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leanner-s

Descnibing
A Age

what to teach'People
major factorin our decisionsabouthow and
- he ageof our studentsis a
and cognitiveskills;we might expect
: different ageshave different needs,competences
a foreign languagethrough pla for example'
:rildren of primary ageto acquiremrrch oi
useof abstractthought.
.....hereas
for adults*" Iun reasnablyexpecta greater
and languagelearningis that young children
one of the most common beliefsuuo.rtug"
agegroup.Most peoplecan think of examples
.:arn fasterand more effectivelythan any othlr
to pick up
..,hich appearto bearthis out - aswhen children moveto a new country and appear
aswe shallsee,this is not alwaystrue of children
.:newlanguagewith remarkableease.However'
facility may be somethingof a myth'
:n that situation,and the story of child language
with the
i.urn a new languageearly have a facility
It is certainly true that children
that
-ho
learners'Lynnecameronsuggests children
pronunciationwhich is sometimesdeniedolder
Readrecounts
'reproducethe accentof their teacherswith deadlyaccuracy'(zoo3:ur)' Carol
in sucha
please!
Listen'Quiet now'Attention'
how shehearsa young studentof hers saying
(
throughm' head' zo.u:7)'
of parodypasses
perfectimitation of tnJ t.u.t .r that 'the tho.rght
it appearsthat older children (that is children
Apart from pronunciationabilit hor"".\r""r,
learnersthan voungeronesin most aspects
tiom aboutthe ageof rz) 'seemto be far better
zoo6:i3). Pats,vLightbolvnand Nina Spada,
of acquisition'pronunciationexcluded,(Yu,
to the variousstudiesshorvingthat olderchildren
reviewingthe literatureon the subject'point
(uoo6:6-+) '
makemore progressthan youngerlearners
and adolescents
as languagelearners (especiallyin formal
The relative superiority of older children
educationalsettings)-uyhuu"somethingtodowiththeirincreasedcognitiveabilities'which
to Ianguageteaching'It may alsohave
approaches
allow them to benefitfrom more abstrac"t
are taught' Lynnecameron' quoted above'
somethingto do with the way youngerchildren
their
need to be especiallyalert and adaptivein
suggeststhat teachersof young learners
activitieson the spot'
..rponr. to tasksand haveto be ableto adjust
cannot acquiresecondlanguagessuccessfully'
It is not being suggestedthat young children
significantcompetence'especiallyin bilingual
As we havealreadysaid,many of the achieve
is
ar" oft"t' more effectivelearners'YetEnglish
situations.But in learning situations,teenagers
of
in
terms
ages.This may havegreatbenefits
increasinglybeingtaught at youngeru,'d yo",,.'g",
for example(Readzoo)' but especially
citizenship,democracy,toleranceand muiticuliuralism,
methodologyfrom primary to secondaryschool'
rvhenthereis ineffectivetransferof skillsand
often claimedfor it'
the substantialsuccess
earlylearningdoesnot alwaysappearto offer
Norisittruethatolderlearnersarenecessarilyineffectivelanguagelearners.Researchhas
(Lightbown
proficiencyin their secondlanguage'
shown that they'can reachhigh levelsof
81

CH.\PTER 5

and Spada zoo6:73).They may have greaterdifficulty in approximatingnative speaker


pronunciationthan children do, but sometimesthis is a deliberate(or evensubconscious)
retentionof their cultural and linguisticidentity.
In rvhat followswe will considerstudentsat differentagesas if all the membersof each
both in
agegroup are the same.Yet eachstudentis an individual with differentexperiences
and adultscan
and outsidethe classroom.Commentshereabout young children,teenagers
Much also dependsupon individual learnerdifferencesand upon
only be generalisations.
motivation (seeSectionD below).
A1

Young children
young children,especiallythoseup to the agesof nine or ten, learn differentlyfrom older
and adultsin the followingways:
children,adolescents
- They respondto meaningevenif they do not understandindividual words.
- They often learn indirectly rather than directly- that is they take in information from
all sides,learningfrom everhing around them rather than only focusingon the precise
topic they arebeingtaught.
- Their understandingcomesnot just from explanation,but alsofrom what they seeand
hear and,cruciall havea chanceto touch and interactwith'
- They find abstractconceptssuchasgrammar rulesdifficult to grasp.
- They generallydisplayan enthusiasmfor learningand a curiosity about the world
aroundthem.
- They havea needfor individual attention and approvalfrom the teacher.
- They arekeento talk about themselvesand respondwell to learningthat usesthemselves
and their own livesasmain topicsin the classroom'
- They havea limited attention span;unlessactivitiesareextremelyengaging,they can get
easilybored,losinginterestafterten minutesor so'
It is important,when discussingyoung learners,to takeaccountof changeswhich takeplace
within this variedand varyingagespan.Gl Keskiland PasaTevfikCephe,for example,note
that'while pupils who arero and 11yearsold like games,puzzlesand songsmost,thosewho
activities
are rz and 13yearsold like activitiesbuilt around dialogues,question-and-answer
most' (zoor:6r).
and matchingexercises
Varioustheoristshavedescribedthe way that children developand the variousagesand
stage,and then
that childrenstartat thesensori-motor
stagesthey go through.Piagetsuggested
reachingthe
stagebeforefinally
proceedthro tghthe intuitive stageandtheconcrete-operational
(see
Vygotsky
Leo
increasinglypossible.
formal operationalstagewhereabstractionbecomes
'page
the placeof socialinteractionin developmentand the role of a'knower'
59)emphasised
providing'scaffolding'to help a child who has enteredthe Zone of ProximalDevelopmerr"
(ZpD) where they are readyto learn new things.Both Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslori
while
sawdevelopmentasbeing closelybound up in the child'sconfidenceand self-esteem,
witi-'
modifiable
that children'scognitivestructuresareinfinitely
ReuvenFeuersteinsuggested
the help of a modifier - much like Vygotsky'sknower.

DSCRIBING

LEARNERS

But howeverwedescribethewaychildrendevelop(andthoughtherearesignificantdifferences
about
sa a four yearold and a nine yearold), we canmakesomerecommendations
behveen,
\-oungerlearnersin general,that is childrenup to about ten and eleven.
In the first place,good teachersat this levelneedto provide a rich diet oflearning experiences
rvhichencouragetheir studentsto getinformation from a varietyof sources.They needto work
rvith their studentsindividually and in groups,developinggood and affectiverelationships(see
pageroo).Theyneedto plan a rangeof activitiesfor a giventime period,andbe flexibleenough
to moveon to the next exercisewhen they seetheir studentsgettingbored.
of younglearnersneedto spendtime understandinghow their studentsthink and
Teachers
operate.Theyneedto be ableto pick up on their students'currentinterestssothat theycanuse
them to motivatethe children.And they needgood oral skillsin Englishsincespeakingand
listeningarethe skillswhich will be usedmost of all at this age.The teacher'spronunciation
aswe havesaid,childrenimitate it so well'
reallymattershere,too, preciselybecause,
All of this reminds us that once a decisionhas been taken to teachEnglishto younger
learners,thereis a needfor highly skilledand dedicatedteaching.This mav rvellbe the most
difficult (but rewarding)age to teach,but when teachersdo it well (and the conditions
are right), there is no reasonwhy studentsshould not defr someof the researchresultswe
is
learners- provided,of course,that this success
mentionedaboveand be highly successful
tbllowedup asthey moveto a new schoolor grade.
We can also draw someconclusionsabout what a classroomfor young children should
look like and what might be goingon in it. Firstof all,we will want the classroomto be bright
and colourful,with windowsthe childrencan seeout of and with enoughroom for different
activitiesto be takingplace.We might expectthe studentsto be working in groupsin different
parts of the classroom,changingtheir activity everyten minutes or so.'We are obvioush','
SusanHalliwell writes,'not talking about classroomswhere children spend all their time
childrenlovediscovering
sittingstill in rowsor talking only to the teacher'(t992:r8). Because
things,and becausethey respondwell to beingaskedto usetheir imagination,thev mav rvell
be involvedin puzzle-likeactivities,in makingthings,in drawingthings,in games,in phvsical
movementor in songs.A good primary classroommixesplay and learningin an atmosphere
of cheerfuland supportiveharmony.
AP Adolescents
areoften seen
aslanguagelearners,adolescents
It is strangethat, despitetheir relativesuccess
passionate
their
and
thought
asproblem students.Yet with their greaterability for abstract
maywell be the most
adolescents
commitmentto what they aredoing oncethey areengaged,
and, with the right
for
learning
need
the
excitingstudentsof all. Most of them understand
goals,canbe responsibleenoughto do what is askedof them'
It is perfectlytrue that therearetimeswhen thingsdon't seemto go very well.Adolescence
is bound up, after all, with a pronouncedsearchfor identity and a need for self-esteem;
need to feel good about themselvesand valued.All of this is reflectedin the
adolescents
secondarystudentwho convincinglyarguedthat a good teacher'issomeonewho knowsour
of course;teenagestudentsoftenhavean
names'(Harmer zooT:z6).Butit's not just teachers,
acuteneedfor peerapproval,too (or,at the veryleast,areextremelyvulnerableto the negative
of their own agegroup).
ludgements
83

