
nt.atGo( kfets
tzon 1000f
l-ounded
colfr
use-
s2eronding wadsir.
ari.~d apcw. Artci-iri
ee
eup
pceti-dOlr oIles
sioui'epon
iiiitepo peria cortaivdratiuoiv;
(
spchd
0A
ni
eiiipnort,
th rundd
Maim~
arveran'
~ri~adis
ti,
.oevr
,00t
%,-..
'jI ab.o 5,16).
Contact Spacing va.Work~ng Voltages
of VNAriOgl
_______
"11
j
!iI
nir
--
Working
Workirig
vlae tvlaea
50,0)00 ft
70,000 ft
Min
n im
crtae
space
distance
de
ac
rma
-insulating
do
Re
rms
-______ -
-chargers,
75
70
50
1/16
i~O
190
125
125
90
~3/Gj4
5/64
210-
175
175
125
1/16
7/64
315
225
210
150
5/64
1/8
360
260
230
165
V,/32
5/32
420
2300
260
185
3/a
R/16
490
3%0
310
225
:3/16G
1/4
650
450
375
275
1/4
V/C'
700
500
455
U25
5/16
a/
810
575
500
355
3/64
1/1*
______
*1)artts
or
flight.1However, discharge wicks are not effective

enough tprvent radio interference on the
higher speed aircraft, which require a discharge current of several rnillianpe~rea to stay
elow the corona threshold. Other types ofdchargers, such as biased resistive coatings on
strips at the trailing edge of a wing
or fin, combination diverter dischargers, radio.active dischargers, and jet exhaust-gas disare beilng studied for more effective
operation.
Attitudes /13/
--
With jet aircraft, studies are being made using

external wicks in or near the exhaust gases to
Increase the Alischarge rate of the tail pipe
edges. Tungsten grid and a cavity discharger
are a~lso being considered..t
Several protection systems haive bepn p~roposed and applied to existing fuel t~aijk' . 'ne
suchi system uses longitudinal riba tu divert
electrical discharges from the tank wall and
guide th dischargersas they are swept rearward
by the force of the wind~streamn. Insulation is
applied between the ribs to prevent discharges
being swept off the ribs Into the tank wall. This
protection system is schematically illuatrated
in Fig. 5-80./50/
Jj
'~
-EXPLOSIONPROOFflM
terrnl j'tio should be continuouely ineulated.
JIhorL shotid be no open space existing between any

pt the conductors having, this mechanical spacing.
-from
P rfessurizatiori
If, fte
cartulseletio
ofway
conponter carcduthseletoof
riaterilsd and
comonets
ndtheuseofpro)per desig~n techniquC~B, low atmospheric pressures wiLl still
have dtrimir'ta~l effectis on equipment, preasurization must be used. In a prussurized systern, either the equipment or compartment Irs
sckand acces.3ory pumping equipment is
iijscd to maintain a predetermined prcssure re"gardless ol altitude. The pressurization equipmerit mnust mnaintaic the pressure over extended
pe~riods,
'
,.-,d pressure leakage should nort be
morer- Wan 8 cubic inches per minute when the

pressurized enclosure Is kept above 12 pro'a,.
Usually, pressurization within a sealed contarrier is kep at the sea level eqrilvalent.
When pressurization Is used, the containers
mutst be~ designred structurally to withstand the
prussure g radients. Generally, spherical containe~rs provide the most strenigth for a given
-xcivht, but a cylindrical shape is the tx-st comp~rj.misQ from) a space utilization standpoint
ti.5-78 axid Fig. 5-79).
AIMOiIIERiC ELICTRICITY
PROTECTON
4'.1/plosions
Gerieraily, discharge wicks are used on the
out.!r surfacet3 ot flight vehicles to dissipate
,rmy edct i i( il ('large thiat may bui-ld up during
Standard. measures for the prevention of ijgniting an explosive atmosphere Include using
sealed units to isolate the explosive atmosp~erO'
a possible Igniting arc and using proper'
design to eliminate arcing. 'the most practical
of achieving this io to use hermetically
sealed unrits, particularly for switches and. relays which have a rn 'ural tendency to arc. If
scaling is not possible', then ignition sources,
such as wafeor switches arid relays, should be isoWaed from accumulated eajilooive vapors./13.
40/
EXPlosrionproof equipment should be conatructedeso that if explosions occur within a certain part of the equipment, they will not Ignite
any aurrouriding gas mixtures. The equipmeit
should be in a metallic enclosure and be able to

withstand specifiedu explutsionii w~iwthitbrt
or loosenin1 g itz jointri. The joints ei'oulc' be)
made of infal and have close clearances; this
,will arrest the propagation of flame from the
interior of th~e enclosure to tie surrounding atruosphere.
Another method of nainimizing the dangecr of
explosive-atmosphere ignition Is by the use of
sinteredi metal screens Instead of covers. Figuire 5-81l shows a vented circuit breaker Case
with sintered metal ventilating panels replacing
the customary covered opening s. The sintered
metal screeins have successfuly prevented eex-within the case from detn~iiating a surrounding explosive mnixture In an explosion test
chamber. Additional information on explosion
hazards and rprotect~on methods Is contained in
reference /51/.
5-70
.a
Nt
41117w
i4
U.
T11,
-iAA
Fig.
j 2.Ta2ing
adwaeo hivresu
~~~ ~
RADUMON,
rsuiainaytmfrB4B
~
~
'
COSMC,
rdiaion.At
Theefoe,
cluibtvel
cosmi~c,
hefig
ad
&ar
w.nVprgah
wihic.
mayot
eto
n
radiatio
a
5-8""tiar
odtoigad
PROECdI
opnns
laahnlWin
Flifit
~
~
tonucearehiles
reset
codital
ay
3.
epose imiingWe
epoeareUme
an- dprsur
eaposdtonuclearan
n.A
peenn
iation
o th
3esriiton
radiatio for
n.
thibe
se veuralo
t t
r~ly
it-in
he. mtost
Protection
hagrmful effeation coar roeadiatUgaist aditio
l'roecton
p)Ircd al bofthe
anyor
Ca
OeftCODI
Selection of MsiterlaAs
--
olloing
The most preferable met-hod ot 7:diation protection Is to design equiprnalt using rnater-'ilu'
1. Us9e of radiation-resistant materials.
5-71
2.
;:~7
~
4t
77
".0
ItFronti
n
system for'
pressriztion
Fig. 5-49. Air-bn1inn
!1
-72
F-flA.yful
ak.5(
Metals
-~~
__________
~~Ceramics
Plastics
7_______________
Elautomers
________
7'"~77 _
Glass
~~
Serniconductors
-~~
-X1~~;-~
102
~
1
1 d2
*14
Neutrons/cm
Fg.5-81. Sintered inetal screens used to

protect equipms'nt.
1S 8~ N~~o
&t'
Fig. 5-82. R~elative radiation stability of

materials.
that are radiation stable. For example, Formex

may be substituted for Teflon in certain applications involving a radiation environment. Anothier example is the 'iubstitution of soft glass
for hard glass in vacuum tube-envelopes. FIgu re 5-82 bhow E the relative stab~i ty of materials subjected to radiation exposure. A more
detailed discussion of z adiatiun-resistant mater-
,'
Radiation
So rce
The second method of minlmtizing the effects
Area 4A
-~
-t~
dm1lft.jr;
lals and components is contained In Chapter 3.
of radiation is to ta&,ce advantage of the fact that

the intensity of radiation varies Inv? rsely as the
square of the distance It travels from the source
Q-1.!', 5.-83.) Thus. by simply relocating a comn-
Area A
Fig. 5-83. Representatior. of inverse-squitre
T(
ponenit to a greater distance from the radiation
source, the intensity of the radiation will be redklced. 'For example, by moving a component to
a location 100feet f rom the source, the Intensity
is re6.xced to onec hundredth of what It was at 10
f eet.
Shielding
~The effectiveness'of a material as a shield

figainst radiation depends upon Its physical propertiee&I
Exposure Time
,Another means of radiation protection Is to

control the time o' exposure. Relatively high
in'ensities of ra-Jiationi can be tolerated for
short periods of time if the need arises. As a
typ~ical example, in space operatioiis, equipment
can 1wedesigned to withstand the radiation expo-:ure encountered In passage through one of
the radiation belts. Should operations be conduc ted in t0iIs area f or extended periods of time,
however radiation damagre would be expected to

occur. 1in the case of pulse-radiation exposure,
su-h as that occurrinU as a result of a nuclear
exlios~iun, the total radiation dosage received Is

gvnerailly FIot sufficient to cause permanent
(Utniag
o c materials; however, ccrtain types of

ffC~ts may occur that are, due mainly
ii.are
(n '-'i
t'tTnsi.jff#en
avid thei
aho,.gcterIaice d
thei
,adiit~onn'21
it must resist. Each type of radiation is most

effertively stopped by a particular shielding
m~aterial. The energy of the radiation id Uhe
principal factor In determining tho amount ofr
shielding required. In the case of a reactor, the
1iadlation consists of mw-ny different types and
energies. Accordingly, a reactor shield will
probably be of a sandwich construction and will
differ considerably from one dssigned for the
"Van Allen" or space radiation. Shielding for
various types of radiation is discussed in the
fol~lowing paragraphs.
Alpha Particle fhIlelcllng. Alphat particles are
hes fmtra.
reacaiy absori LbFii
Foi- example, 1/64--inch thick aluminum will
stop most alpha particles. Their ranigo in air isW
only a ferw centimrters. Alpha par-ti cles are not
'-
I
*
absorbed according to the exponential law as%

other p~articles. Since the alpha particle is
5-73
T"Irl,
un,
71'h
*1
-~lip
17
500
-
G 100.50-
charge
nucleus of charge Ze on an electron of
ze and mass m Is proporticnal to Zze 2 m. The
intensity, whIch is porportioinal to the square of
theamplitude will vary as Z z 2 m. An electron
In the coulomb field of a nucleus can experienco
a large acceleration because of its small mass,
the acceleration being proportional to the nu-,
clear charge
-.
to'
__
103
102
Rangecm
10 1
le
Fig. 5-fI. Range of alpha particles in air.

relatively heavy (7440 times that of the electron), in collision with orbital electrons the
PJpha particle loses little momentum. The
range of alpha particles varies directly as the
3/2 power of the energy. This can be represented by the equation:
1H= A"
9.67 x 10
28
velocity, cm/sec
In summary, alpha particles present very little
shielding problems.
Figure 5-84 indicates the
range of alpha particles In air. The range would

be reduced proportionately in other, more dense
niaterials,
Electron or Beta Particle Shieldiqg. It has
beeJnlemonstratcd experimentally that the
ch-,rge-to-mass ratio of beta parti, lea closely
resembles that of electrons. It hri also been
.4hown that the rpin of beta particles is the same
as tVie spin of electrons. Based on this evidence,
4
0'
par
&al
trea,
utap
omnh
electrons, because of the pcnetrating power of

X-rays.
The quantity ai X-radiatlon produced is di-' ,
rectly proportional to the square of the atomic
number of the absorbingmaterial, and is more
significant when electrons with encr.r" gr.
r-.er
pirticlei
RT,I.
it is therefore preferable to use materials with

low atomic numbers that are also effective in
stopping beta radiation. Alumiaum is a ood
beta absorber. It has an atcmic number ofl31
as compared to lead with an atomic number ot
82. Even though lead Is more effective as an
electron absorber, the difference between atomic
numbers (squared) makes the aluminum the
preferred shield because of X-radiation pro-
,-'/
"
f.
bital electron, and an annihiLlation reaction takes
place. T;'-o gamma photons are produced with

energies of 0.5 mev, or, in certain cases under
the Influence of i massive nucleus, a single 1.0
mev pho'.on is en tted. This annihilation characteristic decreases the positroa's range In a
material but presents the problem of shielding
against the 0.5 or 1.0 mev gamma photons.
Hence the total shielding thickness must be
Buffcf'cent to stop the gamma phutons.
Unlike alpha particles, electrons do not follow

strait, t lirii paths and have descrete ranges in
Beta particles are slowed down by their in.tcracti( n with orbital electrons. Thus, the
hc.,,
.'ar weight -materials and those
with ciosely packed electrons are most effective
fo)r :Ahielding purposes. However, classical
cIC'( !r,,magnetic theorypredicts that as a charge
undergoes an acceleration, it emits radiant
whosr, amplitude Is proportional to thecnelr
a( vIc mation. The acceleration produced by a
'
,
.
Positron Shielding. Positions are equal in

mass to beta part, es and electrons, but are
oppositeiy charged. They produce Ionizations
similar to their negative counterparts. However, an additional problem is involved in that,
as the positron slows down, it unites with an or-
rr
range in aluminum and the energy of electrons

or ,eta particles. Protons a-e Included in the
illusLration for comparison purposes.
,,
tror.,i idemtical-ly.
,aterL.ls. Ir.atead, they generally experience

consldcrabic multiple scattering. Figure 5-85
shows te relationship between the penetration
than several mev are Involved. Fo~r .9hieWhlg,
duction.
R- range, cm
wh~e
Z, divided by the electron mnasts.
Thus, more X-radtatlon is emitted whenhigh Z

materials
are used
to shieldofagainst
electrons.
h-inthe electron
by-product
hazp.rdnia
This
teractionis
more 4 a problem than the original
in
*Bela
,,
As
.
: .00
Aluminum"
'
"i
1!
ro
Ptons
Aluminumin
S/e
.000o5
_o0D
I
0
1
6
Energy, met
Fig. 5-85. Penetration depth of beta particles
and protons irialuminum as function of particle
energy.
;
"
-----
ProIton Shifelding. Protons undergo two Lntr:1 ctiw)t 7~_-T1c~v- traverse material- nuclear
S( atteritkg and/or ionization and excitation. The
jinjyoz~tiun cjiused by protons is so intense that
t1w) ranges of these particles In air are normally
only a few centimeters (Fig. 5-86).
The stnpping power of matex~als is sometimes
expr'essed in the number of milligram~s per
square centimeter required to stop the Inciferit
particles. The densities of aome materials are
listod in Table 5-27. Since the stopping of pro
.Oils is largely an electronic process, and since
the number of electrons per gram of a material
does not differ greatly between elemnentb, it
inight be ex~ecied that the shielding power of
varil.us cienieflts is constant. In actual cases,
huoAevor, It takes a much greater amount of
lead, in terms of grams per square centimeter,
tit sop protons than it does aluminum. For
example, it takes over one thousand milligra~ms
per square centimeter of lead to stop 20 mev
protons, but a little over half this amount of
-i!,ininurn produces the same effect. The reason
the inner orhital shells or the heavier elements
are not as easily dispLaced and are therefore
less effective in the .3topping process. Figure
5 -87 indicates the advantage of using low Z materials for shielding against protons.
Neutron Shif.din . Neutrons a-re uncharged
and are carav.-zbe
penetrating materials to
great depths. They affect matter either bry, entoning tlic nucleus or by being sufficiently close
to it for nuclear forces to act. Nleutrons may be
encountered with energies as high as 14 rnev.
Gcnerally, neutrons are attenuated and finally
slepped In 2 mrn-crial by the following process:
inelastic collison, elastic collision, and then
ab~sorption or capture. Fast neutrons interact
iby ini,astic collision with the, medium weiglit
2
-of
nuclei. When the neutron collidus with the fluclef of the shield material, It is absorbed, eausing the nucleus to recoil and emit gainia, ra
diation and a neutron of less energy This slow
neutron interacts by e)astic coUis ion with ligh~t
weight nuclei, such as those of hydrogenous Materials, causing the nucleus to recoil as a proton. The neutron may then be captured. General
practice is to use some light material, such as
ahydrocarbon polyethylene, beryllium, or carbon, to slow 11he fast. neutrons by elastic scattering, in order that they may be readily abaorbed
by mnaterialn with high capture cz-Oss sGcitions,
sc-sbrncdimo
itim
nsm
Irb
nl
cnsis
sauch as beuron, shdield wouldtim
a laminated structure, such as a hydrocarbon
to slow the neutrons; then cadwiun li: borozi to
N'
5~2.Densitien of at Few
Selected Elements
-Table
silver
-"
Atomic
616
Dens it~
47
10.53
82
11.34
26
7.86
16
I)i,
-
.~ad
Iron
Boron
Aluminumn
3.3
13
2.7
Io
700-
13~
Proton~~3ic Er0ymvAoi
ubr
100'
40
"060 7
--
*:3'0
8,0i
9' 0
1'heavy
6radiation.
capture the slowed neutrons; folitowed by some

metal, such as iron, to capture the gamma
ahn'.n a Shield-In
shielding aterals
aganst
gamm .For
raiaT[iifi
mot efectve
ganniarada
mst ffetiv
o',
maerals
are those consisting of elements having high
nto.-.wetitsanddensitites, such an lead
atornten, thoriumaeti
In cases weecosts
wherirn
aye ue,
ounotten, athoriumpet
orfacltors
otqireert
prdointe iron maybe used.,
i~ut. tile arnomt miust bc increased accordingly.
Wieewigtisapobemboonor lithitum may
sed Th ofgama rdiaion
beprbablit
being absorbed by the nuclei of atoms is very
slight for low energy gamma photons. The
shield therefore reducesi the intensity of the radiation t-: aote factor. The thickness of a materi4 rcquired to redu-ce the intensity of gamma
radiation by one half is called the half thickness.
The use of additional layers will reduce the radiatlon intensity by one half again. For exampie, two half thicknesses will reduce the radiation intensity to one fourth, and three layers
will reduce the Intensity to one eighth. The half
thicknesses of various material are listed in
Table
5-28.of
HUMN
ROTCTONequipment
~~roucln
nvlrnn~ets/5/
Natral
The best way to protect the human occupant ()f

a fliriht ve~licl Is to simulate his natural eai-
v'ironment in the vehicle. For flights wlthinaero

space, this dons not present too savere a probPem. But when outer space flight Is contemplated, the problem of human protection beTat-l( 5-28. Half Thicknesses of Various Malerilmi
j hickeamcrease
iiall
Il'hoton
energy
Haftikesnative
Material -
Tsule-like
1.40
_______-
1.0
ea
j
[ron2.49
Concrtteol.1
1.44 x 0
Air
2.0ea
3.61
Concrmte
13.4
A] r
2.37 x 14liance
Load
.5.0
10
215For
iron
Concrete
_
Human factors that
should be considered. a~re physic&al, metabolic
anld functlona1a
requirements.
Physical environmental requirements include:

presurzatonoxygen control temperature
control, humiclty control, ventitation and odor
control Illumination, acceleration, radiationd
protectlon and noise and vibration. Metabolic
re0ieet
inld1fo
wc
ae nne
dietary r-upplomuzits and waste disposal. Functional rem irements refer to such Items as the
o crew memberA need in a vehioue and
huatec~to
rrato
ovr
IWOs instruments. Oare these requiremniats are
cosdrIEtte their cost ocmincsavt
w
termine
of inclusion, Since weight
anprersceulitons
iieu-.t
invtcedsgth
oi
s in th
imortnsiere in teil er rLm~tb
onaan
ui et
A3
Imoac
n~b
"i3
Physical Environment. Some Idea of the weight

novdi ainpesrzto,
n h oto
oxygen tsmperatture, odors and noxiousgae
can be obtained from existing equipment. However, it may be assumed that technological advances in materials and design will lower the
weight for manned vehiclos. It appears that, exclusive of the pressure vessel that
houses him, man's physical environment may be
controlled with about 100 pounds of equipment
PC
'
.
.
kY
Controlling the radiation hazard Ina a manned

vehicle in another problem. Since certain chemicals In the body are monre sensitive to radiation than others, a means milght exist for increasing radiation resistance t=rugh the use of
drugs. Cysteine, for example, may tend to inman's radiation resistance. The alterwould be providing radiation shielding for
each crew member in the form of buits or capchambers. The shields or chambers
would add a minimum of 100 to 200 pounds per
crew membffr and might be prchibltively high
in terms of weight.
Regyirements. Man's
ciriitc~.l
need I is oxygen supply* next Is his water in~take; and lastly, the soi elements In his diet.relatively shoet drtion flights, the gaseous, liquid and solid needs of the crew may not
ci eate a problem because they can be supplied
through storage. As flight duratoion Increases
beynd
time period of one day, Weitad
space become critical, so that greater re-
1iI
'
d,
must be placed on recycling the body's
waste products.
1.76
Irn .7
___
comes difficult to solve.
17.3
Air
3.8 X
A
5-7C
Fucioa Reo
s.7 Recent developML~rlmndttechniques mnake it
possible to supply the vehicle's crew with cornpact or Integrated Instruments for communiorientation and comnput"ig purposes. For
cation,
space flights, eachi crew member will require
approximately 350 cubic feet of working npace.
Ih
WXK
Ilmtnan Tolerances
Pcssrizaion/54,5/
'U
ince inmanyins
day, about 20 percent of which will be in watter

The rate may va~ry f rom 240 Btu per hour
per hour during light
wlesepgto80Bu
exercises. The cabin temperature should be
cooled and waintatned between 70 and 80 F (21
and 27 C), with relative humidity betw~ee 40 slid
80 percent. The worst period of temperature
cosi rol will be during a reentry phase.
-~vapor.
SneinmnIn-
____rztin/515
osmlt
epatia
itia- o
lanes,
mnants natiral environinent-precfsfoly, the orn-vironment withiin a vehicle may be controlled
only within a certain range that approximates
m~an's nal.,_ral environmO'rt. This will often al-low
simnpler denign, lower cost and less weight.
However, the extreme ranges of these eaviron-
h etmto
ihrliycnrlI
sb ycn
Th etmthd6hmdiycir'
densatlon of the water vaipor generated by crew
s
rn
ua
iet
soehapalnt
ac
Oture
an hmdiy
t
apofr1thutmpean
a
sho stheu
The
curves
Fig. 5-88 are the tranra
ewe inaeadimaeann
eto hatchedi
ments must never be allowed to exceed man's
'1u
limnItationti. The sealed pressurized cabin does

[tot necessarily have to be a single livirig space,
rather each crew member could have his
Indiidul
cmparmen orcapsle.The
normal o~r ideal pressure Is 760 mw of Hg, and
lowest t.%ornetrlc pressure that a human
cantou..~ witliout decompression sickness Is
approximately 380 rmm of Hg. The pressure
should be 6omnewhere between these limits, with
the minimum prtssure not lower than 500 min of
11Hg.A secondary pressurization system should
al~so be provided In case an emergency develops
during the flight.
,
:,
:T
'-
Ilthe
*a
"r
and Odor Control. /52, 57/ Odors

emanating from the humnbl, as well as volatito and toxic fumeo, must be removed. and
proper ventdation must be supplied to mai(ntain
tolerabeev runimoit. Activated chaarcoal can
be used to absorb many cal the organic gases,,
including those emanating from the human body.
For ventliactlo around crew members, a yelocity of 40 to 80 feet per minute around thc
face, and about 4C, feet per minute over the remainder of the boDy is sufficient for a comfortabl~e enviroitmentd-~
-Ventilation
.-
-a
OPyen Control. /56/ A crew member uses

about 0.9 cubic loot of oxygen each hour. For
space flight, t-he oxygei. can be stored as either
liquid or a compressed gas. However, careful attention must be given to the design cA a
liquid oxygen storage tank to insure uninterrupted supply during waighd~ess conditions. Since
man may develop somne secondary physiological
effects due to e,:lcnded exposure to a pure oxygen
rn~umputrion. /5 Ofl like average guvurau I!lurnUna~ticxa _shoulA be approximately 50 footcandies, with wavelengths -between 440 and 680
rnlimicrons. The daily cycle should be maintained in a space flight vehicle. To simulate
man's natural environment, the level of Illumninationi should be reduced at nigt and at noon.-
atmosphere, a mbiture of oxygren andniltrogen may

be desirable dopeniding on the partial prsue
p
of oxygen anA fire hazards.
Tempratr
and Humidity Control. /53/

2,7U6T
Man will rclease aboum
One
*~V
time it sl"uld be raised to the highest, level.
Fuci heat per
2%~
mL.120
R~ 100
50% RH
80-
~~ 60 ~
Soie Area10%R
S401
E
/
0
Low'/
Unsafe Area
-40
S-60
4 80
10 M'
I Hr
Tim
ay
1 ay
Fig. 5-88. Approxirnate human time-tolerance
100
) Days I Year
as function of
temperature and humidity./53/

5-77
)o
*5
Ajcccierat to~i. /I1I/ For positive acceleramin,

rnian in a eupine ponttiof canl tolerate 15 c.'s for
seconds, 10 g's for 125 seconds and 5 to 6 ob
for 330 seconds. 1iigh.;r g-levels for longer
rations can be tolerated if the man is in a semisupine position. The problem of negaitive acceleration is greater, taut a comfortable toler;.2c-e can be aiclitnved by proper vehicl e/58,
9/ Fom ~
l
Ra~diation Protectyoi. /5,5/Fo
available da~ta, mran sexpsure to cosmic and
X-ray radiation above 100 miles appears to be
.,vitin the present acceptable exzposure of 0.3
Rem per week. Except for solar flares and unforgeen problems, solar radiation presents no
probl em tc .. a ir cruter space. Additional pro.t.tu.against radiation in the form of a lead
shlield 1 mm thick, lither incorporated in the
crew m,--mber's pressure suit or covering the
space vchIicle, may provide 6 moaths protection
against expected forms of cosmic radiation.
mote control mechanisms and prtective structtires for- crew memibers; wid F :Mdy, Lizs of ear
plugs. Vibration will present no problem to the
vehiclie crew if it does not exceei 0.16-inch
double amplitude at a frequency under 23 cps.
41'
J.,-
'
/52/ For extended

d
in4aWljwtaAke.
ra
1.5 pond
reuree00
rew
p
friea
day per man of solid food, To conserve weight,

the food should be stored in ak dehydrated condition. A pproximately 2500 cilbic centimaeter's
or 0.66 gallon of water are required per day per
crew memberfor internal consumption. Hygienic
needs per crew member are small for short duration flights, but are approximately 15,000 cu
bic centimeters or 4 gallons per day for logger
However
flights.
with the use ol! ro-cycl!ig
e
0 onso -t
wtr
satm,10t
man w LIibe adequate for Uic 11ongest space
flights.
W
1/Frsotfihsh
jpsl
man waste products will. probably be slored

Noise and Vibration. A maximum of 40 deciis the nornial operational noise limit for
aboard the vehicle. The waste products conof urine, wash water and feces must be
man. forwever, the limit-s for performance of -sisting
collected In a #sanitary fashion. On longer
complicated tasks vnries for each individual.
1ii hts, the liquid waste products can be purified
various methods anci devices can be used for
'
blg~
%f
ercylnofiqdwztpo-
protecting the individual 4erew member against
anresd
excessive noise. They are: controlling the

DOige, at or acar tb'- source; development of
re-
liqid
ducts may be5 accomplished thoug
chemical process and sublimation,
ste prto-
RFERNCESL~~o
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6i.
Grun'lest, Irv.ing, 'Plastlca for Nose

Cones,' 9AE JouAoal, November 1958.
Javits, A.* E. and P'aul G. Jacobs, "Electronic Materials and Components for Extremne Envirronmental Problems," Electricpt 'm.ufaturing Vol. 62, No. 5, No-
Marshall, R. F. and P E. Rltt, "Inorganic
7.
_troM
Loading of Teflon for Improved Thermal

Prop;erties," Electronic Equiplment En-.~in~aI
Setemer1955
'PreviAew of Space Metals," Meta Prg
rus,
tneri'~.No.
-4
"Heat Expansion of Materials,"

, McGraw-HidllPublishing Co., Vol.
o. 22, 29My15.
8.HneielCrgWahadHry
M.lea Ey-letroni Corai
9.
Watsh Hand Hrr
Gcddberg Morton E. and Harian 0. Hainre

Electronlc Comp~onents Parts Research
U. S. Air Force, AS6 , Wright-Patteraon
Veizor. The kxperinient;l Measureme-itof Tlej

Mt-cfcHeats8A
nd~ 11-"orities of Met
C
rn arn
1.
M-aterials Part IlA
ec~h~t~iV
-1nci
e-~t0
tient No.a Apor9506
MemorialratCz5
BB946Iattelle
Inst~~~ ittcaiionrtments,
Intitnen
No..ta(
?o. AF 33(616)-311,
Project No. 1361, Task No. 61299, U.nS.rporated,
Air 1Force, ASD, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Dase, Ohio, March 1954.
Air Force B~ase,, Ohio, February 1958.
----
~
11.
or
B3.
andofN.Air
C. JohnsonQqXud
W. LH.
resoa,Jr.,
Engi cz
Wright,
j-7A-i
Load Requirenientsilo
Conditiont
Wi~ADCT.
A=
5--2
nuPn No! AD POST). RespnrCh

Contract No. AV~ 33(,61t;)2261, Project No. 6146, U. S. Air Force,
ADS, #Wright-Patterson Air Force B~ase,
o
Tn
95
HIandbok of Methodsof CooinuAir Force
Gr~ou~nd Ei,-ctroi5-niL
jnnn 11AI58-12
.,fLSTTA-c
wenfto1J48907 U. S.
Air Force, H.ADC Griffin" Air 'orce
Base, N. Y. , June 1li59.
-7A
W-M--
ii7I1.4
N
,7
H
fo~r 50_0_C OiPerat ion, Part]. WADC TR
57-362# ALSTLA Document No. AD 142350,
AF 33(616)-3549 Project Ne. 4155,
Lucks, C. F. J. Matolich and J. A. Vin
liallard, Jam' a9 W., ElectAQfllc Materials

at -E;levated Temperatures W-Ab TN 57211, ASTIA Do-cument i~o. AD 132104,
LiAectronic Components Laboratory, Projoct 4150, U.S. Air FYorce, ASD WrightPlatte-rson Air f-oryct Base, Ohiio, May
19957.
*.
"'Y
-,.
1.
.'
REFERENCL9S (continuecO~'
*
12.
Weltih, James P., Desi~gnManual of Meijiods of Forced Air

roln~
ectronic
1Eojpmnt, Report No. HF-845b-DCon
rnuia
Laboratory, Inc.,
Cornell University, Cc,-tract No. NObor6~C3.', Bureau cZ Shipsn Index No. NIEZ7
11t1611, Su b-Task 3, Juno 195 8.
I22.
13.
4
14.
15.
16.
4Lakyrator--,
17.
18.
1I
20.MakwtJ
,.hcorVbti
htr7',-Pouc
niljJ~
1953.
21
GrerAnetR."FgireYu
21
GadnroblemdR," "ug
18 January 1960.
IO
orl
ls
Greathouse, C. A, and C. J. Wessel, Dq
Lopatin, Tzrving and Harry Mileaf, Dealg terloratiom of MAterinis

Causes mid
Factorn for Aircr~ftElctronic Egui fDU-K
mcst WADC TR 56-148,STI
moeni~t
EiIi c
i
74pPazUOU
N. Y.1
1954.
Nio.AD 142204, Contract No. AF 30(635)~~~~~2844,
U. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright-Pat23
UrWiL
.Aru1
d
4
a
2.
Riley C. F J-. and P. F. Walker Moistt.~oiAir F'orce Base, Ohio, De-cember
_ai
1956.
EV~emnL WAC TN55-97,DorAle
Zimmerman, R. H. and W. RoisnadAamloDirCtr
TN
,b.Jk,
Directorafe
toiit No.
E Lftic!~ ,iluanai
ries, Contract
Sysem forAircraftAF 33(616)2685, Prn4 -- 5,Part
7 ASTIA Dooe~
Ject NO. 1111, U. S. Air Force, ASD).~
rgtatrouAroreBshI,
ument No. AD 93161, Part i, AESTIA Document No. AD 93398, The Ohio State UniJune 1955.
versity Research Foundation- Contract No
~ .BaeJh
.adDnl
.Ktnn
AF .33(616)-147 Task No. 61181, U. S,
dutrI
'
6
Air force, AS 5, Wright -Patterson Air
pae
191,
Vol.141
Force Base, Ohio, September 1954.
as
Fran
Jr anC. Pau F.Waler,
25.
Blake, Johni T.,, Donald W. Kitchin and
Riley, FakCJ.adPuF.WleOrison
S. Pratt, Electrical E nginering
Vol.*69, pages 7812-787, 1950.
enn
Al
riTa5r9, oo
A
piennarcit,
Hamilton, Contract No. AF 33 1l6)-2689,
6
oel
lueE
Zoctrella CRue-K,
26
Frce, ASD,
Project No. 1111, U. S. AirF
views. Vol. 10, pages 1-49, 1946t.
Wright-Patterson Air Force Bae, Ohio,
Zo~eil CIlaode E. and Josephine D. BeckJune YSS.27.
caWteWgk
Hess, Robert W., Robert W. Fralich and
AssociatioN Vol. 36, pages 439-45 3, 1944.
Harvey H. Rubba-rd, Studies of Structural
Failure Due toAcoustic -Loadi
n-N-ational
8
akJh
Dnl
.Kici
n
L. DvdWKthnn
lkJh
28
TjF"3"-ry'Committee for Aeronautic's
Techniral Note 4050, LangleylAeronauticalOioS.Ptt
_ins
Langley Field., Va., July 1957.ei~i
Institute ofEetrcTii-gieers,
New
City Technical Paper 53-59, DeRlyC.FakJranFrdWScwrz'York
Rile,r. nd
C Frnk,
red . Shwatzcember
lbb2.
Jr., A&_ce1erqtio!i,_Shock and Vibration
29.
FunguaGrowth on Rubber Neorene and
Critrla or Aillraf and Ha-ritonWAD
o AF 3(1)38
nt9t
TN 55-ci
tdel NMay
EL41 du
Projert N'o. 1111, U. S. Air Force, ASD,
V ; A
1A 4V-D__
Us
.1.ad ma
oy
fli~n.
De..
avI'
Jacobsoii. Robert H., Vibration and Shock
E2LV2.1U-pitLrL qoAirborne Electronic Counpofled
Part
~jment,
u
Armour Re_s~acW~widt in,
A1~TRt 56-301
ASTIA Dovument No.AD 123658, Contract
No. AF 33(61r))-223 Project No~. 4157,
U. S. Air Force, ASb, Wright -Patterson
Air Forc t! Base, Ohio, -December 1956.
Itai-hiere, Hob'-rt E. and Wayne Hali,
Eicrji
es
e
hc and Vib? atiora
Go do for Aixu-nu AjJpviat ins. R~
"'Crvietmpanl
%k'ADCT1V!?8-363
ASTiIA V~oxument No. AD 204095 Contract
No. AF 33(bi16)-3257, Project 'No. 4157,
Task No. 41572, U. S. Air Force, A',io
Nkricifi-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
L' r4'1111r 1958.
30.
Stiof, J. L., and J. J. Boyle, Industrial

Enrineern Chmsry
o,39
ae
1[36 -31,7947.
31.
Dawson, T. R., Jornl

f Rubr e
search Vol. 15, aelO,14.
pgs-1
..
VYandtr~bil News, Vol. 15, (3) page 3, 1949.
-g
'
-.
32.
33..
Mildew and Funpa Resistance of Rubber

ant 14f rene Contd
Tbris
L6,
xont eemours (E.L) and Company,
WaintDe.,
January 1943.
34.
Allen, Fraser H., -no 113ioloaical Deterion of Thiokol Lining for Gso intovajge TI
U.1S. Naval RlesearchLa-.
boratory Reprt P-2902, 1940.
5-79
I~wL
Lrvn
S35.
u IffLndlxk of Instructions for Ground

Chapter
ae-enera,
ment d
ontract 3,(616)-2497, RDO 657-442,
8 Dcembr 1954.
36.
iV'ference Data for Radio Engineers.

Fourth k:dltion, 1956, International Telephone and Telegraph.
o Guide_
ofi
t
Abstract oe Effects
37.
46.
47
47.
red H1aIthm for
M s__yz, temy~s,
B AF TR
5, 1 June
Allen Aand
p endixnlton
124
38.
"Eiivironmental Testing, Part H,"l

tr-..c!anal P!! gn Vol. 3,14o. 6, June
48.
An Investigation of Fundamental Circuit

e
Factors Whic-h Influence Sspurlous
atlon,
__n__o__ur-__R
C-7_Ta-t
i
The Electro-Mechanics CornFinal Report,
6 December 1955.
party,
40.
Riley, F. C_ Jr and P.
dont~minant,
mospiacric
fr i
moe-ct rict. Coriter
WCriterTior
ka_.
ment- an -d Metha*n
. bi-vn
'
Nes
75.000 Feet, WADC TR 57-456 ASTIA
Docunsf4tN. AD 142002, Radio GorporaCUtlo
o.America, Contract AF 33(616)_
3915, U. S. Air Y-orce, ASD, Wright-PatASD,
rita 1057
.
orce,
35r
S Air
Dae, Ohdo, July 1957.
ters4'
Air rarce
Aircraft
I, I ;VAJ
T ....
_........
Document No. AD 1G472, ConAF 33(616)-3280, Project No.
Air Force, ASD, Wright-PatForce Base, Ohio, September-
0er, r..., nvironrnotalCriteriaforGuided

M~ssle. eap O.S. ir FrceAir
Buletirn
1957.
1H3icnhoizer, R.
E. Wateman and
tlivfz-Fnergy-Air
kf[glm'R(tsFc1.
ation,
o.
Illinois
5-1RO
,
.
'
'
Atmospheric,
_i9
A ir c r a ft , P r ote c t o n f r o m A tmqE
_he r_
Lightning and Transients Research Institute, Contract No. AF 33(616)-3991, ProjectNo.8(77-4357) U.S.AirForce-ASD,
Wright-Patterson Ir Force Base, Ohio,
iF
e
,
o
October
51.
WADC TR 52-35 and supplements I to 4,

Air Baswe,
Force,Ohio.
ASD, Wright-Patterson
U. S.Force
52.
Wolbers, H. L., Human Factors DesI_

119:UiIre--vE
Recauirernents
ae!teR
ofneI
Res --- A Sur
ments, ASME Paper Numzber 59-AV-14
presented at Aviation Conference LOS
Lo
e.
o, .......
--^,,, ,
53.
Dole
"
106 A, 18 March,
A., I. B. Fieldhouse, T.
O
J. Yampolsky,
Anti-Icing Systems for
WADC TR 54-35. ASTIA
Institute of Technology,
........
'
.....
4-
for hxt;nded Occuancy ofMimed Satel_

aper lNuler
-AVT1,
Los
presented at Aviation Conference
S'gin, I!. H., A P_
Angeles, California, 9-12 March 1909.
Manual for Thermal
Knoernschild, E. M. and L. V.
Performance
erxfrosting of I.ft'
tTATf-'1.AST6
i-Dc1i
.Air
AD 9U759, U. S. Air Force, ASD,
1. terson Air Force Base, Ohio,
hl["b 1'50.
Larson,
Fighter
ntNo.
WrightDecem-
S H Environmental Reouirements
Contrxct No. AF 18(600)-195, U. S. Air

Force, ASD, Wright-Patterson Air Force
3
a,, Ohio, October 1953.
Ant[i-cing__ysterns, WkDC TR 54-313,

ASTIADou-rn--Vo. AD 90156, Illinois
Institute of Technology, Contract No. AF
33(616)-444, ASt Project No. 6066, U.S.
FAir Force, ASD, Wright-Patterson Air
l'orce Dase, Ohio, December 1954.
45.
from
tics,
No. AD 43759,.Armour Research Fouid-
4.
Protection
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OhitcAr15.

5 0.
.4. , +o
. t .'-',. .. -a
o
Th e
P' i i-y,,.L.b,
June 1955.
Inveatka ion of 19 Epr
Research btstLightning andirnients

tute, Contract No. AF 33(616)-3391, U.S.
Air Force and Navy Bureau of Aeronanu-
Speciiication
43.
49
49.
:I,
Document No. AD 92498 Booz Allen and

Hamilton, Contract No. XF 33(616)-2689,
Project No. II11, U. S. Air rorce, ASD,
556ASiA
tract No.
1111,
.
terson
1956. Air
42.
--a
F. Walker, AtRadiation
andAr
rcraft
t
Jirc
Air
aU-Icag. Do-Ici E----
Base, Oho, March 1950.

t
Di Tamrnto, R. A. and J. J. Lamb, kVL
11mmn
39.
ASTA Docuament1 No.'A

AFTR-6113, ImatTrn
79631 U. S. Aif Force, ASD, Wright-Pat-
5 9. -
41.
dInfrared Defrosting
rrtbrand, H.
ou met
Deicing. AF Th 587C rl
No.---f 47410.9 epuaic Aviation Corpotract No. AF 33(038)-1291'1
ratIon,
. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Bae, Ohio, January 1953.
A F,1
Basinger, S. H. pind L. V. ha-racm, Infra-
54.
Nau, R. A. Environmmtal Control l.

AWE
tems for
Paper Number59-AV-11, presented at
Aviatlon Conference Los Angeles California, 9-12 March 159,.
55.
Kendricks, E. J., "Men Are Now Flying

Medical Problems of Space
in Space
nal ASrIA DO-,
Flight, "Instructors
ument No. AK 159052, Publication of the
Air Training Command, Air University,
USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Raidolph Field, Texas, August 1955.
,1.
'
IULFERENCES (ccnUtnued(pQ,~
116.
'.1ru,hcid
S7,
~di(:,,j
"Living Room In Space,
ProCblems of space Flight, lntpcosJournal, APublication of the Air

T'ra!6i-icjriiiiiid, Wint~r 1954, Alir Uaiversity, United States Air Fnrce School of
Avi:,: Ir,. Medicinc, 1Pandolph Field, Texas,%
ASTLA Docwnent No. AD) 159052, August
1 5.E.
M
58.
59,
34i.-kpv A E, Jr. TheNuclearSutml~ne

boao"57,24Contract
asa NMan~ned Sa'tt
'a
P erNumber 5
1-search.
Aviation Conference Los Ag
o'-nia, 0-12 March 1659.
i
A.T., P"cupllbu
acp- ehI0 eDesal mnlt As
colter=
. aper Numbe 5Q-A-13, presentda
Aviatici Conference Los Angeles, California, 6-12 March 1659-
Calliopo
Hallowell, D., D. H. Eldiredge, A. Glorig,

Hiwan H. 0. Parrack and C. F.
B.
Noise and Milnd
Phebs Hg-Itnst
SI Dcmi
t
NONRt-1151(011, Project
Armed Forces National HeH 1009
Council Committee on Hearing and
Bto-Acoustics, January 1954.
BIBLTOGRAP~iY
P MissionOriented AinLiysis of Aircraft Tciln.
Thw Americzcan P5_zwcr Jet -o-m-pa-ny-,-WX_5CTf
55-263, U.S. Ali- Forice ASD Wright-Patterson
Ibsy155.
Air Force Base, Oh1io,-.
AMission Oriented Analysis of Ali-craft Icing M hdoT~eAmeia
entioi
iNoYu TR57 -60, U. S.
Poty r Jet Compiny,
WrgtPatterson Air Force
Air Ju~,AD
B~ase, Ohio, I June 1959.
APrnosi-dRe!!ri'erationUnit for pciei
desTPr_(grc-;ss Ieport No_ lEffVIoiRdfNo.
Aviatf'on Corporation, System ReIleij'iwirij
February 1959.
quiremeiAt I,
~Benjamin,
A Stds o IncPczrmane
Rl i_0fle iLgratir'n Unite with -Inter-naLly Con:
trolledi Turbouinach'ne
COonefltprs
WADC TR
1iorce,.
ASD Wrigt-atro
-7U!?Airatrsn
Air Ircf' laseOhio.MedlcinL-andSur
rsueo
Ao,)tr:,ct of ElfecLN of Ataigpei
SjjystemnsAppendix C, BRoc.
GuidedM
"ndHamlton AFTR -53-124 U. S. Aiir
Atle
'orce, ASYJ, Wright-Pattcrson Air Fcr~ce Base,
OiJune 1953.
an____;er
AdaiuL
___cuso~er1.47
LZI
0IAU
C., ELOAA,"Niri.l
Qt)j,
Air Coniditicwnitnjrof__Aircri.af~t at HI~iy
.,Ai IAe--oimauincA h~uri~nativii Report No. 33A.
Artificial Cabin Atmiosphere Sy stems fo- High

AltitudeAircafWADC T35X5-3 3.
coranms
Baaaka..,Ritrceo
fMcoraim
BknuksS.Rssac
to HI0 Vacuumns_.WA13UN 5WT-2. M ate~riMT
raboratory ProjectNo132Tako.32,
i Force ABD Wright-l-atterson Air
.S
Force Base, Ohio: Apr? 195 9.
Bateman J. T. A Sclid Rotor A. C. Generatrnr
lorllehJemeratue ElectrcR Sstems, Paper
No.50-843, preaent(!datWM,4 arm. er nd Pachic General Meeting and Air Trhnsportation
Conference, Seattle, Washlingon, 21-26 June
1950.
F. B. and 0. BaUcy, The Etfvct of
ct
itf
l
and Cha&~ nR~o
_cti
ing of th- fluman Skin Itep(,rt No. NAI)C-MA
No. AD 75722DAviation
MelclAclato
NoAD772 bureau
viin of
Me~aiAceeato
Laboratory,
ery, Project NM 001-103-301,
Report No. 6 U. 9. Naval Air Devel opment Center, Johnsvdlle, Pennisylvania, 30 August 1955.
BishoR, F. C., "'S-,ace Ag
Augut 1958.
To122 ,ifneer,
MaKterlpal,"
Stand(ard Acoustical T'er"' nini'"

(IN~o.
1 v rl --Aiu
caStaridaird_S
_CyAtion,
-A~ou,;icsA Society uLiAmerica, apptzvod 2) Maiy 19(10.
~
1
-
jLAVA
fC.~
Hanabookoa Aco~ustc Noise Control. Volume

* Phfi7a6hT
ts;c W,
GT~-204, AsF
015 Bolt Beraw,k and
1Punn~oTI
Newman, Contract No. AP 33(0%8 .20572, RDO
No. 695-03 U. S.-Air Force, ASD, Wright-Patteroun Air 'orce Babe, Ohio, December 1952.
,-
5 2 ue
fl~noval, AF' TH 5887.
Cabin Air Moisture
Conner, J. C., "AF Pusheo Beryllium Stud-les,"
Aviation Age. September 1958.
5-81
TWO
:.
rTinga a,
A 'rplane Air Crn~ditioning, EnL,
~i.-ir
uii o'1ytiam hAr
)r utiriEormation
o H10h TelnBrad1cj). 0.U., E*igytep
P-port,No. 25).
PLrCAircrI
GCnraUiri, kaper No. C13
~
~
~~~prtr
iinAlrCniinnngncigatjet
A
~
~
~
~
~
~
'Ita
,
_
59-865, rcecnte atAlEE Summer aMb Pacl(ic
General WAeting -and Air T -an portation Con,
n~orl~aif~nI~j~fL
-Icrunutial
ferinco, Seattle, Washington, 21-26 June 1959.
atri
Aio. 24.
EnEuijpmont
A ipnriIiatmgapd 'Icntiiating
biitz, 3. S., "IfyJpersonic Aircraft Will Face
FbI] T)rrirics SAE-- eroIrr'1);it'
Vol. 70,
Tech'nical Problems," Ava
T(ii rTo
oiuln
rjzflih oii
AInivican
1-c.
#A
BIBLIOGRaPH'N (continued)
-~
Control of Odors in F~vatuatioi
Aircraft, AF
Co~nMth~o~dB and Enut ment for Supersonic

