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Definition:
It is the process by which individual particles or droplets of solid or liquid material (the core)
are surrounded or coated with a continuous film of polymeric material (the shell) to produce
capsules in the micrometer to millimeter range, known as microcapsules.
Or
Microencapsulation may be defined as the process of surrounding or enveloping one
substance within another substance on a very small scale, yielding capsules ranging from less
than one micron to several hundred microns in size.
Features of Microcapsule:
Microencapsulation is the packaging of small droplets of liquid or particles with a thin film.
Size:
Typically, the lowest particle size of microcapsules is 1m and the largest size is 1mm.
Composition:
Microcapsules consist of a core and a wall (or shell).
Shape:
The configuration of the core can be a spherical or irregular particle, liquid-phase suspended
solid, solid matrix, dispersed solid and aggregates of solids or liquid forms.
Classification:
Microcapsules can be classified on three basic categories according to their morphology as
follows,
1. Mononuclear:
Mononuclear (core-shell) microcapsules contain the shell around the core.
2. Polynuclear:
Polynuclear capsules have many cores enclosed within the shell.
3. Matrix types:
In matrix encapsulation, the core material is distributed homogeneously into the shell
material.
In addition to these three basic morphologies, microcapsules can also be mononuclear with
multiple shells, or they may form clusters of microcapsules.
Generally microparticles are divided in to two components;
a) Core material.
b) Coat or wall or shell material.
Core materials:
The material to be coated. It may be liquid or solid or gas. Liquid core may be dissolved or
dispersed material.
Composition of core material:
Drug or active constituent.
Coating materials:
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Biological activity
Nature of drug
Stability of drug
Entrapment efficiency
Percentage yield
PHYSICAL METHODS
Spray drying
Spray congealing
Air suspension
Fluid bed coating
Pan coating
Centrifugal extrusion
Vibration nozzle
Multi orifice centrifugation process
Spinning disk
SPINNING DISK
Suspensions of core particles in liquid shell material are poured into a rotating disc.
Due to the spinning action of the disc, the core particles become coated with the shell
material.
The coated particles are then cast from the edge of the disc by centrifugal force.
After that the shell material is solidified by external means (usually cooling).
This technology is rapid, cost-effective, and relatively simple and has high production
efficiencies.
PAN COATING
When coating is liquid?
Coating is applied as a coating solution or atomized spray to the dried solid core particles in
the coating pan.
To remove the coating solvent warm air is supplied to the coated materials while coatings are
applied in the coating pan.
On some cases the solvent is removed by drying in the oven.
When coating is solid?
1- Solid particles are mixed with a dry coating material.
2- The temperature is raised so that the coating material melts and encloses the core particles,
and then is solidified by cooling.
CENTRIFUGAL EXTRUSION
As shown in Figure
The simple extrusion method utnizes a device consisting of two concentric tubes
containing aligned fluid nozzles.
The liquid material to be coated is extruded through the nozzle of the inner tube into
the coating fluid contained in the outer tube.
Initially. The fluid extrudes as a rod surrounded by the coating fluid, but the rod
ultimately breaks up into droplets which are then immersed in the coating fluid.
As the extruded droplets pass through the nozzle orifice of the outer tube.
The coating fluid forms a surface coat which encases the extruded particle.
Spherically shaped particles are formed by the surface tension of the liquid.
By suitable means the formed coat is converted to a more rigid structure. Hardening
baths are usually employed for this purpose.
VIBRATIONAL NOZZLE:
It works under the same principle as the extrusion only difference is that an additional
vibrational nozzle is used for encapsulation and flow of fluid is laminar.
Matrix-encapsulation can be done using a laminar flow through a nozzle and an additional
vibration of the nozzle or the liquid.
MULTI ORIFICE-CENTRIFUGAL PROCESS: Microencapsulation by the multi orificecentrifugal process is the mechanical process in which the centrifugal force is applied to
throw a core material particle through an enveloping microencapsulation membrane.