( H.{ PTER t

\\'e r|ill discusshow teacherscan ensuresuccessful


learning(preventingindiscipline,bu:
actins effectivelyif it occurs)in Chapter9, but we shouldnot become
too-preoccupied
witl:
the issueof disruptivebehaviour,for while we will all rememberunsatisctory
classes,
rtc
t|ill alsolook back with pleasureon thosegroupsand lessonswhich
were successful.
Ther.
is almostnothing more excitingthan a classof involvedyoung people
at this agepursuing;
learninggoal with enthusiasm.our job, therefore,must be to provoke
studeni
"rgug.-.n,
with materialwhich is relevantand involving.At the sametime, we need
to do what we canr(
bolsterour students'self-esteem,
and be conscious,always,of their needfor identitv.
Herbert Puchta and Michael Schratzseeproblemswith teenagersas
resulting,in part.
from'"' the teacher'sfailureto build bridgesbetweenwhat they want
and havetoleach anc
their students'worlds of thought and experience'(ry93: They advocate
linking languae.
a).
teachingfar more closelyto the students'everydayintereststhrough,
in particulr,the us.
of 'humanistic'teaching
(seeChapter3D). Thus,aswe shallseein someof the examples
i::
Chapters16_2c',material
hasto be designedat the students'level,
with topicswhich they ca::
reactto' They must be encouragedto respondto textsand situationswith
their own thought.
and experiences,
ratherthanjust by answeringquestionsand doingabstractlearning
activitie.
We must givethem taskswhich they areableto do, ratherthan risk humiliating
th"em.
We havecome someway from the teachingof young children.We
can urk t..rrug.r, ,,
addresslearningissuesdirectlyin a way that youngerlearrercmight
not appreciate.
we ar.
able to discussabstractissueswith them. Indeed,part of our job is
to provokeintellectu:.
activityby helpingthem to be awareof contrastingideasand concepts
which they canresolr..
for themselves
- though still with our guidance.Thereare many waysof
studyinglanguas.
(seeChaptersrz-r5) and practisinglanguageskills (see
Chapterst6-zo),and most of thes.
areappropriatefor teenagers.
Ag

Adult learners
Adult languagelearnersarenotablefor a number of specialcharacteristics:
- Theycanengagewith abstractthought.This suggests
that we do not haveto rely
exclusively
on activitiessuchasgamesand songs- thoughthesemay b" upp.opriut.
fo.
somestudents.
- Theyhavea wholerangeof life experiences
to drawon.
- Theyhaveexpectations
aboutthe learningprocess,
and theyalreadyhavetheir own set
patternsof learning.
- Adultstend,on the whole'to be more disciplinedthan
otheragegroups,and,crucialh..
theyareoftenpreparedto struggleon despiteboredom.
- Theycomeinto classrooms
with a rich rangeof experiences
which allowteachers
to use
a wide rangeof activitieswith them.
- Unlikeyoungchildrenand teenagers,
theyoftenhavea clearunderstanding
of why
theyarelearningand what theywant to getout of it. As we shallsee
in SectionD belou..
motivationis a criticalfactorin successful
learning,and knowingwhat you want to
achieveis an important part of this.Many adultsareableto sustain
a levelof motivatro:
(seeDz) by holdingon to a distantgoalin a waythat teenagers
find more difficult.

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

Horvever,adults are never entirely problem-freelearners,and they have a number of


::aracteristicswhich can sometimesmakelearningand teachingproblematic.
may
- Theycanbe criticalof teachingmethods.Their previouslearningexperiences
havepredisposed
them to one particularmethodologicalstylewhich makesthem
uncomfortablewith unfamiliarteachingpatterns.Converselthey maybe hostileto
certainteachingand learningactivitieswhich replicatethe teachingthev receivedearlier
in their educationalcareers.
- They may haveexperiencedfailure or criticism at schoolwhich makesthem anxiousand
under-confidentaboutlearninga language.
- Many older adultsworry that their intellectualpowersmay be diminishing rvith
age.Theyareconcernedto keeptheir creativepowersalive,to maintaina'senseof
generativity'(Williamsand Burdenry97:32).However,asAlan Rogerspointsout, this
generativityis directly relatedto how much learninghasbeengoing on in adult lit'e
beforethey cometo a newlearningexperience
Ggg6:sD.
,tod teachersof adultstakeall of thesefactorsinto account.They areawarethat their students
,rlll often be preparedto stick with an activityfor longerthan youngerlearners(though too
effecton motivation).As well asinrolvingtheir
::uch boredomcanobviouslyhavea disastrous
.:udentsin more indirectlearningthroughreading,listeningand communicative
speakingand
'.''riting,theyalsoallowthem to usetheirintellectsto learnconsciously
wherethisis appropriate.
- :revencouragetheir studentsto usetheir own life experiencein the learningprocess,too.
theneedto minimisethebadeffectsof pastlearning
.\steachers
of adultsweshouldrecognise
and
.rperiences.
We can diminishthe fearof failureby offeringactivitieswhich areachievable
We needto listen to
:'. payingspecialattention to the levelof challengepresentedby exercises.
modifi'what we do to suit their learningtastes.
.:udents'concerns,
too, and,in manycases,

B Learner differences
lhe momentwe realisethat a classis composedof individuals(ratherthan beingsomekind of
-:nihedwhole),we haveto startthinking abouthow to respondto thesestudentsindividually
xr that while we may frequentlyteachthe group asa whole, we will also,in different ways,pay
:rtention to the differentidentitieswe arefacedwith.
\\'e will discussdifferentiationin relationto mixed ability in ChapterlC.ln this section,
:rtr\r'v,we will look at the various waysresearchershavetried to identii' individual needs
:nd behaviourprofiles.

I'

Aptitude and intelligence


rrme studentsare better at learning languagesthan others.At leastthat is the generallyheld
'.'ien',and in the r95osand r96osit crystallisedaround the belief that it waspossibleto predict a
:rudent'sfuture progresson the basisof linguistic aptitude tests.But it soon becameclearthat
testswereflawedin a number of ways.They didn't appearto measureanythingother than
'uch
:eneralintellectualability eventhough theyostensiblylookedfor linguistictalents.Furthermore,
:hev favouredanalic-type learnersover their more'holistic'counterparts,so the testswere
:.pecially suitedto peoplewho havelittle trouble doing grammar-focusedtasks.Thosewith a
85

CHAPTER 5

more

who
.general' view of things - whose analytical abilities are not so highly developed' and

re c e i v e a n d u s e l a n g u a gei namoremessage.ori entedw ay-appearedtobeatadi


age.
example'
fors advant
critical factor in success'PeterSkehan'
the
not
probably
is
aptitude
analic
In fact,
unusual
students from the rest is that they have
believes that what distinguishes exceptional
of things that they hear (1998:234)'
memories, particularly fo",ttr" retentin
uptitrrd. testsis that while they may discriminate
Another damning criticism of traditional
students' they are less effective at distinguishing
between the most and the least'intelligent'
they dc
fall between these two extremes' what
between the majority of students who
beer'
has
both teachers and students behave' It
accomplish is to influence the way in which
and th '
aptitude tests will become demotivated
suggestedthat students who score badly on
that the test predicted' Moreover' teacher'
this will then contribute to precisely the failure
high scoreswill be tempted to treat thos'
who know that particular students have achieved
sell,.o." *u, low Aptitude tests end up being
students differently from students whose
L"
to
better for both teacher and students
fulfilling prophecies whereas it would be much
optimistic about all of the people in the class'
for different kinds of study' However' ::
It is possible that people have different aptitudes
l. :
languagein general' our own experience
we consider aptitude and intelligence for leaining
can only support the view that'learne:'
people we know who speak ,*J o, more languages
successfullanguagelearners'This is especial.'
with a wide variety of iniellectual abilities .u.t "
skills rather than metalinguistic knowledg'
true if the emphasis is on oral communication
( L i g h tb o rv na n d SP a d azoo6: t85)'