wPAITK T
Do, :'Iiati N " nadiation-roleraiit Eiecrarnic
Materi~als," viation A e Auguast 1958.
"D~cslfL_'1'echai-juos
Ofleratiorii
oE____men__
rEi(r-i n~~~rc
33(038).-23341.
TiLterferrericc-Free
fcir
WTW~i_
ot
Dixr,
1. and J, L. Patterson, D.etermination~

oqn~and in the
an
Arcelera! ive ForceB Aci
Ohio State Un~versit.

Research Foundation,I
C o t r ct o A
3 6 )-l '479 R DO N o. 6tC4-8 03 0 ~
U. S. A~r Force, ASD, Wright-Patteraoix Air

Force Base, Ohio, Fe~bruary 1954.
"
~-
Goldberg K-E
1 G. Hamnre and II. D. Noble
Elertronn'c
.onahitairta
Research oijU
'__._
AL)
Oreat Cj.nxPart
riouPjs6rhJoundation,
F18
Coutract
No. AP 13(616)-3549, U. S. Air Force~ ASP,-
WrIght-Patterson Air Force Base, OIL'

1957.
o AD
Human Centrifuge A'IA. ouii
8hool of Aviation, Naval Au'r
SodnS
1
39:3
h
ATeU.S
GodoS.A,
059.04.01, 1 Ju!y( 1161,
ethigcl
Memorial ihlueClmh
ption, of MHe
L brtifif.'
,Ohio,
'
Vprc
"
-.
a for
ASTIA.
''i
Force
~ May5
~ ~ 195 ~
~
~
~~ocmn
BNoe OADo
August 1aa~nCllonaDcme955:
~
~,*mf,
'
G.and
R.J
ollber
,qttMtDakie, JrI,-,X--.
of~ Fluriantedr, p c(ra
-Hlii
Ink
ter iatiand
archwi 1955 . 2,'W'
n, M.
Grin7epr,L.
i
1959.k
TWA
in tc.,~
ny,_Fcr-Dta from
lelt,.
L., Ai le~da I!n Cofj
on Firejpm,
-to~pec
Effctsof abi
Pattersor.
Airt~le
Forc~
oi
-ae
1hio ,rT~c _pKIT_V7,
'
DocumentTNh).Ant
157.4524,6Mollial
-' m.XSLa
Z
E.lS. iron Fontrfece, A nal zer-Atserieso
,
f
Iortkory,56
Dirctiora712te o
Adncdtiir
.
Forc
i
Ohio,
Airo
ASDc WriatPsteo
Mayc 15e,
balli'tirA-am
paaevR
Aprfe 1951.
Californiaerl~gieein
Ht.
Drusel
*opA
Geankopolls C. J.. w. 11. Krvy. A, W. TpreirnnmA"

Atrcrzft-Eqment
oo in
~tn V~C
'rlS.DSTK-ken
-t0O566
Trhe.i
V.
AirF.o H.
a~vlmnd
etr RoberM.Dak.
,
llctur&T iait)Transc,
Mic~rawFVi.
Trn
~-Bouk
toiuticallnforTD617naniint
.P.
e
n~aii~nrl
C19e0e,
nortati0
EffercrtsfCabianiAtmoperta
for Aircraft WADC
He~lat
3UPA17 S.. Fcre, ASDP Wright-,
Eaatosf
tiSfArFoe
asOi.Patterson Air Force Base, Oh~io.
in~
NoN
~~
~~~~~~~ML
uto
o.4
o0
1958.c
oofma
nA Coated
i!~rrvIlnterernc AnFu~ialyzer
Cotirin~~~AS
~x i
~
~
Al)e~ yj8j
Lowellr~
TEcnoloicali
(;fu; '3U-T
Nd 32
..
Ai
c,
Rome
tttP Air
tero
etre Foeopet
Rome, GIT.o,
EtaiHCi;
No
n,.FScvleCrnnn
at
etn Buatee
n ArTas
Sh1Whnton.
u
March' !95b5.6SWC19g
, F. L., Cool fm l-ltroicjon, fDaaficnt,

theTR37U.Pi:Torce~s,
i4
h-.
5-72
Diociles,
~re
boatory,
Ter~i4D
W~
ol.A018,N.96,
SMpteriblra
,t.71,U
S
i
oc
#crc.
aeil
Corpors'tonAir.Foc Base Ohio
Apruc 19158.
Jl
Hannr, J.
T. J.F
Orin n cvfeCm
at
fiAsora60d
iF~ Arcrft
of CJor
r
aComm'
Jr W W.Kc1Ii~
nd E IIPVepere
MUIC 15"9-906 present~ued
utIESm
ented
Gre oreal Meeting of Americans
mepri
152015,
No.
L
Ali
Gfuttir 1_ i~v ' Iruvirrns ut,
itp :y
ia inomto
.ALtei-jKrtNo. , 110 Mibrtrnuia
oieyi
e;or,3
aur
Sir'~~~~~~~~~~~Jn
nI a
aiori,7Juy18.
I~
1t95R.
Juli'tatI
U.~
.S-irF
,tW7
7
""
(.mar
]BIBLIOGRAPHY (eontinu&')
'
"Interltrrencc Fields About Aircraft," Pbaseh

Iand Ii, tigritr.inglanrf~ransienIfWeseirch Instt.titet
Constrat. Nos. AF 18(600)4183 and AF
33(O03)-174622.
cstgahnof
irrat
___
____
er
oeti.
ivlvretSu"o
_'41
liumAirto.*Atr H eatrkchhmw r, WIRKLB 5443AS11cm~N
51.156, Surface
CrwwOuation Corpuration, Contact. No.
3Y-33..
610- 22%45 Project No. 54
1T7.
________iP51PRf&
Isliznler, J1. S,1 Fngireergi'weali
laminated Alr--~ TtWF11Wq tFil
Factors For
ifartT1
o
-AAli-
LucksI C. F., if. B. Tlwvmubon
ivie IJ5
~ffiluiois lnsjtduttoff 'fechnolg,y, Corntract No. W)

~,r~""'.'''IWRO No, 664-751, UG
?P Cu
.
B3ix%
4l_
...
Pr6ti set~ve Maithrfth Part

A~rmii~f-i6-5.A-K"t.
Jouenmt No. AD 117715, Batte~e dernoris
Institute, Februar
WK-
1951.
J. A: nnd B, L. Rivnevr Jr.. Test

Evalduation of Ex-teirnal Air ]01gst A W Folf Ajj
-Maecdoald.
**-'Ib
'unwr.
K",-'
rep N. Hf amd F.1 It. iddJell Het Transfer
.....................................
hi Safeliir.
te-eritrixWUT7Thi!U
ehues
plleC,.I~lY.
w!2earC
){efxrt N.,A'L
TS&?%cufmcrwt No. A!) 150540 Avc., Rcscarclj Laloratory, Contract No. AtP 04(f,45) -.18, Air2 Resvarch and Deveinprornt Cornroar-a, October
19%
KliriL,
RIP-.-
4ltniU
i l
. atnCi.
"-pj.
rp!U.iT5.2YS7,
for 5,:rmgvrn.
pany, Conlract No, AP 2334116)-26461 U. S. Air
eiii7ETl6Jrai?
M
hi3Ei-i
Fox ccAI) Wrlglat--Pattersoo Air Force Base,
ovt 4. E.v
jjiY4}
Base, Ohio, April 1955.
*i1-T
11F Trtn
IL. Rzlc-&o and Karl flue~grniann Airerafi

nd a.La Transfer, AF TR
WincshCd
len! nd9388G,
Javitar an
'A,
eem and.G.
W.
CurH
f17
Wil~le1 1e
Air Force
..
setts, ApriL 1959.
Contract No. AF 33(6t1)-26t10,
Force, ASO. Wriuht-PhtteraoJk
'
Lowec RunaeilT.,Th'Rol e.of. Donpig In St rue.iii?4:

No'/Gi
aryRpr
u:esj
UbliFYnoprtd Watert-own 72, Massacho-
J:~koh,Mlaz Stotle P.Keatos, Carleton 1H.Patul

4
ovetWJ)155
a
tensLbrtrPrjc
o 32
. 3.Air
Force, ASD, Wrirght-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio0, A.ugust 1(s5i.
P r14cct NuoAI1i, U. S. Air l'orce; ASP, Wrightologr'
U. S. Air
31AlT
CoiijiiiyywArC TN 55-226, ASflA Docuiment
~t., cm,
LittUO, E., &n Kyiut.mf FungcdlTet

meats iii C616flnCi
flctPWTby
J:.Ier, Hi. W. and J. M. Ciccotti, Aircraft Oper;itjffionIn 1ci

Weather, TI~c A merIican I6Wr 710
Pahlerson Air Poc
o-6100a
.4
Ohio, kfr7 1958.
R tkTeurmictNo.TAD31601, Armorn
search Foundation, Ilitnols Institute. ol TeLh
vology Contract No. AF 33(038)-6429, E. 0. No.
664-7M' U. S. Air Force, ASP, Wright-Pattursoi 4{!r 1-orce Batic, Ohio, Aprvil 1954.
No. AD 80238
.t
U.P. ad J. A. Walker,
It.~ It.,1.I.
top,;t
1B. W.-L. flurries ant, T. 3. Connolly
53- 38,
Manufacturing Company, Contract No.

AF .3(616J-2016,
M-) No. 604-803 U. S.MAr
17brce, ASIA Wrl ht-Patterson Air Force Base,
Oho, (Atober 1;43.
-~~-
14Aw.h
Suzra ar.d
NMW1(rd~ws -tIiqc% 8..'f Ilib IrjflalP. ['rt

1, W'ADC
'itWhO-lFSTAI
155501,
Crmtiel. on-autical
I,turatory, Cumtract No.
Al .31i'-277,6, Pv-4cvt0 No. 7.40 U, S. Air
V/right .1Paftersur. si.ie 1orre Bane,
Irit ,AS!),
01 ifK
99
77~
U11.W
LQln&uAtrSaaf,
2rrcl
WU
STIA Docurnrszt No. AD 62583, "'1.-
-escarcb
m!qpntcor~si'A
-nonee-i
---H~ C.'dI
2~ieW3()Gf
tIVr
.PTU
1,J-A
Ji~i~l'-----u~
-ax oy
leea
h
Mrch i751
F
vea
-.
Chiv
a
Lane,, Arthux I
cidv Uffllpl' Performan-c
;
bin Cooti
Unit, WC iiU W
A9YA
nCuaircliild
JO
oI
%.9
Y
4n'ginc &
A irphiaueCorrynration, Cfmtract. No. AF 33f(600)-.
2'8,U. S. Air Force, AS!), WrilgIt-Pattoxson
Ali- Furuv Dase, (Y'u(ig, OcLot~cr lU51
Ana-yr- s of
iao,
M-
..--.....
~yt
TTA
3A7)05
dical
_Tr1
'
.-
Ur.11 einVd
SWflnnI
.
.-..-
ystem for CIH11WADrC TB 5:

Aero M~e2f6cfllf4h
Laboratory Project No. 6330' L. S. Air
Force, ASM, Wright-Pat0torson Air torce flURs,

Ohio, April 1955.
Mc~er, J. J. and C. W. Siuckey, Evaguationof
Fnjcd
rtm
tsfr
Cotton__Fakksp!
WAx
TlS~lT'l~~etN.A
I-15112't, Georg~a Institute of Technology, Ems)i
ncer Ing Yxperiment Station Atlanta, Georgia,
Contract No. 1W 33(616) .386'S, Project No. 7312,
1). 9,. Air Force ASP Wright-Patterson Air
F1orceIBase,,Ohio,'Apr Li1958.
N
n S.T. A B1.rief Swivey of Conmic Ray
_yv_ ith ltcaad to
c-V
ReotN.v
TPz9Tlyicaxs%phys Ica section, Icese-refi Projects aH aacy
Armny Ballistic Missile 'gercy, ReM4stunv Arsenal, Alabama, 15 Apri-h .951).
io
I
'
'
13~IJ3LIWRjAk'Hk
-U
Newton, W. S. and C. G. Mkrides EJnyiron

mental Criteria for Ground Suport k!E_rpmqnt;-hAi-257
'
lThocumin- -- n7o. S
WAIC---11'3,
39438, Contact No. 33(616)-2278, U. S. Air
Force ASD, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, Mly 1954.
e rimental Investiga-Osmaiski, Joseph T.,
tion to Correlate the _ecurrence of aatigue-
~u re withIi-jpclArrl
CookElectric
ltude ASTJ.A
V-ibraztor-vyA
No. ADDocument Company.
TR s&-55.
SWAU
(ContisiUOei)
foj
Study of Supersoni_ Radii. Co.
fa'
rtM,
RerigeAl
i Force, ASD, WrightWAD--R15
Patterson Air Force Bane, Ohio.
.prebso
'.
Vapor-Cycke Refri erants for H Kh

Stud
Periormance
Aircraft.
WADC TR 56Air Force
Wright-Patteroon
XI--lTrce, ASD,
Base, Ohio,
____________
'
110462 Contract No. AF 33(616)-2532 Profect

1370,Force
0. S. Ai
Air Force,
1958.
Ohio, ASD,
Ma.ych Wright-!atterson
Base,
Air
J. D. and C. L. Newcombe. A Study of

Teresi,
Maximum Permissible Concentrations ofeRadoactlve Fallout-in -Water and Air BasedU
ADLTCDocuffien
TRo.
Milit tayheosr
TRUSNRDLTRNos. AD
P ATI& Document
T82
NS U.083-00,
1F53804,
S. Naval Radio1o ical Defense Lab-
Pearson, R. G., one EffepLM2tion-Sicness Preventives onOrientation in Space, Re-
oratory, San Francisco 24, CalIifoxmia, 27 -An'

1957.
p-ort---No
-c-7,
ASTA ocument 1o. AD T12815,
Air University School of Aviation U. S. Air
Force, Randolph Air Force Base, Texa, November 1957.
Penn, WV,B., R. L. Balke and F. M. Precopio,
Generator !nulation Systems Devetopment for
4vners-.nic AircrzLt Paper No. 59-864 present-ed--t
i-- -mmer and Pacific Generals
Meeting and Air Transportalion Conference,
Seattle, Wasnington, 21-26 June 1958.
Pierro, John J., Pesign aid Dey__openLot
!n Airborne Alternating Current Generation and
L'istriL-ution Sytern for Use in 6 F Akmbientz,
59-902, presented at AIEE SumPape No.

mer and Pacific General Meeting and Air Transportation Conference, Seattle, Washiiigton, 2126 Jute 1959.
"Prcvierw
of Space
etal," Metal Progrese
K., CabinSchaeve" Don

and Wing Anti-Icing Temperanuiie Conto
h"hIS
WADC TR 54-410, ASTIA Documenii-i
66387, The Barber-Colman Company, Contract
No. AF 35(038)-27968, RDO No. 664-803, U. S.
Air Force, ASD, Wri ght-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, July 1954.
Force
Sludyly
! fleait Exchanyer Pressure DropAfd

.Cir
t- aner
61:, U.-c.-.
Oiro.,-S,
ight-Pattersr
A:r Force lis'., Oh,1o.
Wright-PattersonAir Force Bae, Ohio, January
'
.
'
1956.
SibulkJn, Merwin, "Estimacion of Turbulent

Heat Ta:.
at the Sonic Point of a BluntNosed Body," Jet Propulsion, Vol. 28, No. 8,
August 1958.
,o
.helpaphiflAIse
55-261, U. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright-Patteroon

Air Force Base, Ohio.
'M
Study of Limlted-Type Ice Removal and Presytson

tems c anical
_
WA-s
TR55-262, U. . Air Force, ASD, Wright-Pattersoa Air Force Base, Ohio.

Toumer K. A.- Electrtcal Components t3r a
$300 F Control bircuit, Paper No.--P" 59-0-5.
p-r-ti
and Pacific General
Meeting and Air Transportation Conference,
Seattle, Washhngtryi, 21-26 June, 1259.
5-
*,t'
'
Ct'?m*'''''
'.
T
s-Pro erty-Dest;m Crlaf-- W'
TRI
3}Il2 F_a
ASTIA Document No. AD 90286, The Battelle
Memorial Institute. Contract No:. AF 32(6R1)
2303, Project No. 1T360, U. S. Air Force, ASD,
Study o Limited-Type Ice Remo
St'dy of Evap-.rative Heat Transfer In Air--t

S.
Tit 5I,-.
Ai, -(!"I.xci
Forc-i-JD7A7 anj-r--WADC
, Wright-Patterson Air
..
Shlnn, D. A.,
Slote, Lawrence and William D. Murray, A

Method of Predctini Skhb. Compartment, and
Schaefer T. J 'rhoory ot Protection of Mara
in Th' .4pyion of The Prinmary Cosmic RadiaT - emrbtures/o
ir-'ft-WA17902,
U.
S.
Na1-319A
~1A Documient No. AD
-i.
q?
No. AD
D"ocument
19722,
New York University Contract No. AF 33(P 6).;A Air Station, Pensacola, Florida, Project
122, RDO No. 560-16_U S Air Force, ASD,
No. 001 0)5.13.06,5 August 1953.
WtIght-Patterson Air Force 1lase, Ohio, July
1953.
11whainook: Astronautics and its ApSpa
TtIcort otif e Select Comm-it--t'c
-w
1 Ylkati,
o(n--N-Wtyonautics and Space Exploration, U. S.
Smith, P. W Jr. "Sound-Induced Vibration,"
(;over nnisit 1'rinting Office, Washington, D. C.,
Noise Ccii r * Vol. 4, No. 6, November 1958.
St;Lider, Jackson R., "A Survey o( Heat Transfir 1"roblrns Encountered by 11ypersonic Air(-raft, ".Jet Propulsion Vol 27, No. 11, Novenber 1957.
,po
M.AW
"
"-'-I,
'
BIBLIOGR.APHY (conJliuied)
o Crtain
ndElii'ratio
~i'~ej~e~rtiw1
&.(trical JntcrfnrenCces in Missiles,
1.lcct-ric Conipaiy Report No. It 53A0511,
,'-chnnec lady, N.Y.
Tu rtomaxhar _ynarnics
U. S.. Air- Force, AS65
Force IBase, Ohio.
WADC TR 57-611,
Ih-atr~lAr
Water-Mist Separation in Cabin Air CondiU. S_. Air

7-,1)_St MrnV~rM T
T.Ei~ght -Pattersonl Air oreBe,
e,
Ohio.
Water VaLpor purpp Study, WADC TR 50-254,

J7l7Xfr
-Wright-Patterson Air
-!-'orce Bas~e, Oho
Welsh, James P., Desig Manual_2pNkjtu3
Re,-.
u
Methoeds of Cooling -Eetonc
p,)rt I6. HF-85-1)-7 NAVtS 90, 192.
CornellAeronautical Laboratory, Inc.., Contract
No. NObsr-63043 Bureau of Ships -- Index No.
NE, - 111611, Sub-fqsk 2, Novenmber 1956.
Milkes, G. B~., T~a1 Nrmial Enii sivktiotjand

ak
OfsWAC
Solrai
9T-42 ASTIA Document No. AD 80066, Massachuselis Institute of Technology Contract 'No.
W33-038-20486, RDO No. 6644605 U. S. Air
Force ASD, Wri fht-Patterson Air force 'Base,
ho ~ri15.*
Wind Tunnel Evaluation of Limited-Typ
1_ovlanid Pi evention ~ystems, WADC.
Wih-atso.
S
ArTi,
413,U.
Air Force Biase, Ohio.
Jee
56
YaeC
.adJ
.CaiDwlp~n
N. nd J. c. Chayinati Develop730
o Metv
Materials WADCT
Form~lla-Urms for__ _ottn
58-303 ASIA Document No. AD 203525, The
-scierAtIlc 0Oi1 Comlpounding Cc. Materials Laboratory Project No. 7312, 13. 8. Air Force,
ASD, 'Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
-October 1958.
fSN1._
5-855-8
-7,
MEW~~~l
ff`V7I-
%:
N,.
CHAPTER 6
ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING
Environmnental testing Is needed to determine
that ith fight v(J.c-le and all Its equipment will

funcLisai pruprly wider the niatural and induced
e1,vir-o1imttttst-hit mnay be encountered. The test
requirements ire based on the environmental

re~quflrem,?rts describred in Chapter 4. The envlrozimental extrem~es determined by an enangenerally increaned to
a saicty factor, or dccreased because
an o)Pel ational analysis Irndicates that tie occcurIre-cO ti the extreme It, rarte,
4
The ideal enviroannentaiJ test would exp~ose the

system and aJl its parts to the actual environmenjts fur tl~e exact periods they would )xe en count cred duringV the life of thie. system. But
this is imp~ractical, siince (1) the exact environtirents to be encountered axe generally unpred'.ttriwe, (2) the tecting time requi red woula
re.nder the. sys'ctin obsolete exceptior extremed()thnubroTa
-ysot-fetes
cilities ptd propic required tW makep (ie tests
would be avtr.onooic.at.
tes9t Is ten
TIeP mu'st rraeticad cnivir'Oflfltallt
accelerated olsV, which compresses longp-teraii
joflms; into a iicurt ,oAod, Hlowever, there ace
var;iou.s way-s ot accelerating evivironmmental
Lests an~da~ -.ethed mnust toe chosen which would
nu0t dSestroy ti~e valid(ity us the test., For examiietetI
accelerated hy longIf'."j( fn
nxmaccomplished
expected solar
xpsr - to the maimum
x,
iv:
ene~rgy leve'1 Instead of lnereaeirg the eueygy
to.JI~A fl~A.TtS type4 vt cnvi runznmnziai
ten c'clraedin
n
utis itvianet because mrany
mrl"W -tals will withstand a certain inaxiinun,
eoa
ncrg-y level bor prolonge.d periods, but
wili .Nterirorate vcr:. rapidly if thez tvst Is aLcenergy Jevel. On fihe
uwitin ~ Vi~~dcth
-tby
:vez-icte
c lhumidity test is accelerated by
t1t-ui ten,
tem~rz',2ture and hurnidity cornin, '-vnp
- tatattull ecuvimtt' frd in operi tia 'rnttat iun or stor,age.
prvdefrg'tr
;7uznidity pwcnrtratit~n and fur arriy yeiors has
paliisaing
t
thaaiddtetJ
cquipmritt
1eviiprve
prov
I-estht eqips entpa ssofIfinf
this tyfx'ru (, i
tinsty~c
~y cestis
huni apa~e f lngor ope~ration in trxpical u-rear.
tCCW si rat
'ILbe vitbrat('r'v tvests :ire acccbr~rated by testingZ.
at tc :nrjurrsonant frequecieis lor long pe,.
'lts jrovidest some assutrance against
I-ot
if as.
Ien
b"
L~ie r s,)nartint
Somnetimes there In an attempt to reproduL~ce

the actual enivironmnict in aktest chiarber,bt'
more of ten Mt attempt is mnade to reproduce t-he
j
effects that a long period (A exposure to hu en-vionamerkt has on an itena. The re Is ino definitive
assorance thaot a certatn perie-,d in a test chainber equals a certain stocrage or opcrational peniod, even thoughi lany attemptsohave been made
to a-scertuln such exact correlajicmn, Most enviruninestal tests establ',si P standard that
equipmaent Itmt.a meet., and frorkI an environ~mental btwndpoirl htils aepa rates poorly devigned
It-eras from those of good desivn,
The effects di all uwaircamnrarzta encounitered,
as determined by the eilvironL'tental anialysila$
sho~uld be considered during the design phase.
used niust be
All materialsa j~wd cmoets
ir ealuatedto s~ee if they have tsrien tested for use
tcoder the anrtici,sited cnvi'conments; anid all
equipment miust pacn. qualilllation tests before
flit lighit test prrogrm begins 1;inorder to minInAze tLIe number of failures or analfunctLonti.
During the Atltht test phase, sufficient cavironmental instrumenitation nhould beprovided to
deterrine whether the earlier predictions of
enrvi.%inqnmoa to be enconstered were realistic.
Environmental testing Is also reqW.red on prodluction saxr4des to assure that tie design noquirements are not compromrised during the
produiction phase. Static climatic tests ar
in the. ciinnatic Hian ar at-t! glin
coplete weapon1
Air Force BsFlorido
systemu to determine whether they are ratisfactory for flight. Fiighttests9 are thon icarried
out xundcr ex~remne temperature cond~itiojiw at
the Air Force Flight Test Center California,
as well as in Alasim, to check equi'prent operation and correct any equifpment defIctenicies%.1
that show up undeur actual blfh- and Jow-ternperature operating coditionsf.
Up to ncOW 3ositiger very airnpic ciombinatiotis
0hi
CinViro'.ftental teals 11ave beth1CJ
used, E:owevirr, somre research wid devi t'Vinnaext on corntbiried envirmnrnent0l testing in pnrstiitty being,
carried out, and in jeh teore Is needed. Ai, Ideal
te
nIsusing
l, no&gt tha~t could etrploy 6ther or
txhcteIolizgeto:
1
s'
.4!1
.<
V-
,~.
;4~
I
-
-1. Enviroomentr e~buid be prctramrned into a

teat chkanter in th'n same order ayid intensity as
they sir-e encounitered during aetit d fli)It.
Lm0
iKV
W
llam~lit,
a-(T
&-W
2. Significant Irileraictiner enmironmeflts could

aobw~
ud 1,w.C4' &lffIcient intensity 130
be
~that tWe integrated effects o3fveryilong'tmissions
or operational I1Lot'etles could b,. concentrated
rdrf
in a relatively ahort tebt time oth
to--, 20. ' or 30-to-i, depending of course on
the length of the I'anic missions.
-
Tho above tecnts are geiicrally referred to as
combined environmental tests,

and accel erated combined environment-al testsrespectively. Fquinment, or complete weapon
systems, having sAort mission profiles could
then be uput through, the desired cycle of er.vironmental conditionf, of at designated miesiorio
profile. Long rnisuion profiles might be more
adprtab~e to the accelerated combined environmental tests, since the length of the testing time
becomes a problem in the applicatiOn

mission profile test.
I'f
the
A comnbined enviro~nmental test must producde

effects equal to those produiced under single environments bofore it could be used with equal
confidence. An attempt to determine the confidence level for various combined tests must
first be, tnade bly testing similar items with the
combined test aind then with the gamut of Iindividuali tests; ithen the results knust be correlated.W
Much eff ort is required, Wut eventually' combined
j~i-oi~~etL initig iiruceduliusRu uembined~
test facilities will be established.
The hypier environments that will he encounteredi~ -Wa'ctltes and space vehicles, and which
are not weU.-defined at thCpeset should be
handled as the atniosphera -associatied 'linvironments have h-m~ handled in the part. The extremes must be clearly defined and their effee'1a
on Air Force mnalerial detcrmni.,ed. If detk;-iorating eff.(*cts are expec'.ed, applicabc testing
testing faciiisms eetb
pdrcand
oe
irisedU. An impo~rtant dfifference between sit
mosphere-associate-A enviroaments and hyper
cnvironments Wndoveloping enivironmental technology !n tlit cro'ntnntioris of hvper aiyrivnmierts cwi be miade immediately because of the
cxpcriwice presoltly b',-izg gained through rea -arch wi! the. atniosphere-anssocixted environm (;nts
*TCS'i
HEQLJ i. FM ENTS
.that
the test requirement:; differ from tlip dosign roquirdbients, and to t'A~t towardil the dosign recrA~rements Instead of the tefit requirements often results in overtesting of the equipenorcnpet.Materials are tosted to
determine their resistance to all the environmoats
that may be encountered.
Depending
~~~largely on its intended use, each type of water-
iat is tested vinler different environments, provided that there in nio genoral test requ~trement
specification aialalable. Components are eenerally tested to teas tq peidf led by MIL-STD.
202, -rest Methods for Electronic and Elsectrical Component Parts." Aeronautical equipment is tested to a nuamber of different spacif ications, includInK some that. are contractorprepared. Specification MEL-T-5422 -r.-,ir~n_
mAtlTsig icatlcr...Eup'n
4i
4
~
SL~taidard testing procedures do not presently