The factors affect the Process include the rotational speed of the cylinder, the flow rate of the
coating and core materials and the concentration, viscosity and surface tension of the core
material.
It consists of a cylinder containing three circumferential grooves (coating material inlet)
Core material inlet
Counter rotating disc
Rotating cylinder
Process:
Coating material is introduced through the inlet grooves.
The coating material under the influence of centifugational force imparted by cylinder
rotation flows outward along the immediate groove and form film on orifice.
The counter rotating disc disperses the core material towards the orifice.
Core material encounters the coating material membrane at orifice and encapsulation
occurs.
CHEMICAL METHODS
1. SOLVENT EVAPORATION METHOD
Process
Step I (Dispersion of Drug in Polymer Solution)
In this process microcapsule coating (polymer) is dissolved in a volatile solvent,
which is immiscible with the liquid manufacturing vehicle phase.Methylene chloride
is a preferred solvent because of its high volatility (boiling point 41C). Mixed solvents
can also be used. The mixtures used so far tend to contain a water-immiscible solvent
(e.g., CH2CI2) and a water-miscible solvent (e.g., acetone). The water immiscible
solvent is the predominant component of the mixture.
Once the desired coating polymer is dissolved in the organic solvent, the drug to be
encapsulated is added to this solution. The drug agent may be a solid (crystalline or
amorphous) or a nonvolatile liquid. The added drug may completely dissolve in the
polymer solution or it may be completely insoluble and simply form a dispersion,
suspension, or suspension-emulsion.
Step II (Emulsification)
To obtain the microcapsule of appropriate size the core and coating material mixture is
dispersed in the liquid manufacturing vehicle phase (water) with agitation.
The drug/polymer/solvent mixture (i.e., the oil phase) is emulsified in water to form an oil-inwater emulsion.
In order to aid emulsification, a surfactant (PVA) is normally dissolved in the water phase
before the oil-in-water emulsion is formed.
Step III (Evaporation)
Evaporation is carried out by heating.
Step IV (Separation)
Once solvent evaporation appears to be complete, the capsules are separated from the
suspending medium by filtration, washed, and dried.
If the core material is dispersed in the polymer solution the polymer shrinks around the core.
And if core material is dissolved in the coating solution matrix type microcapsules are
formed.
POLYMERIZATION:
Microencapsulation by polymerization involved reaction of monomeric units located at
interface between a core material substance and continuous phase in which the core material
is dispersed. In polymerization a liquid or gaseous phase is used as continuous or core
material and as a result the polymerization reaction occurs at a liquid-liquid, solid-liquid,
Liquid-gas, or solid-gas interface.
1. Interfacial polymerization (IFP)
In this technique the capsule shell will be formed on the surface of the droplet or particle by
polymerization of the reactive monomers. The substances used are multifunctional
monomers.
Generally used monomers include
Multifunctional isocyanates
Multifunctional acid chlorides
These will be used either individually or in combination.
Process
The multifunctional monomer (acid chlorides immiscible with water) dissolved in liquid core
material and it will be dispersed in aqueous phase containing dispersing agent. A co reactant
multifunctional amine will be added to the mixture. The polymerization depends on the fact
that acid halides are water insoluble and diamines have partition coefficient toward the water
immiscible organic phase and diffuse towards it and it results in rapid polymerization at
interface and generation of capsule shell takes place.
A poly urea shell will be formed when isocyanate reacts with amine
A polynylon or polyamide shell will be formed when acid chloride reacts with amine.
Both polymers show attraction due to opposite charge and form coacervate, which is the
deposited around the core due by stirring.
Coacervation types on polymer solution:
1) Aqueous phase separation:
Core material hydrophobic
Cote material hydrophilic
Simple coacervation
Water-immiscible liquid
OR
Water-insoluble solids
Filter and wash Particles with cold water to remove hardening agent.
Dry to remove remaining solvent
Cost-effective
Applications
It has found applications in encapsulating active ingredients by polymers.
Core Materials Different core materials such as pesticides, pharmaceutical ingredients,
vitamins, and dyes are encapsulated using this method.