Good learner characteristics

what a 'good learner' is' If we can narrtr "


Another line of enquirl, has been to try to teaseout
share,then we can' perhaps' cultir''l:'
down a number of characteristicsthat all good learners
thesecharacteristicsin all our students'
of ambiguity as a feature of goc':
Neil Naiman and his colleaguesincluded a tolerance
orientation (being preparedto appror':
learning, together n,ith fctors such as positive task
(where successis important for a student'sse'-tasksin a positive fashion), ego involvement
(Naiman et al ry28).
image),highaspirationr,goai orientation and perseverance
no ferverthan r4 good learner characteristics,amo:-'JoanRubin and Irene TI]ompsor-tlisted
tolerance of ambiguity mentiorl::
which learning to live with uncertaintr' (much like the
''
But the Rubin and Thompson versr'
above) is a notble factor (Rubin and Thompson r98z).
their own way (without alwayshar r: of a good learner also mentions students rvho can frnd
who are creative' who make intelligc:r'
to be guided by the teacher through learning tasks),
who make errors work for them n
g.r"rr""r,who make their own opportunities for practice,
against them, and who use contextual clues'
consensus about good lear:-'''
Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada summarise the main
can be classifiedin se'e:characteristics(seeF-igurer). As ihey point out, the characteristics
and some, such as 'will::- preferences),
categories(motivatioi, intellectual abilities, learning
and Sp::to make mistakes',can be'considered a personality characteristic'(Lightbown
of learner variables.
zoo6: 54).In other words, this wish list cuts acrossa number
on cultural assumpti' :
Much of what various people havesaid about good learnersis based
..tirent teaching practice in western-influenced methodolos''
which underpin
-u.h

86

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

Intheseculturesweappreciateself-reliantstudentsandpromotelearnerautonomyaSa
maingoal(seeChapterz:).wetendto.seethetoleranceofambiguityasagoalofstudent
for things to be alwayscut
our students away from a need
development,wishing,ol.un
without stopping
to readt.*t' fo' generalunderstanding
and dried.we encouragestudents
to speakcommunicatively
not understand;*J uskstudents
to look up all the *orlit.y do
evenwhentheyhavedifficultybecauseofwordstheydontknoworcan'tpronounce'andwe
we expectour
(seechapter 19,83)'In all theseendeavours
involvestudentsirr.r.utiu. *ri i.rg
languagelevel'
studentsto aspirebeyond their current
I

Ra teeac hof t hef o l | o w i n g c h a ra c te ri s ti c s o n a s ca|


eofl -5.U seItoi ndi catea
to-

5
thatyouthinkis'veryimportantand
characteristc
,1t:t^1t:^1::::T:j
ttffll:
learning'
language
in second
success
in predicting
i.;ilfo.t.nc'
;:::X:::,ffi
A good languagelearner:
a is a willing and accurateguesser

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even if specific
b tries to get a messageacross
lacking
is
languageknowledge

12345

c is willing to make mistakes


in the language
d constantlylooks for Patterns

t2345

e Practisesas often as Possible


and the speech
f analyseshis or her own speech
of others
performance
st attendsto whether his or her
has learned
she
or
he
.""at the standards
h enioYsgrammarexercises
i beginslearningin childhood
lQ
has an above-average
k hasgood academicskills
of confidence
I has a good self-imageand lots

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(Lightbown and Spadazoo6:55)


FrcuREr: Good learnerchar'aeristics

our insistenceupon one


learning behaviours'h:wever.
Different culturesvalue different
Hndof.goodlearner,profilemayencourag.,,,todemandthatstudentsshouldactinclassin
someof the techniques
background.when we espouse
;ertain ways,whaterr.i irr.i, I""*irrg
to their
on our-studentsthat is inimical
. mentioned above,*";;l;;oririu
of the studentsthat
-.,h;J;i;gy
not"peffis in the bestinterests
this is
yet
because
precisely
is
it
;ulture.
somestudentsmay
methodologyi.rchapter 48' Furthermore'
r*-ediscussed.orrt.*t-r"rrritive
notenjoygrammarexercises,butthisdo.,,,ot-.*th.yaredoomedtolearningfailure.
jood language learning behaviour'
trying - des.ribe
There is nothing wrong with
\er.ertheless,weneedtorecognisethatsomeofourassumptionsareheavilyculture.
characteristicsto
.r"" ir they do not follow these
bJsuccessfur
*,r.n,r.un
that
and
iound
:he letter.
87

CH,A.PTER i

BB Learner styles and strategies


A preoccupationwithlearnerpersonalities
and styleshasbeenamajorfactorinpsycholingurs...
research.Are there different kinds of learner? Are there different kinds of behaviour ir. group? How can we tailor our teaching to match the personalities in front of us?
The methodologist Tony Wright describedfour different learner styleswithin a group ( r9: u7-rt8). The'enthusiast' looks to the teacheras a point of referenceand is concerned with i:,
goals of the learning group. The 'oracular' also focuses on the teacher but is more onni: towards the satisfactionof personal goals.The'participator'tends to concentrateon group etr.
and group solidarit whereas the'rebell while referring to the learning group for his or i-.'
point of reference,is mainly concernedwith the satisfactionof his or her own goals.
Keith Willing, working with adult students in Australia, suggestedfour learner categories:

Convergers:theseare studentswho areby nature solitar prefer to avoid


groups,and who are independentand confidentin their own abilities.
Most importantly they areanalyticand can imposetheir own structures
on learning.Theytendto be cool and pragmatic.
Conforrnists:thesearestudentswho preferto emphasise
learning'about
language'overlearningto useit. They tend to be dependenton those
in authority and are perfectlyhuppy to work in non-communicative
classrooms,
doing what they aretold. A classroomof conformistsis one
which prefersto seewell-organised
teachers.
Concretelearners:though they arelike conformists,they alsoenjoythe
socialaspectsoflearningand like to learnfrom directexperience.
They
areinterestedin languageuseand languageascommunicationratherthan
languageasa system.Theyenjoygamesand groupworkin class.
Communicative learners: theseare languageuseoriented.They are
comfortableout of classand showa degreeof confidenceand a willingness
to takeriskswhichtheir colleagues
maylack.Theyaremuchmoreinterested
in socialinteractionwith otherspeakers
of the languagethan theyarewith
analysisof how the languageworks.They are perfectlyhuppy to operate
without the suidanceof a teacher
FrcuRE2: Learningstvlesbasedon Willing (1987)

Wright and Willing's categorisations


are just two of a large number of descriptionsr:.,
differentresearchers
havecomeup with to try to explaindifferentlearnerstylesand strates...
Frank Coffield,David Mosele ElaineHall and Kathryn Ecclestone,
in an extensivesru:
of the literatureavailable,identifr an extremelylargelist of opposedstyleswhich differ.
theoristshave advocated(seeFigure 3). But while this may be of considerableinterest .
theorists,they'adviseagainstpedagogicalinterventionbasedsolelyon any of the learn:-styleinstruments'(Coffieldet al zoo4:t4o).