exirtt lor all env$-onznents, p~articularly the hyper environnimentms. Concractor-S usej the app'teamle 21-1-mdard procedhires, modify existing Procedures or write new procedures wher-2 re-T
qitired; mcdlfieci or new proceduires require the
awiroval ot the procuring agency.
The requ iratnents for toesting Eubsysteins are
essetritlnly the same as those for equipment.
Lurgrtr 'facilities are required for subsystern
testing arid there are no stardard requirements
desigiiedsjrecifically for subnystems. Coiftao,
Ora are responsible for the tieseiopjment of viost
wes~on By stenia, and the trea d in onvironmner~tal
testinig Is to qualify completc nubsyutens, intes"a
~ it
r
r.
c, t'
is used for testing electronic equip rena: in ac-
cordance with the requirements of specification

hflL-E-5400. Specification MIL-E-5272 is the
Primary specificatlonfor teathingall aeronautical
and absociated equipment. Other epecificattions
have been developed from the basic. documnent.
Th'ie requiremnents for testing ground oupprrt
equipment are found in specification MIL-E49170, "Enivircnmental Testing Ground Support
Equipment, General Specification for."
rh:
4
i
~~
fl
'-t
't
"A'"-'
'VMlo thou~i
faction Vf the p.ocuz'ing.4ec'
dbes not obviata thes equipmedj. envirolnmental
testing required during devrlopment. Thje fligbt
to
test program affords the first ooitot
cfwr!k the .1perrtvon Of thej V)Wte
'
tapn
cyatewm xn~dzr actual flight conditions, Flight

test prgem art) gtaiura~ll last umentafl according to espvciflca.?n MiL. 1-5289.
Art vien.tined previously, env irorirnerc al t(,Est-
It)), begifls with the basic rnate.-lals and continues
oo Oii ovngli components, equipinezt, isub.,3yateins;

thle colnplete weapun sylstemn and the gimmrj
truppzon
equilpment.
The typets aild severity of
tesla use.d during the various stages of developnit-10 o! a particiular wearirm system arn evolved
Iromi the 'riviorenientai c~riteria sot for thc
Eya;twl. Thecse enivitonniieutal criteria, in turn
;trc arriven al. by carrying out. env~ixoiment'j.
nr3 opcratimm: anamlyses (Chapter 4). awce thte
tnvxr'nrnmsltal vriteria are ddterwined Huitable
tc.-tri .1rc it-hiished, in miany caces using, thc
c:xistirirg miiliary ai~wcuiiv-ttotionas gutdee3. Whern
usin~;- nmiffiiry epe,eclfiatjuns, it utiould b~e noteci
FillTM,
NV;IR011U4ENrAL TES'T INSTRUME~NTATION

Instrumentatirn
here
refers
0~ all
the
auiliary devicee used i) testing awtaner.,

system and Jt.. parts to mon-Ator both thu
r-rformanic cro' the sysr'e:n sud the envil-roMental conditions unf~er which It is perfnrnmto
ing. T',e jnstruiraeotation can be t'~e'
measure volt loe compartment temperatures,
or the ocvr YAtlrg temperatures ol detal parts.
Othtr user, Include weias'.iremernls of the vibratiun fipectruit or rxiniation levels irt'roged ul
e.qidpnnjejitq or ccrtain parts. In 0550'1ct, the
....
instrumentation is used to measure all environ;rt fin'r~trr , p~vrticularly those which the
environmental analysis determined to be critical,
The advantage of the airborne recording

methiod io that the complex radio telemetry link
can be eliminated, thus simplifying the entire
operation. The advantage of the telemetry
method is that the data is obt:ained during the
flight, and therel'ore the rtsk ot losing It in case
of a crash or runawav vehicle ls avoided.
The complexity of the Instrumentation equipinent. varies considerably, depending on the systern aria typo of tczt. A relatively simple systern m~ght requ're only Lraiiaducers and indicators that personnel can observe. In a complex
system, where great numbers of environments
are almost continuously monitored, dat~a Btorage
latecr evaluation.
Telemnetareci Data Recording and Processingi
In many cases durin~,fiight
the radio telemeter were (1) to transmit Wnormation ats to the state of flight of the iurcraft
(slowly varying data), and (2) to txrans~int the
more rapidil yvrIg
data, such an flutter,
which the test flght was set up to obtzLn.
--
3-cerhaips the muost important part In any Inslerientatipon3isena ;toa oe rmof mery ht cansn
1w~
~mii H~ownse
knr
aE- rndmasredi,,r muht
device;
prid
maaent
e-nvtr.ninetoalfr
rweerence/iil.,poesdadmauems
-~
ofnin
denie ergtyinoftedl
be he ostaccrat
pa t l te U~tmenttio
were recorded on an oscillograph. more recantly due to th. need for raiIdata reduction,
auo
tidtaruconmtoshvebn
itoune dat
Ar~rcrdiagao
e tpcalyo
data handling system ismsnown inrgI?

frc recording atihe
aercreddrcl
atapeawie
U-n
that
haecan~iatInomto
and reuir
o
arefinement. dietyoraewa
Inflihe esalsinnent
,
c tilmeecodo
to thegon
P~yte. hePosig
evcema povdea lfo reoding
icandresomear onde01itr
ered
ectly
Fore andca.Uviing
a smpltrd4nng vehiis,
ter
an
oon thegrudThceta
data procsigssem.
in
erest
electrical Pirbcornes foccrdarto provoide a m~ean
dater are ducesiall of the recesary corretom th
of (uamanytcpsci
agans
ngen
theloso dslornie fo
mand sourlefcos. ahre appred thoectionstou
this
antu evn
ent of apicalrash. A widevaitypia one
_sytem
pOc
e syledsn
the is vialeoik"Isectgon,
ic
th~i maynti ae
foeten variousenvifor reoria
rerd uces teAt
otefr
Aoclorpi
arlsted ha
iirangef
t- e pajd62 Vandprio
to
plts Taulahted atap iaformIn
uitraclesfor dislulyrationapickus systems.
n
ownever, aemphasin
rnecteion rep.Inortsawitout as nee or firather
wIn;hs 3-laced he2,respetii
mlhasf For urhero
odri
corretd
t
utnscribing.
etfyths
sc
;'r~~~~phican
and thneramieitpe.e
requirerap
coder,
~~~ r~runnsar
~ sicess Th
.Pitaplotshmn Of
athie
corrtdo
dathea.
t
tcniACvei Tin cI~N.T~MTTO
racordwn tthhqus
gnetictapint
si
borionar forbe suitoableo
Fleoroso h
epoed
alely adnihihand
e
ir:..~~gh
(tent zdarag
eil
bhedt
es
feoriegs
it
Wldco
iI aevice~r to ai
T~~
provieam
a
oif uratrcing
rncord of the loss o infoiastuie
Lbflijottet datacl.
w;ill
ULf
plcdherle
;uahlc
the
infurmatic
"
'
In early systems flight data at the receiving

tattion were displayed in a manner simi~lar to
the Instrument _panel of the aircraft and then
photographed. The more rapidly varying data
Typir'al SensingInstruments
va ei,
fighter size. The two original requirements of
'of
eriviro
-.t.
The demand for multichannel radio telemetry
testing particularly where there Is a

losin the data due to destruction of the flight
vhcLpr,;visiun Lmaefor recovering the
storr'd caa.a by parachute, or the i.kata Is continuously telernetered back to ground 3LtItloas.
This is a necessity with one-shot vehicles such
".snon--reecrve able missiles.,
Ai.
K'r
ATh
isl-montisioti ofteheiqtest
no
dt
comute.
onthicgital
fror furterstyst
ramed
digitizdand the4!nputer.
H
tic. ere dhe3
crec
en
fditleerisacnpehglypci-
rif
iedtn oerj trnscitbing,.adol
fromtihae, vehicle
andlthed
tas rre-tdhee descriptio
2.Poit plts f te coreced ata
ex
usdi~trment
curdr, incar thee
ontheoe?
tcriivul
tchniues inr.-i~dci.
mordbg
oe
ap3. iagetc
bnar frmsutalefo
~
use~~~
~~
byahg-peddgtl:optr
A* I
K
0IP~HM
-~.
W
I-I
EJl~onq j.%P,jI
'M!
'
W,__
e
>
t411;Q~!
-~c
)utm
-1
p
a, te
dwoJ
tLL..W
L
tZ
(-4o
Q w_
OOL
Id
Q91
1,
"--. "-..---
--
'--
Ttnbie 6-2. Typical Sensing Dovices for Induiced Enivirnonments
"elniig
Device
r
I'l'hermnu,;.;.
_-1rnre4iicti1VO
Temp.
Acceleration
device
______
Bi mtafllic
elemeiit
r
OW
JC.I
ly
pyrome-te
X-_X
tr--
w'n
f A~i-_-
...
-X
"It
-____'
. ....
_,.
X
X
-.
I_
ntItenna
meter
__--____
_______8
adetectors
V
hattoaensitiVe
'n~u1MJons5
t,
ference
A-_
I, ,iti
intna
inter-
MICim ,-
i'ld
Radio
"-_-
_%--=751
~i ion eter
Nuclear
radlatlon
---
%17lch',nicTIoalLIP
;prn
-masHs acceler.
Zero
gravity
___
orme""..
;,ooa(tlr.
" 1
77*'
erX
-t
accelcrumeter
AcoustlO
vibration
_______
l'i
Mech.
shock
_____
______
"I hermoIcctric devicc
T-ThreaT"ir
Mech.
vibration
_____
--
_____
_-.
, ,
x
:X'i
v.
V"ll_'
-
"_.
.'_
__
TF.Tli t CSi S___

cctt
Because of the many information channels required,

the factrad.1o
that link
it would
bo inefficient
to
use aand
separat~e
for each
channel,
i:
,.
some
of transmitting
beveral channels
on one method
link is required.
This tecdmique
ia caller,
Smultiplexing.
'
=:
rig
~~tiplexing
~~divis~ion.
geemral division
methodsand
of mtuin u~seThe
aretwo
frequency
titne
'
A freu ency division system uss a separat

subcarr er frequency for eacb chmael. Figure
6-4 Is a block diagram of such a system. The
suicarrier frequencies kre modulated by the
-upp!!e bny the trunedu -ro
ernixed
ftrato
and
tranomatted.
The receiving
equtpmezit
sep..-.i
a~~9rates
ths suabca-rrier
!requencies,
alemrhoates
-- '.
"
'
,,:..
Pa.h carrier and records the ladormation.

A time division multiplex syatemu aJtlota a
portion of time in a cyclic sequence to each
channel. Figure 6-5 Iv. a block diagramn of such
a systerm. The inlormation supplied by each
transd&ceris sampledby the commutator. which
can either be electromechariieal or elet-tronic.
These modulated pulses are reproduced aC the
output of the receiving commutat'r. Passage of
the pulses through the low pr0s filter allows
recovery of the originia signal.
I ig. C-I. Typical vibration pickupfi,

There are raar~y types of transducers ernpl,, yed in radio telemetry s- terns due to the
inim(erous qumuititi- whicl.
_,quire measurexit',t.
The vibratian,
shoeK and sustained ac-
clrathn at various positions on a missile are

(relv a few of the variables requiring measure1u,"Ut durin, flight. In addition, nicas'ireients
-f tevperitwur-o and pressure, ;4s well as monit'riml, the pc rforro;nice of the juidance System
Iy in'ai, uf rnea:suring clectrical signals, are
i, ,qllal ort 0otvi greater inp-rtauice. In majdata are normally colveh1tl, s tUh
1,,
t,, v'a, ,.ei
Xdyithmil die Vehicle,
'.
Airborne Recording
7"
The ear)y method of obtalring data cluring

flight testing of aircraft was to have the pilot
read the control panel Lnetrunients and periodIcally -ecordtheaelndlcations on a pad s t rap, ed
I;::
to hia leg.
As the need for nuorm extenolve
La~t,
4..
* =
"." =
' -. ..11 . . . r. ",. .. ' -= - ."_ -' ' ...
. ..
. .
" " - "
..
'
t1. - .
Fig.~~
aclroees
~ ~
6-2
Tyia
Am t
Txt~t
Data
R- din
LRecordin
Oupu
Processin
Output
System
Sled
Trackin
Radar
aoto
Test
D010
Fig. ro-3.
Typical data handling system.
Ar
Sub-Cor'~r
R~d~
Antennas
Rdi
Transmitter
Trn~duer
Receiver
FeqModulatorcto
NNo.1
Odultor
De
Rod1
Freqencrery
No.
FCrequnc
Transducer
_
spee ba-daltitd wereoandbyp

caeasenorer
t ecr temo
tr railD
requency spetru
erfecthm
netiied.
Fig.
mirro reflectslihfrequnc aiiin
flgto
on
ul qantte suhotosenaitiv
obatne ay phonsato
fil
oreepaper whtichdiserie
gratein
atriht ayw
to inthueplnets whith thve
light~
~
~ light
~ beam
~~~~~efeto
bea
swnsasam
cmrasul
If ordteo
tof thorte
gavmoree racoidl,
Thsarringen iatashwnscemticaanlrcrigocllyFgrah hae-eetwe.
The
mosrecordersvmayas9lman
have
asedfsiftychannels Gavaometer
empovem'Aentsare
galvailabetrwith
natu
freqoral nciesi
tho neih
borhoo ofied
3to miro rcect
torh
is Amplifer-t
api
the Im reorig
ap.Wt
whltreas theldieetrryse m.dn

d'a
rnei
db.rTept
eduaia
proes
recor- lto
hasT Wewds
largett numblrsuof
b-g proqecey ispetumd bt rios
slobliyvauin da tapsignaltcaunesTed
dyimthegs
prdsisnwdfrth
taherecordn
rcs
lgoedtaatinlig
lcmuer
prtchnqess nrand campbitusedsa Insutabdeiies
Oupuoev
affed onenlsthergefor ding.thi
prcmuers. Probabl the abesity telrecotry syte
iseqoney
thacmbne boh the froqend
diviasiona
multipomlnwexea
telemdiect rycordtnm andt
ie raiveisio
grewthe data
Th5
fidly vraprin whata isthienapiatia onstn

mas
naeati
recrigh nglt tehnqe.
Thae tanwhchn~lgl
forng ths ae
aroedam
bam swigsaTellgh
coilehito
rsesutv
whr reoveryo if atrblmhe
gavnoeercic.
Thiens
ofrangemagne
ssonshmtical
tap reodrtrecordqers,
ig 6n-Fi.h-7.
Theelorctronic av
codng
a
ase prparcchannelsavncodeter minloremantionr
avilabl ecoe
w th
na
igral
feunitsi
h
eg-isorn
bolhuo
monei he3 or tr5dcr
onert the
Ing
W usedt
recordr
coe
lariou
simbers
acofd
the
dewsvriredat sgaplcation.
They
. maygb
sdfrtepoes
a eowgpoesi
In ol edLited laboratory
daas
rodeia, icmput~er
mobnd rcanrderusda shinIpboardrevcrd
oupu
rsadeavrice recodInernlstoaefr.gi
Tampuers
Playcbandbnlysise beatteemetysse
oetacmbnsoto
th
-'-
et
ltienoxseeandevibration randrtge adtom
ASV.
ivso
educeio
Anothertioner onethed
tAp
rpciucly cnietvarying
daai
h
mediumduing
thmoe
iiin
ngneigTs
iet
teapiateon of maTate rsordirs
Fore Ins haros sicenslaccordn'ticratecr;Iongt ttaehintosan ectrical
e
ina
Inl
the
plctin
hymyb
deie
cohle itop
tansport
rmre
druvm
thfoparos th e
aplaybsikied an alysisor rysemcrdbers porlL
manetiwherds
r teaconeystanpolear Tpeed basic
anyrdesi, mobie freom ayrechpoarder. crd
A anettrcie etr
of
e magnetic
tih tp
recorder
axe______________
_iYmna
for othitmume
recording, prddoede
c-r':rnnuizat, irmn
onutetpe mdiumac
areoplay-
Saeltsnduarposhvemlyd
durnd
ditale
thprces. trns-
recodin
maytpsontuensadmauig
Duingplabac,
raeIDeuyfo
he __
sa__
__
osatln _
oal the
sgna tap
The
cros
__
tpe
__ a _
ape
__
pe
. in
an R
layb
ranportdric~q
tk
_ .lngaysz
__
__
cka
Bas
alvo
ha
recntl
ste
cap
he
__
Spc-e~ac
Wih-7
n SpotAD
es
Pattrso~ir
orc
neti eleati tri n
Diect
EnbieeingTes
iviion
virnmetal
mg
rcnerste
due
aypgsatso
aefo
Intrmnttt
eodr
acqire
ble
of
ind
ducc;
5
aNo.
~
'r ans-
[~1-------to
Low Pass Filter No. 3
t Low Pass Filter
,Antennas_
/Roatoo
derTrons-
RecesvW
Low - ;
Fitter
No. 4
Recorder
-
~~
ducer
Ciz
to Low Pass Filter No. I.

TraisrduCers
Fig. 6-5.
Typ.cal time division multiplex telemetry system.
tnpu.iRcr
Reprodluce Out
Suspeirs~lopead
paz-atus to further 1knowic-.d4,2 of the space envir~jrnment and its3 effects on vehicles and equip-.
mne-it.
Thtse instrumnerd..
Iupl~o
Ii,
trzn;;uer
rarige from dimple
thir zoiiitors to more comiplicatedt GeigerMueller counters. In the future, complex television camcraia, which already have bi.en used
su.A e,-.fiLdly to transi tit picuures of the Earth'iT'
cioudcover fromn satf _1ltus, will be used t4 ) take
close-uT, pictures (if the M~oon and planuts. Tile
iiiatrurnentation ubed ill space vehicles muuit be
compact, efficient, reljablt. ana compatible with thfe tev'rrietry system used with the vehicle. The
sl)'2,ci1t(: linstrumecnts contianed in a space vehicde v-ry widely, depending~ ona fi ctors auch "n
the nduisionii (fthe vehido, itt size, and the
lx,wt~r sources available for the Instrumentation.
Addutiouiai Iiu-m~ ori on pace-vehicle instrumiuntat~onr, containud in reference /2/.
j4
Future Trends In Flight Test Instrument-at!On

It can be concluded that the future trend in
fligLY. test Instrumentation will lean heavily towazds electronics. However because of inherent resolution limnitatilons3 ?n electronic Systerns, optical systems will still bo employed
extennively. Therefore, it Is p robab~le that
sophisticated combinations rA electronic andj
optical systema will be used, with the emphasis
o electronics.
The refinement and developmept of totally
electronic ontnidIrectional trajectory systems
wil: (1) permit complete Independence from
atmospheric conditions; (2) Improve tracking
distances- (3) p radit automantic acquisition of
tax~in
Z')
e~e the manpower required for
C;
9--m
IM
I-
Corn i"'
TranAuCt'S
~k
9.
Ocommutotor
N0.1
0 Nc
i ItoN
Recordter Not
Trc
~No.1
IFr~uenc
12]-Sub-Catr nr
T3
jT.
TiOscillator
Rr
MIxng
N etIo,
Sub -corrier
R
AI
o.
o r[i
31t
Cornnu to toe
_lon
Re cerdeF Nan
RF C
FrequtCicy)'
ISelector
___No
j7
MI
or
I_
Trrrr
er[I du
NonN.
I~o
tto
Decommultator
n
INo
Ground
Station
Fig. 6-8. Combination frequency and time division multiplex telemetry system.
instrumentation, even perhaps to the extent of

complete rfemote station operation; and (5) prod,-4
u:42 clectrical diia outputs suitable for magflutic recording and subsequent automatic procesisitig, or for rfeal-timie computatione for test
control.
Fully
tourn ed theodolites, which dispense
witl) phtoctr aphic images for aititude, intercept,
and event information, can be expected in the
future. This instrumn-i~tation output will coinsist
of filly digitized azimuth andI elevation sn1ait
angles, and oligitized tracking error information,
~iuhc can hye fed directly into the computer
uiiter
E'NVIIONNIE.-4I'iMULATION AND FACILITES

In ordler to mra!t Uie environ mental tests nect5';a r- to evalulate flight vehlicle systems, faci it ies for exposing the various equipments to
tti
nvionmntSmus beavailable. In choosing
to imIrclrs:u- or d~esLign an environmental facility,
(11 Lo rtnt OIhe use of an existing military or
iuiiiiockili fac ility, certain Information con-
( vrniiw: the facility's requirements should be

the enierso
Uthat envl,-v:n
uwiidtL(t o~l
ertor~u,
ni t~i utlim-in be lyrealan
ist icc-aly
alypro-a
II'tart, various metli'tds of stimulating en~iiit ne!:oth in the field and in the labora.
t-,r-y
There. are aUso miany inipo~rt ant factors
Ire riiii(ic tothe favility's iliist i umejitatiuri, general
(IfJI- ami) hoat ion*
Laboratovy Environmental SimulationU
Ij
Laboratory simulation of the environments

encountered in flight was given Its greatest
im etus during World War U. The Korean War
ana the launching of the SputnikB provided additional impetus, with the latter putting part.icular emphaei F3on the import~ance of simulating
space environments. The need for environmental simulation first became signif icant during World War HIbecause of the need to supply
Russia with suitable cold weather equipment.,
and subsequenly beCaJUVI UI Mhe jInc~rteacre uAI ujsign complexty of military equipment, with a
correnipi'nding Increase in its cost. During the
above periods, there developed a race for mU-L
itary technological achievements, which required
advancing the state-d-the art In sclent~fic ficla!s
that were relatively unknown prior to that time.
Consequently, the demand for knowledge and
superior equipmert under accelerated conchtieris resulted in reduzced zesearch and development time.
Aohrcoiinfrtipsdb
Ante
odtinfrtipse
yteml
ri
'
/
I
nl
itary during ithese periods was the specification.

of a "reliahiJlitv factor," which required the
spleso
iiayeupett
eeo
n
upir
fm tr
quprett
eeo
n
- accumulate daLP tottllustrate adequately that the
systern -ould afttinfy all requirements.
In order to comply with the new military requiretnents, industry had to abandon older de-sign and manufacturing concepts and seek new
ways of producing reliable and highly complex
6-9
1t.
AW-WU
*WR;
W~~
. .-
eqt ipment in a short time, as well as in the most

econoI)mical manner possible. This resulted in
thc widespread use of laboratory simulation
whiuh allows the selection and evaluation of
equipment and submaterials componcnt,
systems that can be Aepended upon to meet
service conditions, to be made while the weapon
is in L:...- '-arly development stages.
"H4vlm
nsn
components,
-toHti
thp evrrect matnrialn
"a
ra
l
bori
broarty
prototype
Subsystem
Manufactured prototype and

qualifications
System
Justification, reliability and

qualification
the Items produced by various
in flie equipment can be determined. Subsystems
or complete systems can betested to determine

and
rrrcv defiicicies during the breadboardheg or development stages of the program-
"Whilde this does not guaranteea Puccessful field

operation,
o[ these approaches is best adapted to distinct

stages of system development as shown below:
and
man ufacturers c2n be evaluated under simulated

conditions, and the specific item and nnnixIcturer providing the best performance possible
--
it greatly improves the chances of
success,
By using laboratory simulation, the time necessayforthe re'earch and development of mllitary systems has been reduced to the point
where it is now almost compatible with military
requirements. The use of the laboratory to
prove the success of a design prior to field testIng has resulted in considerable cost savings.
A relatively smali number of systems can -)e
used continuooualy In the laboratory to prove designfeasibility, but for the same amount of data
to be obtained in the field, a great number of
systems would be required, particularly In
(he case of noi-recoverable missiles. The
simulation canabilities used during the devehopment program can also be used to evaluate the product during the production phase of
the nregram to assure the military that quality
levels are being maintained.
In addition to the three basic approaches, thi

equipment under test may be aperatihg cr nonoperating. Whetherrthe equipment is to ft opersupjends
ating or noneop~ratlng duto in the test
upon the environment to which itis subjected.
xmpe
equipment isntoperating
during
normal
transportatIon.
Therefore,
equipment
would
be non-operating
during the
the
simulated test -under the shock and vibration
levels normally encountered in transportation
and handling. Another example of non-operative
testing is "temperature soak." This is one of
the environments encountered during storage of
the equipment. Conversely, if the equipment is
normally operating in service under a ceitaln
environment, the equipment should be operating
whenthis environment is reproduced in the laboratory.
-A
.
.
:1
.
Reproduction of an environment in the laboratory is accomplished through the use of spetaily designed equipment, generally referred
toas environmental facilities. These faciles,
are covered later.
Environmental Test Techniques
ck Box, Method.. In the black box method,

all packaged equipments comprising the system
are subjected to the environments separately.
Figure 6-9 iB ad _agram of a typical laboratory
vironmental evaluation of an electronic or ciectromechanical system. The three approaches

are terme,): (1) blick box method; (2) subsystems method; and (3) system method. Each
is subjectd to the required environment, and

all outputs from the box are monitored during
the tert for indications of malfunction. Aside
from the e- kronmental facilities, s'ome addl.--
.4J
tional e quIpmnent may be requIred. During a
O
Block Box
I Subjectd to
EFiiVCXwft
Outputs
chock and vibration test, for example, a holding

fixture is required to provide the mechanical
connection between the black box and facility.
Figure 6-10 is a diagram of a typical develop-.
ment-type vibration test being conducted on a
black box basis. The black box Is set In its
holding fixture and connected to the moving el-
ement of the shaker.
An accelerometer
.,
Is
laced adjacent to the mounting points of the
lack bx for the purpose Of MOnitor

Test
.So_.
uj
icontrolling
.
_ t
__..__
,
t'%. G-9.
..are
Typical hiac:k t-K)x loratory test.
.R
nd
the vibration input levels.%

the
caseshown in Fig. 6-10, the black box is equipd with vibration Isolators. The vibration
lrevels at critical places within the black box
monitored to obtain engineering Information
for development purposes. All the black boxes
of the system are tested In a rananer which will
point up the iJeroenc weidncssrs it the design.
iA
SLevels of
inusInput
Tesnt
Vibration Leveil
D~q
ke
Control
Shnke]r
Amnpliert
Fig. 6-10. Typical laboratory vibration test.
One disadvantage of tho black box method of

evaluation is that test equipment caparole of
monitoring mnany signals e.imultaneously Is required. lai some cases, the production 'Lest
equlpnwrd is not c~ap-ibe of simultaneous measurement Lad some modifications are required.
Anotherdi~d-vntaege is that the interacting eff ects among f.he biack boxes di the completePoe
system canrrot i- dclermined or readily predicted.
Otus
Outputs
SbSse
isuSujecte
niomn
ITest
ISinl
Equipment Inputs IComputerPoe
The advantages of' Phe black box method are

that performance -of development work is con.errint, trouble-sh -1UlnIproblems are kept toOupt
a miniimurn, and sysl ei-i operating timie does notOupt
hecomre excessive
-.nlory one box is operating (luring a tes'.
hi t: e subsystem mehd
*Sub-S1ystcmMrntloc,
_,~c-.-ystemsIn~
Wtvdthe test
ment. as shown in Fig. 6-11. Wherever possile
all thre hiack boxeir are subjected to the environmenit sinlu.1aneoucky. In the case of the vibration environmnent, thils may not be possible due
to the limited capability of the shaker. In either
case, all the hoxe' must be operating to test
uusxrystcin operation. Trouble-shooting Is more
difficulit with tlid method and envirk-umental
(levelv(A)ni entI work is normally not emrployed clue
to thc Cmlirplexity of tire setup,
S), !tctn Mlethod. In thie system method, an

OunreiSr
s elf) ZhIntegrated. A typical example
of tUili, Is shown in Fir. 6-12. The operation Is
on a "closed loop" basin. System pcrformance
mayw nisonitoredbly observing (in this case) the
search, lock-on and track modes of the system.
Alttrouith applicantion of this method depencds upon
tirenumber of boxes comprising the sykiti.m, the
inrctfid ha,- the :idvantage that the type of test
resultq obtained are more mecaninrful in terms
of t'ivmrall system performancu. For examp!e,
Fig. 8-11. Typical oubsystem liaboratory temt.
a voltage which is out-of specification at some

point in the system may cause violent oScilllstions of the turret assembly.
The system method Is particularly advantatreous for qualification testing, where the aim is
to demonstrate Uhat the system will function
satisfactorily In the environments to be encountered. The system should have been "debugged"
during the design and development tests, and
l ittle difficulty is anticipated duxing the system
qualiflIcation test unlessecominbned onvironmente
are also imposeA on the system.
The disadvantages of- this method are: (1)

testing requires thre use of large environmental
f actltes, (2) there Is a long setup time required
for -system integration,-- and (3) trounleshooting
is more complex. A malfunction of the system
may be traci.d tu the parllcular boa causing the
,~i
.~ -
I-
lj
-N
4V~
Ii
Antenna
R~cr-
{Z]+65
Raar
Rdar
Simulated
Taget
To
I
FCS
1-CS
FCS
I
-
Bore
Sight
--
---
Hydrwlicstrumentation
Fig. 6-12. Typical system laboratory tect.

trouble, but isolating the failure wihilnthebox
t-equires thjat it be disconnected from the sys
tein. This results in down time of the environ-__
mental chamber. TIfthe box is removed and re
placed in thie system, and the test Is continued,
thie chamber down time Is avoided, but then it
becomes necessary to supply system spares.
Also, the faulty box will not be expoced to the
full dlui-atin of the test. B~ack-up tests may berequired c-a the box removed from the system
Sr ime purpose of failure analysis and develjopmoent. work.
peeted. In the case of low temperature testing,

a motor may be operated sequentiall at ambientz ot -40 F -20 1', 0F, +20 F, 440 F 50 F,
F, +100 P, or any other selected point~s In
the expected range of service life. The graduated chiange In erposure sovority permits a
definitive faliture analysts.
The advantages of single envLroomenLal testing are: (1) 11NOIti'wt of the ralise of failure is
relUvely easy~ since there are less variables
to contend with; and (2) reasonably simple and
stagtowr
'aborato
imlaio and infacilities are required.
Thb,
disadvantages of single enva-etunent
testing are Minuierous. The tost-3 PTO' Canerally stretched over a longer spao af rime
which so.aetimes a approach the equipment's
valid service llfe.mA1o, although iacilities for
siuaoaeraoalsipemrfaie
may be necessary to mar e the required tests in
the required tiMe; and since the true service eavirotiment Js not simulated, num~rouB other
sileI environment tests must be made, and then
mutple or actuAl service tests must be run
tobaitrecrlto.Anhrdsdan
tage of single environmental testing 1_9that the
Interaction of two environmerts cannot be
checkred. For exirnp"' - f.*d. p"^~+ ] f"to
;atas missile performed satisfacoiy udr~
aingle vibration, tem[perature and acceleration
System Wme becomes a problem with this

rne~hod. In the case of vibration, w'here each
boX is tested separately, the system must be
in operation curing the entire t.. -ne required f or
testing all the boxes. Repeated f ailure and replacemient of parts under a given environment
may rosu't i- adcitional failures, which are due
to excessive exposure and not equipment design.
The system method outlined above is also
aunlicahie to fiight vehicle sv.:tem tetsts inyokving irissiles, satellites, or' space vehicles.
Th'le grc;:, .2st pr-,blern in the flight vehicle test
i
/
".uirotimennnt Testing
Smfyle onvironmeont testing is th. exposure of

tl.C V(,M iJ)mnlt to the environments one at a time.
UJ;u~iiiv, each test is carried(j ut by successively
increa.; lug the severity of the envivronment, to
ti'"n,~
", 1.amcui1 e 01 t') a point that will
r':,u'''ssiir;,,ncv that Owe eqjuipment will perform

thi iitie rangev of environment exditi~toni(
krwi
,-12
t*W
4'i
,
.;
'~
4,
'
these o! thc equipment within the vehicle, and

of c.,ydenshng the testing time for long duration
vchirles. 15uch testing will help uncover sibsysteni intepration problems, if correlation can
ho developed.
-1~ J."
"
(Fig. 6-13) is correlating the errvironments

ofan actual mission profile to those around
.he vchiclc in the test chamber ah well as to
Si ni'i
F~ig. 6-13. 6yuilwu iebL -*'iduWI-U

satellite in bynamric An'iiyzcr.
tests, but ia iled lin flight, It was found that the

cornbiried vibration) and acceleration caused the
valve shaft to hind.
Another important consideration when making
,i~nve environment teists 16 the sequence of the

indlvidu.I ilests. To olA21n as much test data as
possible from a lest Item, thp tests should be

made in the orcer of increasing damagea potential. This sequence should he established becalise such tests as vibration, shock, Rcceleration ?mid salt spray a-re more destructive than
the remaining environments. Therefore, if the
equipment is subjected to these destructive environments first, there Is a possibility that the
equipment wAd be more susceptible to failure

dur,..,rtjbi. less destructive environmental tests.
"~t-'Acs have been performed jit dt~terr.nine the
becst sequence of environments for testing. One
of these studies is described In reference /3/.
'The sequencing that resulted from this study
has been included in MIL-E-5272C.

d
A combined environment test failure inay re-~

quire several cosftly tinif,-consuming single environment diagnostIc tests before the cause of
ithe fallure 'a found. This Is compensated for to
som~e extent, though, in, t'o.e possibility that a
combined environment test may produce a failure that would not have been detected under
single environment tasting,
Thdgreadrtofcmitinfte
dfcminaficul tof theu
mayte
greevrneantd
-er
rteof corne adifcl
degrerensma
lae.rvaiscoete
eknown rthesef conimaynth ealays
blate.ihan
dition resul ino alwhigher-costfailt. Thes cont
T ex-os
tobng reulntitathigher-data orfalculating
sdrdoolcalcuating exdata e
ofoted ig unittv
gtddt
ovalpolm
Many combined test facilities have been built,
but very little
the confidence
testing. The
has, however,
is limited. F~xtrapoiation of the test data anhdeutso Terslso

correlation to survic~e Wie have inherent short-
comings as compared to the combined environmoent approach.