Shell Materials A wide variety of shell materials that either dissolve (acrylates, polyethylene
glycol) or do not dissolve (proteins, polysaccharides) in supercritical CO2 are used for
encapsulating core substances.
Methods
The most widely used methods are as follows:
Rapid expansion of supercritical solution (RESS)
Gas anti-solvent (GAS)
Particles from gas-saturated solution (PGSS)
I Rapid expansion of supercritical solution (RESS)
In this process, supercritical fluid containing the active ingredient and the shell material are
maintained at high pressure and then released at atmospheric pressure through a small nozzle.
The sudden drop in pressure causes desolvation of the shell material, which is then deposited
around the active ingredient (core) and forms a coating layer.
Disadvantage
The disadvantage of this process is that both the active ingredient and the shell
material must be very soluble in supercritical fluids.
The solubility of polymers can be enhanced by using co-solvents and non-solvents.
Example
Microencapsulation of TiO2 nanoparticles with polymer by RESS using ethanol as a
non-solvent for the polymer shell such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), and polymethyl
methacrylate
A schematic of the microencapsulation process using supercritical CO2
but should not dissolve in themixture of solvent and supercritical fluid. On the other hand, the
liquid solvent must be miscible with the supercritical fluid.
Advantage
It is alsopossible to produce submicron particles using this method.
Disadvantage
This process is unsuitable for the encapsulation of water-soluble ingredients as water
has low solubility in supercritical fluids.
IIIPARTICLES FROM A GAS-SATURATED SOLUTION (PGSS)
This process is carried out by mixing core and shell materials in supercritical fluid at high
pressure. During this process supercritical fluid penetrates the shell material, causing
swelling. When the mixture is heated above the glass transition temperature the polymer
liquefies. Upon releasing the pressure, the shell material is allowed to deposit onto the active
ingredient. In this process, the core and shell materials may not be soluble in the supercritical
fluid.
MECHANISMS AND KINETICS OF DRUG RELEASE
Major mechanisms of drug release from microcapsules include diffusion, dissolution,
osmosis and erosion.
Diffusion:
Diffusion is the most commonly involved mechanism wherein the dissolution fluid penetrates
the shell, dissolves the core and leak out through the interstitial channels or pores. Thus, the
overall release depends on, (a) the rate at which dissolution fluid penetrates the wall of
microcapsules, (b) the rate at which drug dissolves in the dissolution fluid, and (c) the rate at
which the dissolved drug leak out and disperse from the surface. The kinetics of such drug
release obeys Higuchis equation as below:
Q = [D/J(2A-CS)CSt]1/2
Where, Q is the amount of drug released per unit area of exposed surface in time t; D is the
diffusion coefficient of the solute in the solution; A is the total amount of drug per unit
volume; CS is the solubility of drug in permeating dissolution fluid; is the porosity of the
wall of microcapsule; J is the tortuosity of the capillary system in the wall. The above
equation can be simplified to Q = vt where, v is the apparent release rate.
Dissolution:
Dissolution rate of polymer coat determines the release rate of drug from the microcapsule
when the coat is soluble in the dissolution fluid. Thickness of coat and its solubility in the
dissolution fluid influence the release rate.
Osmosis:
The polymer coat of microcapsule acts as semi permeable membrane and allows the creation
of an osmotic pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the microcapsule and
drives drug solution out of the microcapsule through small pores in the coat.
Erosion:
Erosion of coat due to pH and/or enzymatic hydrolysis causes drug release with certain coat
materials like glycerylmonostearate, bees wax and stearyl alcohol.
11Attempts to model drug release from microcapsules have become complicated due to great
diversity in physical forms of microcapsules with regard to size, shape and arrangement of
the core and coat materials. The physiochemical properties of core materials such as
solubility, diffusibility and partition coefficient, and of coating materials such as variable
thickness, porosity, and inertness also makes modeling of drug release difficult.
Loading Of Drug In Microsphere:
AND
PANCREATIC