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

convergersversusdivergers
verbalisersversusimagers
holists versusserialists
deepversussurfacelearning
activists versusreflectors
pragmatists versustheorists
adaptors versusinnovators
assimilators versusexPlorers
field dependentversusfield independent
globalists versusanalYsts
assimilators versusaccommodators
imaginative versusanalic learners
non-conmitters versusPlungers
common-senseversusdynamic learners
concreteversusabstract learners
random versussequentiallearners

initiators versusreasoners
intuitionists versusanalYsts
extroverts versusintroverts
sensingversusintuition
thinking versusfeeling
judging versusperceiving
left brainers versusright brainers
meaning-directed versusundirected
theorists versushumanitarians
activists versustheorists
pragmatists versusreflectors
organisersversusinnovators
left s/analics/inductives/successive
processorsversusrights/globals/
deductives/simultaneousProcessors
executives/hierarchics/conservatives
ives/anarchics/liberals

FrcuRE3: Different learner descriptions (from Coffreld et aI zoo4 46)

is that
Cofeld and his colleagueshave two main reasonsfor their scepticism'The first
is almost
thereare so many differentmodelsavailable(asthe list in Figure3 shows)that it
no
kind of
is
there
since
especially
worry'
impossibleto choosebetweenthem. This is a big
identified'
have
about what they arelooking at and what they
among researchers
consensus
driven by commercial
Secondl someof the more popular methods,Coffield et al suggest,are
is not to suggestthat
This
with particularmodels.
interestswhich haveidentifiedthemselves
but ratherto introducea note
thereis anythingintrinsicallywrong with commercialinterests,
descriptions.
rrf caution into our evaluationof different learner style
at
It may sound as if, therefore,thereis no point in readingabout differentlearnerstyles
do
all - or trying to incorporatethem into our teaching.But that is not the case'We should
to
try
We
should
group.
a
smuch aswe can to understandthe individual differenceswithin
to teach
nnd descriptionsthat chime with our own perceptions,and we should endeavour
:ndividualsaswell asgrouPs.
lndividual varatons
- this
ii somepeopleare better at somethings than others- better at analysing,for example
that
..r..uldindicatethat therearedifferencesin the waysindividual brainswork. It alsosuggests
in
ways
the
determine
:.eopleresponddifferentlyto the samestimuli. How might suchvariation
hich individual studentslearn most readily?How might it affectthe waysin which we teach?
individual
Thereare two modelsin particular which havetried to accountfor suchperceived
..eriation,and which teachershaveattemptedto usefor the benefit of their learners'
.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming: according to practitioners of Neuro-Linguistic


Programming(NLP), we usea number of 'primary representationalsystems'toexperience
Visual
the world. Thesesystemsaredescribedin the acronym'VAKOG'whichstandsfot
(rvelook andsee),Auditory(wehear and listen),Knaesthetic(we feelexternall internally
89

CHAPTER 5

andGustatory(wetastethings)'
or throughmovement),olfactory(wesmellthings)
Mostpeople,whileusingallthesesystemstoexperiencetheworld'neverthelessha
peopleareparticulari''
primury syrt' (RevellandNorman t997:3l.Some
one.preferred
whereasother'
a.uditor
is
primary system
stimulatedby music wen their preferred

whoseprimarypreferredSystemisvisual,respondmostpowerfullytoimages.Anextenstt
hasa strongsenseof differentcoloursto:
of this is when a visualprorr.sees'music,or
somewhatproblematicin thedistinction'
differentsounds.ThevAKOGformulation,while
to stimu'
differentstudentresponses
it attemptsto make,offersa frameworkto analyse

and environments.
activitieswhich suit their primar'
NLP givesteachersthe chanceto offer students
teacherscan operater:
Accordingto RadislavMillrood, it showshow
preferredsystems.
whereteachersand studentsinteractaffectivelr'
thec-Zone- the zoneof congruence,
wherestudentsdo not apprecia:'
resistance'
ratherthan intheR-Zone- the zoneofstudent
(Millrood zoo4)'NLPpractitionersalso.tt"
how the teachertries to makethem behave
techniquessuchas'three-positionthinking'(BakerandRinvolucrizoo5a)togetteach
pointsof view so that they canbe mo:'
and studentsto seethingsfrom other p"ople',
effectivecommunicatorsand interactors'
by the Harvrr:
a concept-introduced
MI theory: Ml standsfor Multiple Intelligences,

psychologistHowardGardner.InhisbookFramesofMind,hesuggestedthatwedotl.:
(Gardnert983)'He listedsvIlt
but a rangeof intelligences'
a singleintelligence,
possess
Logic;
Bodily/kinaesthetic'
these:Musical/rhythriical,Verbal/linguistic'Visual/spatial'
All peoplehaveall of theseintelligencc'
mathematical,Intrapersonaland Interpersonal.
is more pronounced.This allowedhi::
he said,but in eachi"rron one (or more) of them
for peoplewith a strengthin logic'r'
to predictthat a typical occupation(or'end state')
whereasa typicalendstatefor peoplerni:'
mathematicali'rt.ilig"nc" is tat of the scientist,
mig:might wellbethat ofthe navigator'Theathlete
strengthsin visualispatialintelligence
ands
intelligence'
in bodily/kinaesthetic
be thetr.picalendstatefor peoplewho u.l strong
intelligeni'
which he callsNaturalistic
on. Gardnerhassinceaddedan eighthintelligence
in nature;Dan:'
and classiffpatterns
(Gardner1gg3) to accountfor theabilityto recognise
includestl-''
This
r995)'
(Goleman
Golemanhasaddeda ninth'emotionalintellilence'
controlimpulseand self-motivate'
abilityto empathise,
that t1-''
in differentpeople,it suggests
predomir-rate
If we acceptthat differentintelligences
stror''
a
with
people
while
for all of our students'
samelearningtaskmaYnot be appropriate
might respondwell to a complexgrammarexplanation'
inteilige,-tie
logical/mathematicrl
becau"
and physicaldemonstration
differentstudentmight nei the comfortof diugru-,
who havea stronginterpersor:''
students
area.Other
their strengthis in tire visual/spatial
learningis to be effective'Ros''
may requirea more interactiveclimateif their
intelligence
to showwhat kind of activitiesmight :'
Tnner(zoor)hasproduceda chart (seeFigure+)
suitableforpeoplewithspecialstrengthsinthedifferentintelligences'

90

LEARNERS

DESCRIBING

Armed with this information, teacherscan seewhether they have given their classa
variety of activities to help the various types of learner described here. Although we cannot
teach directly to each individual student in our classall of the time, we can ensurethat we
sometimes give opportunities for visualisation, for students to work on their own, for sharing
and comparing and for physical movement. By keeping our eye on dififerent individuals, we
can direct them to learning activities which are best suited to their own proclivities.

Language SkillsActivitiesCha
Teachin g Intelligently:
akr t
ltdlg*.

L|l6ng

RdiDg

;;;

Wrtllng

i.f^
' .r t^
rt,,.-,..rf;^
L,,.arUr.
r . r . *1 i N ':

Sodt.
Xlnmtctlc

,.,1a.r

'

,l

r;;;

T ;*,; | .n-,.-

tr Y r
- a . . 'r
i u t r $ t r 'r
: 'P l
trti
I; , t . 'r l t .r r : !

:,

r r '" . r f i r : a q ,
I
" E r l ? i 'i , '
i , i - l J 'l r . ! r \
,
!r
j
''. . - . . - , r 5 r 1 . r
t - 'r r r '{r r
5 I r r ' t ] ) , r
{
nrt,i!

: . 'r , l . r

a | , i1.:

. ltl!r,!
I

r .r !
,-r t
*

''!t:'

L a Jr r E

i - .- l !:E

Intr{.trdC

tr

Lhgul8llc

Logb*,

Irl

U_CJ
MEh.l
t,

li

i:

|,
:l'.q

ffi
dna.oca

8o.!8a

q r h r 'l {r n l
lr:lu!v,

'Jtt

taken from Tanner (zoor)


FicuRE4: Activitiesfor different intelligences,

91

CHAPTER 5

85 What to do about individualdifferences


listedh' of learnertypesandstyleswhichhavebeen
Facedwith thedifferentdescriptions
satisfythe n':-

to
taskis overwhelminglycomplex.We want
it may seemthat the teacher,s
'
their individualstrengthswith activitiesdesig:differentstudentsin front of us,teachingto
:
to
teaching
our
address
to
want
yet we also
to producethe bestresultsfor eachof ti"-'
grouPasa whole.
::if we can establishwho the differentstude
our task as teacherswill be greatlyhelped
do this through observat':
are and recognisehow they are different'we.can
in our classes
more formal devices'For example'we nri-'
or, as in the following two examples,through
with items (perhapsin ::
in questionnaires
askstudentswhat their learningpr"f"r.n..r-ure
suchasthe following:
language)
students'first
When answering comprehension questions
passagesI Prefer to work
U
a on my own.
D
b with anotherstudent.
students'
of
tr
grouP
c with a

about

sensorysystemour studentsrespondto' Rer


or we might try to find out which preferred
Figure5'
and Norman suggestthe activityshownin