C7moirine
Lnvirofimrcnt Testing
Combined environment testing might produce

bettor cont v.2atc:d data since, -when combined,
the environments more precisely duplicate the
actual service conditions, Hiowever, correlation
factors for comlbined environment testing need
combined
to e toeveopd.
Antheradvatageme-.iial
bnoheradantgeof
devlope.
environmient testing is tnat since various enosgnralesy
l
cnctidmoe
a vre
less
siromuntaneuly
lss verll ime s gnerly
simutanousy,
required for combined testing-than for single
testirg. This also brings about a savings In the
ii o ad ostreqird
fr
ettng pchekig,
an-, planning the tests. In addition, since less
ajre followed, less inaccurate data results with
the sngleones
-~
At present, the primary disadvantage of corn-
liriled environmeint testing is the difficulty in
estabiiishznirthe (.usc of test failures that occur

durimn, cunihineci testing. Anoter disadvantage
lsthtac~iiinrfacility has a high initial cost.
l'vichaisinr. equipment necessary to perform
tests on a s~ingle environinent bjasis might redie h. i'~IUali costs considerably; bit this Iintiki savinT:, ii 1l'-ss real than It appears at first.
'Ithe in-imvidua- pieces of equipment purchased

1hir ,,Iiilc eri'vronments would re uire more
f'oor 5;p..cC than a combined facility1 additln
Ulf, time requircd to move,- nrcun-1 zncl ct tip
eqpupipnvt for tiio various single tests might

tL4,e up a g:nfd portion of the overall testing
Su];edaLd. 'rhe cost (if this type of nonproductive
;t( tivity shoeuld be considered when the econowivs of (orih~inetd ver.seis ringle environment
1( -ts amr, estimated,
rto
osdrda
hudb
ti
work has been done to determine

level of combined environiment
United States Testing Company
completed under Air Force conocuie
h tuyaent
ocuie
td
It appears that combined environment testing

has greatest application in qualification and relaiitye
teting. The single or isimple combined
test tactittiefs winlalways "e required for research 2nd develcpment, as well as for Isolating
problem areas encountered In combined tests.
i
f ui" f
,"'
Correlation of Actual to Test Environments
Correlation, Rs applied to the field of environto the effects of a

cnicrarefers
simulated environment upon a subject under
test as compared to the effects of an actual env ironment. True correlation occurs when the
-sm type of failure can be produced by slmultonesigudrctolelartryoditions as occurs under actual service condiins
h
eetbihdi
a
orlto
Iely
service environment Is exactly duplicated in the
iaboratory. However, this approach l nnt goin..
erally practicable for umost tests, since the time
-of exposure must -be considered. Moot often
accelerated tests are used in the laboratory, ani
this is the major cause of the difficulmty in ol>--taining true correlAtion. This acceleration is
re uired to enable qualification of equipment
an subsystems to match the development ached-ule of the weapon myst-m. An example of this4
Is the vibration environment. A part may fail
bi the actual environment after six months of
use and the cause of failure may be attributed
-t fatigue. To duplicaip this condition In I-Ie
b~awy, a #_L..LLuous test Is generally run at
i
vibration i ajaonr nce until failure occurs. Cor-relation of the test auid actual failures Is poslong a
sible, but Is no xc.Nvrhlsas
the limitations are recognized, enough correlation data can generally be obtained so that the
part can be effectively redesigned.
--
-1
various method~sof simulating dLff crent eniviron merits, both In the field and te laboratory.
Correlation can be improved when combined

environments Are used io simulate the closest
approximation possible to the service environ- -:1
ment. For many types of miss iles, laboratory

simulation of combined environments ban advanced to the point where simulated missileflig!YI profiles cup be reproduced that are very
close to trtc tervice env) ronments and real time
cycling. This is possible mainly because of the
relatively short time duration of missile flights,
For other flight vehicles, which have a longer
life Prid are used un(;cr many varied conditions,
combined environment simulation is more di!I icult. Much research Is needed to develop correlationfactors so that a long service life, suchas that "xpf'rienced by parts in orbital or space
v,;.cesti can be reduced to a short time lab-:-7
oratory test,
There are definite limitations on reproducing

environmetits in the laboratory. In general,
larger and more massive items have greater
limitations. The laboratory reproduction of a
single environment Is impossible in many cases
rsn
n iecaaiiso
du totewih
environmental. facilities. Since a degree o
aperational conf idence is required, fileld f acilitiea have been built that will simulate an opera gremter extent than ito
ationial envirnett
row possible In the laboratory. The principal
disadvantage of this type of simulation is that in
some cases it takes too long to ex=c..jc -, ielia-.
For the best desigrn, the engineer must recn

ogize wherc correlation may bewa,
for it with experience and judgment.
*compensate
The laboratory results must be extrapolated to
parallel the service environment results. The
accumulation of data, experience, and test ver*
~if icatioki, plus a continued effort to produce true
environment simul'atiun, will all lead eventually
to th~e best correlation possible. Work in this
area is currently being conducted on the selectton of standard environmental test specimens.
/4/ Tb'es . standard tczt spccirnens %~re Items
that wiU react in a pred:ictable and specific way
to each environment and only to that environment. They will Integrate both the intensity of
the strtsjsa and the time of exposure. It is believed that development of such specimens will
alllcw develeopment of realistic combined enviroinment tests for reliability assurance purposes, and will allow development of more accurate correlption factors than is now possible.
SIMULATION
For envirtAiment simulation to fulfill Its function it muct provide correlated data. The reb
H avU1,
ite5uI.
1
u
t~ub
UL-liujtd
la
determi
JUI'
ned
to a gr-a* extent by how the environment is 91niulatcd. The following paragraphs describe
Missile
Strucuraltest
*Sfructuroiproblems
Ring
Main
'tus
Restraining
...-
'v'~..a
Domoinq of
Restraining
System
Fi ,. 0-14. Typical setup for captive

missile test.
Field Methods
.4
~ ~
2
bLe test.
atural Weather Mefthods Nature itself po

vides a good means of duplicating some o h
natural environments that will be encountered
by equipments. For tests involving temp eratiure,
wind, and dust altitude, rain, snow, sleet
and humidity the environmental engineer can..,~
take advantage of natural weather conditious
that more or less systematically recur at var4
ious locations. Certain polar, tropical andI desert geographic locations provide useful envlronmental extremes for reliable testing. In cases
where such remoie areas are uneconomical to
ufe, the United States itself provides weather
4
extremes that are often sufficient, particularly
in the northwestern and southiwestern parts of
the country.
.
'
'-
These natural weather extremes are not too

dill limit to simulate by means of en~vironmental
facilities, and such facilities rovide control,
which is not true for any natural condition. Such
facilities will be discussed in later paragraphs.
Cvpjtive (Satic) Tests. Captive tests provide
a mneansiF1 approximating very closely actual
flight conditions while testing at complete vehicle
System.
Diring
such
'E-M-&4
I~
&I*.-l
tern can be operating excepI that the vehicle Is

restrained from flight. The basic needs of a
captive or static, test facility k.r. stmi-lar tu
those at at flight test base, except for the addition of a nlight restrainzng etructure and an
exhaust dispersion means. Adiagram of a typIcal restrainq system used with a missile is
shown in Fig.t-14. The purpose of the captive
is to discover and solve uity development
that may arise under simulated flight
conditions. The primary advantage of thin typeof test is that it is Inexpensive compared with a
flight test. Also, with one-shot vehicles such as
missiles several tosts can be accomplished
wtoAI A' .. of damage or 156pt of datL COM t)
crash, so that simpler instrumentation can be
used.
At present, it is still considered impracticall
to carry out captive temts of conditions such as
stage separation, aerodynamnic loading due to
maneuvers, acouistic noise due to aerodynamic
0-14
-~~N
.~
t
-
______
N..
-,
j
9
'
'-
7,
.- "
--
`K*r-%'_
'\
121
turbulence, and high altitude pressures. Prob-,

ably the grteatiust deficiency in this type of
A~
'
rails and the vibration Isolation ct the r-fClzet

motor system. Test data show a reduction aZ
allow duplication of the freeflight vibration environrncnt abovt- 6 cps. Below 6 cps, the error
Is In the direction of undertesting the vehicle,
an isolation systerri. With this recent developmeut, the value of the eled test has been extended to Include a reasonable simulation of the
Slipper and Track
'1hesupcrsonic sled Is the most practical way

to produce the dynamic loads of free flight tests
and z8till allow recovery of the teot item. A rei~outo of tie vehicle acceleration and yeiocity profile in this manner allows a study of
the equipment response to the acceleration profile, aerod-,,amic studies of airframes evaiua-.
4
tion of aerodynamic heating effects, an evalua-
tion of seat ejection apparatus. The advantages uf

this type of facility are-. (1) the test Item Is
recovered inedct for extami~nation; (2) test conditiom are repeatable; and (3) it Is more economlical than a flight test since many runs may
be made with a single item. One of the disadvantages of this method is the severe Vibration
environment generated priniqrily by the high
Velocity sled pas'sing over discontinuites In the
rail. blpe
laacsadwa
ncnat
surfaces also result In shock and vibration Inputs to the sled. The severity of this shock and
vibrition envir-nment may be greater than that
%%hiuh occurs in the vehicle. Trials were recily performed to find a satisfactory method
of co)ntrolling the vib~ration environment. The
results indicate that the precision rails used
re as true znd as smooth as can be practically
attaincd, and that the most promising appioach
ig the vibration isolation of the vehicle from the
u,:6
,~?
Fig. 6-15. F~ocket-aled setup.

"
could be specified that would
*Rocket-Sled
Tept
The basic rocket-sled
tesrt fa-cili-ty consist-6 o' a rocket driven sled that
"rides" on precision rails. This arrangement
Ns 9hown
ini Fig. 6-15. Sled test-track facilities
up to 7 mi1e6 hmi are zivaliable, anddre capabl.e
of attaining spceeds up to Mach 4. Programming
of the acceleration profie of the sied Is acconiplished by ihe use of fuel-pr ramming for
liquid propellant rockets, shaped charges for
Isolid propeilant rockets, and aerodynammic and
water-braking techniques. The sled facilities
are equipped wlit count-dorwn checkout circuitry
telemetry, on-board test equipment, high epeeA
cameras, and h;&h speed computing and recording equip.ment,
---
Engin
T'he design of the restraining system is a key

factor in conducting a satisfactory captive testa4
since it influences vehicle response to control
system forces and vibration forces generated
by the engine. There are canes on record where
tuhe resonant response of undamnped rigid mounts
led to disastrous effects. Computer studies hime
been carried out for the purpose of analyzing
the eff"-tF; of the restraining system upon both
the vibration environment and the vehicle response. The results of one particular study
involving only vertical vibrations showed that a
restraint stiffness
__________
rimuatin,
a wel asin ll ohertypes, is
lack of correlation factors. Present techniqueR limit the simulation of flight canditiolns to firing the propulsion system and
jimited e'loscd loop maneuvers.
about one order of magnitude through the use of
vehicle aeceleratron prfi~le and vibration enviroament.
Othier disadvantager. of rocket-sled tests are

the short test time for each run and the lack of
correlptbton f actorms to actua service conditions.
Information coacerning the use of available sled
facilities is contained in reference/5/.
--
~'i
~
~
ecialined Field Facilities& The captive and

611eTN arlze fairlylgeneral and may be used
for at varietyC atpliclationsB. There are also
some specializedafacilities designed for use In
conjunction with a specific vehicle. One such
spe,.ialized Cwevice is a 200 000.-pound gimbaled
simulator designed and f;Aricated for use withi
the Polaris raissie. Thirs device is capable of
duplicating the foliowing ship motions:
heave *8 feet
roil *is diegrees
"I
pi~tch *14 degrees

`:-Thepurpooe of the simulator is to te.'!t. the 0"
site components while under a ship's motion.
-and to determine the conditions under which a
miesile with moderate take-off accelerations
can be launched saiely from a moving platform,
.P''
Another special field facility is the "G-shoot-
er"1
designed and fabricated for use with the
X2 7 ram jet wissile, whichisaiLir-iaunchedfror
a larger vehic-le. A rocket boost Is provided to

bring the missile to Ra pned greater than Machi
1, which is required for ram jet operattinn. Thz,
purpose ofC the G-shootez' Is to simalate the
shock Wf tWe rocket boost and thus allow evaluation of the X-7's electronic equipmrent under this
environment. The f acility produces a velocity
of 23 feet per second after 6 inches of travel by
means of a pressurized piston. The braking Is
accomplished with Pylon bands. The total travel
involved io only 2 feet.
61
-..
I
'i~
71~
'
-72
in,
15.
Woshbooid
4. Full-scale environlmental test f acij les.

Environmental test facilities for humans.
Con
:i--
Road
VhiceGronillow,
Prvin
G rond
Grond
ehile rovn~ roua,. The Ordnance Automotive Testing Center at Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland, Is available for
perform ing complete ground-vehicle fileld tests.
Spec ially .anottrurted roads conlalfllng such, hazardb uzr etnbedded rock, staggered bumps, corrugations and vertical wr'ls are provided for
evaluation of a complete ground vehicle under a
shock and vibration Gervice environiment. There
is also a 'Wrame twister" road that Imparts severe torstical stresses to the ve~hicle structure.
One uchspecall
costrutedroa of ~teest
isnte suchspeiallycoasrse
e odofbtrs
road
isteb~-nh orewashboard. This
consists of 6-inch waves 72 inches apart. A
diagram of the road is shown in Fig. 6-16. The
frequency of the vibration imparted to a vehicle
may he varied by varying the speed of the vehidcl. For example, a vehicle travelling at 5 mph
will be subjected to a vibration frequency of
1.22 cps.
in additiorn to~ the rough roads, there are crosscountry courses embodying hills, mud and seyore terrain. Fording and swimming tests are
conducted in special "bath tubs."
n. Eau ipment. and Subaystem Test F&

0neneIB
Low temperatures are

LOW Tern ratut.,
Where the required temperatures are notz too
the test duration too long, or the test speclinen too large, chambers employing dry ice as
the cooling ageni may be used (Fig. 6-17).
Otherwise, chambers cooled by refrigeration
equipment similar to that used for air condition"A
h~re usually employed (Fig. 6-18).
1-17a .2i4
C)
are
4-
.5
nomal.JA..e
Laboramtory Methods
Ir the !!hv-'ratory, environments are generally
in chambern or oit cx,-ited platforms.
Tvpk al techniquin sa-nd faciliti'es for reproducing
11-e vk;ri-ius envtronments-are covered in the
These techniques and
!oiowi~rparagraphs.
SiTPUlfltd
fan iliits are covered in the following catego-.1. Comnponeiit, equipment and subsystem test
far iiitles lor single environment testing.
3. ilypvr :aid space environment test facill-.tCs.
'
Temperature Shock. Most often, the tempera~ture shock env4iroimeint is produced by mroving
the equipment from a hot chamber to a cold one,
~Ur
and vice versa. Temperature mdiui.. ca, UABa
simuldted !n one chamber by combining refrigeration and oven devices, or by releasing cornpressed gas into the chamuber. Thermnal shockful,
liquid-handling equipment (pumps, etc.) can be
accomplished by transfer to pump at drasticall,
different temperatures than those in use.
Uusully conducted during winter to insure that

vehicles are checked uinder the most severe
conrlition.- oavailable.
2. Corn onent, equipment. and subsystem test

facilities Flor combined environment testing.
*i
cne
Hgheprtr
rtre
Tr
Hi
onetive orih
teberab
prighced na~tuest ciha
s
hc
ineants. chabrb onvective over
prodiat
elnectient tovhenst thie airise
electria reians.
elcralebsneeemtsohatheirn
a chamber, are inexpensilre and easy to control.
With radiant-ty e ovens, the walls of the chainbraehat
earhat
Extreme-env~ronment tests are conducted at

Yumna, Arizon (desert environment) and Fort
Churchill, Canada (arctic environment). The
desert rour. -at Yumna has hill, sand dune, and
sand and dust slope vehicle courses. The arctic course provides deep snow and frozen lakes
for the operating areas. Temperatures on the
'U~fl-
Fig. 6-17. High- and low-temnperature test

chamber employing dry ice cooling and
convective heating.
11tivn.iUij Humidity is generally prxduced

iviuan a chamber by: (1) steam injection, (2)
vapor Injection, or (3) vapor absorpticn. Fora
stearn Injection, a boiler with an electric heating element is used to build up fsteam. When
more humidity Is required, a solenoid valve
opf n and pea-nits steam to enter the chamber
admL': with the o-Irculpting air. Vapor injecunder
tion is accnnp~inified by forcing waternozzle.
pressure through a fine mist-producing
'rue resalting mist is so fine that it becomes a
vapor upon mixing with the air of the chamber.
Thc vapor absorption method depends upon a
dynamic balance of absorption and conciensation.
Water at 10 to 15 degrees F above the ambient
teniperatur- of the chitmber in allowed to flow
thrnu;. a tray inside the chamber. The circulating air absorbs the water vapor as it passes
over the tray. Next, the air passes over a condensing coil which removes as much water vapor
from the air as ts requlred Momaintain the desired humiditv. It is usual to have two sets of
at a low temperature, lowers the temperature
()I the air; and the second, which has a large
surface arcit and operates at a warm temperature, removes water vapor from the air.
Alittude (Air P1reS urc),. The producing of a.
rirnulated- altitude is merely an air-pumping
procedure; either rotary or piston typu putuipf
~may be used. Chamibers utilizing this type of
equypmert are capable of simulating altitudes
fron, sea level Lo five hundred thousand feet.
At piesent, far,,--Size chambers are limited to
thsrag sinc~e lower pressures require laborthisry-type equipment. Because of the char
ratry-ypearapr Itisntfasbet
acteristics ofwAc
maintain control of both altitude and humidity in
anything but a small laboratory controlled experimerdt.
~to
not lefsiueon
ei
yofw.techniques,
Thcpessur withn a iveretea can be reapproximately 1 x 10-i2 'rorr by the employmetnsuccession, of several devices. These
dvcsanrt their ranges are listed below. A
bifdescription of each is also included.
Devicedopet
ag
pump760Torr
1 xl0~
To
Mech anical
(displacement)
urr
Oil diffusion
pump
Oil diii usion
I x 10-3
1 x 10- Torr
'vi"~has
cold trap
8xl~Tr
I x 10-6 Tor
Tore I x 1r"o
techniquie or
Ci ypurnping
sy~eibelow
1
4
1 x 10
Torr
00
Fig. 6-le. Illghi,- and low-temperature test

chamber employing refrigeration cooling and
convective heating.
on etd
osco
MehnclPm.Te
omnmto
ui.Tems
Mcaia
-o producing a moderate vacuum is by a mechahI
favaibevlue,
rdcto
the
-h
volume
Is
smallest,
It
is
sealed
off
a~nd
ex
VolThis
with
In.
panded, reduicing the pressure
."a
4
1
-",J
'-
h
pndt
ste
rsur
eue
iea
area to be exhausted, and upon equalization of
is then simul-
Alt,
eetd
teamshrteccei
an&~V
Um.cA1
ihrough a ceniiiai tu~be,
shaped baffle, and is channeled by the conf Iguraeevi
ak noteoi
h bfl
itoheolrsvi.
knothbafeac
prsuei
pnsae
Adwndrftc
______ane___e
From
cmsicotcwthheuppe-r
Effective
or techiniqnue
f.It
.4.
7"7v
part of the
cooler oil vapor and
to~ue
created around the central tube,
traps air or other gas molecules from the area
dcawn to be
vcaeadcristhem
ben
exhausted through a line near the pump bose.4
pump that serves as a fore pump in the system.
Oil Diffusion Pump With Cold Traj!. A diffun Ion pump operating atlower pressure rangesa certain amount ci "back diffusion" off varvacuum,
thebyultimate
To Improve
s
Ion
a coldvapors.
trap, usually
cooled
liquid nitrogen,
area bert evacuated (Fig. 6-19). Volatile vapore conclense on the surf ace of the trap, and
thus do not diff use tock into the area. Also,
6-17
applies hammer blows., Another machine unes

hydraulic pressure or high pressure gas to ap~~~ply a rapid acceleration ushock rather than tho
conventiovAl decelerationi shock at the mechanical impact mnachines. The machines can be
mounted within a chamber to produce one of
shocks, as required, while other en-
Vocuumsoevral
ThiikM
vironment
:t..Coils
Hoilt
Ho
Oil
equipment has a useful range od about 5 to 2000

The armature, or moving element, ts exby an a-c signal while ina high d-c field.
The a-c signal can be produced by a variable
speed motor- generator set or through the use
of an elactrunic signal generator and amplifier.
The amplifier provides the flexibility of being
able to build up any wave shae at various frequencies. Ruwaver, s1nuauowL1 vibr&unx ivousuxI
may not provide good correlation, since many
actual vibration environments are aperiodic or
Pmpcps.
himpcited
Fig. 6-19. oil diffunion pump with cold trap.
molecules of gases with "freezing points" above

that. of nitrgen will condense on the cold plat;
further reducing the pressure.;Q
Gette~r "Teclhriaue". This technique involves
the ernployrip t Rcirhemically active metals,
such as ba-r'um, aluminum calcium or magnesium, to remove residu;1 gases. ie getteris electrically volatilized and combines with the
gases, wil ;) deposite as chemical compounds on
the walls of the ve.sel. This technique Is employed principally for vacuum systems that are
to reniai~n sealed for extended periods of time,
such as electron tubes, cathode ray tubes, etc.
Cryopuniping Sy stem. An arrangement or
array
4L 7r~aps '_or cold surfaces cooled by
cold
cryogenic fluids and employed to condense molecules of higher-f reezing-point gas Is desigi~ated a cryopump. In a cryopumping system of
great-4t immediate use, liquid hydroges is circulatted throuigh colls that are welded to the back
ot the cold plates. The hydrogen condenses g-As
molecules, and aliio removes radiant energy that
may have reached the plates. Ltquid-nitrogen
Cooled shields are commotly placed in front oft~he plates to reduce the amount of radiant energy
that reaches them.
~l
Sbock Mechanical shock Is normally slmulaitht y a f ree-f al]-type shock testing machine
congisting essentially oi a guided dro carriage
that Impacts against a base In a controlled decel
eratlon manner (Figy. 6-20). The deceleration
shock Is controlled by the impact of a calibrated
plate spring against an anvil, by rubber pads,
or by lead pellets. One type of shock inachine:1-
rM.1,1I
mstpoulr'etodhaustjt~
sn
usoidel vibration utilizes an electrodyaine
hstker (Fla. 6-21) which operates an the same
-vs-Heater
Difusin
Diffusin
V
,
800 cps.
/Th
.
are being simulted
Vibration. Vibration can be uimnulated by the

use of rtag eccentric wet~hts, or a crankmechanism
rotary Merhdaui which translateS
ein noapoxmt
sinusoidal vibration. Mechanical or hydraulic
shakers, however, are useful only up to about
Coldnnca Coldtype
VAC
:Baff le :Cooling
"~j
Fig. 6-20. Drop machine for shock simulation.
;,,
q1wist-random in nature. As-a rersult there Is

rn'wli controversy and some leaning towards
shiped spectrum random-vibration teuting, although adequate evidence is not available to
suppo~rt It.- superiority. A progrwn initiated
by the Lnvironrriental Division, Engineering
4. A monitoring device to reco- d sound levels

and frequencies continuously. Microphiones anci
electrical recording devices are nlormXally UaedA
for this purpose.-Th
eetnQfteseiccmpetsil
depend upon the requirements of the acoustic
It has been etee

shown
controve:9y,
clear Lp the tha
~~
coreaton
thtthere -43no aparent
creainbten
sir
ra
etn.
~ icilities
e~iainrI
deisigned
rai nec~neo
necangeusti
input sljp~haare and
some for
proie
for interchange
dnvbain
chambef;rs. (YIgttre 0-25) Is a block diagram
Compexeuipent
s rquird t prouce
;aW~mvibaton
n rde t copesat for
WeC various responses of the holding fixture and
to assure a proper input to the test specimens
(Fig. 6-22). To operate inside a temperature
and altitudc chaiube-r, the st.;ndard shaker must
of an acoustic facility employing a reverberant

chamber. The equalizer and power amplifier
shownI in the figure are not required if the noise
lc
Fgre62 s
~
aiit.mpoin
progressioe anesoutube
ue
porsiewv
bc mt.,uied.
f"
'?Ttris
~ Rainis generally simulat6d in ijet

cihamolraby water flowing through c~ontrollable*
upray flo!zles. A typi-2al rain chamber designed
Ablock diagram of a typical clectrodynamic
sinusoidal sytitem Is shown in Fig. 6-23, and a

block diagram of a random facility Is shown In
o.
F ig. 6-24.
Gases and Ozone Botaied gas can be used to

1 ntrduevarouscombinatlons and amounts of
gases into a chamber when the gases are stable.
Unstable gases must be produced within the
chamber. Ozone, for example, can be produced
;-4
'
j-~
Acoustic Noise. At present, there are varioums

te~chniquez 3n-.p oyed for generating realistic
acoustic soundprcssure. In general, an acoustic
facility should consist of the following:
1. A noise source, which can be an engine,
plasma jet, siren, etc., for random frequencies,
or one or more horns, a tuned sound chamber,
etc., for diner -efrequencies.
These sounds
can be pioduced electrically or electronically
by suitable signal generators or amnplifiers.
'.Atest panel, or area, on which the articles
to be tested are mounted.
3. A soiund chamber or chambers In which
the test panel is placed. The chamber m~y be
of the plane (progressive) wave or reverberant
type.Development
*
Fig. 6-22. Random-motion vibration system

with Courier satellite interf rame mourned on
special fixture, (Courtesy of Philco Western
Laboratories and U.S. Army
Signal Research and Developmenet Laboratory,
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey).
Signol
;Accelerom~ter
if~ P0ower
Ij
Shoke
Con'.rol
F-ig. 6-21. Electrodynamnic shaker for

vibration testing.
Fig. 6-23. Typical electrodynamic sinusoidal

system.J
Accelerwrmter
Plotter
Shaker
Signa
Me
M ete
Equalizer
RANDOM MOTION CONSOLE
Fig. 6-24. Typical random vibration-facility.
-Audio
Loudspeaker
7Randomn
Noise
r~eEuizr
otrAmplifier
PowerSpdI
men
Tope
Lraphi
Level Recorder
Su~
Lvl
Mete
Speclrum
Analyzer
pho"
Fig. 6-25, Tyi~cal reverberant chamber acoustic facility
in accorda
4 nce with the specifications of MU,_.C,8811 (AS6), Chamber, Rain-Testing, is deThe
i a hamer
w-c
ame,
Wand
insulated, well-lighted Internal test space. It
has a large observation window (one third the
area of tUe wall on which it is located) equipped
with a wiper to keep the glass clear for obsnrvationpurposcs. Provision is made for con trolling the water temperature and rate of flow.
miinimurn diameter of 1.5 millimeters, A 'iartable-speed blower and refrige-rqtion equipment

aeprovided
for simulating wn
rvnri
for cooling the test space, respectively.
Sand and Dust. The sand and dust environment
Is simulated by circulating dust throughout st
test chamnber at a specifiled velocity and concentration. A typical sand and dust chamber dosigned In accordance with the BpecillcationB of
MEL.C..9436A( 4 %), Chaynber, Sand and Ds
The c-hanbper is equipped with water spray

nfzl0Z1s and provides simulated rainiall capable
of variation f romi one to four inches per hour.
The raijnf all is dispersed uniformly over the test
area, and is iii the form rif droplets having a
Tsig
ndsrbdblw
The chamaber (Fig. 6-n7 is a self-contained
uwilt consisting primarily of a dust-tight charnber a dust supply, a blower and necessayT
dueling for produicing the desired conditions. A
scribed
belcrw:-
C-20
-7rp-1
-4
,.
I-
Progressive Wove Tube
'j ![
,--
FOhOL_, from Fan
Inlet to Fan
Sound Absorbing
Material
,SirPn
*
.,
Hoppers
Electric
Ar
Oriven
SpecinSeen
i-Vib
Microphone
"
o
I Sound
Level
`-Rcorderl
-octu ....u-:
dr
I
lAnot teriLm
Mete rI
AI
Fan
Fig. 6-2b. Typical progressive wave acoustic

facilitv.
Dust Vatves
Fig. 6-28. Duzst supply, blower nd ducting for

sand and dust chatmb:r.
.m
Test
Comportment
h,,
XV
Dust Supply,
L)ucling-
V
FastenersIb
Fig. 6-27. Sand and dust chamber.

vibrator (Fig. 6-28) is installed on the dust hoppers to assure proper dust flow. The chamber
is maintained at 160 F (71 C), and a desiccant
is used for co,'rolling relative humidity.
Swiper is mounted on the glass door-panel to

kv.',p the g1laSa clear for visual inspection of the
test specimen. Automatic cycling ot chamber
operation is orovided to accomplish the exposure
and shutdoAa required for the sand and dust
tests of MIL-E-5272.
Fig. 6-29. ETplosion chamber.
Explosive
At_nosTphere.
Explosive atmos-cdude-d-r--explosion
chambers
tI ig. 6-29 and 6-30) by simulating the various
uarameters involvedin an explosive atmosphere,
'lhe more important of thiese parameters are:
d rcr!If a rs
1. Air/fuel ratios.
2. Temperature.
-
3. Altitude,
4.
5. !umidity.
Several types of explosion chambe-s s're noam

commercially available. "P.ey range in size
from several cubic feet to approximately 300
cubic feet. A 35-cubic foot (3 feet in diameter
by 5 feet long) and a 300-cuhic foot (7 feet in
diameter by 8 feet long) reach-in chamber with
an altitude range frota ground level to 500,000
feet and 100,000 f-ee, respectively, are presently inuse at the Emn,.onmental Division, ASD.
The temperature range of the smaller facility
goes from normal room teLiperature to 160 F
and the larger to 350 F. The smaller facility
operates with aviation San and jet fuel and the
larger with jet fuel, commercial butene aviation
gasoline, and chemic; I fuels. The temperature
range of most exploq.ue atmosphere clambers
can be Increased to 200 F (R3 C) with the addition of heaters. ruture requirements may
iI
'4
f."
%
.*
C -21,
, V.rq
--
fl~tt-l-r
.-
-,lf~S
. .-. . . . . . -. . .-. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.I.
%I
make "walk-in" chambers commerciRlly available. Such chamnbcrs may be designed for ternpcraturcs up to 450 F (32 C) and altitudes up
to 80,000 feet, and bN adaptable for ne-w, high-
MIL-C-9435A(ASG), Chambeir, Explosion-Pr.oof