THELEADVAKTEST:
READAND IM AGINE
yourselfa marlc
Follorveachinstruction rn your mind and give
3=esy
Z=OK
0 = im p o ssi bl e I=di ffi cul t
.SEEa kangaroo
.SEEyour fronr door
. SEEyour roothbrush
. SEE a friend's face
- SEE a plate of food
-sb,h.al vshow .'.
-\lAfCH the TV scenechange
-HEAR a song
-HEAR rain
-HEAR a fire alarm
-HEAR a friend'svoice
-HEAR your own voice
- HEAR birds singing . ' .
-HEAR the birdiong.h*g"

to a call of alarm

- FEEL excited
- FEEL vourself swimming
leet
-FEEL grassunder Your
- FEEL a cat" on Your taP
-FE E L hot
keyboard
- FEEL you, fingerson a pianoa few notes
- FEEL your fingersplaying
'ihen you'vedone the test:
FEEL
scoresfor eachsense:SEE - HEAR ' Adi .rp yorr
systemis?How did you fare
*itr' *"' yoti thitk you' p'eftrred lead
. Does the highest ...," t;;;;;;
section?
each
of
one
last
in. the
when it cameto .h"tgitg thJ scenesslightly
. Think ofways to enhancethe systemsyou dont hnd so eas
F IGURE 5:.TheLeadV A K Test,fr.on-rl nY ourH andsbyl R evel l andS N ornran(S affi reP res s )

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

SAskeyetal(inawebquestdescribedl,'.To,"detailonpagez8o),getstudentstodoatestso
(MI) profile which they can then
a personalMultiple Intelligenles
rhat they can come
which the
"p;ih
of g"ttt]?l]::t^1ttt"t'of
u'" tta th'ottgh u
sharewith the teacher'Tft" 't"i""t'
'it'
6)'
(see
Figure

student
indiviud
i or.m.foreach

l5ffiffi;;

;rnguistic

rlusic
^terpersonal
^trapersonal
rrcuns 6: An MI Profile

i
l

\swiththedescriptionsoflearnerstylesabove(seepage83)'wemightnotwanttoVlewSome
by
expressed
This is partlybecauseof the doubts
uncritically.
tests
,
urri
NLp
of
: the results
l:nkCofeldandhiscolleagues(seeabove),butitisalsobecauseneitherMltheorynorNLP
it is clearthat they
rigorous-scientificevaluation'Howeveq
of
kind
any
to
subjected
been
:.:r,e
to different
that different studentsreact differently
:th address,"lf-".,ri.ni truths -.tely
as a result
so'
And
diff"r".rt kinds of mental abilities'
.::muli and that difr"..ri ,t,rd..rt, h*.
organiseactivities
we will be in a position to try to
: gettinginformation about individuals'
activities
diff"""' ptoplt in the class'offering
,. rich provide maximal advantageto the manf
is then up to us
with different learning styles'It
..:.richfavour, at different times, students
we can also
what o""", either formally or informally'
: . keepa record or *nut works and
feedback)how they
or, *or. .ii..riuel througtr written
.:-<our students(either faceto face,
group
(unedited)comments'from a multinational
:..pond to theseactwities.The following
to
asked
were
they
i,' ,..,po,'," to a lesson.inwhich
: dult studentsin Britain, werewritten
pieceof music:
.':ite an imaginaryfilm scenebasedon a particular
Part ot
#'ln
"o*^tclio'n
n-pn'+ol wl sicwecould describt'ylt'Y-::ty

!
I

lww.

Alter *" I'tt*"d

mlc' I prefer dferezt


I drdn't l*e that ktzd of

ktnd of muitc'

(Italian male)

ttnKtt''"t t
* ,.*.-<tnf'(e't wc"t1 !'eur.*'K't I
thc^t vnusc
I ttvrK
M " '- v'i*il wew-K*#u *.h::-- f Y,"l:^,ffY'"
Lteeestig
uwoee
,uL^ w
wll
"u < L'r
t"
*kt
av'a ve,,ocLtn vp'v" eastl" becantse
'

Ytr#tr"#:T:fr&':,i;!;:*v*y:i,nc^te(t
t* soysc'nco''se1w"t\ \y *^
;i;;:'*r?*-.
'"

lBraziiianfemale)

93

CHAPTER 5

bwe

-l-o arn

oSo*-t

m.,sie-

(Trkish male)
-ylt

IA."U n exPrs ryur eznqs eve+t n wt1 wo+her Ll^tyaq


h.at frualt4 tr cou!l wrttn dlown sowethiw'

(Argentinian female)
ol\ en-o1
I wos in1-er'ested i^ this *her^e. Becouse o\l s*uden*s con
r^usic'
Fror^
cornposi}ion
rnusrc. But I did.r''{- \i}(e r^oKinq

(|apanesefemale)
chi tussorv'kea-use
f ire/
+hrt ru4eert.

ic u'a-s {"tv'u

A'v/ evefrolveio;lve

fo creafe
This part was inleresling as well becaase we ha"4 the opportmity
language'
,oruth,nq ourself (talkitg abouf nusc listenin/ usinl 4 certa'n
I never
rr"JoJ", slronT and etsy aJ lhe sane lne - whaf I neatt s thql
less of
and
thouaht thal I lould, fron a piece ol nusic, wrile own 4 scene
we
becqase
"i,
only
oll
EnTlish! I l,ked it an n was not thal fficult, well
don'l have lhe vocabulary to wrte sonethin7 'eally lood'

(Italianfemale)
activit the>:
Apart from demonstratinghow individualsresponddifferentlyto the same
to ame:-:
cmmentshelp us to decidewhetherto usea similarkind of activityagain,whether
it or whetherto abandonit.
and our own observation,helpsus to builc Suchfeedback,coupledwith questionnaires
class.This ki: :
pictureof the bestkinds of activityfor the mix of individualsin a particular
blend '
of feedbackenablesus, over time, to respondto our studentswith an aPpropriate
tasksand exercises.
(asthe feedb"
This doesnot mean,of course,that everyonewill be happyall of the time
that somelessons(or partsof lessons)rt'il' '
aboveshows).On the contrary,it clearlysuggests
accordini'
more usefulfor somestudentsthan for others.But if we ateawaeof this and act
learningprouc:'
then thereis a good chancethat most of the classwill be engagedwith the
most of the time.
We have akeadyreferredto the danger
Thereis one last issuewhich should be addressed.
go further : pre-judgingstudentabiliry through aptitude tests(seeBr above),but we might
.,"oriy about fixed descriptionsof studentdifferences.If studentsarealwaysthe same(in ter:- '
that they canr
of their preferredprimary systemor their differentintelligences)'this suggests
aboutchangeofone kind or anotherand part ofour r '
all learningis,in a sense,
change.Yet
:
is to help siudentseffectchange.Our job is surelyto broadenstudents'abilities astea-chers
perceptions,not merelyto reinforcetheir natural prejudicesor emphasisetheir limitations'

D ESC R IBIN G LEAR N ER S

l:e rvholeareaof learnerdifferenceis,aswe haveseen,complexand sometimesperplexing.


write in their study of learnerstylesthat we discussed
-.- ::nk Coffield and his colleagues
..
about the strengthsand limitations of the model
- -, e.teachers'needto be knowledgeable
- : . irc using;to be awareof the dangersof labellingand discrimination;and to be prepared
::ipect the viewsof studentswho may well resistany attemptsto changetheir preferred
:.::irg style'(zoo4:r33).
advanced

Languagelevels

---:.nts are generallydescribedin three


upper intermediate
intermediateand advanced,
. .... Lteginner,
mid-intermediate
- -: :hesecategoriesare further qualifiedby
.- : -:rqabout real beginners andfalsebeginners.
r.:r.reco beginnerand intermediatewe often
lower intermediate/pre-intermediate
intermediate
The
as
elementary.
students
- --:
, .. itself is often sub-divided into lower
elementary
'. ", tediateandupperintermediate
and even
" i-:,ttermediate.One version of different
falsebeginner
realbeginner
has the progressionshown
t-'
therefore,
lerels
different
student
'
FrcuRE
z:Representing
- - -rure7.
- :resetermsareusedsomewhatindiscriminatelsothat what oneschoolcallsintermediate
. * netimes thought of as nearerelementaryby others,and someoneelsemight describea
--:rnt as advanceddespitethe fact that in another institution he or shewould be classed
that
-. -lper intermediate.Somecoherenceis arrivedat asa resultof the generalconsensus
: -:: betweenpublishersaboutwhat levelstheir coursesaredividedinto, but evpnherethere
certainlevels
- :lB variation (often dependingon differentviewsabout what studentsat
--: ::pableofdoing).
.: recentyears,the Council of Europeand the Associationof LanguageTestersin Europe
- -lE havebeenworking to definelanguagecompetencylevelsfor learnersof a number
' ::rterent languages.The result of theseefforts is the Common EuropeanFramework
- :.rcument settingout in detail what students'cando' at various levels)and a seriesof
- - - : ler.elsrangingfrom Ar (roughlyequivalentto elementarylevel)to Cz (veryadvanced).
: :;re 8 showsthe differentlevelsin sequence.
Advanced

False
beginners

Preintermediate

Elementry

Upper
intemediate

wha,,hese
.-rEhas
:::#'**ffi :::*T::1, : #'jl,"".n.^,
o,oo.,."o,li",i
(Ar
is
at the left,
demonstrates
examplein Figure for the skill of writing
:','elsmean,asthe
: at the right).

95

CHAPTER 5

Can complete
Can complete
forms and
basic forms
and write notes write short
including times, simple letters
datesand places. or postcards
relatedto
personal
information.

Can write letters


or make notes
on familiar or
predicatable
matters.

Can make notes


while someone
is talking or
write a letter
including
non-standard
questions.

Canwrite lette:,
Can
on any subjec:
prepare/draft
and full notes
professional
correspondence,of meetingso:
take reasonably seminarswith
goodexpressi.:
accuratenotes
or accuracy.
in meetingsor
wrrte an essay
which shows
an ability to
communicate.

Testers
in Europe
of Language
of theAssociation
produced
by themembers
O ALIE:Canl)o statements
FrcuRE9: ALTE'Can do'statementsfor writing
ALIE levels and'can do'statements (alongside the more traditional

terms we have mentionec

are being used increasinglyby coursebookwriters and curriculum designers'not onlr' -.


world (for more of the statements,s..
Europebut acrossmuch of the language-learning
page141).They areespeciallyusefulwhen translatedinto the students'Lrbecausethey allt''.
studentsto saywhat they can do, ratherthan havingto be told by the teacherwhat standa::
up against.
theymeasure
However,it is worth pointing out that the ALTE standardsarejust one way of measuri:.:
proficiency.TherearealsoESLstandardswhich weredevelopedby the TESOLorganisation.
and manyexamsystenl'
the USA (seewww.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=86&DID=r556),
We alsoneedto rememberthat students'abilitieswithin a:
havetheir own leveldescriptors.
particularlevelmay be varied,too (e.g.they may be much betterat speakingthan writing
The level studentshave reachedoften has an effect on their motivation. For X?mf-:
trouble understandingand producinglanguageat beginr..'
studentswho haveconsiderable
levels;this accountsfor the relativelyhigh 'drop-out'r::
progress
higher
fail
to
to
levelsoften
of someadult beginners.Sometimesstudentswho arriveat, say,an intermediatelevel,tend :
sufferfrom the so-called'plateaueffect'becausefor them it is not easyto seeprogressin th. '
abilitiesfrom one weekto the next.This can havea very demotivatingeffect'
to counteract.'
needto be sensitiveto the plateaueffect,taking specialmeasures
Teachers
(see
havea cle.'
students
so
that
below)
goals
achievement
include
setting
may
Suchefforts
that
activit::'
making
sure
learningtargetto aim at, explainingwhat still needsto be done,
in the more subtledistinctions
areespeciallyengaging,and sparkingthe students'interest
languageuse.
teacherbehaviourare important, too, especialh'.
Other variationsin level-dependent
kind
of language(and the topics)which we exposeLr*:
the
and
terms of both methodology
studentsto.

c1

Methodology
Some techniquesand exercisesthat are suitable for beginnerslook less appropriater,studentsat higher levels,and someassumptionsabout advancedstudents'abilitiesare 1..'
when transposed,without thought, to studentsat lower levels.This is especia.,
successful
true in speakingtasks.It is quite feasibleto askadvancedstudentsto get into pairsor grou:'
to discussa topic of somekind without structuringthe activity in anyway.But when aski:.:
elementarystudentsto havea discussionin pairsor groups,we needto be far more rigoro';-

D ESC R IBIN G LEAR N ER S

- ::-iing them exactlywhat they should do, and we will probablyhelp them with someof
---: .rneulgthey might want to use.The instructionswe givemay well be accompaniedby
. :::ronstration so that everyoneis absolutelyclearabout the task,whereasat higher levels
-- - :rav not be so necessary
and might evenseemstrangeand patronising(for an example
' .:.rs.seeSpeakingon the DVD which accompanies
Harmer zooT).At advancedlevelsit is
(seepagezot) - whereas
or
opportunistic
: - -: :Lrorganisediscussion- whetherpre-planned
- - :eginnersthis option will not be available.
1-:lorverlevelswe may well want to havestudentsrepeatsentences
and phraseschorally
(pages
206-207).This is
drills
-:: rclezo6),and we may organisecontrolledcue-response
-r -:r-rS
studentssometimeshavedifculty gettingtheir mouths round someof the sounds
- : srressand intonation patterns)of English;choral repetition and drills can help them
way.
:-- ,rverthis and, furthermore,allow them to practisein an enjoyableand stress-free
this.
practise
like
to
asked
to
be
surprised
feel
rather
might
however,
- :'. -rncedstudents,
-: qeneral,we will givestudentsmore supportwhen they are at beginneror intermediate
This doesnot meanthat we will not
: :.: than we needto do when they aremore advanced.
what we areaskingstudentsto do.
precise
about
.:::oach moreadvancedtaskswith careor be
and,
: -: -rthigherlevelswe maywellbe entitledto expectthat studentswill be moreresourcefi,rl
rvay.
supportire
careful
and
in
such
a
eveihing
explain
for
us
to
i. , result,havelessneed
Language, task and topc
'.,.
input they
. havesaidthat studentsacquirelanguagepartlyasa resultof the comprehensible
-::3iye- especiallyfrom the teacher(seeChapter6, D). This means,of course,that we will
r:r'r le adjustthe languagewe useto the levelof the studentswe are teaching'Experienced
:.:chers arevery good at rough-tuningtheir languageto the levelthey aredealingwith. Such
: ,ush-tuninginvolves,at beginnerand elementarylevels,usingwords and phrasesthat are
:. clearaspossible,avoidingsomeof the more opaqueidioms which the languagecontains.
:-: lower levelswe will do our best not to confuseour studentsby offering them too many
::ferent accentsor varietiesof English(seeChapterr, 83), eventhough we will want to make
.:re they areexposedto more Englisheslater on. We will alsotakespecialcareat lower levels
: I moderatethe speedwe speakat and to makeour instructionsespeciallyclear.
This preoccupationwith suiting our languageto the levelof the studentsextendsto what
',reaskthem to read,listen to, write and speakabout.As we shall seeon page273,thereare
::ings that studentscan do with authenticEnglish- that is Englishnot speciallymoderated
: rr useby languagestudents- but in general,we will want to get studentsto readand listen
:,r rhingsthat they havea chanceof understanding.Of course,it dependson how much we
-.iaqtthem to get from a text, but we alwaysneedto bear in mind the demotivating effectof a
impenetrable.
:ert which studentsfind depressingly
The sameis true for what we get studentsto write and speakabout.If we askstudentsto
3\pressa complexopinion and they do not havethe languageto do it, the resultwill be an
unhappyone for both studentsand teacher.If we try to force studentsto write a complex
lerter when they are clearly unable to do such a thing, everyonewill feel let down. We will
below
discussthe conceptof trying to ensureachievement
in particular is the way in which
material
One problem with somebeginnercoursebook
quite complextopics are reducedto banalitiesbecausethe languageavailableat that level
makesit impossibleto treat them in any depth. The result is a kind of 'dumbing-down',

7 -l

whichsometimesmakesEnglishlanguagelearningT":t]fil'earcondescendir'.'
alrnostchildish.Wemustdoourbesttoavoidthis,matchingtopicstothelevel,andre:l