Testin; and MTL-E-26654, Explosion-P rootf
Test FSarlilty, Requirement and Procedure for
Reconnaissance Equipment.
energy fuels.
NcerEnvironme nt The nuea radiation

environment il a
cd by a nuclear reactor
and associated chambers, or "hot cells," in
which~ the test specimens being irradiate-l are
located (Fig. 8-1'1). One of the most modern of
this type facility, the Air Force Nuclear Ennineerlri_ Test Facility, is currently under
atruction at Aeronautical Systems 1ivision. conAny
modern nuclear engineering facility would include: (1) a 10-megawat ORR-type reactor
'with two adjacent 330 cubic loot irradiation
cello: (2) a Imultiple hot cell comple; (3) a
remotely -operated irradiabd mnteril.2s b-wdling system; (4) aLwaste procepeing pirnn; and
(5) alahoratory building. In addition, an environmeixtal conditioning system should be provided
that should make it possbL~e to control the tem.prature, humidity and altitude conditions dur-
Df-Il1 spec ifi;,-atinns for the design and consti-c lion of c;lusion chambers are contained in
Gamia- facilities are also used to simulate

the nuclear radiation environment. In these
facilities, the--specimen under test is placed In
a chamber, or cell, with a radioactive source of
g amma radiation. The gamma source can be
fsalon products, apent fuel elements from nuclear
,Cobalt-60.
Fig. b-30. Electronic equipment mounted in

chamber for explos ive- atmosphere test.
17eaiutora, ot
a r
U~.LdUyiat
_ho_
Fi.Persoceannnrenlt
Airi
/Plug
et
auly
Loc
usun.L&y
-I
Some of the- nuclear reactor test facilities

presently In operation are listed in Table 6-3,
arle Pot
Viewing~*
F, 7S
E*vleF~en,
AI
ond some ,arnmia Irradiation facilities In Tahip

0-4. Detailed informration on aUl such nuclear
ttest facilities is cotitained in ref crence/8/.prpretcniio.
value and specific

prerts
odinB
gravity are controlled for
Fr)~.Thet fungus onvironment is produced

iin testchambe rs in which the temperature and
humidity are carefully controlled to simulate the
climate found in tropical areas. Species of funkgi
are Introduced into the chamber -with the test
specimen and thrive In the simulated climtye.
SaltSpray. Salt spray to simulated 1"i at chain:,v exposing the test specirnen to a fine
Viorouglily dispersed mist . The mi1st Is derlveA
from, a ~-tsolution whose concentration, pH
hf-rc
Table 6-3. Somne Nuclear Reactor Inradlation Factlitiep /a/
-I-Pover
Reactr__
Location
Argonne Regearch
Iteactur cr-s1
Argonne National
Battelie Research
Re-actor
Battelle Memorial
Institute
Neutron flux
level'
(rnegawatl8)
Fmat
Thermal
Laboratory
2
CoMMentS
1013 rn/em !
2 z 1013 ov
Available to
oft (max)
(max)
outside or-4
1013 m/cm 2 /
Boo (&%Z)
101S Dv (&vg)
AveIiijh.: to
any organi1zatlon sponBoring re-
lzwr
A
Y
";J
search at
Battelle
Memorial
F~n~ineering Test.
Natl9onPl Pnsetor
Rleactor
Testing Station
Gun-ral Electric
Valleitoo Atomnic
Test Reactor
Laboratory,
Ple9asaton, Calif,
Mlatcri-'ls Testing
Rteactor
1715
1.5 X 101-6
m/cm 2/meo
4 X 101
so
10 15 m/cm2
2.4 z 1014 nv
-Avaellable for
ame (Max)
(max)
customner
iiv
i.U
National Reactor
2.5 x 1014
mlcrn2/sec
40
Te~qting Station
5 X 1014 Irv
Avallable to
(fax)
caiteide
Table 6-4. Some Gamnma Irradiation Facilittes /6/

Facility
IAlgonne
Max intetinity
(ergs/gm(C)/hr)
Lo>cation
ilivi, Level
GamaIraintion
Ilattelic Gammna
Irradiation
Facility
rokaveni Gamnma
Ii r:idi.'ition
A-rgonne National
aoaoy
-
-nie
Sourcre
environment
Ielements
1.7 X10
liattelic Memorial
ilns t;tu te
1.3 X 1
lirookhaven National
6.7 X iO0
Latioratoriee
MTR fuel
Water
Ac
Cobalit-6
Watter
Ccbalt-60
Water or air
.f
.'
Fadility
~oihcs
iesarh
Southwest Rtesearch
lluMi~tutt' Gamma
Institute
WADDi
Wright-P1alterson
GamTMA
f acilitict]
2.6 a1
Small1 source-3.5 x 10~
Aidr Force 1,aoe

ULrge source-G.Ox10
_________
____
:r
-,Gobalt--60
Air
Cobalt-60
A.ir
(ubmait-60
Air
6-23
"""4
".
Slisted in Table 6-5. This f acnilty Is shown because IL represents

what
can be done thrt~ugh
~~~~modification
of existing
f actLities...:.i.
(i
,...
mad plumbing. The arm can be removed from

the hub assembly to permit preservation of ar
"testsetup or installotion o Pwsetup on an a1b ternate arm while another tost is In progress,
,<
:" Simultaneously, Whs facility can prc_--e the
,',[
f llowintg envirohmeats: tg.p.roe
Fig. 6-32. Cestriauge set up to acceletatean
bomb specimens.
1. Vibration to 4000 pounds and 2000 cpsel,tn

2. Acceleration to 20 g.
issAcceleratioan.
ed
In
the lap
centrieues
(Fig. accelerationa
6-32) or by
linear accelerators, calledair guns. Centrifuges

are either hyiraulically or electrically powered.
The instrumentation is usually electrically connected to the test specimen by means of slip
rings. For Lwth rpntrifu-f'p. and air omnR the ai:celeratimi ard deceleration profiles can be instrumented o some extent.
Conponent. Equipment and Srtvstem Test
F l1t;_ _--CominedEirnets
ty 3.
Altitude to 250,000 feet.
dr
roratory,
'..
4. Temperature range from -300 to 500 F ('5t26Q

(175 to 260 C).
5. Humidity from 50 to 95 percent.
6. Liould orygen flow to 8000 gallons per
minute; gaseous flow to 40 pounds per second;
fuel flow to 1500 gallons per minute; hydraulic
flow to 150 gallons per minute; or helium flow
to 2 pounds per second and 3 0 90 psi.
'1
"-!
:
The ideal laboratory simulation of combined

environments 'would reproduce simultaneously
the exact combination of environments that the
cquipment would be subjected to in service.
Equiplaomt capable of doing this Is known as a
"mission pruiile" facility. At the present time,
however, such a facility Is not available. As a
subO)stitute for the mission profile facility, var.ious practical environment combinations are
used. Ttese combined environment facilities
include:
Temperature-altitude chiambers
Temperature-humidity
14
arambers
a''emporatu. c-altltude-humidity chambers

Tenpc rature-vibration chambers
Ac'cleration-vibration test stands (Fig. 6-33)
In addition, a combined environment facility
that carn simulate high and low temperatures,
iltide, tr.' vibration has been built by the
United States Testing Company to conduct a
.study to determ inn the confidence level of corni in,.d versus single environmental tenting. This
s',udy uas conducted for Ute Environmental
I ;r;trh, Ekuiliecring Test Division, Flight and
I ns:ifeerlrig Test. Grotp, A'-D. A photograph of
thdL'; f:cility is sho~n in Fig. 6-34, The scheiuuatit lay'ut of the fat Ility Is illustrated in Fig.
C;-35 and the legend for the schernmtic layout is
C-24
.,i
Fig. 6-33. Acceleration-vibration teat stand

(clectro-n-agnetic vibrator mounted or,
centrifuge).
Iwo,
-X
qk
*-4-
lk
L'.
f~ik:
7
M.
Fig. 6-34. C6rnbined ternperature6 altitude and vibratibm test faculity.
there Is stllU m6ch to be done. Some success

has been achieved in developin~ facilities capuble of provlhng mlUludes Of 10-6 to l01millimeters of Hg, based an the 1959 Model Atmnosphere/7/. In uddition, some facilities that
wiillproduce the temnperature ranges encountered
in space are becoming available (Fig. 6-37).
Beyond thism, ixiwevur, very i~ew iacuiiiies naveA
been developed for simulating other hyper and
aspace environment.s.
One program carried out by the NondJr Diof the RIorthrop Corporation for the Environrnental Branch, Engineerkrxg Test Division,
Flight, and E ngineering Test Group, Wright Air
Development Division (now Aeronautical Systems D&vision), his developed specifications
-vision
ICL112/
18
1615e
0000
Yir'. 6-35. Layout of combine'd temperature,

altitude and vibration test facility (for legend
see Table C-5.
Hy-
ndS
r Environmunt Facilities
In thc area of hyper and space environment

simiulat ion %omu work has been carried out, but
for hyper and space test faculit~ies. The proposed
facilities are shown in F a. 6-38 through 6-42.j

Their capabilities are listod In Tables 6-6
througn 6-9. Additional information on hyper
and s pace environment. fac~itltes can be found
in Lhe last three documents in the Test Facilities
section of Table 4-1,
A
1
A hyper environment test f acility that will be

used for both functioral and environmental testIng of subsystems Is presently in the design
phase and will be built at Aeronautical Siystems
6-25
tu .'r"~
Tabule 0-5. Le~gend for Fig. 6-35Itcm No.
D~escription
Outline of sealed chramber. JInmer

dinicisfioflB are 24 Inches x 24
in'lieo x 18 inches high. Insulation
con3hist oA marvanite selmete, two
inches thick.
C
-
Inner vib.'ation table. Consistsa of

aluminum plate 9.5 Inches in diameter and 0.5 thick.. Vibrationis
..---."1
transmitted from head of vibration:1

machine by three 0.5 -inch steel rods
located on 8-inch diameter disc.,120
dogrees apart. Sealils providedby
0.5 -inch Teflon bellows.
si~rip heaters. Provide maximum
of 1500 watts.
Fig. 6-3t6. W7le Combined Envlion= en!-1

Centrifuge. (Courtesy of Wyle Laboratories)
Air condenser. 23.7 squ&re f.xi

surface.
Alir circulation fan (located at

eithier of two positions). 100 cubic
feet r'cr minute.
Radiation baffle.
Drive for mechanical operation of

test item~. Snal is provided by
0.5-inch 'r.nfivn bellows.
Terrrinal strips.
Steaim gonnritor, 3 kidlowatt, Output Is controlled thermostatically

through solenoid valve.
10
Vacuum
11
19
''-
.*
pump.
Mercury manometer.
Amphenol connectors.
crmotat
(tepertureandrig.
13
13
14 and 15
Ff.
c-37. Dual-chamber vrbital temperature-
Termotat
(tepertureandaltitude
simulator with Courier satellite interframe mounted on chamber door. (Courtesy of

Philco Western Development Laboratories and
U.S. Army Signal Research and Development
Laboratories, Fort Monmouth, New Joirsey)
humidi ty).
Cooling by C02 directly or in-
directly through mir condenser.

Switches (main, rotary heating
selector, steam generator, and
16
fan).
________-Inot
--
IDivi slon, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,

I1hs fac!ility will be called tie Dynamic Anal-
y~cr. It uonibines both the ciPerational environmerito and functional evaluation parameters into
onge facility. It has as its primary purpose the
evaluation of reconnaissance equipment, but It
also has capz-bility for testing under comb~ined
em, iiroll ile tis any type of systemI subsystem, or
equipment that Can he accoinodated in the cap:rule. This facilitywill Lbe co'mpleted early in
1')62. The IDynamic Analyzer Is shown in Fig,
63-43. Its capabillties are I'sted In TaL-e 8-10.
6-2r,
--
---
Atpreaent,'he-zero-gravity environment canbe simulatedfor sustained periods by a fixed

Installation. Manhy systems have been proposed
and several schem~es have been used o provide
accelerations, short periods of zero-g (weightless~ness), or combinations of these. Some of
these proposed methods are (1) a cont.-oiled
free-fall elevator; (2) a shaft cut along a radius
of the Earth;(3) at parabolic track on the Earth's
surface; and ()a
circular-path zero-gravity
device. flone (N thesri methods has been perfected, and at present, actual aircraft flight is
the only means aval~able to combine acceleration
with the zero-gravity conditions. The primary
drawbacks xinaircraft flight programs are the
Jib
--
-.
44
'4,
or flight vehicle is exposed to tritlier the exact
~environmtntL it Will experience during operation
3
B
or as mucl, of the operational envircinmbrntasi

to technically fe~.sible to simulate. It has been
hypothesized that such a facility wou~ld make
possibile a much more reliable prediction of en-
facilities used to test materials component~san

subsystems. In the- case of 'low temperature
-65 F and high temperature to 160 F, the C1imalic Hangar (Figt. 6-44) at Eglin Field, Florida,
which can test complete systems, has been very
useful In uncovering system tntegzs~timn prob-
rjto
lems under low and high temperature conditions.
The correlation problemnfor these environments,

however, is simple when comipared to dynamic
space flight environments aince they oil
depend antemperstdire stabilization. Whethe
or not a full-scale facility for simulaugw '.1
operational environments would enable more
reliable prediction of environmental effects
remains to be seen. Because of the technical difficultiesi ari4 large design and construction costs involved, an actual f ull-scale environment~al test facility that would simulate the
operational environment has not been built to
~date. Other problemis are also involved. prticularly that of correlating the external vehicl
4pnvironment to that which would actually be encountered during the vehicle mission. This
6or
2
7
10
(
.1
12
12
~sitrzted ;evironment
13
---
I.
2Optical
Windows
Cambr
3. Oil Diffusion Pumr's

4 Cryostot
5. Large Access Door
6. Cryvpump fitot
E..hrjnger H-ousing
I.
~ ~~
-*-*w
rPUu4'M
Fig. 6-36. Space research facility.
inahi] ity to otAaln realistic acceleration and

diuceraton frcesoverthe
rope
'df,ueandan inobilit tove
prhie arpe timeweihstate during thf full Sraol~ic flight. Addif'ional Problems iti
'clve when using aircraft
arc maintenance, Ohe use ci special instrumientatiu)n, and tUe rathier high cost per test.
ySN.cmens or Fltli-Scale Environmental Test Fa___This
Asystems or full-scale environmental test

fa( 0it), isono in%khich an entire weaponi system
16
$_i
yment
Remroval of 11o
Exchanger and Drip Pnr)
*less;
to the internal environ-
adjacent to or in equipment and foubsystome within the alrrame even mom, nebulous,
,Accelerating the test required, particularly for
long flight-time satellites and spacievehicles,
poses even greater problems.L
8Windw ad SoltPreliminary
study ci a systems test facility
ces.Do
for space vehicles has been carried out by
Anl~gneigDvlpetCneTia
9. Solid Particle Accelerator
10. Radiation Lamps
homa, Tennessee. This study has resulted in a
11. Chamfber Shelf
proposed military space systems test lactlity,
called Mark U1.TIls proposed facility is shown
12. Specimen
in Fig. 6-45 and its capab~iltea are listed in
13. Electra- HydreuliC
Table 6-11. An interim facility. called Mark
14A,,
JtILLYO-
Lu
UIV p)ULLU&AzMAz
OLM6VO.
L
&D
LFA
much smaller designi but will allow testing of

some of the smaller systems.
_rvUironmental Test Facilities for Hurnpns
Full-scale environmental test facilities for
humans will MaR
it pos sible to determine the
suitability of personnel protective assemblies
such as spce suits, capsules and life suppoR
systems, bytesting them In ihe same extreme
ixvironments In which they will be used. Such
facilities wilt also serve for selection and trainand for study of psychological
In ofatoat
~ lclrbeseet
uvvlot
sieteErhsamahr.
A proposed
for6-46.
life su78/
port
systemsenvironmentalf
is illustratedac~ili
In Fig.
Thelegenid for Fig. 6-46 Is given
in Table 6-12.
facility consists of three chambers: a
cro-cooled, high-vacuum chamber shown at the
left; it safety chamber In the middle- and a solar
and inrared radiation chamber at thie right.
6-2
4.
1. Reverberunt Cell
2. Electra44ydroulic Exciters
3. Radiatiun Lamps
4. Electra- Magnetic Exciters

5. Acoustic (enerotor
6. Specimen Table
j,
Fig. 6-39. Acoustic-mechanical vibration1 facility.
',4'
j~9
1.Vacuum Line
2. Instrurn nto Iiun
Cables
3. Specimen
4. Cryogenic Injectors
5. Radiation -Lamps
6- TV Camera
7. Vertical Roil
I . Shick and Vibration Program Controls

2. Temperature and AltiTude Programn Con~trols
3, lnstrumnentot-on Boom
4. Specimen Vehicle (See Fig Co-29)
5.*Fersonne/i/nstrumentotion Tunnel
6.
adenro
lipRigsFig.
Hu
Fig. ~ ynmcsfayty
~
~
'Fig 6-4.dynmicsfaciity.liquid
Inrtia
In the left chamber, the low radiative temiperature of outer opace of almost absolute zero is
simuutlated by cooling the black inner chamber
wails with liquid or cold gases such as helium,
6-28
8. Power Roil
9. Instrumentation
Boaom
10. H-igh 1"retsmjre Line

II. Electra -Hydraul ic
Exciters
12. Vacuum Chamber
13. Horizontal Rail
6-41. Tent-specimen vehicle for Inertial

dnAMC 6-0.Ieria
nltrogenp or liquid- air liquefiled In reeirculating cryostats. Cooling traps with liquid or
coild helium refrigerant gas at a temperature of
about 20 K will be provided to condense the air
leaking and o~ut-gasaing from test objects, and
to approach the near vacuum of outer space.
.
,
'
rable
T.'
0-6. Spcclflcations for Space

Refesarob Facility
9~
6 4,Environment
FRteility cArAhility
-tlow
prrcasure
109nm of Hg (corresponds to
1.600.000 feet &,cording to
1959 Model Atmosphere).
10
/
Electromagnetic
12radiation
Infrared. visible anid ultraviolet radia'.ion between

100.060 and 1800 ".agtroms
will be simulated.
Extreme ultraviolet radiation

will be simulated to 1000
angstroms, and an attempt will
made to simulate it.to
7be
from
~0 klmtr ~
60t
5ciubiatedtmeer
thCotl Hw
I~~ntr~~~n~an
a
curn
Priledniis
0t 4002 kilometers
fo
Dissociated
ibtionizd
os
Oxygend
ditomcprtce
ad
Pmp
RaitinLap
4~~~a
Helicities
SoarLap
2,iffsin
old patrtigen
i3ac
Pump~
ieofnparticle
ttome
the4':!
p Artn
ih~ls
(1 per
Fro 0Spec0perenn
wl
ScdayXrdiation
From
particlespfrome10to
inn dime.
250hin
oftj1000
20,00
at
HyruicEctr
5n thew
u
80 pecet.
Fr'opmn0 Xeto
Oxyge~n
er
atattues
per seond
iu~ation
paric
berni-lnateda
~.tm.
wislld
patiloctesfron1 tohe
raditio
isomltelyrflcosardpricl
solar~
meterite ins (35,000rtod
nic
raitr2rrne50a
h~
~igo
infrared
~~
225,000 feet per second) Rat e
dire
o
fereitint nuom,
wtchine
flo.
Inhrgltchamber
ne
atcl qcinI
aisphere the
til
sn
s imlated andth upperrhem
timmlated
soat raditio catbime._____
jto
th
ithe
fe iriaeerb
Spcerserh ailtot b
byt allowsbiniation of
trilatiori
1 et nlea
evicicuty vapris planes
raiaripsn lev,-pel in
biuatkerobn oeflethesbackprilevlctisIh
Sola low-atioiup*tr
meert age(50t
lrin raitonthe
th
inrae radiator airuatged in
peerocirlg~llreefltYca b
feetyu~mi
2,0
.m
chamnber byor cyswingtchin upperfheripeent
thea~o
sola rabei
cnaobe
simulated
sola
cmbrwlswud
oln,
thi
Withousty
damtrrng
byaci
brsue
to
fesiredy
reateanyh
sactuSlachbe
the
rhe tiont above rloom temulrature aod
oy
betlmlarunchkrety steia
d ofg
I'lluldj~tiOIiperaulde dastorted
6-29
6.n''I
"rabvle
'a
fi-7. Sp,'clfieat'Ons for Acoustlc-M.chsnF'1
Acoustic
I)ynamic Faoillty
Facility capability
Environmnet
Sound pressure level up to 170 db,

with wide-band random capability
)':er frequency range of 20 to
10,000 cpa in reverberant field.
Low preasurt
Vlbr: tion
facility capability
10-4 mm of Hg (oorresponds to
650.000 feet according to 1959
Model Atmoaphere).
With further development, sound
Modllications will ultimately allow

low pressure oZ 10-9 mm of Hg to
pressure level of 180 ci, can be
be achieved if desired.
maintained for short period, followed by 170 dc continuously.

Aerodynamic
heating
Programmed heating of test specimen perimeter surfaces to

vehicle flight profile requirementa. Maximum surface temperaturv of 2400 F (1300 C).
Solar heating
130 watts per square

half of test specimen
Will oover principal
spectrum of 100,000
angstroms.
Aerodynamli
Progrummd heating of test epecimen perimeter surfaces to flight

vehicle profile requirements.
Maximum surface temnpe"rhre of
2400 F (1300 C).
Vibration
Programmed evuioidal and ranvibration in vertical and
heating
Programmed sinusoidal and random vibration In vertical and

lateral axes. Frequency of 2 to
2000 cps. Magnitude of *40 g
sinusoidal and .0.2 g per cycle
random.admm
0 to 51b0 g over 1 to 30 tmiliescond

weriod.
II_
"Interral volu me of acoustic-mechanical vibration
shock
To 120,000 feet. programmed to
rwrdom.
Jperiod.j
0 to 500 S over 1ito 30 miiwn
1. Thermo-mechanical dynamic facility to be 8 feet

diameter by 10 feet in length.
Specifications for Iertilin

Dynamics Facility
Altitude
Programmed
Fy
Facility capability
foot on oneperimeter.
heating
to 2000
2000 cps. Magnitude of -40 g

sirnusoidal and *0.2 g per cycle
facility is 32. cubic feet.
Environment
Z,
3-
lateral axes. Frequency of 5 toI
Shock
Table 6-.
'
Table 6-9. Specifloationa for Thermo-Mechanical
Vibration Facility
Envi ronment
I
-
2. Provisions for later addition of other hyper

environments, such as ozone, Ionized and dissoclated gase, and high-velocity solid particles,
will be considered In design of facility.
."*
vehirle flight-profile.
A,.-rdvnyanl
heating
Vibration
Programmed heating of test specimen perimeter murfaces to

vehicle flight requirements.
Maximum surface temperature of
2400 F (1300 C).
,
.
ProV-ammed sinusoidal and randora vibration in vertical and

lateral axes. Frequency of 2 to
2000 cps. Magnitude of *40 g
ainusoidal and &0.2 g per cycle
random.
Programmed
:,hock
0 to 500 g over 1 to 30 millisecond

period.
Acce'lration
Variable from O to 100 g. May be

programmed to vehicle flight
profiles from 0 to 100 g with
3-eccolId onset.
T,.'t arer of in-rtla dynamics facility in 50-foot"

di tvnctur pit.
f)- 30
FPg.
6-43.
Dynamic Analyzer.
"
'Iable C-10. Capabilitites of Dynamic Anaklyzer

_____________
Environ nient
or eperational
paranicter
'Ion Lt env tronmeatal teating facilitiles. 130weVer,
in designing and selecting such facilities, cer-
tain general f aci~ors must bW kept in mind If the
Facility capability
1'kcsare
roud lvelto 3.8 x 10
'lenrwrstutA
min of Hig in 100 minutes._

From Ambient to 450 F
(high)
(232 C) in 45 minutes,
f~acility is to operate oflactivcly and efficiently.
mepsurc-l on Internal wall
of radiating surface. Heat

shlltye adiatingsurace.
one-half of radiating ourfaoe wtill beat to 400 F
(265 c) and other half will
cool to -40 F (-40 C) simnul-
Temperature
(cobied
"Irei lu%)
taneously. These temperatures will be measured on

internal walls of radiating
surfaces,
Frequency from 2 to at loust
800 cps. Lew-frequency
dlouble amplitude will not be
grcater than 0.5 inch, with
Vibration
tnaximum acceleration of
5 g available from crossovt polat t to ond of hilgh-
frequency spectrumn.
Will provide 15 pounds of
temperatures from -40 to
Mo~dular packag-
200 F (-40 to 93 C) at
equipent.At
Roll, pitch and yaw:

liol
*20degres font 0
~should
utes per cycle to 5 cycles

par scondneeds
par scond.mentation
Pitch
*20 degrees from 30 minkItPR ner cycle to 5 cycles

per second,
:2 degrees from 5 mite
per cyclc to 5 cycles per
Ya,,
S17C
of work- snace
_______
second.ber
secondcan
Seven feet in diameter by
eight feet in lengih.
Rapid heating of the skin of the reentry body by

various degrees and with differernt temperature
dlistribu~tions can also b~e cbtained by using highf recquency coils or radar heating.
The saftey chamber provides for Instantaneous
rcvrsnl
cndiion
i o tet
reves~i1
cndiion
tetan
an reiucof
recueof he
he est
est
sulhjectwithinafew beconds in case of an emerg O~*required,
lff'.SIGN AND) SELECTION OF' FACILrrtES
It is not the purp~ose ii this handbook to give
d',taiiledloiforrna~tioroiothcd~cslgni Pnd construct-
X
-
These factors are;

1. Mechanical features.
_I
2. Instrunientatiou.
3. Safety features.
4. Economic consideratons.
Medhanical Features
Use of tht moot up-to-date materials and

techniques Is essential to the desig of environmental testing facilities. Usuall,
the test
equipment must be designed and conrim no teI -o
tha~t It can simulate the desired environment4
many times in order to economically justify Its
existence. A salt spray chamber designed to
test corrosion resistance must not itself fall
apart after a few exposure tests. This same
philosophy applies to all types of environmental
testing facilities except a few, such as certain
types of rocket sleds used in "otie-abot" app~cations. However, even In the case Cii such
anexendable teat equipment, the materials and
thnques used in Its construction must be such
that it will Derform its function reliably and effectively. I
fe; environmental faculutes
must be sim le and economical, and at the same
time capa e ofprodacing repeatable environ-
instrumentation
the time a testing facility is being built or
purchased, the Instrumentation requirements
be reviewed, not oni In tie lIght of immediate need, but also With respect to future
and flexibility. Percentagewise, instrucost relative to facility cost is ususilly small. However', in terms of potential savings In man-hours and elapsed-time, a jud~clous
selection ca instrumentaiUim ear, hakv a cnld
erable effect during the u eful life of the test
facility. As an example, for certair *Pst chamistrum'intatlo
applications
and mWeffect savingsprogrammed
In elapsed-tirue
hours, while at the same time providing a permanent record of the cycle produced.
The accuracy of Instrumentation should &!lso

be considered In terms oii both the present and
future usage of the facility. Instrumentation of
low
may
ility
run,
int~
accuracy may be acceptable now, Init this

not be so at some future date when the f acis used for another pro'ect. In the long
it may be far less expen#4ive to Initially
intrumentation of g'ecatc~r accuracy than
than to convert frtom low to high ac-
curacy instruat-alkation in the future.

!>ifety Features
Because of the 6xtreme environments produced
by many testing facilittesp the sasety ofi operating
6-31
T,I
'1
:
ft
''Its!
hoffdnvrb
peron~iisanimoran
cnsdeatonan
opoie
orraoso
econ~my.Appicabe
mlitay
3 I te
am
rdcin~oie8a
secifcatons
tsteqipen t b uedAo
ala
o
rttp
ork
automaticHadrainsEreliFielvlFesretc
Figntr-44.
"personel is
nituHmportat aonsd 'ieration

A
orreapsions
Tstoul anever-9be comprmisd
Proofny
Te
liabetiinar"
swithin
EenminicaCosidferfatires aiud
requires.
specifictions
Thse
callr
suc procurintoreadersigin tesprteuipensfor
aonytnvrolsatmenticsdrains rlsil
factors ehuditc.gtb
Twcconsldspecificaetefionsalrie
or capacityA
"ihamder-d
T.es
it,a
Proot Tsi.
Attitude
eecqu
reIL--43A
ui
p C
hctapacit
requoire-
Exnoli Cnsdeatonagtue
2.
What arl e the

meris?
futuren
capacity require-
equ3.Ipmten psame terst andpen

s
toulbeusuld focilivdties ha adre ecnmclyfas a ible
for pr-_-+%mewopratokwih
nciictin
ilntbcoeosl
aeyear or two. Aniar
exaipl o thistsr4 Wl
catclahamity
tber ncsalthtoug esingreasectheceformaveriatyalitd
of tI h na 60,00
uu feiu
et
ndeupet
frmnedarrtyomoet
eialeI
h
er uuot s
the asamerfacilityefor missile worknthusemakin
itidt
nn~?ea
sarynt
haametr alttde sioldrsuation c apaicitles tha
200,000
miall
feetsormole This add ed tetuoperangen
candwihilno
becooie
fo
mal obrcenticramers in .
tho
o ugher istiat
ofpa
c iabefica6te
c
f20,000 feet
first built.
owen
ora mty
The
qips
ad
sat
9!
ik
Stablity Rings on Outer Shell
E~tnlCarbon Steel
Vocum
Ctrapumping surface*
Shll
Chunnhl% for
tniteri" StainlessS teel

Vacuum Shell
Sulipenflion Rod$
100ok Refrige'ani
i
KSolIar, R-od-1a"t'
(Mdounted an Tjeck)
25____
______
200'
top's
OW
imbel
A
*5
(Track
ConCrete Radiation
supports)
rcloze4 Door and Track
111ikR~Sidng
Do
1rc 5
OTnCoe
TotrVsr
Ku~orle ClmdehFr
ups
at
e
Saii)RnsOtt~o
lo
Cartk
upr
co
-0#
up
onoOterehel
t.A
Foo~rS
but Vesse-l. Cp
iltie
1.nvroomnt
%fProoe
F
cilt
on
Log"
Fltearaooibainretx,
ite
Milataryis
ca* upabilatylity_
Ringenrao
apbiltir
Trpoe
k;-
thactopratems
nl
'ptA
e the adatae an dlavr.so
o Outdr Shetll
Fi. -5.Prpse
mlterystac
ibe 6-1.
(tM
eqip
systemstverstatility.sol
ewihd
,
te ntand
humidity
comin~alt ion the arera Of vbaltitud
ftcilit came bpeconictaioned iequone hmersts
it50
o100tarK.,
Test Faall t
a~nd60
cpst,~ it
is
ofenavantagginjeous to
btin-I4
ugenerfor otequitestwork oneperatesure ato 20-00

cp
forsthis ups atl alghl
ficraci
rth
on loa.
cost cis thetemdeantages-andtitudvrxTheseo
lerr)ertur
T
10 K
quesntions iiatethertyp-e altitukingn thatmudity
(ha
bynksi)x
2
~ feacoliptxmyey
b
can toinue conaneInonice chamuber.ll os
it.
of
aqmnt.
Tablgie-13 is ap ceckit
g
test
km~ pproWoateh
flows010153
ri.in l-icme wters pier squonarit mssve
wethig torbe congdumidit rhen
prohrngi eouiron1atnea.0001
eit dymtntaltta uilogOamdper
separateient.
ids
h
f
atafIt~
ratory
Lab
forlthi
chamber(X
and s,.
0to2
A.gitmospheiclds
Thse
oempeanur -altonitude lboraor
lay'cotouth
umnjx)ziiThe
oqip
insuire87 Genomia~lf thcuemtent
toshw
bioea
Veloct ofap0xmaey2000 shaker
Dyniiraci
tent Isqdividednt. Thbe 6f1w i oaownchkitegosexcn ith atio s
mtersit p ter
T
t! nopll
av earate
echbegriswichrcanhenlocatd ring
to
0
S*oro15 km.llieecoiuldmttig
*hklow
eteupfet
aerscndenal:
f or 0.00 kiltcograms
S175-squnareimeter
cprbilityd
.\tnospheric
~ adH-tycambe
~
-.
in.l4
-t
The' l~n3.Vbayotiof n.
gibalmout.4.
Powr-dive
AC elmatic.
evrnetlaoaoyt
J
6-33
'jN
;_4
M
- I -
Fig. 6-46. Proposed environmental facility for life support

systems. (For legend see Tabla A-12) /8/
Table 6-12. Legend for Fig. 6-40

Item no.
I
Description
Item no.
Outer wall of cryo-couled chamber.
12
Inner wall of cryo--cooled chamber.13

~~~~3
b dofrsae
Refrigerant coils for
Description
I1mer wn.1 of "jgy radiatio
frert
ori
.
veicl
nltrog'en.
14
Manned compartment ofaaevhce
Extendable apace-worker cabin.
15
solar radiation alrnulatnrs.
:z
Large chamber doors.
16
infrared radiators.
Small chamber doors.

Obsr~'r i saetychaberi1
17
vacuum pumps arid cryostats in

Countr weights for charnbcr door.
(Niterr wall of saf-ty charmber.19
Large chamber do-or.
20
Vacuum pump.
Smuntl chprnber door with outside

obeve.22
21
Counter weight for chamber door.
Outer w-.ail of fiolar radiation

camh~r.basement.
23
in
II
elmcolntrp
Vacuum pump.
Vacuum pumps and cryostata in
~sa~t
.~
,.
Li'
CatibrathInn Rest
Area /Area
pi'nChrlr
Ten~ting FaiiyCheck List
'l.!A n13
and equipmenrt
MaKlattais]
locption of test equilpmient.
Personnel
Climatic Arso
1~~
tNlnsilintior of equipment un&k.r tent; intermittent
0
Dvaid nuism. maLrial and vmi~tht.
Area
instrumentation Area
Noncorroqdve chamber lining for particular
Vibration
reaAcceleration
npptcaton.
Specil "footings" for some equipment, such as
colnjiressors. shock machtines. etc.
Area4
Electr nic Amnplifl rs

ond Power Su~pplies
fur Vibtol~on Ateo
Blolwers or ':ns to orevent stratification of air
.X
~~.
U_____
-1"F
Fig. 8-47. Layout of typical environmental
Layout
~,
laboratory.
VieAing windows (numb -r, type., size and

Inc.1t ion).
to the physical Size and purpose the equipment0

is to perform. Advantages can eornetinlEs be
gained to floor space by grouping and double or
triple docking such audiary equipment as
pumps compressors, meters, etc. Do not lo-"
cate climatic facilities in Lhe .,!cInIty of dours
leading to the outside. If nossible also. this
section of the laboratory Bhouid be air conditioned
to permnit uniform conditions of temperature and,
--relative humidity tabe mailntalneC,
1"'rs (numnber, typo, size and location).

sufficiciit working area.
Illumination (type and level).

Was~te and water supply lines,
Ports for cables.
Dummy mlounting panels.
hock. Examples- of equipment to this cat~egory are the Navy medium- and high-impact
machines, sand drop tmachines, and lead pellet
-miachines, which produce shock pulses to va~rybLg
magnitudes and durations. This type of equipw'~nt is often noisy and Is sometimes hazardous
--since parts may fly-off the equipment during the
test cycle. For these reasons, as well as from
lastrumentation. power and control

Type and capacity of power supply.
lerminnls for power. signal, high-voltage and
Coaxial I.-W
Pull-doun time or steps.
a functional stanrdpoint, this type of e~ ipment
Sensuing; e -rnents (number, type Pnd
cuac)
-n
:!
--should be grouped. -Depending upon the locationA

withirt the. lohnratnpr,
cuay.
It
rnia
ho
iaau~
wIre -m-esah- scr~elen in f-ron-t -of" the- -m-sLa ilA

protect personnel from flying parts
oe.0
ccurey).1xiil&a
(nubertypeand
Recoder,
.~
ltcordcntye (umbe,
an acCirac).-to
licco cdi r cont rollers, prog ramming controllers,.
-. Vibration, There--are several major reasons

for segregating this type of equipment to one
typu of licaters.
laboratory.
______________Section_______the
\nn-h-rtardous location of facility in even'. of

falilure,
let
~olmel
safety devices.
t~qi'nen
dvice.Satty
EqupT~entalty
evies.--Andthtrd,
__________________________________
(Iiniatic,
Th e environments failing Into this

been discuqsed previouisly and
,will l~t I'- repeatetd; however, It is important to
lncwite t~les-e facilities In a separate section of
ulahkiritux-y in an arraniement satisfactory
(ai)VhavO
First
te
equipment
-,produces a high noise level that shoul d be

shieldedfrom the surrounding area and personnel. Second, the electron-ic consoles used with
the shaker di osipate large amounts of heat and
It , desirable to locate this eqttipment outside

of the air conditioned portion of the laboratory.
the equipments perform similar functions, sometinmes making it possible for auxillary equipment to complement different Shaker
systems.
__
Acceleration
While it Is no. essential to
giui dIfl'rA types of centrifuges, from a
functional and work flow standpoint it Is a natural segregationr.
6-35V
- --
.---
L-~-
Ito
l.posion Chanier, The explosion chamirber

Wt7lidlF separnte air conditioned
roomi. 'hism robim, must- be Insulated so thzt-A
noi)1e caused by explosionls is not propaiiated
thoghu telaoatr.7.
Research and Development Testing
5i
Although t'e laboratory layout showa. In Fig,~.

6-417 is suitable for present teshi~g requirements,
it does not allow for research and development
testing. For R and D testing, aA niany un possible of the fartlities should be movable so that
in any of the cells or facilities combinations of
environiments can be set up. Only the heavieat.facilities, such as large centrifuges, should be
perr~iaii,,rly built-in. Another retuirement Ist~4a shop, be included, not only for calibration
and maintenance of the facilities, bit also for
moAdiication and adaptation of facilities to fit
niew combinations or environ mental set-ups as
well as Improvisations and construction of new
fac-Ilities. The Norair Design and the Dynamic
Anial' zer are ideal facilities for research and
development purposes since they provide max:
irnm
cmbnatonand flexibility which are re~~quired In studying enviroanmental'effects,
The Future of Environmental Testing FacilitiesV
thc future, envimr"nenital te~sting facilities
wiji be c.-Iled upon more and more to simulate
Iiypor environments andcombined environments
as wcl-I as to increase the duration and level of
many present-day tests. To be able to do this
effectivrely and economically new materials and
techniques must be developed. Improvements
in existing Insulators, structural materials,
refriglerants. sealing and refrigerating techrioqups, instrumentation, etc, are needed. In
addition, progi-ammnved controllers that more
nearly W-iulatc t~ie actual expected environmnuil are required in some areas. As various
"ibreakt~hroughs' occur, they wil.1 be inCcixporated
into existing, facilities, as w ell as forming the
TIn
fonurdaticr, for entirely new ones.
5. The development of the test procedure itself.

6. Single and combined environmental tests.
Sequencing of environmental tests.
II
8. Standardizaton of tests (uniform duplication).

ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING GOALS
The RPP11cation Of scientific method to environmental teating to the foundation of sound
test proceduires. The purpose of the test is the
starttngipoint for analysis, defining the scope of
testa to be performad1, as well as the~r r!quircd
range of validity and reli~abfity: ocirnt~ic
method implies the use ot the strxt'-'es and
tactics that have given man umouraileled comnmandandkniowledge of his physical environment
&hringthe last 300 yea~rs. The decision to
pursue P. given course of environmenatal testing
aibes
Irale a eiina
oterlvn
n key parameters involved in relation to the
time, (acilities and resources that may be ul-~
located to the tasL.
.
'
.4
,g
.
Environmental teisting nay be dlr'ced towards

a diversity of goals:
1. The estatilshmentci reliable ,erformwrice
in the mission. Obviously, this Is a necessary
requirement, without whtih all other quialliles
are valueless,
2. Establishm4entot reliable performance inthe
logistic environment. Almnost all mniitary equipmenLs sjied far grc~a~cr ;cerIods of tirme in
storage, transportation and in "ready-state"
than they do in the mission phase, and it is
evident that the equipment must be available at
the point of use In a condition that permits tho
mission to be performed.
.
sulynieidbtof
i~i:
:.
4..
TIT,
aormpt'
V
TY(;i' !!RQCEDURES
ance, is the maintenance environment. 'This

includes the environments associated with the
F.nvironmental simulation is determincd bith

by the f;acilities and test procedures used. The
actions necessary to maintain the readiness and

the performance of the system. For e~rptrrple,
if during maintenance moisture from the hand
ii
vai ious inynes of facilities ha&ve been discussed,
were transferred to a piece of equipment, it

could be the start of a rust spot or the cause of
a fungi formation. Likewlse, handilng P' ocks
during mnaintenance can dxaniae equipment.
tiihrorsenhathtstpcmur
1. The mission profile of the weapon system.
mustmnike provision for the Induced, as wefl as

the natural. environment. Indeed, the test of one
without the othier verges one the meaningless.
The remaining paragraphs of this charter dis( us, [thc philosophy of developing test proceduruesundiervarious ci rcumnstances. The factors
irevoived in developing! test procedures Include:
2. ,i rhc
ratiunal, funcrtional and environ-
1n1-,tad prohic of the materials, equipment and
sul~sN stems within the weapo~n system.
~.iTie
1ntviratiun of test purposes with the

t(t
lt(l~~r.procedures
4. The stisategy and tactics of environmental
Ist Mln
n
Strategy 9nd Tactics of Environmental Testing

The scope of environmental testing and the0
applicable to it beniefit from the
fact that nature is linear over usefu l working
ranges of the environiment. That is to 93ay.'(1)

compormiets built of materials, each of whichr
navigation subsystems, fire control subsystem,

electrical subsystem, etc.
w~if
i.,ndlithe envi.-onmental stress, haVO a con-
of working together in combinatilon, and (2) knowledge gained on a part of

a syslem- provides guideposts to assessment of
the whole system.
Fi(Ierable chance
1,iue sequence of environmental testing pro;-edure ,-.v kiand-ln-fli"nd wit-h engineering doveloinient. Ordt-r-of-rnag'iitude results that are
usab~le in the initial stages of research and develordment are followed by engineering develop-IW
mental testing, in which the complete missiou
envolope is explored for critical areas and a
precise delineation of limits. Thn h eonstration testing of the prototype Is carried
* out, in wnitch the object Is to-establish the sueceSS of the r;serch and development. Finally,
thlere j,- ,-oducltlori testing, which demonstrates
that the production items perform within the
required limits.
*
The implementation strategy affecting thie

selection of tle test procedure depends on the
level considered. A practicable classification
of these levels is as follows:
1. Mterilc.liability
Prts.3.
2.
3 oicet.single
Srtema A system Is an assembly of subsjFaiemiifat has a arjclfic function [in a weipon

:)~tem and In eosev afor the accomplishmeint
of the weapon system design mission. Examples
of systems are the flight vehicle (aircraft or
misesile) system and the ground servicing systern.
WeponSytems, A weapon system Is an assembly of ytenis essential to accomplish a
sperific Air Force mission.
Preliminary Test-Procedure Development
--
The strategy and tactics oi test procedure de.

velopment consist- of the utilization oi vu~ rpivious knowledgL to determine:
2. The value of increased accuracy and reof knowledge in the specific case.
The applicability and responsiveness Of
and combined environmentlaltests.
The environmegtt
grouping.
In planning evrnetltsgruisIis
n dfn th m terias
parts, comnponenta, equipmonut, subsystems
niecessary t--oelg
.4'X
1. What factors mu~t be considered,, and the

quantitative limits ou 1such factors.
4.
4. 'SuiSYSic'm8.
yses
:-
'A
to be tested and theirAL
for the stan dacization of test resu~lts,

n
rcdrsrqie
h
~~e
5
6.a Th nubr
fitfzr!ird
sys tems
are metals, their aloy
Materials. Materials
andnonmetls.Theproertes f mterals
and Te
on-etal.
poperies(A mterals
ih
imiatins f te
estalla
r'rfornacc
itrnis which they cutistitute. The following major
classifications may 1b2 considered:
I1. M.elal. and alloys.
It is obvioua that a decision In sin one of thnes

areas has limpl~ications for thelfo o ie-. Thuh
for preliminary investigations v. wide range of
--- factors may be considered, using only a single
ridfeeteu
qcmnnipfidet
=mnents whose convertibility Is only crudely
kcnown. Such an approadi, althou*h soundly apL'lc~Jc
o
4. Fluids (inuLA'ng petroleum products).

F). Composite rMate*l-08J.
artinmalest uncionl iem.

~ A he
A prt
BT~aICt
s Ue fnctona itm.
nij~nints.A
cmponnt i anassebly f
(
Conip5mniths. A sopecififnctisnan assiembl of
':it.perience
An equipnment Is an assembly of
Tilt has a specific function Ir. a
ij'1nitt.
on 1 "oII
'If
suhvY.unm.
S8itesvsttvIn
A subsystem is an assembly of
a sperdic function In a sysiiiu.:
ssential for functional completeness
Lxamples of Susui Stems are:
ot thI systeml.
(jiJ~tiE~athas
!'imtn
oU
, (flume,, fuel subsystem
gfUafs
pL1'JLfleI14
a5.Z
is
-not
5.Plastiti- and elastomers.
UdetLeLL1L
at all suitable in the succeeding stages of

test proceduire develotnmeit inn whizh successively haigher orders of arcc'racy must be obtained.
2. Ceramics and graphite.
bIombing and
Previous knorwledge is the basic factor in the

the test proprocess of Initially establishing
ceduire. In the practical case, It is seldom ne cessary to assume complete Ignorance of materials components or even subsystems behavjr. A thorough going critical review of available literature, previous test results, and ex.is a simple, often -neglected, step that
pays manyfold dividends.
i
The establishment of the Initial test procedure

does not Imply rigidity, either In thinking or in
procedure. Indeed, the results obtAined during
each group of tests must be evaluated and assesse'lto determine what changes are nece~nary
in the succeeding stepsa of the p~ogram, and,
in fact, if the program Itself snould be redirectedt.
6-37
1
*
w$#m~~
-~~~pt
poll
The validity of the test procedure, and Its results, is purely operational; that Is, It must be
Judged solely In terms o( its contribution to the
success of the program. The succeeding seections of hils chapter discuss the Steps required_
for and considerations pertinent to th developnient of a test procedure, as well as the ImPIcremeaLat!,?n of the Key concepts of single and
corr~thled environinenth, u4Ii~form duplication of
results, and selection of the number of test
itern s*
duced. The possible types of tests are as follows;

1. A single environmental test 1s one that
provides a single environment as It exists along
at mission profile or accelerates it so tia the
total ope rational effect is reproduced in a very
short time.
nitudes, durations and sequence that would be

a
e n aspecific
en o ne aero-spacproeiicle4
The basis ior a particular test procedure Is

the experfert operational function and enion
rner,'.. T'hc scope of the test objectIve must be
broad enough to include the data required to
and fcion,
Ievauae, the designr mas eterilimt
Henc, te dsiger
ust et he lmis o in
formation needed, and the accuracy with which
it must bc obtained. A check list of all the environnients, such as that included at the bein
ninig of Chapter 3, trust be screened to estab-
ecutrdi
pcfcmsinpoieo
3. A combtined erivir-onmen-tal tleA lt Fm nacceeae4etwihcmbnsal7iloaet
that may be encoutitered over manyv iri~' 'Insm
adfr~ea
aeoiso
lsc.
j.ie
and types Uf equipment. The environmental
magnitudes and durations do not however, reie-ebeteata
derflsm
iso
veloped on the basis of4 effect.
TuMLSadr21Awientaes
Thseiiain
M
oul ptan vide for ahilenot
tsla
seliainof the environment.
ol
rvd"This
o standard
resml imdi
ctstepoal
xrm lmtccniin
first the relevance of the envtronment,
then the frequency and criticalness of the enviroao,!talencw,,tloir

viroau~taloncunr.
The two, taken together,
provide the envalope of environmental stresses
auG hei quntiatie
lmit. Crtan C th en
vnd
nthei
q 'uari
taiv clmits. C ns ertain
n fth
ninualy *oiiig
au~u
re(Iic al , reatincnts, but piay an Important part in
th. a;'paraztn' rcluired for a cortbinedi vibra-ano

tion, sunstained acccleration and exlrcui'e ternthe
.!.s04
9/s
pvn'tt,'
tetcame
SUh
cis
i ve(lpclrrnriharr e-stc
oter ayaM ence, hat
fiitanabe
iv~
i an
possess the eulyevident disadvantage of

Is the time reqt.i red
ta
oeaigIrealt~ime
may readily becomeo'comparable with thre service life o( the weapon system. The accelerated
ical knowledge to effect the necessary Inter-I
polation or extrirpolation.
nsu'.-nscdas riot practical for rout~ine productfon
It i sat U,;n po int tltat the value of the prl-we

tent should be tuodied by comnparring Uke lesired
information with the cost and conequences of
oht:0ri~nv it. In any practical cns-e, tinc-
-rvte
Q.! IMSstbhiliLcS speedily restches aetraonmical

rov~
tions. for example ardlay teste~d un~der
thrki
rctondit ions, w itii vil'kation, applied. alcaqn
thrre amrs, azctelerati(,n in ui.x d'-grees (-t freedom, and with the relay inisa, 20 ptoshttuns,
in~1
i
'toal f 1Th)test aOl-ups and ojj,rr
aI11-1im
Ycles. It Is the rapid )X47reaBe in te
YilatCIiali,
then comnponee~rts,
(~1 U;,IWlIt aJRIsuSYMIteu
.
folirmel t
I eaqt rqiefiAsre
approached either by
siiiatmte
cireme
rnntt4xatyo b sn
91'ql t nut In th a has no) (irf-ct rela~tloonhi',p

to Olt-, w tual envioronment, but frromr which, the
p~ruhiisIility of productiov failureb can be do.
epredefo
test period necessarily involves a critical examinatIon of the underlying physical phenomena
to assure that the law and scaling factors used
are applicable. Th1us, In dtynaMIC teRtllng, '.1 lt
can be shown that Uatgue theory applies to comnponent life, and that acceleration is proportional
to stiress, the SIN curve may b, applied by usingg
rsay,
V 13
)wer
_w-
Is the relative
riumlur of tests and scopt. of testing 2LNire

lhait lv(-'ls U, thu strategy of proceedinig first
%kithi
lmtccniin
of the natural environment to which mi~litary

equipment may be exposed and In Intended to
estahiisii uniform 1limits not to be exceeded in
desig requirementa." On the other
hend MIT.-r%2'l2C2( offers a dual p, rah.
specification establishes gener 8 D
.licable pr~cedures for testing .... under a muton and accelerated climatic conditions."
advatozs of hein "the r'id thlitg," but -he
are essential for a comprehensive do-
"11fi~pinent prograrti. On thf other hard, they were
xrm
ctstepoal
arciihiing.normal
(-onroeraiiors duating, with test chamber
avalibliy,
wllas i ics r~dnmerof pecThi's
gnord i thoare rewienly
lcs.j,--foi
*~
2. A mission profile environmental test Is

one that provides the same eavirminnental ing
"'election of Test Proceckires
iish:
exposure in the devIce versus that in the laboratory, and where the stress ratios aro meaniureri by the accelerations. The exponent 11 de-.
pendsr on the most cridcal material or assembly.
The preceding approach provider~ a basis for
efitablishing the necessity for tests of single
eriviron mi'nts, as well as tests of combined envlnimonmrita, and within each grouping, thb soquenchig required.
It. it belteved that if the dpv"Thopment of tebt
procedure3 Ur to become sceierj.Ic rather than
analytical and arbitrary It In imperative that

s(-110ard envirovnmonttI test apeclmens be developod. These standL.rdspeciimens or sensors,
arc items that will react in a p'-edctable manner to an
niomn rcombination of onvirotnrvients. /4/ Further -.development along
-these
this line should allow duplication of common
usefulness of
fitilurtz ior various categories of equipment.

SINGLE VS
TESTING
COMBINED
ENVIRONMENTAL
rhe key concept Involved in selecting between

singto and combn e d tests UI that of linearity
Pnd interarstion. if the, effect that the combinei
cnvironinmAtiiaa in simply the addition or nu~per-
pusli 1Q11 of the separate
envlrezUaentall
then
separatecenvlron men ts maybeiised; on the other

hand1 if there Is interaction either qualitatively
or quantitatively, then single environment tests
may not be perfo~rmed with the conlidance that
they are t-uly representative of the physical
situatioxL encountered by the equipment.
Thus far, little has been said regarding the
part played by the stage of development of the
equipment or systemn considered. In the initraaches.
ctgs, there !s "reat advantage In proceeding
sysemticll
fom Uiheknwn
sysemaicalyfro
kowntoo ieunlnon,
il unr~op,
cead
c'orrelation bteneupetprom
known, to the hyper eniseuipmnt
tetperforniance
test
betwen
prforanc
aird
v'ironinents,o1 new environments, whose effects
must beexplored. Thus, in tests where t!e uclear environme.nt 1.9 Involved, it is advantagcou, fisthe ttsts
perorm
n no-nucear
crwivronntunta; !2thn, re.peating In the nuclear envi ron men Lthose tests that are believed to interact. For a given class of miaterials, say, organi( inaterials, a given environmlent, such as a
r'uclear envii'~ninent, may accelerate 1damage by
intcracting with pressure, temperature, moisittire and ozonc./10/.
1-teaj
eeipetpaeIn-
Volvirig Pinre
thevtestpoceduent
i,d
phaeg
with tests intended to screen desirable mater-
ial,, tstsIn
:gi,.ingwiti
ou intrac bi en
liienumlterlals,
testbbeginIneerest.urn
wi Vcf esgndaa.Usfunes
ecrig
(11a vindsonth
sundArliatin f he
ielfi
jffAInldngte s f otrl,
csapesize and sound statilticalprocedre. n hedevelopmendt phane, e lpment
1iL;11-Unggiven in references 11l and
'12/, discussed below, may be used.
As precuuusiy Indicated, the decLsion to utiIllre :I sii~lnv

envirolnlent test must be based
on tiev (('tclusion thait either: (1) the selected
nvuI n-ilet is niot interactingt with other enti rI.,p: co,Jt S, (21) tile interactwioN
are small
enough to be neglected, or (3) the single environment test Is of such a nature (accelerated
or hurdle) that It furnishes a reliable prediction
of the equipment performance in the range of
Interaction that may be encountered.
rm
criteria Ut will be seen that the priloary
single environmental tests Is,
first, in phases covering research and develop-.#

ment pilot studies of materialis and gross .*Pment performance, mad second, in thequ ai~cation testing stagell'In which the equipment damonacmtrates its performance capabilitlea prior to
act -ptance. Because of the paucity of knowledgt.
re ardingthe Interacting efects of accelcrsoid,
or hurde, tosts andthoir Correlation with equipmeat performaince La the normal enviznnment,
single testa arm nixs frequently choser. w'win it
is intended to utilize the accelerated stress Ppproach. Work In uinderway, however, IA dewdlo
a combined envirorament, test that may Lie useful
as a hurldle-type qualification and reliability
teat./ 12/
Sige
nion
7T
etr
ntesApcfcalsae
aeial
~t tnadere
crIteria for both
provide
and
of publications
ceeae
n
omlevrnetlts
Singltitests may be applied to investncr
glseci
poetaadpror
utilized for a-When
on~
vrcll
as set
may be
In MII.,-E-5272.
such aI~a-an,,
courite
in
forth
to establish the test
elected, It Is necessary
laso qimet eca
stqepfrec
stqepfo
ea cutalas
elasftnt; hnce austb
and secondl the sequence and its
exetosms
e etbih
ecpin
utbetb'~hd
inceIndividual sIngle tests are takenano-'A
Interacting, and sInce the sample must last
through as many test prockdures aso possible
It Is ervIdent that the tests be arranged so t~
those with the minimum tendency to damage or*'
destroy the specimen are performed first, and
those wilth the greater damage potential last.
D~amage potentials may be considered In nc-I
-establislhed,
c. Tests Ini accordance with MIL,-E-5272 for

raft and mththe equ~ipmentcandan of dam-47
for groundi support equipment may be classifled
uner hefollowing dmg ruip
&MIL-E-5272
_________9
High
owtemperature
Temperature shock
Altitude
Temperature -altitude
Sunshine
ML-522MLE47
Low temperature
Low pressure
Sunshinei
Imerio
Rain
Rain
Humidity
Fungus
Salt Spray
Sand and dust
Humidity
Fungus
Salt Spray
Sand and dust
I--22MLE47
8-39
4nteAT~-n
,
q
U
'4S12w
"
'
Pw*_
claso, electroalca takeos precedence avcr other

considerations, and any piece of equipment that.
contains aa electronic circuit is tested with the
ML-Ei2MTL-E-4970
Mechanilral Pffects
Acceleration
Explonion
Shock
Vibration
Sai;.z ?nd dust
,,me
ExplosionletiiSsquc.
Shock
Vibration
Sand and dust
2. UfW Ithen, tested does not fall Into onc n!

the functional groups4, thet appropriate operational mode class io used. The selection of the
operationvAl mode class is based on the major
niode of operation. Thue, a given item of eq~uipment is classified as mechanical, or liquid and
liquid-actuated, or gas and gas-actuated according to the major item, although minor elenients may fit into the other groups. The docision is based on engineering analysis of the po~tential effects of environmental bounds onthe
equipment function. A more extensive set of
d Is iven n. Appendix
definitimon& and examplea
A.
it will be noted that sand and dubt appearsI In

two categories since its effect deperia im the
specific type of equipment and~ the materials
used.
i~s!Iicti~, ~
flefre eqipmet.
iscusin
lasifcatonit
Befre eqipmnt
lscs.,In
eints
n
sie
htth
must becpt
enviror.,cratal enigineers working together have
sr'si blilty for ma-king the decisiou best
Jou~pl
suited to their specific problem. No develoned
t~heory or body of information presently ex~sts
*U
'r
-I
.i
It has already been isoed that t,4 eqaipmaent

P.Lr
classes usred are, Of mfessi15ty, general and
.
each item of equipme.Wt must be eonsi&.ored
an Its nierifti. Furtherviare, the teent (aeqjuencek3
have been devised for testing a single or s~mall sample throug~h the entire test oeries. V~ ad-,
i
ditional test samples are availabile tetiting time
may be reduced by performing theltest sequence
in parallel.
that. permits decisions to be made on a prior
1asis.that
bo 'Jence Selection for j. p~l

_____jt
Environmental
'
'.'otyp-s of classifications are most readily

nimplenwnted in developing equipment classificatic~n for single tes~t sequences: (1) functional classification (based on the purpose of
thc equipment), and (2) operational mode clasflc at ior. kbased on the means by which the
equip)ment oIperat es). Functional classification
can hiandUL; a wide variety of equipment, but requires a v'ery large number of' groups, while
operational classification IeL. is to groups so
rcneral that there is little specific applicability.
Kcorrpo'ii,.e system similar in most respects
to that used in the USAF Environmental Criteria
SieRule ./13/ is consfidered. These are as
follows:
The test sequence reconmiended for gr,.,'uid

support equipment is set forth in Tkble 6-14,
and that [or aircraft and missile equipment In
Table 6-15.
Combined Environment Testa
The concep of combined environmental iesting arises from the realizattion thot en~yiroaiments do not occur slngly, and that in a aignif- -~
to proaehyitrct
latprtion of th
duce results that may not be neglected. This
logic serves as the baisl for a test prograin
leading to- (1) consideration of the combination
of enviironments that must ba expocted (2) coaaideration of the probability distrtbuition of tile
joint occurrences of such combined environieota, wid (3) Uie isuiecion of ihose environmertit that Interact or combine eff ects. Thiki
philosophy follows directly from the operational
(Jrou dSupport Equipment

l. Electronic anid conimuriceatiorcs equipment.
2. Aircraft and missile support equipment.
baeeipiiit
3.*
Alrcr% and Guided Missile- Equipment
andus
comicain
1.~~~nlyi
1.nlyi
anduse Eleprooch
2. Aut-)piiot, gyro and guidance equipment.
3. Pcw~ r plant accessories and auxiliary
~prm cr p!:ants.
esr.p
4. Armamenirt.
4. Irnstrments n enos
6. Optical anid photographic equipment.
7. Liquid and liquid-actuated equipment,
8. G;as and gas-actuated equipment.
alpptroci
1t0. Me-chanical equip~ment.

ar recm~.
o~owng
i~'
ssigmentruls
I li folowngruls
asigmen
ao rcom-1. The primary choice of group is based oAV
fuintim)Y (i.e., Ground Support hquipment categi~ 51s1 arid 2, and Aircraft and Mlisnille equipWithin the functional
mTctnt (aicr~orler; 11-6).
6
40
4.
Chaptert.
in Chspter 4.uipent
Combinedtostas tend to simulate nature better,
Wut single environment tests pinpoint the cause
of degradation of materials arid equipment, thun
i
.
cordinndy ombdinedforndirec rmenta atest Are
acroe usccordevrenmediesal
poiding formdirect
evaluating combinedeffects during the researcli
anid development phoze as well as for quail!Lcation and reliability testing.
Combine(; environmental encounters occur at
each stage of the life history of the equipment.
A usfulapproach Is to distinguish encounters
connected with the storage, logistic-Lransportation and maintenance phase on tWe one hanld,
and those encountered In the "use"l phase of the
rairsion oxi the other hand. This conception
implies that the natural environment doininat e93
1
p
4",
A
V
4.
'
%~
Table 6-14.
a7aess
Test Sequenoes for Ground Supprt Equiipmut
SCommunica~iousand
(per MIL-E-4970)
Aircraft-and
missile support
electronios
Geaeral base
T--mperaturc and Pr-ssure
2
1
43
1lgh temperature
I.ow :'.,,mperature
Sunsrhine
Co r rosion
et
S'and and dust
10
4.
17,
5--
6
7
8
,-:
73'
III'Sre
10
10
11
'
12
12
13
Fungus
.2
"-5',t
Ran
S~luiunldity
satlt spray
M.e chaiw-!
Sand and dust.
Explosion
tolgs"710
Vibration
Sok(to
15 gs
shock (ovi-r 15 gts)*
--
8J
6
8
7
9
If shock testa up to 15 g's can be nne on tLb same machine and with the same set up as shock tests over
15 g's, all shock tebst should be run consecxutvely in order of Incerasing smarity as) the list tests In the-:,"
mneehanical pnrtlon of the sequence.
Table 6-15. Test Sequences for Aircraft and Missile Equipment
0 0
Tests (px.,r MIL-E-5272C)
lcrTI1V4OtuI
n'JI
Pressure
Hligh temperature
Low teniperat~ire
T'nmperaturo ;',ock
2
1
5
AlivI"1(I
"I
_r.npvriture-al th:de
Co r uIon
,and and (Just
1. ,.
c"
s~
hRai
,n
111iniwty
Sidt spray
12
13
14
1
2
5
1
3
2
4
5
1
2
4
1
3
5
1
2
3
4
5
-1I-e
6
7
8
7
8
9
8
9
10
11
-6
7
8
9
1
3
5
2
4
9
6
7
a
-
3
1.
5
2
1
4
3
"
.Y
11
-"
'
6
7
8
1
3
5
2
4
8
9
10
a
9
10
7
8
9
--
10
12
11
12
13
14
15
11
".1,'hInical
SmI and dust
A' (u--ration
7
8
9
.I.0
11
10
I xKilsIon'
Shocil. (,o 15 g'a)*
Vihr;atj,.)n
khk(ovwr 15 g's)*
't
11
12
13
14
10
11
12
13
14
10
10
12
13
14
11
12
13
14
15
10
11
12
13
14
11
12
13
14
15
k,
13
14
15
12
13
14
ote on "Iable 6-11.
6-41
,1/
"
tst program development up to the uae phase

rid At that point those characteristics established .y functioning in the mission are determrined.
Ouce the spectrum of combined environmental
Desert and Steppe
encounters Is established, it is then possible to
Sand and dust

Sand ane us
DrMve snow
High temperature
Low temperature
Moisture
Temperature-condesatlon
Legin the analysis o interaction at the mater-
isis, parts, compnne.nts and subsystems level to

ctermine vwhich combined environments will
mutually Inhibit, and wldit
may be neglected.
This procedure permitg the environmental en-
Tropical
gineer to converge rapidly on a recormnlmded
Moisture
pro-rarn with a qujantltative inrr.ation of the

trnd'e-offs and the simplIficatior:' that must be
made in the interest of utilizing avtilabl' facUltl~~~San
For equsr.nent
intendedor -world-wide use, It
Temperature-condensaton
Temt spratyu
:?l
The environmental comblnations pert:acrt to

operations in the troposphere and stratosp.irre
Include:
Aerial
High temperature
Low temperature
Temperature -shock
Temperature -condensation
Altitude
Ozone
Ice c.
IArctki.
3. Maritlzmce.
4.
"altsra
....
and duet
ut,
iA di :_,"ble to conside: cItmates on the basis

of the encounter of the mitural environmental
extremes by oper;.t,.-al equipment /11/. A
basic classification .i ;-.n in I ig. 6-48, which
distinguishe.s vnior;
foll-)wlg use areas:
I.
2.
'
Contrve,".!.
5. Des.ri. i;s steppe.

6. "I.
;,=a-
Acceleration
Explosion
Pressurizatiodi,i
.5w,
",
7. :-~hiand.
Data regarding combined environments for the
exosphere space, the Moon and planets are,
given in hsipter 2 o this handbook. Such datae
should be usodwith caution since they contain
a considerable speculative element.
Evi'o,1 n~utal extremes peitrient to each locat..,ti a.-e ps fjlows:

Ice CU)
L,,w tcmpeiature
IBriven snurw
Win0.s
'
Induced enviiranmental encoantern may be con-
sidered under the headings of (1) transportation

and handling, (2) storage, aud (3) operatlona.
I.rutic
In transportation and handling, the principal

environments encotmtered include shock, low
Driven
i._.iemprtr bnow
Winds
tI',,'--'rt1ItP
nsatlon
NIPritie
m
Moisture
Sunshine
:dt. npray
Iligh temperature
T. tMpe rnture- condensation
I' ongus
--
1'emper~t..-.
,,
:.
'-.icc
perature-condeneation
and possibly
sandtommad
- uzl, Ltouiz}Fta.WU~,
noiujeure
dust and sunshine, The environmental test proreflect the opercedure
be selected
and
and thetotransportation
conditions
ationa) must
lligli temperature
I .ow emnperature
Molsture
S-,r,d
andsynow
dust
IDi imcn
I t.nijlrature-(.otdenriation
V'u,-,i,
The f requency of encointers may be assessed

of
analis
of the life
historyand
by
I-or mann~ed
aircraft
the a-.step-by-step
capon system.
equipments Intended for repeated use, It Is apparent that environmental encounters In the
(1-42
handling conditous. For transpu~tatyll a,-d

handling,
packaged
equipment,the testa are applied to the
t
Similar considerations apply to the storage
environme/at, which includes high temperature,
low temperature, fungus, temuperature-cundensation humidity, rain blowing snow salt spray,
st, and handlng shocks.
sunshtne, sad andad
The nature and effectiveness of protection afforded by the storage facility establishes the
Intensity levels and comblnations to be expected.
Co.ne.,
lrt a~l
"
.,.
A
MC
45
7-
300
0
1.
I~
50- 2
16 15
'4
5 -0T
45
Land
Ms
ipheI
Fig648
Wol
A)A
AI
1*.
01---M
VI
459
'
-I
T-
Fu. -4.Woldwii
casLfctin
T-4
f lmaes /T
sonin
--
---
'
4W
fi,'st two phases of tWe mission profile, namely

transportation and haicling and storage will be
repeated les6 frequently than those in the other
phases. Therefore in establishing the require-
iof
o
I
Lo
repeated cycling through those environments
Low t.wOu'e
encoun.-~-red during orcration.