;*;Xmoreadvancedcasses
will almost tcerti':'
Iti s a c c e p te d fo rmostfi el dsofl earni ngthatmotisuch
vati oni
sessentiwe
al tosuccess:
hat lr 'e: . . .
motivation
at it]without
mot:'
of
want to do somethin*;;;;
our understanding
need, therefore, to develop
necessar;;;;.
rhe
to make
it can be sustained'
tt-es from and how
- what it means,*n"'"lt

il+ffi

D1 Defining motivation

fi$#*l*.iuu*fi*+!

t!
motivation also accounts
tht gy*t Soth a view of
in
to
causespeople 'nt"ai"t'r'
II
('theotherside-ofthe mountain)'
cognitive'rr'
'r.
needfor exploration
;a'state
a'stateof cognitive
ttg;;;h;;'T:tYtio-n:1:
Burden
'"t'tui't"d inleilectu' " I
Marion Williu-' unRobert
of which there is
,decision.toact" as
which provokesa
" l;n
set goal' (Willian:'
person.un"u;r.u. some'previously
the
that
effort,so
motivationwiil d' - '
or physical
tn"i *" ,t..ngth of that
point
to
on
go
tggT:tzo)..they
to achieve'i"' '
"",
Burder-r
the outcomehe or shewishes
on
places
iui,rut
:: ''
on ho$, much valueth
on the other hand' areotien
goulr,
;trrk
g."rr.
or vague
nraYh.N'eclearly0.n".
still be very powerful'
to deJcribe'but they can
t""
t" tt"
and irr:
an-rorphous
madeberweenextrinsic
an accepr.'iiriJttttn is
morivation
of
In discussions
from'inside''
tofn"' i'o-'outside' and
thr' . - ' :
thrtis nlotiuutio']which
trotir'rtiot.l,
or or,trl..factors'for example
result
the
is
n-,o,r"*ror-,
Extril-rsrc
"t ""t""r*b., the possibilitvof future travel' lt'tt: financial,;:;;;t
of
::
;;;;";.
e\a'r-',
to prssi.Ir
Thus a personmight be motl" '
lr-,,t. ir-rdividual'
*irt
from
o, ."",r"*,.'"-.s
t-'otir,rtiol-r,
bytheen]O\,I]]cllto|thelearningp.o..,,,,selforbyadesireto.makethemselvesfe
Mostreselrrcl-rersallc]rrrethodoIogi,,,'r-,uu..o",otheviewthatintrinsicmo
producesbetterresuitsthrrritsextrinsic.o.,nt".pu,t(butseepagero4).Evenwh
extrinsic'the chauc''
languat; .;;;;;,'f"t ":.*ll"'is
a
up
ing
i.t
toriginal re1sorl
Successwillbegreirtli'enhrtrcedifthestudentscometolovethelearningproce

D2

EnsrisJr,ln-be,:
ofrearning
tothetask
ff:"il?f,",ilT:11,H':fi:::
consideringwhat and "":
woith
is
people'tt
o ,-,.r,oU.,-of
influencedUy rn.'"Uir.-of
thesearesincetheyformpartor,r-'.""'i.o,'-.n.fromwhichthestudentengagesw
learningProcess'

oThegoa}oneofthestrongestoutsideSourcesofmotivationisthegoalwhichSt
by a forthcominger":
io. ur.o.,.ntly this is provided
learnin,
be
to
t.tl
perceivethemselves
find their examclasses
,o tote ihat teachersoften
,,r.prtr.
no
is
it
respect
this
and in
9B

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

committed than other groupswho do not havesomethingdefiniteto work towards.


However,studentsmayhaveother lesswell-definedgoals,too, suchasa generaldesireto
be ableto conversein English,to be ableto useEnglishto get a betterjob or to understand
websites,etc.
English-language
Somestudents,of course,may not haveany real English-learninggoalsat all. This is
especiallytrue for youngerlearners.In such situationsthey may acquiretheir attitude to
(andmotivationfor) learningEnglishfrom othersources.
o

The societywe live in: outsideany classroomthereareattitudesto languagelearningand


the Englishlanguagein particular.How important is the learningof Englishconsidered
to be in the societythe studentlivesin? In a schoolsituation,for example,is the language
learningpart of the curriculum of high or low status?If schoolstudentswere offeredthe
choiceof two languagesto learn,which one would they chooseand why?Are the cultural
with Englishpositiveor negative?
irnagesassociated
All theseviewsof languagelearningwill affectthe student'sattitudeto thelanguagebeing
studied,and the natureand strengthof this attitudewill, in its turn, havea profound effect
on the degreeof motivation the studentbrings to classand whetheror not that motivation
continues.Evenwhere adult studentshavemadetheir own decisionto come to a classto
study English,theywill bring with them attitudesfrom the societythey live in, developed
overyears,whethertheseattitudesarethoroughly positiveor somewhatnegative.

The people around us: in addition to the culture of the world around them,students'attitudes
to languagelearning will be greatlyinfluencedby the peoplewho are closeto them. The
attitudeof parentsand older siblingswill be crucial.Do they approveof languagelearning,
for example,or do they think that mathsand readingarewhat count, and clearlyshowthat
in English?
theyaremore concernedwith thosesubjectsthan with the student'ssuccess
of
The attitude of a student'speersis alsocrucial: if they are critical the subjector
activity,a studentmaywell loseanyenthusiasmthey oncehad for learningEnglish.If peers
are enthusiasticabout learning English,however,there is a much greaterchancethat the
samestudentmay feelmore motivatedto learn the subject.

Curiosity: we should not underestimatea student'snatural curiosity.At the beginningof


most studentshaveat leasta mild interestin who their new teacheris
a term or semester,
and what it will be like to be in his or her lessons.When studentsstart Englishfor the first
time. most areinterested(to someextent)to seewhat it is like. This initial motivation is
precious.Without it, gettinga classoffthe ground and building rapport will be that much
more difcult.

.te.r wh"., teachersfind themselvesfacing a classof motivated students,they cannot relax.


:rrr it is what happensnext that really counts.Sustainingstudents'motivation is one area
'..-herewe can make a real difference- and for that we need a motivation angel.
The motivation angel
statueby
^n the north-east of England,outside the city of Gateshead,standsa remarkable
from
the
motorwa
-\ntony Gormle the zo-metre-highAngelof the North.It canbe seenfrom
:he nearbytrain line and for milesaround.It is,by common consent,a work of uplifting beauty

cHAPTER 5

if they have none at 'rl'


it, whatever their religion or even
and inspires almost all who see

ffs'*-u#^#,
TheAngelofthel'{orthprovidesuswithasatisfyingmetaphortodealwiththegreatestdll:-..
yearsago""'we forg' '
For asAlan Rodgerswrotemany
oi
r-,
t
in
face
teachers
and di:' '
-otivation.weakand die; altlrnativelyit canbe increased
initial motivationto learn may be
intonewchannels,(Rogerst996:6t)'Inotherwords,wecanhaveapowerfuleffectonh.
they.brought:
afterwhateverinitial enthusiasm
i.-uir,
students
evenwhether
motivationin stu-'
-otiuated
the abilit aswell, to graduallycreate
we have
coursehas dissipated.
soleresponsibilityt. l
is not to saythat it is a teacher's
This
is
none.
there
initiall
where,
ins(r:'':
needto play their part' too' But
and nurture motivation.On the contrary,'to"'-tt'
wecanhaveaposi tiveeffect,weneedtobeabletobuildourown.motivationangel'to...
studentsengagedandinvolvedaslessonsucceedslesson,asweeksucceedsweek.
t"tt.iY":'ol,*nttn:l:,t^'T:'
baseof th:
The angelneedsto be uullt on the solid
:":ti":i:
bringwiththemtoclass(seeFigurero)'Andonthisbasewewillbuildourstatuell]
distinct stages.