Figure 6-49 presents a distribution cof the
Encovntiv
15.7%
9.3%
TAoletwe-do
'
"
r
0.9%
9.9%
Tewqwo.we
52,
Vibfotffe
number of encounterE by typical equipments for

use overseas from the point of manufacture to
die point of use. This distribution is illustrative
only -. d giveG equaL weight to the various enduse areas and means of transportation. The
specific weapon system must be analyzed in the
lighi of the *-c,oseddeployment, utilization and
structui of use.
C*
5.2%
52%
5.2%
5.2%
r
.ot=o
4.1%
Ozone
4.1%
?.9%
2 ._
21%
No.,"
-65 F (-54C) outside

air temperature (OAT);
"
21%
S. Way
so
M81
VWi
Encounters during ground standby are obviously a fuiction of the location as modified by
local measures. Realistic combinations tpical
of ground standby in each climate are as follow.z:
.. %
rt
t"
2.9%
'I
Fi464.Environment encountered from
plus blowing snow at 15
Desert
P.rcent.
To,
30 of
ocoECM.4f
r.
of encounters, while the rest are duplicated by
Ice cap and Arctic
15 go
I I
shock
ments for the environmental test, the first two

phases may be represented by a single series
Al
tounfort
Et
point cl manufacture to point of use.
mph and higher (4-hour

duration).
125 F (52C) OAT. nlum
foot (A effect-- compartment temperature
up to 160 F (71 C)--4-
I00 F (38 C OAT, plus

s
per
atts
foot (A effect) (7-hour
futrAo
-*
*.
hour duration).
Tropic
Continental
75 to 95 F (24 to 35 C)
OAT, plus 4 Inches of
rain per hour (2-hour
duration).
75 to 95 F (24 to 35 C)
OAT, plus salt spray
(4-hour duration)
90 F (32 C) OAT, plus

foot (A shect) (4-hour
duration)
-80 F (27 C) OAT, plus
sand and dust (4-hour
duration).
90 F (32 C) GAT, plu
95% relative
tir humidity
duration).
(4-h
9
95 F (3.; C) OAT, plus

foot (A effect) (4-hour
duration).
75 to 90 F (24 to 32 C)
OAT, plugi 95% relative
humidity (4-hour dura-
tion).
Maritime
68 F (20 C) OAT plus

fog (moisture) (4-hour
duration).-
20 F (-7 C) OAT, plu-s

blowing snow 40 mph
and higher (4-hour
_ duration).
The mission profile encounters are also determinedby..operaUonal analysis. Typical cornindicaUve of the factors to be
binations /11/
C0 F (27 C) OAT, plus

considered may be listed for a hypothetical
CT
QOATplumidtycargo
h27
aircraft and.a missile as follows:
90% rrelative
humidity
Cargo Aircraft (Basic Mission)
(4-hour duration).
salt spray (4-hour duration),
r8'n at 4 inches per
hour (2-hour duration).
C-44
Takeoff and cilmb

-
Standby conditions to
vibration (to 290 cps)
plus 1013 mb to 572 mb
(at 15 000 feet), plus to
10 F (-12 C) ram air
temperature.
I.
"".---
hilti.d cruise,
340 miniutes
572 mb to 376 mb (at

25,000 feet), plus 500
cps, plus -30 F (-34 C)
ram air temperature.
Descent, 30
minutes
Cruise condition to sea

level in various climates, plus shock.
Standby conditions In
various -climates.
Take-off and climb, Unload conditions to
vibration (to 2000 cps)r
30 minutes
plus 1013 mb to 301
at 30.000 feet), plus to
-24F t-31 C) ram air
Unload, 60
niniutes
temperature.
i'"v,:
The standardization of environmental testing

ib an obvious but frequently neglected, point of
is
asientlfic method. A standardized test is a test
that can be duplicated, and hence verified. The
-30 F (34 C) ran air

temperature, plus 239
Rib, plus 500 cps.
be reproducible with the difference6 in .s. reuits due only to random causes of vvriati'n,
the.
Imall
in comparison
which must be
results measured. /14, 15/
To touchdown,
30 minutes
To standby conditions,
plus to 1013 mb, plus
plus 30 g's
cps,second.
to 500
for
0.012
The goal of standardized testing in not neceessarily that tests and test procedures be uniform,
is,
they be tostandardized;
but rather
results
translate 'lie that
be possible
that
it sal~l that
Ground-standby conditions at
tako-off and at touchdown for all
long-range aircraft may reflect
a change from one climate to another,
Missile
Launch
Climb
h,,tial cruise
Final crise,
5 minutcS
to 50,000 feet in 150

seconds acceleration
(15 g's for 3 seconds),
plus 160 F (71 C)*, plus
1013 mnb to 116 mb,
plus 2000 cps.
50,000 to 80,000 feet in
10 seconds, plus 160 F
(71 ()t1 nluui 116 mb to
27-mb, plus to 2000
cps, plus ozone (0.007
to 0.029 cm per km at
65,000 feet), plus cos,nic radiation,
5,0feet 1cations
(22 C)*, plus
F 71
plus
20)0 cps.
to 100 000 feet (11 mb),
plus 1bo F (71 C)', plus
to 2000 cps, plus ozone.
NOTE
I
effects
niair temperature
and/or refrigerated
insulated
to this temperature.
In terwinal dive, the mnssile is a true bailistic proji. tile and warhead function is the sole
Cl iticl tLoIIsidcration.
",0
PIT'
M_
"
'.
word "duplication" implies that the tests shall
Final cruise,
490 minutes
NOTE
N,
The definition of the combined environments

to be encountered is logIcally followed by r determination of the Lnteraction environmcets;
that is, those envircmmenta that will be encoun"tered at any point in the life history of the
weapon system ard which Interact. This is approached by considering the effects of the various environments on the materials ann parts
determining the mechanism of damage and
interaction.
Standardization of Environmental Testing
of tests performed in one facility according to

a given procedure Into a prediction of results
that would be obtained in another facility and
that both of these be accurate predictors Rf results to be obtained In the field.
",1': '
*.,
.
.,
4.
There are two major problems Involved in the

standardization of environmental tests. The
first Is the writing of good specifications for
the tests that must be carried out. These specif Icatlons must not only be clear and detailed,
butthey must specify procedures and conditions
that are attainable in the test laboratory. The
second problem is one of obtaining compliance
with the specification oia- the part of the agencies
performing the tests.
Environmental Test Specifications. The probod environmental test specllem of obtainig
fications is chiefly one of clear, unambiguous
presentation. Such specifications as MIL-E5272, MIL-E-4970, etc., should be regarded as
guides to the writing of environmental speciflcations rathe-.' than the end product themselves.
The details of the environmental test required
for any item should be written into We speciflfor that Item, with LUL-E-5272 and
MIL-E-4970 used for the guidance of the specfpication writer, rather than as couvenient allInclusive authorities that may be referenced to
save the specifications writer the trouble of
detailing the tests he wants.
In order for the specification writer to perform his task adequately (1) lie must have access to thorough basic Information on environmental testing, (2) he must be familiar with the
to be tested (3) he must be familiar
equipment
with the test equipment that will be required to
perform the environmental tests, t4) he must be
very familiar with all environmental test procedures required, and (5) he must be familiar
with all environmental effects.
A.
'Si
";.-
'
1!: :e
-
,.
'
.
6-45
. -
... .
'
. ...
'
'e
Tn order to Insure uniform duplicat;,)n of resuilts,' it is generally advisable :or Lhe specification writer to discuss the desired seqiencing
of tests In the specIfication. If his previous experience Indicates that a spcific sequence of
tests is desirable, he shoId specify such a soqucncc. If he feels that only one or two testa
should be dcr-e in a specific sequence with the
rCL~ai!nder of the aequencing optinlh sol
so state. Eiven if It Is felt that no specific sequence should bc required, a comment to this
effect should be made in the specification. Iti
only in this manner that the test engineer will
will allow
be roide wththe
wi-heed. that
be poviddguidance
him to conduct a properly dostgned enrirontet
pogrm.1.
niinta
Shou!- thc specification writer desire cornLii.d environment testing, he must spell out in
rteat detail exactly how the tests shall be co.Al
Titwhat-e limpts orceqditmontshall be,anedho
efequpmet shll e ued,
u e hattyps
the tests shall be interpreted. In any case,
whether combined environment testing or single
environment testing is used, standards for the
interpretation of test results must be supplied
th tetlloeginer o dterine
in oderto
whet-her hie equipment, passes or falls the test.
government inspector at the test agency is not

enough to Insure complete compliance on the
pzr-t of the organization doing the testing. No
matter haw much tdstall iz written into an en.
vironmentitl "pcifIcatlon it io cdJfficult to obtain consistent interpretaton on the part of many
inspectors.
Teketoteprainoasucsulet
PrOgram In the education of the test engineer.
He must understand completely the operation.
and characteristics of the equipment he is testing, as well as the tests
that are
be toperbe
thatto Is
test equipment
formed and therespect,
reference /16/ draws
In this
the following conclusions:.
In general to Insure the uniformity of en-
.
-'
0.
-i
4h(\
vironmeital test conditions, consideration must

be giveni to the following:
ut ecntrle
etpaaeer
a.ce the test condietions dount permintvrolleto the extent that, within the range of test tolertbons In test results.
-
nlomnaprmtrnt
l te
b
juthoendreshaculifuncte
results of the test must be specified and con.
trlec ow tvrexetsnesaytop-
24'
vent variations In results.I

tuy f heunfom
Frc
AnAi
sonord
j.'
utbcery
ntles
duplication of environmental test results /16/c.Teevrn
respema~ct thpc~ficatonge
forrenvironmeta
specifiled In such a manner as to preclude Varations in interpretation by the test engineers.
niomna
o
respetig tosliiain
4. All chamibers and associated instruments
d
must be capable of controlling the environments
spcifcatons
1. Te rotaledequpmen
ihnteacrc
n
pcfe
~ temne
should specify the number of equipments that
must be subjected to the test program, the testsequence 107 accommodation of each test Item,
p
e. Thepersonnel performing the tests must
and the applicable proceduire for each test.
be suff iclentlytralned and capable of performing
the test In the specified manner.
2. The detailed equipment specification should
spec ify th-h physical and electrical measure2. In genek-al, to insure uniformity and. re- ~
ment(including detailed test procedures for ac'
complishIng them when applicable) to be perpeatability of environmental test results, con-,
sideration. must be given to:
formied initially, during, and/or after environmental exposure. Included also should be thb'
LL'
a.. The operation vnnu electrical tests (or
requirements that will insure satisfactory perother types of tests) to be performed on h
formance of the test- equipme-nt.
equipment must be clearly specified, including4
#~
~
the required measurement accuracica.
3. The detailed equipment specification &hould
.
specify any modification of test or requirement
b. The applicable environmental tests conof the general specification, particularly with e-
i
number of
dtosfetseqecofetsand
gard 1.0 teFt period, duration, severity of enequipments to i;tested must be clearlv specifiled,
ivironmantnd exposure, environmental and inn--_
with proper exnp:.ass an any modification or ~
trumientation tolerances, standard test condispecial consideration not covered in the generai
tionls etc,
specif ication.
4. The detailed equipment specification should
c. The tests must be perf ormed in a Careful
specify in detail any special considerations dueand precise mianner, with attention given to the
to)the particular test equipment, such as mountlimtaitnions of the test equipment and instrumenting rnethod, orientation, etc.
ation. All data must be recorded and reported
accurately and legibly to preclude any possible
Cnrnjliancewith Test Specifications. Obtaining
variation in test results.
YaFUiw r~equTirements of the
conpiai-iFe -with
specification is a problemr of educating the
macencv doing the testing, and Insuring that adeIn order to achieve uniformity in environ-'..
q~iate test equipment and test facilities are
mental test results, standards for environ'
mental teat chambers must be setupinaclear
ava
ilale The relliace on the presence of a
-
'
______
-
-.-
~-
.~%
alit
and unamubig~uous manner and must be enforced,

The Air Force etudy of environmental test dupilcation /I6/ indicates that a wide variety of
charilrrs are in use, Those vary so widely in
desipi, construction dctails and methods of
__
operation that obtaining compliance with specif icationn9 is often difficult, if not impossIbla.
-where
There are two ways to insure duplicable en-
and test proceduires for various categories orf

equipment, andthe other iR to police test organations to assure that testing is accomplished
in adequate facilities using satisfactory test
procedures. Probably the beat method is one
the best in specifications are developed
both for teat procedureh and facilities, and
where aspot check inspection is made of testing
The inspection action would be
moFA effective il carried out by the environmenta! test industry itself.
*...
-accomplished.
vironrynental results. One is to develop detailed

specifications f or standardiz'ed test facilities
REFERENCES
1.
Cockrell William D. Indusrial Ee.t~gic's, Mc6raw-Hlill Book Company, Inc.,
9.
celrion.
f195 8,
2.
3.
Stuhlinger, Ernst, Instrumentation for

Space Research, Research Pr~oj~ects Laboratory, Vveloprnent Operations Dlvisioii, Army Iallis tic Missile Agency, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, 19 March 1959.
Environmental Test Sesueneing and Num______'____tes,___
iems, WDC
bT~c~
1mltdCombined Vibration. Supl~i~nd
Y.om
10.
Browni, C. D et al,
GeealTstqhio
iimieno
~ArV..
5.
~*Faiiiyo
E. Kircher, J. F., Suvyof Irradiation Facilities, IIEIC Report No. 11, The Radiation Efire(ts Information Center, Battelle
Memnorial Institlite. Columbus 1, Ohio,
30 Aorril 1960.
7.
Minr'ner, R. A,, K. S. W. Champion andi If.

L. Pond The ALIDC Modl Atmoshcre,
19529,
AF7(A1C-TR-'i9-2V7
Air Force
sti'c.'vy.. in Geophysics No. if5 Geophysics
Diiectorate, Air orce Camnbri (ie Researrh C-ter, Air Research and
~Pi~~boaorU. S. Air Force,
AS11), Wright-Pattersoll Air Force Base,

Ohio, .Ianfuary 19460.
N
ceBase,
ArFoc
obndEvrnet*~*
ea
Force,
30 $rteA
U.
.
R6410U.SAiFocGDU
Air Force: Wright -Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, July 1960.
13.
14.
15
Englehardt,
R.E., Dev l men oAir
E~c Eniometl
ri&Sid
Rue
WADC TR 57-286, ASTIA Document No.
AD 118296, U. S. Air Force, ASD, WrightPatterson Air Force Bane, 0ho Jul
1957.
ho
l
Demin W. E., and Birge, R. T., Quk
Statistical Theory of Errors. Cra uate
TChool6, U. 5. Department of tAgriculturc~,
Washington, D. C., 1934.
Shewart, Walter A.,

~p
fraom the Viewpoint
Unrveloprnent Command, Bedford, Massa-AgiuteWhitoD.C,13.Arclue

(husetts, Aug-ust 1959.
Schueller, Otto, S c
nionetFlt
lily fcr Life Support SystemI, Arospace
ination of a
Ilo,,dtch
8.
Air
TeiUng, IYAWADC TR 56-546, U. B. Air

?orce ABUJWr1glit-Fatterson Air 1I7orce-
~~
Rro'ket Se DesigqHandbook Report No.

fS7Ti ACON 60-1, Contract No. AF 29
(500) M00, Air Research and Development
Cornim.nd, U. S. Air Force, January 1960.
"-
IT. S
AD 131045, U. S. Air Force,
July 1957.
Tha rlp-
csting Laiorator les, Contract No. A

33(51'j-6116, -U. S. Air Force, ASD,
Wright-Paitcrson Air Force Bane, Ohio,
October 1959.
!?1
ASI), Wright-Patterson ArF
W-VU
&R 9-490,Ohio,
Ches ter Polake

n aNd~~,
WADC _TN 5C-5-1.
Air Force, ASD, Wrigiir-Patt4;rs"x

Force Base, Ohio, 1969.
U. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright- Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio, 1959.
and Extreme Temperature
16.
autigM
ho
~~ot
ntnD
Sa Dprteto
.
99
Uniforme Dlication of Environmental

Test Results, Part-I -Part~f~nc~r_
WADC TR 58-613, U. 5.Air Force, AS,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Bane, Ohio,
November 1958.
6-47
BIBL~IOGRAPHY
DiTaranto, R. A. andiJ. J. Lamb, Preltimnary
o Environmn~iahhh
Inesti atin
Hyper~iioasWlSimuposed
DCT 57-456, ASTIA
Djocument No. AD) 14389 U. S. Air 1'orceASD,
WrlO.I.-Patterson Air rForce Base, Ohio.
i
.t
Ahoirnvxthy A. H., Cobre
I ax~e Test dhamberi~ px-escatedatthelnsitute
thIEnineers Annual Meeting
uivhironm
Chicago, Apri1 1959.
Anderd~on
F. G.
"AN/AKT-14
Telemetry
System, Part VI kWM and FM/FM Automatic

Pat.-i Reduction wit-h A KT- 14 Tel emetering Comn-x
pnnnt<
rofssona
!W
GoupTrnsatins
Dryden, Warren, "Simulation

forL
August 1959.
Helicopters," Vilbxaion Notebok Vibration
Dumond, Jesse W. M., jjivrovementf; In the
BtRa Secocoy7A1
Prcio
Mcument No. AD 8366.
'iaC-2, Marc1Tirf5___
Anderson, Merwin T and Leonard L. Robinsonr, "Laboratory Similation of Rocket Engine
Noise,' Environmental QuartEly, 4th Quarter,
Ankeney, D. 1P. R. W. IMiirph and D. M. Nel--"The NOTS Controlled Vibration Track
T- nI-e"Shock and Vibrat!! Buletin
Part rHI, No. 27, June 1959.
"Atmosphere Simulator," Fqttuin , April 1959.
Elizalde. J. 1C., H. T. Ida R. T. Hartung, et

Euy,.1 jm~ytt
al, Feasibility tq o A
son1,
Bone, A. G. and R. G. Anderson, bTA~l~atlon

1133.
Electrical
Me~rn Sytm:se4naah
_L__L
o.A
Dcmn
udmnaso
uddisl
i
495
'caig
Ahp~7'lK3uin
00AI~W.
GerlachA A.,"FM Recording in Gt'ided MIssties," Electronics. 28 January 1953.

Gaik
."epns
fSrcuelne
Random Vibrahon," Environmental Englr~eertng.
No. 1, February 1959.
PaomVbErto
GricN,
6A~3T72RT.4
o.niaain~AT~cmT
Cammnarata, John, "Review of Environmental
IEquiprn-nt,"
Fitint Test Jnstrumentntion Gron
Atr
Iturrus, Walter R., Standard Iilgtrumlefltatloix

ATediniu oirr~n No.ea Enirnena Te4ting,
k-H oiyet1o
D127.Vol.
Test
1960.
of Supersonic Track Sleds," Shockan ibrag

tioil Utiletin, Part U11, No. 27, June 1959.
Manufacturing,
Y'me
~, Repor, No.
AtcatcDvso
Cn
Gnrl
ofenealbinaniics Corporation, 30 August
Testin~g Air Mileare Unit, Mk 4 ASTIA Doc-=_jV

Brown, Ralph, E., "A Precision Centrifuge
Machine for the Evaluation and Calibration of
InertialGuidaxice Acceleromneters," Proceedings
of Institute of Env-zronmental Engineers, 195V1.
Burgess, J. C., "The Vibration Environment-
fnlio
8
5aeVehicle Temperature Hle~to
uin 'T6--
'
M?'J 1,157.~
"Chamber Simulates Space Environment, 1'Av~atL~nVW ei, 13 April 1959.
4of
Aosia
asHJ
ouesaAnl~A
on
e~
T~
HackW'rnD,"nFitVbaio
Cool, William P., "Criterion for Chamber
SpecifIi cation," Environmental Qua!rterl~', April
Measurement,' Test Engineering July 1959.11
Crandall, S. Hi., "Random Vibration," The

of the Massachusetts Institute
T(,-hnoi,. -rPress
of Teuhnologv, 1948.
WADC'
n(,.Ljj.
Handbok of &coustILc NoIR
TR 52-204, Volume 4 "Physicrl Acoustics," by
Lukaslc and Noble, June 1953 and Volume' V14,
".Ticleand Man," by Walter A. haultKen-
Crede, C. E. and E. J. Lunney, Establishment

Vibratio-. and Shock Tests for Missile Elec-
nieth N. Steve'ns, and the staff of Bolt, Branek,

and Newman, April 1955.
by
e
Harrs, M~rawHUIBookCompnyInc., I1P57.
tru!mI
IDav-s
1o,-kvt
jwri
'eu
f
tteMasured
menrol
Environ-
L. I, "Missile Comrjrnent Testln F on
Sleds a~t the Air Forc e'MlIssSilt -LM' etupTwent Center," Shock and VibrationBulletin,
Part 111, No. 27, Ju-ne 1959.
DiTaranto, R. A. and J. J. Lam~b, Preliminary

lt*-Ft,-iinn of Hiyper Environments nT eth-
Harris, C. M. Handbook of Noise Control.

McGraw -Hill Book Co, 157
Hecht, Bernard, jdtcte
with Ac elerjted Life Tee
~
Paper 50-1.
n of Failure Rate
Sprague Technical
oI (1! stiunuation., Part 11, Simulation Method

it 57-45t;77AfrfA Nt3_umenFt No.AD
............
1.12,-1 7, U. S, Air f- ox-ce, ASD, Wright -Patterson
Hermnann, Fred, Ruic lrijrumentation and

Control Theory as Anilied to Environmental
Air- Force Base, Ohio.
T~tChanjbars.
0-48
".p
-__ - .
.r.
"Hligh Speed Tr~ck Facility,"
BIBLIOGRAPHIY (continued)
Morro&. C. T., "Shoock Spoctrunm as a Cri.v.2 April
1959.
ron o( bi'verity of Shock Impulses," JoUrnal of

A1 .stIcal Society of America. Vol. 29, No.5,
1957
howard, Darnley M. Deelopment of aFatigge

Dlamage Idicator, ASTIA Document No. AD,
Morrow, C. T. and H. L Sargent "Sawtooth

Shock as a Com onent Teat"
c/Acous-Rofurna&
ti.ca. Socety
America
.
Hubbard, A. L., "Syetem Testing on Dynamic

"hoek andV
V&
brationBuetin) Part Ill No. 7 J-----Restrahnts at Lockheed SCTB
Morrow, C. T. and R. B. )R".hanore, "Short-
Climatic
Installation for
asturnentatmon
T-t
m Tes
for
of--h
-er-M--P~
-l'f6lI
Lk
5289I's(ASG) Navy Bureau of Aeronautics.
ed M uesuring
Present Methodd
mings of Vibrational
Jo-and
s-mulating
of Applied Mechanicsl
22Envrrmnments,"
Selptember 1959-.--
the High
i
Kptaipo.man, George W., D_
Intensity Noise Test Facility, ASTIA-ociument
TeleB
Nichols, M. H. and L L. Rauch RAIC
metry. 2nd Edition, John Wiley WA sm-h-5
Noise Measurement Technique&, National
Kennard, D. C., Jr. and C. E. Thomas, Data

Techni es for Flight Vibration
Measuremenets, -STIA DocumentNo. AD 210178
-.
P h;
Laborory,
144133.
[F,ductiorj
~M
Iaunching ofDocument
Free Flight
at HikhVlct,-7.SItA
No. Models
ADlq
1461i.
Linschitz
Venry, 4-El
Indicating 6yt4ems,
rnc
ASTIA
Document No. AD
41f 1-0.
LUJI.ULZUL
Mills. mn
Charles,
Environmental
ulaition
Systern "Value
Testing ofP rog~ram,"
Tes Sirmt
inm, July 1(59.
Moriti~onicry, C. D. and B. D. Sissom, "U. S.

Army Ordnance Automntive Environmental
'l',T;tin)' !acilities," 61hQk and VbrP
t',
Iu
I IT, No. 2f,,
3t'L
br
198..
lba I1-3ulle-
..
ANV.
AM"J
A.VUL
t-A
62.
Schauch, Wm.-J. and W. J. Bell, Hi. Temprature Recirculating Air Oven (1300 F) for
Sy
Structral Comnonent
ASADcument N. AYWN,2L
Mershon, H. E., Elosion-Prood Test Critertinirt:'for Reconnaissan

ie.
(;n-rator AST_)ocument
o. ADuation
Ii,L- io0j.
.
.
DtA.
nralt Discsieo o
Memhos t Chrltes Wr
c..ytnilrOnjment for Test Purposes, ASTIA
Mc'Intee, F. P,. "Low-Temperature Pneun-atIts in thi

Environmental Chamber," Proceed1i01- of ;'stitute of Environmental EngLneers,
Prmrli
ts~
1--i
'1'
101010.
"Manual of Nuclear Instrumentation," N

on!cs, McGraw-idJ. Publishing Co., N.Y.
*
J. P., Practical Conilderationa of

Vibration lcsting Lear Paiili-tion
...
Redfleld, Alfred G.. eiear Induction 13Deceter for Use

kow Tmveratre , ASTIA Document No. AD
R., "Correlation of Shock Spectra and

I),lse
hnarne with Shock Environments," EILvjrwmont.-;l Enginecring, Vol. No. 1, February
Lowe
Monroe,
."~ A
Analyzer, ASlIi Document No. A,.

Radar Guidance Group, D.sign
d Instrument.
Platforms ASTIA Document No.
AD 151694.
Dose .R
t",.T
7AST
A Document No. AD
Pl-uthner, Richard L., and James P. Welsh,

Manual of Standard Temperature Measurig
.for MWTand Termin01o UTADC
T
_etu
No. A
r
E iet5.
E. and Warren W. Smith

Laesch, WilliamriedEetoncSqpe
tu Weathering and Sheltere
Natura
CorrelationIof N
Storag'e YxosureTests with Simulated EnvironMentalA--ratory Tests, ASTIA Document No.'
'
Schnee, M.
and t. Wohl
Study Tuh._,Re
of F
e
Prceedurem
for ffle~tRt
search and L cvelopment Report taterlalLaboratory, N. Y._Naval Shipyar,
13 February
1956.
" 'gi
Schock, R. and R. F. Lander, "Flight Testing

Spacecraft," Electronlc, 27 March
1959.,
M
-
'.
Schulman James H., "Glass Dosimeters for

Radiation Measurement,"
_epdustrialAtom,
q Irdsra
TED- 8006.
-.
Selff Alvin,
bted Models
!or Experimient
eerc
Ipyooronu
Document No. XD 150315.

6-49
,
;,p;m
"'80
(continued)
;j !BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Space
Technology Laboratories,"
Aviation
..
"The First Slmuatted Trips to Venus ad

Mars," Desin New , 18 August 1959.
"Solving Reentry Problems" Electronics,

Iusiness Issue, 5 September I9M8.
B
--
Tomalno, Ml.;hael F.,

1958.
E`nvironmental Testin
~March

i
e
S
rtG'2ower, E. ,J . nd R.W. Perry,
nary Plapninm ora ypr VelociltyAero
let
ga--aT-AEDC, ASTIA Document No. AD
157144.
Sumnicht, H. I., A_.Meodqr Meaeurig EfASTIA

fective Energy from Radiation .re.
Nocument No. AD 157082.
"i4
Yarcho, Wayne B. E.
neLee.Ea
X,
cdUties of Wri'i
ASAT1 Docuent No. AD 1In10.
-
Youg, Robert W..G

Measurement and Xna vsis
AD-6-686.
"__
e
N e.
A5TXA Document
.IS.
7, .fl
".,.
-- _:
~ J:...
~. ,.
~.
aa
r/I
-IS.
tAPEKDML
EQUIPMENT CLANSDE
A
IOl AND EXAMPLES
it
1. GRO0UND SUPPORT EQU'IPMENY, ELECTRON4IG AND) COMMUNICATIONS

Cc)min uaiCat tons and electronic eqruptwnt 4~
Class includes all equipmart with
all types.
electronic circuits as copnns
1. Ground radio equipmenot.
2. Ground radiar equipment.
3. Electronic test equipment.
4. Wired communications equipment.
b. Telerphon.
b.
c. TIeletype.
rlegmph.13.
3. Conirnercila-type 02.'ctricsa in-juipmert.

4. Air czadlticmnii and rt~rigeratmon equip6wpe
5. Hetn n-.nuta
6. Plumbing awlpment.
and ecq-ipment.
. L&axrtory vaopw~ru'a
8. Phetegapic and lpmawen.
Mnt
10. ShopomuhinAc an optcl waiulpmnenLct
10.Sbot .i~tnr
n*riitn
eeup
1.Tim~eent.
euimo
12, Comstru.1ion. equipineaL,
Vehicular equipment~,
14, Mitriwrlas h~awldltg c(ivipment (not fgtht-
U.
e.
Wilred audio, including public addrens,

motion picture souna systems, bouna
recorders, and reproducers, etc.
5. Electronic computers.
6. Electronic office machines.
-EET~OI
2.SUPORT
GOUND
QUIMNT
AI
CRFT AND MISSILE SUPPORT
Equnipment used outdoors _n airfields and
rmisslt2 launching pads for servicing, malnteelance, ch~ckoiu., miup4port, etc.. El ectronic equip menet is not included.
und'loing
ir heaingandvenilaingmitters.
I .
1. ir ondtinin,
hatig nd entlatng
I c:st aniJ chriecout equipment (exrept e-lectroil).8.
3. Crash, fire and other emergency equi-
4. AIRCRAP'T
AND MUMME EQUIPB&ENTr

N
O.!~CTO~
Allairburn-ge wAnmissile-borne eloctronir and
com-unicatiovns equipment. Class includes alln
equipment ccmtaluffig electronic. circuits.
.acileeupet
2. Sound recortuag equpment.
3. Visible and invisible light communications
equipment.
4. Radio aid, teievts~on receivers and tranis5. Radar equipment.,
7. Communicat~zios equipmient accessories.
Electronic computers.
9. Teeetrn
equipment (airborne post-
4. ih1,ctrical support equipment.ton)

.10. ECM equipme-nt.
S. Fuel and oil h~andling equipmecnt.
6. Mtintenance equ ipme~it.
__s. AIfRCRAF-r AND MISSILE EQUEPMENT,
8. Maetral
naandl ingoequipment.
8. PeuraiicsuportequItnnt.AUTrOPILOT, GYRO) AND GUIDANCE
t.Airfield li&ht ing equipment.
a-nd gyro uysternai, wissile guidance
and c'xtrol equipment and essentlat accessories,
GNEQUIMEN,
61?0Jt-I) UPPRT
except electronice eumet.
QIMNTEEE
3.J DAOJI)SPOT
-Autopi~lot.
All i,,round support equipment not Included In

electrontics and communications or aircraft and
iiiissilu support classes.
1. Off P_-e equipment (except electronic).
2. PrintIng and repioducing equipment.
-4.
1. Control assemblies.
2. Pressure gages.
Sl. Pressure regulators.
Servos.
5. Hydraulic sumps.
6. Speed control valves.
'.
A-i
d, Signal assemblies.
f. Pitot-stittic tubes.
Gn~age rs.
gVenturi tube..
i. Warning signal assemblies.
7. Hydraulic regulators._
9, Gyroscepos.
S 8le oi o.E.
equipment.Idcaos
10. oNavigation
a. AptraI.
b. Ineftial.
~a otrle.3
-
6. AirPCRAFr AND MLSSiLF. EQUIPMENT,

POWER P'LANT ACCESWORII&S ANDI AUXIL1ARY POWER PLANTS
AUl aircraft and missile power plant accessoriet, -kd auxUlary power plants. Does not
lii dude primary 1xowecr plant.
1.
2.
4.
3.
5.
Auxillary pe'rer plants.

13costers and takeoff apoist unilts.
Igrtonelnd lctricaneltcmpnets
Pritopellndcmoenetrsa.cmonn
Aircraft engine accessories.
4h
Icioees
Nlavigation Instruments.
a, Compass caging units.
b. Chrooomet-irs and clocks.
C. Compasses.
d. Kavigational and guidance system comnputers (except electronic).
e. uriftmete~rs.A
7
I. NavigatmionsItrument transmittz".
s~-g
extants.
4. Electricall meters.
8. AlitRCAPI' ANDt GUIDED MIESILE EQUIPMENT, ARMAMENT
p
a, Carurel ntionrs.
a. Cabureors.All
aircraft gun, bombbig and rocket equipguided misamm parts.

plus accessories
c,
Reglatorasc~emlles.meat,
c, Reglatorasiembies
itle warheads
and acceesorf
es. -bou~s not in d. Valve asoenmb)ica.
ciwie automatic flight control equipment and
e. Engine controbi.
electronc componients.
Starters.
g. Air Intak-c filters,
poer
~3.Mi~a~t
ian acessrie.a.
C. I16.31c
accssob.
pwerpian
a. En-Inc~ controls.
b, Electrical components.
(I~ Generators.
( Ignition systems.
assemblies.
l3Primer
4Regulators.
1
,
T.~,
1. Mechanical equipment.
Gun adapters.
Bombsights.
c. Gun charges.
d. Aircraftgus
0. Gun and bobight mounts.
f. Bomb, rocket, flare and torpedo racksi.
g. Bomb shackles.
2. Electrical eqipment.
a. Gun charges.
d. Pump assemblies.
b. Gun heaters.
e. Fuel regulator assemblies.
c. Bomb gun and rocket solenoids.
f. Starters.
dZ Bomrnin, navigational aid fixed fire
g. Valve assemblies.
control comrtero koxcept eiectronicj.
e. Intervalometers.
f. Servos.
7. ATRCPiFT AND MISSILE EQUIPMENT,
turret.
~.Solenoids,
lNsTHUMENT1> AND SENSORS
'
4
1
c. Go'ei .or assemblies.
s nF;inf, uniVr and Fignal assemblies that transmit iaform ition to other unilts. Electronic
equipment i9 not included.
1.
owr
lat.d.
a. I uel and oil Pressure signal assemblies.

b.Ta61ometers and flexibile sh~aft adapters.
c. Gaeunits.
d. Erigine Instrumenet transmitters.
ec. Signal assemblies.
2. Flighit instruments.
a.A2~rmtr.classes.
1). Altimeters (extCFA electronic).
c.
A-2
Load adjuster computers.
b
b.
rigdvcs
ue adn Iviciaor.
ntaos
Fuesy
8 eif-destruction units.
9. AIRCRAFT
AND
MDWILE
OPTICAL AND PHOTOGRAPHIC
EQUIPMENT,
All airborne and missile-borne still and motion pincture cemera and other optical equipment
not part oi specific lunctJioral equipment in other
1. Cameras. -.
2. Mechanical camera accessories.
7
r
"IVr
4-1
, ., f.I, "itq
"APPENDIX A (continued)
3. Electrical camera accessories.
4. Other optical devices and accessories.
10. AIRCRAFT
LIQUIDANDCRAFLI
AND MISSILE EQUIPMENT,

D ACTUTE Eaircraft
LIQUID AND LIQUID ACTUATED
tdPLiquid-carrying or hydraidie-actuated
inooe stlie
ment that cannot readily be placed
functional categories. I system has both major
electrical and liquid components, it should be
classed with electrical Bystems.
1. Hydraulic struts aid actuating cylinders.
12. AIRCRAFT
ELECTRICAL
;1'
5"
AND MIJ8ILE EQUIPMENTP
Electrical (but not electronic) equipment; in

and missiles, Includes all electro-
eb,'Idrical equipment that cannot be placed In one

ctoa clasLfieations.
o "
(linear rotary, switch).,
c
1.
i
y
r
(ier
2. Phase adapters.
3. Alarm devices.
4., Alternators.
hlteonatoxes.
6. Booster coils.
3.
7.
- r-
5.
Cmpre;E.!rs.8.
5. Comore,.rs.
7. Coolers.
7. Dehyd-ators-..
"" and
nd
8. striners,12.
Flters
strainers.
8. Filters
9. Fire extinguishers (liquid-filled).
rfueingequpmet.13.
10.In-ligt equipment.
10. In-flight refueling
11.
Pumps.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Coolant radiators.
Valves.
14.~~~~~'idhedwpi
windshield
w5pe
hhydraulic).18Tmes
Vents.
1i. AIRCRAFTf AND MhSSibE

GAS AND GAS ACTUATED
EQULJ.MhIN.VTO
Gas-carrying ur gas-actuated equipment that

cannot be placed in one of the functional categories. Electro-pneumatic systems should be
classed with electr.cal systems.
t. Accumulato-s.
2. Oxygen breathing equipment.
3. Canopy removers, explosive.
4. Compressors.
5. Pneutmatic actuating cylinders.
Ejection seats, propellant actuated.
Fire fighting equipment (gas type).
Purr,)s.
Gas pressure reg-ilators.
V'ive,.
Propellant actuated guillotine.
All
Generators.
"
-.
Electric beaters.
9. lnverters.
10. Light assemblies.
I l.. Electric motors.
Electric control panels..
ptnels.
12. Electricrol
ElectricEd fire fightirg and detecting system parta.
14. Voltage regulators.
jacks.
_5,
.
Scre rs
-15 . Screw
17.
-18.
19.
zu.
-21.
.,-
U
,,
Induction vibrators.
Food warmers.
Electric winduhield wipers.
Lxt-rnal power receptacles.
Power converters.
-15. AIRCRAFT AND MISSILE

MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT,
P.
Aircraft and missile equipment that has only

mechanicvl-operiAUng prt"s.
-
--
ir
7.
S.
9.
10.
11.
12.
.Y
Junction boxes.
1.5-.
2. Hydraulic brakes.
Accumuft
hydraulic, electro-Fneumatic and electro -me-
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
13.
11.
12.
Glider towing and pick-up assemblies.

Controls (manual).
Gear boxes.
Cargo tie-down equipment.
Carro holito.
8eat assemblies,
Bearings.
Jettisonlig equipment.
Parachute recovery equipment.
Pulleys.
Universal Joints.
-H..
A- 3/A-4
Vj2
.A
APPEN(D!X-B
~UNIT AND TERM4S
raRatio of abrorbed
diant energy to incirdiant
dent
nergy.as
Nhoorp0ll'tY
Acceleration
clue to gravity
unit or ter
en
O-
trm or
Unit~
980.665 cm ePlane
32.17 ft/secl (sea
level value at 45.544latitude).
(Earth'/
of
AlvoRatio
Ecliptic
-i
.
light.
Ang-t!om
A
or A
comet's) orbit
distant from Sun.
of satellite's
inost distant
from Earth.
ApgePoint
Apogceorbit
AU
unit.
Atomic nurn
ber
-g
(or
point of planet's
most
Aphelion
ARtronomiC ii
10 cm; 3.94 x 10
ienc.
citepae
Kntcee~o
Electrostatic
unit
ty
sinm~1iss
Erg
Number of protfons in
nucleouB oi atom
elect:rons). (thu, f alo
Gamaoersted.
nuber
Erg
Owi
Charge of electron~;
1.603 x 10-19 coulomb.
tance of an actual body
0 radiant emittance
of back body' at same
tepeatre
3P3..
.7.,'
I dyne -cm; 7.368 x

20-8 foot-lbs; 10-7
joules.
10-5 gauzs; 0
Gauss
D~issociated
Free atom that seplar combination by

absorptian of energy.
1 magnetic force line2

1m;1mxele
2
6.452 lines/in .
attdskn
D~yne
Force required to accelerate a one-gram

2
t
elttuusaltud expressedin
potential energy based
on sea level vidue.
Bucomets numericaLly
force,
Z_
Ratio of radiant emit-
106 dynes/cm ; 14.50

psi-, 750.Of rum of Hg.
withe
liar
x !0-6 Tba
Btu..
Mean distance from

E -t~h to Sun: 149.8 x
101km;9 .9 x 106
mi.
Mass 1 CM/spC ; I
gin - cnh/Bec'; 2.248
hnprticleofectni
chrei
hnasfallen free through
01
31t: 1.602 x 0119
_10X
ergs, 1,602
volt
reflected
ApparentV*t, or
on ce lkn
greastcirie
~
Ulshro
seen from Earhx.
of Earth's orbit
is coeincien
Eetu
symlbol
smaller than geomet-
ric (standard) altitude
with increasing height.
-10.
-~.
-.-- -
ApPEN4DIX B (continued)
Unit or term
Symbol
______
Gram calorie
4.18 joules; 4.18 x

10 ergo.
Ionized atom
A neutral atom that has

lost or gained one or
more electrons by the
absorption of energy,
and thus becomes
chrgd.Perihelion
1 watt-Bec- 10' ergo;
9.48 X10-4 Btu.
Joule
Approx. 9.5 x 1012

kin; 5.9 X 10.2 mi.
Light year
Radiant power ervaluated in terms of eye'

resp1onse; 1 lumen
I/08 watt at 0.55
Lummi
Mean free
path
M FP
Tlotal number of protons and neutrons in

nucleus gives afprox.
measuse of nu ar
masI
Average distance traveled by atom or molecule between two can1secitive collisions
withi atoms or molecules.
4-4
10
cm; 3.94 x 103A Inchos.
MicronJ
10~angstroms,
Millibar
10~ dynes/crn2
0.0145 psi.
Normal ternperature and

pressure
S~bo
Number
a~
density
NTP
-0 C and 760 mrn of

Hg.
Number of particles
(atoms, electrons,
etc.) per cubic
centimeter.
*
Perigee
Point of satellite's
orbit closest to Earth.
vw
Radimnt
emittance
ds
i.
ic
,.
.ue
Radiantpwepr
unit areae tedro
Rt
ftanfro
er..
1400 watta/um2 ; 2.00
mfrp 130
cal/cmil2
; 443 Ltu/t2 hr.
hr.
STP -15 C and 760 mm. of

Hg.
6.61 x 1 - 8 dyne
Universal
cm /m
gravitational
Weber
dlant energy (wadts).

Ratio of reflected
energy to Incident
Solar constant at
astronomical
Wilt uattt/t
Velocity of
light (ina vacwim)
O-27'
34
664
-V'~
asurface(watsc
(flux)
RefLectivity
Standard ternperatsure and

pressure
Point of planet's (or

comet'a) orbit clorest
to Su.
7.
Absolute temnperatare
ostt6.4
scale; zero Kequals
-273.16 C or -459.69662X10
F.
Kelvin, degrees K
Masr number
UA or term
2.9977 x 1010 cm/sec;

180,278 miles/sec.
108 maxwJil;1I volt
see_
*q
..
,.,'.
Antennas,~~,
proe,'.
coroio 'P
Analyzer, dynamic, 1-8
damping, 5-41
flow, temperature control, 5-12
pressure, 3-25
effect on heat removal, 3-26
effect on lubricants, 3-25
temperature, 2-9
ambient, 3-2
trarr' ortat")n data, shock andvlbration, 3-12
Aircraft, jet noise, 3-14
manned, 2-27
temperature
,
fects, 3-8
skin vibration, 3-18
turbojet, shock and vibration, 3-13
Alpha particles, 5-74
Altitude, .srmulation, 6-17
vs. atmospheric density, 2-8
vs. atmospheric density vs. climate, 2-9
vs. atmospheric pressure, 2-8
vs. heat absorption of air, 3-8
vs. pressure vs. cLimate, 2-11
vs. stagnation temperature, 3-10
vs. temperature, 2- 13
v liiids, 2-14
Aluminum, 5-3
Ambient air temperature, 3-2
Aralysis, environmental, 4-1, 4-6
nnipc, 4-11
eperations, 4-1, 4-12
solar heat, 4-10
tests,, 4-7
1thration, 4-10
wave propagation, 4-12
..
."-
Antennas, corroeion protect>' "

Acceleration, 3-11
effects, 3-17
on humans, 3-50
te-t"rg, 6-24
Accelerometers, 6-6
Acoustics (see also Noise), 3-11
effects, 3-17
Actuators, hydraulic and pneumatic, temperature effects, 3-7
Aerodynamic, environments, 2-27
heating, 2-35, 3-2
analysis, 4-9
vs. shape, 2-36
vehicles, hyperasonic, 2-28Aeronautical equipment, testing, 1-4
AF, environmental programs, 1-9
philosophy, 1-9
Policy documents, 4-2
Specification
41065,
1-6
Air (see also Atmosphere)
'-
.54
Anti-icing and delving, 5-67

Arcover, 3-26
prevention, 5-68
ARDC handbooks, 4-5
ARDC Model Atmosphere, 4-2
Asteroid belt, 2-45
Asteroids, 2-1
Atmosphere ARDC Model, 4-2
climatf'. 1-13communIcationu interference, 3-41
density, 2-7
density vs. altitude, 2-8
density vs. altitude vs. climate, 2-9
Earth, 2-4
-.
electricity, 3-27
protection, 5-70
.
explosive. 3-28
combind efects, 3-49
6-21
hottesting,
and cold,
6-27
41
.h&:
,
,,.(
%
.
",:
ionization, 3-29
ligitning, 2-5
2-22
---
..''
iIv(
ri
Mercury, 2-20
'
Moon, 2-19
pollution, 3-24potential gradient, 2-7
pressure, 2-8
combined effects, 3-49
protection, 5-67
vs. altitude, 2-8
vs. altitude vs. climate, 2-li
soiar intensity madriution, z-4
Sun, 2-3
temperature, 2-9
extremes 2-11
contrul of vehicle, 5-12
Venus, 2-21
Axial-flow fans, blowers. 5-16
k
"Mars,
'
-43
"
,
: "'
,
.,
..
.
..
',
_
',.
B
" ",
Ballistic missiles, 2-30
reentry trajectory and temperature, 3- 10
Batteries, corrslonprotection, 5-54
Bends, sheet metal, 5-38
BerylUlum, 5-5
Beta partcler., 5-74
Bleed air cooling system, 5-22
Blower, cooling systems, 5-23
centrifugal, 5-17
.,
heat transfer 5-13

turbulatois, d-15
Concivty let,3-
corrosion protection, 5-55

pjnibers, jet v'ilration data, 3-59
Bonding, 5~
e
CaBonaiylaZo
er
noests 411oi
Capacitors,~drec
reco,
croin
5-35in
radiationlrec
357
shock ~ ~
~
~
Cathode-wlraymue damage, 3-18
Centrifugal
~~~
Ceramic ecrrsioanpoetio, 5~
Ceres,
2-2
CanalZoers enirne
ntts-1
Chapssanacito
s, corrosion protection, 5-54

Chassis
3-1f3-21adaindamage,
1:
mo te pert ure, 3-3

3-37
effects,
rstmertr
Crcuiltibeo
Cisunr
~32Curiea sac,
n sirty, efet-9
-5
t~~~~~em
2-14
vstpestsu,
CetVe. (saltitud
~~~1 ~Coerafic
N-chfssis
coniduration(se 25tals
empedablre,
51
feliqi
5-17
dointint
-1
liquctd,
nefrne
Csiray
Coulom dapig,5213
Cooiltuge
afecs
apr I
Cuptyp
3-t
ent o epaulnsin -,5poe~o,~5

Ceres, co2s-2
if~~~~~Csi
2-18332
Dosmc rany anti-frci

5e,
Desert testio
Co~uced damping, 5-41
aeiasde oCuleting
33
tempratue,
vircuingeevrnet
bekr
tmp atueal,63
Communiatr
n intrfrece 2-6-1-3r2
o,55
,-3
5--7
vCondsitile heavrn't tras er,

Conospe
reefcsc-1Dnmtors,
Humdit
mui6tins 3-29
minar,54
rito,54
Ea trth, s 5--4
atosphedvire, 2-49 on
ts,3-21ti
rodand
l
~tio
afets, 3vislctusit
toldpwratuereteffetsng 1-2
Combned envaincuronmientas,
Mis-t ure),7
Cnducedon
i
cooing
ateriales, ucerradiationefct,3
Diet
Crstal, crroswx potecion,5-5
effects,
ids 3-36u-ye
aito
sltr,54
Durag tparamtaer,
~j
ahne -82-3
meteortitue eff pets, re3-28-epeaue1fets1

Cliatic aletmshricst , 2-13D
Conprenatinsefctofnuctemperaturetconto,3-12colm,54
moistucoreso
effe
Dor
cating,
5-52
l
,54
rictionc, 5-405.
ytrs,
rsist ant mbateials, 5-51
5-39
andin
s 36-1 9
5 -39
Dcleration, 2-35
oardintensitydctibuton
5-67
Deser tompsito, 1-3
D-14magetic ared,inuain-17
ias
oiodes caone
corrosion protection,
Coiw rtettionfre, te-1 raur co-20l 5-12lsiit,53

Co1-2
t (e
lospcfccmpnns
ommctoa42
fcs,33
eolator,
5-42 ton
in
odwetetetn,12Dclradition,
Chambieds
environmentsl,3-42
prteton--5
a-d
appliecaion, 5ugu-32
Cefcienutiofepnin
20e
aled
~ vWrto,52
orlto
sstm
-,
51-22
poeto,55
5-123poetiecaigs
~~~blowers,
-2-reisace
5
resIdtn
aerials, 5-251
C1mI raediatb , 2-184 32
roextremes tubeSTdam1ag, 3-18poeto,55

Clmaicatoshees213Daprtcing,
Ceatrifuga,eloferst o
5ncer a-t17
-2c
protc~:v,
550 fngusprof,
nhetical
cnitos
ffrctso
,2-5
21
etprL
6
5-55ete
Id
J:.astomcric and plazitl: rniaterials, nuclear

radiation effect&:, .1-30
Electrical Jusulating materials, nuclear
raaiatio,3-341
efecs
Exposure sites, 1-3

Extended surface heat exchangers, 5-19
Electroclnsularticls, 5- ditio
3-ters
Electrinituye,
atmospheic, 53-27trig
oroinprotection, 5
-5
Feti-a
4
ation,
3-37h
vhce3-7Fnucea
effte-yn~mctsha,
E(tomperature waves prpgto
nlss
Electromichaia
component(Belso teperature
efet seas
pcfcomponents)Fertmaril5.
radiction efrticls, 5-74
Ffe9
10,
Fiabshcs, 3-52
raxia-iow, 5-16
36
-3
Flatpanpellheat
5-1
&
-1
Flisttenest, Cractioal tun5
Fainuetdamaentto, 5-27
Fightvehicl,
jelecbrtrionication 3-27
Fleing,
meteoite
Elrtoisturesmonig 5-3
Jovbaindt
dmg,
hydraslic, 3-5
cornprosin roteectio, 5-5
Embedmeflnt 5-56b 337ncla
radiation effects, 3-3
2
temperature effects, 3-58ltpnlha ehugz,51
ncpuatcrmc5
Intumnaio,_
nts
Ecapsulati
dato
Flsoinamted orimers nudR
Enviromen~d
nah'91, 4-1,4-6, 48
ae,31
effects, 3-361
Endirtonmetlcabr,81
- -lliuy
Envcronrncnts, c-Environmeatint 5-ce aemeraor
ers
cnionmbened, 3-42
eniom-t)
hyper, 1-9i
Induced, 3-45
natural, 3-42
effects, 3-1
3-50
Summiai-', 3-52
Ihumians,
exotic, 3-41
facilities, 6-9
hlyper, 1-8
3-41
-.
interacting, 1-7
natural, 2-31, 3-1
r~atural and induced, 2-25 -nutr~ent
combined, 3-45
natural, interacting, 3-43
natural, sensing de~viceFs, 6-4
nula,18Fuses
satiellite, launching, 2-34
reentry, 2-34single testing, 6-12
testing, 6-I
qimnl
ac'j -~cl
ct~mbined,
1-7, 6-13, 6-24
hiyper, 6-25
nuc~e~hGamma
space, -22;Gsfle
trends, 1-1i
ILAtipinent, tet.liperatur-e effects, 3-7
Ltvaluaiion andi qualification, equipment, 1-10
Exotic environments, 3-41
Ex~pansion, coefficient, 3-3, 5-7
11xixfldal~le cooling system, 5-24
I xJ111"orl proofing, 5-70Grae3Exph'.Sivc atmosphere, 3-26
t urnhined effects, 3-49
tef;tUng, 6-21
~eramc
radvirationefct, 3-37852
epecctic
F8,2
Flornaed
ponvecton,-1, 5-20k rdato
Frct-nl-r efaets 331 nr,
Frame and cabinet damage, 3-18
Friction damping, 5-40
Frost, 3-22
Fuel, cooling systems, 5-23
hydrocarbon, radiation effects, 3-38
systems, temperature effects, 3-8
sand and dust effects, 3-25
Fungicides, 5-50
~
t
Fungus, 3- 19
combined effe~ls 3-49

inert materials, V-51
mate--i-'
-~tenting,
5-51
prudiing, 5-50
resistant materials, 5-50
6-23
and holdera, corrosion protection, 5-54
Gaais 21
-I
Galvanic action, 3-19

Galvanic series, 3-20
shielding 6-76
sealing 5-56
eml
C ears, corrosion protection, 5-54
Generators, moisture effects, 3-21
GeomagnetIc field, 2-32
Gas
ula
I'
aito
Glide, vehcler 2aiain-2ecs33

Gravity, zero, 3-39, 3-51
'
'
fet,33
Gredatie, 3
fecs43
Ground Vehicle proving grouands, 6-16
Grounding, 5-66
1-3
H
Ici
Indicator and m-~ter damage, 3-P

Indirect liquid codling, 5-20
and natural onyfreoyatt,
ot~,
2-25
-5-c
hyper, 3-41
ensintr devices 6-5
flight test,-6-3
sensing, 6-3
apc-eerh
tme~u@efcs
test 6-2
communicaitio's, atmospheric effects, 3-41
effcta, 3-41
meerfte, 23-2
5'ty,32
stetc eeti:t,32
"as, 5-64i
n techn
T-internAl hean, 4-1
vehicles, 2-35
atmospheric, 3-29
Ionospheric effects, commnitications
Ionospherc
selinfprot5etion
~paglo
protection, 5j-2
simulation, 6-16
Hoses at.,~ couplings, radiation effects, 3-37
Hot and cold aimospheres 1-7
Human, acceleration, 3-56
6-7
niaterialm, electrical, nuclear

radiationi efects, 3-34
materials, temperature effects, 5-7
3-5
InsulatIOn, temperatur efet,
temperature control, 5-12
Interacting environments, 1-7
Interacting natural environments, 3-43
Interference, 2-36, 3-40
(se
Hligh temperature, effects on materiasi
ad Hat),3-4Interpianetary
alsoTempratre
uberatr a-4 Heaon-4zation,
also, Ten
r-bbr,2
effetseni.
interference, 3-41
Isolation, shock and v.4bration, 6-39
cuIp-type, 5-42
~Isolao,
*-
metal- spring, 5-42

-
noise effects, 3-50

protection, 5-76
ten-ycrature effects, 3-51
tolerances, 5-77
Humidity (see also Condensation adjtacat
2-16
*Moisture),
Colcombit ed elffec t s, 3-48
ercrt-- on humanis, 3-51
simulation, 6-1~7
Rydraulic and pneumatic actuators, temnpera-lure effects, 3-7
Hydraulic fluids, 3-4
temperature effects, 3-8
11,ydrAulic systems, corrosion protection, 5-54
Hyvdrocarbon fuels, radiation effsects, 3-38
Hlyper environments, 1-8, 3-41
combined, 1-9
testing, 6-25
Hvpc: sonic aerodynamic vehicles, 2-20
Hysteresis dampnplg, 5-39
1-4
effects, 3 -2
analysis, solar, 4-10

conductivity, 3-3sngdves
dissipating tube shield, 5-18
exchange, 5-18
flat panel, 5-19
s~e;-irK4-tube, 5-18
Iiaternal, 4- 10
producing sources, 3-2
removal (see also Cooling and Temperature
-Inaflinhg
control), 5-12
air pressure effects, 3-26
-16Insulating
blowrs,
systerns, 5-21
sinks, 5-20
Specific, metals, 5-4 transfer, Conductive, 5-13
convective, 5-1
materials, organic, radiatio efacts 3-",
radiant, 5-14
fHel.copters. vibration data, 3-74
Hermeic
C3-2e,345&
w.
shpeZ-36,
fseadn,5-b6
Hasei
qu-id-f~ied,-557
~3-22
Uets, 3-23
Indicatling insrments, temperatureoeff ecta, 3-7
10
* Hail,2dlaiag,
2-22
Handbooks, ARDC, 4-5
Harrnortic suppression, 5-65
heat(seeals
Temer~tr6)Induced
absorption of air vo, altitude, 3-8
mountirA& 5;44, 5-4
~54
temperature e~fects, 3-7
irto
'
os,31
JtarrfvbainadPte31
je Lrn)mbers, vibration data, 3-U9
Je fighters, v ibrton data, 3-67
Jupiter, 2-23
K
Kelvin, degrees, B-2
L
Laxnit -dse, p.dastie, 5-2
Latitude vs. kizons, 2-6
ILaboratormorulation, 6-Va
N1,
r
t environment,
~~~La:unch I ..
""L,,ahei..3-4
s it'te, 23-,4
off"t.
i2-5
arrestors, corroion profAilon, 5-54
tstrike, 3-27
Liquid cooling. !trect, 5-17
V.""
on materials, 3-20
protection, 5-49
LIiii tit,,
Moon, 2-19
..
at..tcphere, 2-1
ra.4i".Jo; 2-20
temperature -2-19
'
" "elI, 2Motors and dynamotnrs, ,umperaturebffects,
34*f
effects, 3-21
moisture
Motors
nd generators,
5-55
protec'lon,
Motors, corrosion
indirect, 5-i,
Liquid fiild hermetic sealing, 5-57

Low temperatures, effects on materials
(see also Temperature), 3-4
pru'&ction, 5-460
simulation, 6-16
testing, 1-1
:'
"
ot(cent.)
,4.
-'
Lubricants, 3-4
air pressure effects, 3-25
corrosion protection 5-54
sand and dust effects, 3-25
Natorni and Induced

co hlne s-,
".'
.r
,.
nviroament, 2-.,
..
.:Natulral envir-onrn.amtm, 3-31, 3-1
combined, 3-42
I
M
Magnesium, 5-4
"Magnetic field,
Earth, 2-17
Sun, 2-3
Venus, 2-21
effectr, 3-1
..
hyper, 3-41
sensing devices, 6-4
..
"'
Natural weather tests, 6-14.

Neptune, 2-24
'
Neutron shielding, 5-75
materials, 5-6
Magnetic
V
corrosion protection, 5-54
nuclear radiatic,n effects, 3-34
Manned aircraft, 2-27
Mars, 2-22
atmosphere, 2-22
radiation, 2-23
temperature, 2-22
Materials, evaluation, 1-10
high ternptrature, 5-2
nuclear radiation effects, 3-30
temperatute effects, 3-4
Mechanical. eftects, 3-1
Mercury, 2-20
at mosphere, 2-20
teroperat"-e, 2-20
Mcsosphere, 2-5
Metal spring isolators, 5-42
nuclear radiation
compounds,
Metallo-organic
31
LIItOCLS, 3-
Noise 3-11
Metals, structural, 3-4

Metals, ttructural, effect 4f nuclear radiation
1 32
Meteor orbit, 2-2
Meteorites, 2.2
damage, flight vehicle skin, 3-28
interference, communications, 3-28
Meter and indicator damage, 3-18
Micrometeorites, 2-2, ?-2R
Mirroorganisms, 3-1i
M inia'urization, temperature problems, 3-7
Missiles, 2-30
compartment temperature, 3-8
Ldiistc, reeritry, 3-10
shock an,! vibration, 3-15
Misn;ion profiles, 2-27, 4-6
Mdcl Atmosphere. ARDC, 4-2
Moisture (see also Humidity), 3-19
*icts, elctronl, 'oniponents, 3-21
"iuipinitn, 3-22
fiivht vphicleB, 3-22
hydrocarbon fuels, 3-38

lubricants, 3-27
ma.In etic materiale, 3-34
materials, 3-3
metallo-organlc compounds, 3-V3
organic beat tranmer materials, 3-32
plastics, 3-30
seals, gaskets, and sealanta, 3-37
semiconductor materials, 3-35
structural metals 3-32
transformer, 3-3.
transistors, 3-36
Nuts, self-locking, 5-30
analyais, 4-11
bouidary layer, 4-11
effects on humans, 3-50
jet aircraft, 3-14
rocket, Z1-14
testing, 6- 19
Nuclear onvironments, 1-8

testing, 6-22
Nuclear radiation, 3-29
Nuclear radiation effects, coatings, 3-32
3-3"
dielectric merials,
diodes, 3-36
elastomeric and plastic materials, 3-30
electrical Insulating materials, 3-34
3-3
finhes
fluorinated polymers, 3-31
glass, 3-32
areses, 3-37
and
hoes
,-., 3-37
* .
tt couplins,
,u
jv.
.
R' I
'1
0
Open-type isolator, 5-42
Operational effect&, 3-1
Operations analysis, 4-1, 4-12
Orbit, meteor, 3-2
.-
I-st
Organic heat transfer materials, nuclear
Radiration (cont.)
Venus 2-21
organic materials, 3-4
Radio telemetry, 6-3
Outdoor exposure sites, 1-3

Oxygen control, 5-77
Ozone, combined effects 3-48
concentration, Earth, 1-5
vs. latitude, 2-6
vs. seauo1 , 2-6
Radomes, corrosion protection, 5-55

RaWl transportation data, shock and vibratl,
3-12
Rain testing, 6-19
Ram-air cooling system, 5-21
Ram-Lir temperature vs. flight speed, 3-8
Random vibration testing, 6-19
Rectfflers corrosAon protection, 6-55
Reentry, 1-35
environments, satellite, 2-34
shock wave, 1-36
temperature and trajectory, 3-10
vehicles, temperature effects, 3-9
Refrigeration system, vapor cycle, 5-25
Relays, corrosion protection, 5-4
damage, 3-18
location and orientatlotio
L-I
shock and vibration, 5-Q8
'
Rellability, 1-12
levels, 4-21
Resistors, corrosion protection, 5-5
moisture effects, 3-21
mounting, 5-35
shock and vibration, 5-29
temperature effects, .- 4, 5-7
_
, K_3,46
Parts mounting, vibration, 5-34

Physical effects on materials due to
temperature, 3-3
Planet data, 2-26
P1P-Iirts, 3-4
1;-aninates, 5-2
r.uclear radiation effects, 3-30
Pluto. 2-25
Pneumatic and hydraulic actuators, tnnperature effects, 3-7
Pneumatic systems, corrosion protection, 5-54
Pollution, atmospheric, 3-24
Polyethylene, nuclear radiation effects, 3-30
Polymers, fluorinated, nuclear radiation effects
3-31
Positron hfhilding, 5-74
Power plants, corrosion protection 5-55
Precipitation (see alan HunilditVy) --4
Pressure, air, effect on lubricants, 3-25
stmospheric, 2-8
combined effects,. 3-49
protection, 5-67
vs. altitude, 2-8
-vs. altitude vs. climate, 2-11
Pressurization, 5-70
Printed circuits, moisture effects, 3-21
Printed wiring, temperature Pifects, 5-10
-8'
Production P.ampl'nU tests, 1-12
Propeller fans, 5-16
Prutoktive coatings, corrosion, 5-52
-Samplig
fungus-proof, 5-50
Proton shielding, o-75
Pumps. te~rncrature effects. 3-7
Q
Qualii:c-.:,a and evaluation, equipmcat, I-10
Qua. ' cCAt'-ol, 1-12
R
Hadiant heat tr-nawfer, 5-14
Radiation, 2-17, 2-28
cosmic, 2-18
heat removal.rfferts, 5-17
Mars, 2-23
Moon, 2-20
nuclear (see Nu,'trAr.ra-iation)
protection 5-71
t'i'-ling (see also A.'icldirij, 5-73
8,,,a', 2-3, 3-2, 3-9S.
conblned effects, ;-49
i!tensity distribut.on, 2-4
Rpace, 2-3
1-6
.,
1"
-,
Rigidity, 5-36
Rocket noise, 3-14

Rocket-sled tests, '!-165
Rubber, isolaterd, 5-42
temperit.dre ;flects, 3-4
44
.1 "
.
"
1
P-
Salt sprmy, corairlned edfects, 3-49

testing,-6-23
tests, 1-12
Sad and dtests, 1.:1
comban
&
ed
2-ect-...,
-1'-.
e-25.
..
fuel system-.
lubricatoiv
*s"
protection,
size,
3-24 5 1-.....
,
,
tesr*-, 6-20
Satellites, 2-30
and space vehicles, shick and vibration, 3-16
data, 2.33
launching environments 2-34
reentry environments 1-34
thermal shock, 3-9
Satallolds, 2-30
Saturn, 2-2:"
Seals, gaskets, and sealants, radiation
o'
effects,
3-37
Sealing, hermetic, 5-55
gas-filled, 5-56
liquid-filled, 5-57
SEaon vs. orone, 2-6
.,
Self-locking nuts, 5-30
Semiconductor materials, effect of nuclear
radiation, 3-35
*r
-44%
'TnmipC I&Wtur
(Cont.)
~ ~~- s coo.)
i trii:.-o-ts, 3-7
'iti
ij. aterials, 5-
est ing (con?,.
flight, cat j#-, i !_11,1-12

nunn~-.,
-
~ ~3-8low
-
ito ore a v, dy; 3arnotors, 3-4.nie

p' td -Irl ~,5- 0nuclear
jikir k", 3-7
,.
r-sctry
'~hi1O~..-procedures.
r1iiryLhils
'1,11
.1asators,
A nIohrs,3-4
6admvirtonP
sk ul~onductor~,
st~esan vbrtin is 4
3tr,3-7
3-9
sn- .i sivehicles,
. ~ia
mteils
-A
swi..-ua mateials 3-61
ternii ~~~
ternxnti boards5
31r
tralve 2-7-e 3vehicle w;riace and comrpa.-.ient, 3-2ve
wire 3.7.6 ('able, 5-10
extrctnes, atmosphk:.,,c 2-11
high, materia!s, 5simub'.~on 6-16
lo~vnatriai,
34Thermnal
-26
prteton
protection, 5-1
.*,
a'
bors
:,Z
igevs. combined, 6-39
space and hyper environment, 6-25
aecIieiations, 6-45
techniques,
6-10
trpia,2trpcln'3
vibratlon 6-11
~
sinuso~da, 6-18
static (captive), 6-14
(see also Temperatture)
crdu~ctiv":, material, 5-14
shock, 3-4
snteilte 3-9
ft
Thermosphr,
2-5
5-5
oin
Transorer,
3- 18itaie,5
roio
moisturAe, 3-18to 32
iet,32
mitr
mounting, 5-35
Theanimshr,
5-5I
-Titaniuomrs
rspinning sphere, 2-3
stagnation, 3-9
vs. altitude, 3-10
Sun, 2-3
Veno.
..
effects, 3-36
lzlilboards, temperature effects, 5-10

Terminals, shock and vibration, 5-29
Terrestrial space, 2-3
-2effects,
Testing, 6-1
accel erat ion, 6-24
aeronautical equipment, 1-4
eitnc,55
'
shock and yibratLi,. R~-28

tmeaue~fce
Transistor, mountxit6, 5-14
radiation effects, 3_ifl
Tra~nsportatlon, 3-11
btJ,nuguukai
UXta, Iau-1A;1
data, rail, sMock and vibration, 3-12
data, ship, shock and vibration, 3- 13
Transports, turboprop, vibration data, 3-55
Tropical Science Mi~sson, 1-3
Tropical tests 1-3
V-5
-Troposphere,
*.Truck
analysis, 4-7
Caral Zone, 1-3
cold weather, 1-2
conibined environment. 1-7, 6-13, 6-24
crzieria, 4-6
desert, 1-2al hylwr and space, 6-25
c:(plusive atmosphere, 6-21
facility s-"ivction, 6-31
fiv;d, 0- 14
t~ewlontnient, 8-12
guided aifiniii,
space body, 2-2
,
vas. ~
vs. speea,
S-36
producii-Da sampling, 1- 12
m-,6-'rin
6-19
~.
seqmiaces 6-41
testing, 1-i
Mars, 2-22sytm,93
Mercury, 2-20
miss"-e compartments, 3-8
Mnoor, 2 -19
physical effects on materials, 3-3
problems, miniaturization, 3-.7
protection, 5-2
ram-.air, 3-8
reentry, 3-radiation
reeuirements 1-7
rc istant metals, 5-4
shock, simulation, 6-16
skin, 2-30, 3-9, 4-10
Solar corona, 2-2
temperature, I- I
-9a
environr.Aents, 16-22
salt so\u 6-21tk~

sand and W,;t 8-20
*.
transiprtiation vibrrtion data. 3-11

Tube shield, heat-dissipating, 5-18
Turbojet aircraft, thock andvibraUon, 3-1
Turbojet and after burner, temperature
3-8
Turboprop transports, vibration data, 3-55
Turbulators, convection, 5-15
,
'
Uau,22
Urns,22
V%
Valven temperature effects, 3-7
Van Alen B3elt, 2-18
c-atlon sstem, 5-25

.%or cyele refrI:,
,-rizing erc,lng, direct, 5-17
P10h leo oinpartment temperature, 3-2
.. rface temperatures, 3-2
'cno.q, 2-20
atnmosphere, 2-21
radiation and magnetic fields, 2-21
teroperature, 2-21
Vibratwuin
('ie piui- Shock and vibration)
aircraft' skin, 3-18
analysis, 4-10
"andflutter, 5-28
""A
4
darnage, 3-17
and shock, capacitor, b-28
and shock,, relays, 5-28
and shock, resistors, 5-29

combined effects, 3-49
'jditta., he.icopuiei,
3-74
jet nombers, 3-59
Jet fighters, 3- 67
turboprop transports, 3-55
fasteners, 5-29
jet aircraft, 3-14
parts location, 5-32
parts mounting, 5-34
satellite and space vehicles, 3-16
Fvniellng, 6-5
simulatioa, 6-18
skin, aircraft, 3-18
'
Weather, conditions, Eirth, 2-12

testing, cold, 1-2
tests, naturol, 6-14
Wave propagatlon analysis, 4-12
Weightlessness (see Zero, gravity)
Wind, 2-13, 3-26
direction vs. altltnde 2-14
.
speed and direction, V-14
speed and sheetrs. 2-15
Wiring and cable, damag
shock and vibration, 5.9
3-18
Wiring, printed, temperature effct,
j10
1.
.
P.
x
,
X rays, 5-74
,,
"
yellow Dot System, 1-6
.
"
test, 6-11
testinig, random, 6-19.
sinusoid,%, 6-18
Viscous damping, 5.39,
gravlty,1 3-39
.--
"
"
2*
p',.9
'
!i
!
L-9

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W

' ' .' K"

.1 rna yqbe repr intedj except that

FOR, FEDERAL SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMVATk'N

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WVl~en Governnment drawings.

Specifications, or other datta are itsed fo

":.,In connection with a definitely related Governme~nt procurement operation, the

United 'ttGovernment thereby Incurs no responsibilit-y nor any obligationt whatsnoever;

that ;mky in any way be related thereto.

report hat been released to thevef

Powmnderie Machies And FoLarce

McGraw-Hill Book Company D. Cohen, F. Egan and

fh Is handbock presents to the designer the many facets of

This report has been reviewed and Di approkved.

Deputy for Test and Support

For many years there has been an urgent need for an

lvpy 'r Environments .

Pquiprncrt Evaluation and Qualification

, ,,pturl and P'ito_

Pri diction Samplicg Tests ......

E:lecti o,,e Components E!valuation.... .,.

.'nvi,-om ,ontal "'estingjor Aeronautital Equ1bfrent

'rADLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Ierirlanctary Vehicles ........

Chapter 2. Astrophys'-cal Facti and Envlronmaer.t

3. Environmental Factors and Effects

rln; rtuFre ..................

'- i,-,lar HliatlonT

Ar;-,*m ,;;eic 1:1, c".iicity ..................

"AILE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Ei. irnncrn'al Ana!ysis ..........

ii: o r'F nil al Desitn Crtcrlia . ....................

E,'vi r.mrirnthl Test Cri!terla.

(Operations Anialysls in Environment.aLEngineering

of Oji'ra*ions Analycis Participation.. ..............

Use ,of E:n ririnwetal Dava ................................

'ofFEnovionmental Plan .........

ivu.rnital Operations Research ......

A Not, or Statistical Trthnljue ..............................

of Mission Effectivereus and Trade-ts.......

of 'Ucertanities in Operations Aitrmlyals ...................

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Environmentil Protection (Continund)

Low-Tcmjt atwire Prote cticn ...........

azA Viiratton Piofection ..................

Atno ;jWrrIc P:essure Ilrotection .

.dri.nr,)ut Protection ....

]-oI alur %!icmt!ng Systems ...

Ptotective Isolation Systn..

,.n'.1 i, an.,ntatlest ln4truimenutatton ..............

II,.m," t cr(ei Pata 11cc-rding

.'\irboi',c I?. (01

I linghFt T(.st In.trumenat.on

and Processiog ........

Ch lnit rumentation ..........

TAT)LB OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Chapter 6. Environmental resting (Cortinued)

C.,nbhrind Environment Testing

I'rulilntn=ary T".t Procedure Development .

. Equitmn('nt Clvss Definitions and Examples ...

rnd.: P. Uoihr. ard Terms

al iesting Goals .................