EXTRINSICMOTIVATION

base
FIGU R El o: The moti vati on

Affect:affect,aswesaidonpage53,isconcernedwithstudents'feelings,andhere.
studen:.
In the words of someeleven-year-old
asteacherscan haveu d,u,,'uti.""ffect.
ul*uyt,p,ut
don't
who asksthe peoplewho
llinterviewed,.agood teacheris someone
names'(HarmerzooT:z6)'In ot: '
our
knows
who
handsup,ana.ugooat.ll;;;;;""ne

words,studentsarefarmorelikelytostaymotivatedoveraperiodoftimeiftheythinkt:theteachercaresaboulthem.Thiscanbedonebybuildinggood'teacher-studentr?ppt
(seeChapter6C),whichinturnisdependentonlisteningtostudents,viewsandatte
constructivert"
(i.e.for correction)in an appropriateand
with respect,and intervening
Whenstudentsfeelthat-theteacherhaslittleinterestinthem(orisunprepared.
maketheefforttotreatthemwithconsideration),theywillhavelittleincentivetorenl.::
more like'
and helpful,however,they aremuch
motivated.when trr" i.*h., is caring
(an importa:.
on, and u, u ,",.,1t,their self-esteem
to retain an interestin what is going
is likelyto be nurtured'
ingredientin success)
r00

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

rcuns u: Affect

because
aresuccessful'
Achievementnothingmotivates]ike,,,:.",:Nothingdemotivateslikecontinualfailure.
try to err*r" it'ut students
to
therefore,
art,
to learn'
It is part of the teacheris
t"
[kely they
Y^:otivated
itt
success
the longertheir
-orl
-",i""*,tr"
The sameis true rt
However,successwithouteffortdoesnotseemtobethatmotivating.Ifeverhingisjust
i".,tte taskof learning'
*rn".,
their
lose
ro
too easy,studentsu.. tit .ty
to feelis a real senseof achievement'
studenis
at
wt
i*i".
,"
"..
in the process'
is too difficul
success
tru, not bankruptedthem
bot
acquire
to
rvhichhascost,h.- J;;,il;

istosetan.lot*'"'T::::Hff;tttJJi:i::i:ll:
job,therefore'
partof
ateacher's

l':ffi;"'""""wards
*:x;:li:l'i'["?Tk[lifi
lii:'lil-,ff
lT,'"ffi
;;i;

getthings
showingthem how to

right next ttme'

ACHIEVEMENT

I
I

I
l.

FIGURE rz: Achievement

Students
Attitudehoweverniceteachersare,studentsareunlikelytofollowthemwillingly(anddo
irco professionalabilities'
f6;;uu".o.,ni"n..l"
u,hatis askedof them)

;1;?,'.:'ff
:"fu
l;
..1::;"nil:Ifi
['il'#.t?tfi
"}",l"',',f
:Txff

students'perceptr'
classallhave
rst time - becauseof the
and the way we ta,o io ttt"
stand
wherewe
dress'
we
subiectwe areteaching'
Aspectssuchasthe way
tnuil". know about the
f".f
to
to teachEnglish in
a eu.ingt.r.. Stod"r,ir;J;;
to feel that we are prepared
need
ttr.y
As we shall see'one
consciously o, ,r.r.orrr."*iy
teach,nJr.tt"" in particular'
to
;;;;;rJ
*"
and that
q,eneral

CHAPTER 5

occasionallybe of the chief reasons(but not the only one,of course)why classes
to do - or seel-:-.
undisciplinedis becauseteachersdo not haveenoughfor the students
to be quite surewhat to do next.
'':
When studentshaveconfidencein the teacher,they arelikely to remain engaged'
'-'
it becomesdifcult for them to sustar:' '
what is goingon. If they losethat confidence,
motivation they might havestartedwith.

,rcuRE13:(Perceived)attitude (ofthe teacher)

if they are d' '- Activities: our students'motivation is far more likely to remain healthy
of what rte '- '
thingsthey enjoydoing,and which they can seethe point of. our choice
with : - '
them to do has an important role, therefore,in their continuing engagement
learningprocess.
that studentsonly enjoy activitieswhich inr '
It sometimesseemsto be suggested
-'necessarih
'
game-likecommunicationand other interactivetasks.However,this is not
:
styles
different
have
chapter,
in
this
earlier
seen
have
we
as
':
case.Different students,
While somemay want to singsongsand write poems,othersmight be nl:--'
preferences.
more motivatedby concentratedlanguagestudy and poring over readingtexts.
with : '
We needto try to match the activities(seeFigure14)we take into lessons
t'-':
what
on
eye
a
constant
keep
studentswe areteaching.One way of doing this is to
:::
that
sure
we be
respondwell to and what they feellessengagedwith. only then can
ri: engaged
activitieswe takeinto classhaveat leasta chanceof helpingto keepstudents
the learningprocess.

DESCRIBING LEARNERS

ACTIVITIES

FIGUREl4: Activities

(seefor exampleThylor1972,
Frankfurt
is aterm borrowedfrom socialsciences
ltgenry agency
to
the
agent
of
a passive
similar
1988,Belzzooz).Hereit is appropriatedto meansomething
that is,in the wordsof somegrammarians,the personor thing'that doesl
sentence,
studentshavethingsdonefo them and,asa result,risk
A lot of thetime,in someclasses,
beingpassiverecipientsof whateveris beinghandeddown.We shouldbe equallyinterested,
however,in things done b7the students.
When studentshaveagency(seeFigurer5),they getto makesomeof the decisionsabout
they takesomeresponsibilityfor their learning.
what is goingon, and,asa consequence,
to
tell
us when and if theywant to be correctedin a
students
For example,we might allow
fluencyactivity (Rinvolucri1998)ratherthan alwaysdecidingourselveswhen correctionis
appropriateandwhen it is not. We might havestudentstell uswhat wordsthey find difcult
to pronouncerather than assumingthey all havethe samedifculties'
that whereverpossiblestudentsshouldbe allowedto makedecisions.
JJWilson suggests
He wantsto givestudentsownershipof classmaterials,letting them write on the board
or control the CD player,for example(Wilson zoo5).For |enny de Sonneville,while the
teachermay decideon broad learningoutcomes,he or sheshoulddesigntasks'in rvhich
the studentsare empoweredto take a more activerole in the coursedesign'(zoo5:rr). For
LesleyPainter,it wasallowingstudentsto choosewhat homework they wantedand needed
to do that wasthe keyto motivatingher studentsto do the tasksthat wereset(Painter1999).
Realagencyoccurs,finall when studentstakeresponsibilityfor their own learning,and we
can provokethem to do this in the variouswayswe will discussin Chapter 4A. A student
we havetrained to usedictionarieseffectivelyhasthe potential for agencywhich a student
who cannotaccessthe wealthof information in a dictionary (especiallya monolingual
dictionary) is cut offfrom.
that studentsshouldhavecompletecontrol of what happensin
No one is suggesting
more
we
empowerthem and givethem agency)the more likely they areto
But
the
lessons.
staymotivatedover a long period.

r03

CHAPTER 5

AGENCY

angel
FrcuRE15:The motivation

g'ggfipg,H**[f
Gre'
clearlvshowsis thatthroughout i:..
whalll"t;'ffi;
62'\
(zoo5:
' (Chen* oi''ost6'z4)'
universal'
.,,ti,.ly on memorisation
bu,.
,t,ut.gi",
flflelll:::
l"arning
much studentscfl
Chinathereare.',,-.,o,,,
."urr,' basedon how

is ,uc."ss in
spoken::-:
that they prioritise
so
that the greatest*",*"i.,
tnange
unlesstnt'"]"'*
ager"''
a1d grammar)'perhaps
ln suchsituationst""[""tii""
varlet\'>':
rather rhun
the needfor activity
written communicati,on
it,
-.*or];;;;"#"ry
u"r.t*J
way we n*"
"oti'
Indeed in Taiwan m:'i
may not u. i-por,u.,j;;;;
on ,tti, ti" of achievement'
fi*ut.d
promote an ever-popular'memor::<
oronounced ir "' ,r"i""tr-ur.
rr., .r'""g"", report,
urr
their mobile phones'
u duy
,uccessful.r-*rr"rri],'n.r,
student"t?;J;;
'"nt'to
4E '
methodology (seechapter
a dictionarv'ut"ttg;';;;some
f", ;;;;-sensitive
need
we have atready,r.*r.Jine

:ffi Jffi"*'"HJ:;:X
rhestudywhich,,,:;i;;;1^'':^'X,'5;5*."ffi
learnin-g::l"i:,
and
teaching
r!ovr'^^^;ning
ur
of
dlscussto's
;i;J;;i;;'

leat
are, where theY are

t04

are'
ar.
osnirations
and what their aspirations

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