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Abstract
Results are presented of laboratory resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests on specimens of two compacted soils (a sandy–silty clay
and a sand–gravel mixture), planned to be used in the core and the shells, respectively, of a proposed earthfill dam. The values of low-
amplitude shear modulus of the clayey material were found to increase with increasing confining pressure and decreasing water content,
with deviations of 720% from the predictions of the ‘‘Hardin equation’’. On the other hand, the low-amplitude damping ratio was
found to be at least four times higher than the values corresponding to natural undisturbed cohesive soils. The proposed G/G0gc curve
for the compacted cohesive soil was found to be independent of confining pressure and small variations of the water content on either
side of the optimum value and showed a remarkable agreement with recently published similar curves for natural cohesive soils. For the
case of the sand–gravel mixture, normalized G/G0–gc and D–gc curves are proposed, based on recently published results for gravelly soils
and the limited data of the present study. The liquefaction resistance of the saturated sand–gravel mixture was found to be strongly
dependent on its relative density, especially for high values of cyclic stress ratio. A relative density of at least 55% was found to be
necessary to assure safety against earthquake-induced liquefaction of the material. The results presented herein may be used (directly or
as guide) in the seismic analysis of (new or existing) earth dams constructed from similar soil materials and in addition they provide
insight into the dynamic behavior of compacted soils.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dynamic soil properties; Liquefaction resistance; Compacted clays; Gravelly soils; Earth dams
0267-7261/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2007.10.001
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can be evaluated by conducting specialized, costly and triaxial test results, have also concluded that specimens
time-consuming laboratory tests or in-situ tests in existing prepared at optimum water content are characterized by
dams. Values of dynamic soil properties for use in seismic higher stiffness and damping ratio, compared to the case of
dam response analyses can also be back-calculated (for dry or wet compacted specimens. In addition, they
research purposes) based on the results of full scale reported that the variation of normalized Young’s mod-
vibration tests or on the recorded earthquake response of ulus, E/E0, with axial strain is also affected by the
existing dams (e.g. [4–6]). It follows that the values of compaction water content (lower water content values
dynamic properties of soil materials used in the construc- result in a more linear behavior).
tion of earth (and rockfill) dams are not readily available. Of particular interest are the limited available results for
Hence, the development of a data bank containing the dynamic properties of partially saturated compacted
experimental results (in addition to back-calculated values) cohesive soils. Vinale et al. [15] have found that under both
could be particularly useful in the case of new dams as well unsaturated and saturated conditions (1) the values of G0
as for existing dams under rehabilitation (e.g. [7]). increase with increasing confinement, regardless of the
In the current study the dynamic properties of two soil water content value, (2) the values of G0 decrease when the
materials, of the type used in the construction of earthfill compaction water content is increased from the optimum
dams (a sandy–silty clay and a sand–gravel mixture) are value to the wet side of optimum, and (3) the low-
evaluated by conducting laboratory tests and utilizing data amplitude damping ratio, D0, does not depend on the water
from the recent technical literature. The experimental content and takes values ranging from 6.5% to 8.5%.
investigation was part of a broader study on the suitability According to the above investigators the degree of
of locally available soils for the construction of a new saturation of compacted cohesive soils affects their
earthfill dam in Greece [8]. The experimental program behavior in the following two ways: (1) the low-amplitude
involved resonant column tests and cyclic triaxial tests for damping ratio, D0, of unsaturated specimens is less
the evaluation of (a) the dynamic shear modulus and sensitive to the confining pressure changes, compared to
damping of the two types of soils as a function of the cyclic the saturated specimens and (2) the G/G0–gc and D–gc
strain amplitude, confining pressure and water content and curves of unsaturated specimens are not affected by the
(b) the liquefaction resistance of the sand–gravel mixture as compaction water content. Finally, Mancuso et al. [13] on
a function of degree of compaction. The results presented the basis of resonant column test results, concluded that
herein may be used directly (or as a guide) in the design of the low-amplitude modulus, G0, and damping ratio, D0, are
new, or the rehabilitation of existing earthfill dams, for higher and lower, respectively, under partial saturation
which laboratory test results are not available. In addition, conditions, compared to the full saturation case (Fig. 1).
they provide useful insight into the dynamic behavior On the contrary, the effect of saturation and confining
of compacted (cohesive or granular) soil materials, a pressure on G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of samples compacted
subject that has recently attracted the interest of many with the same procedure is negligible.
investigators. The dynamic properties of gravelly soils have been the
subject of several investigations during the last 20 years.
2. Literature review Seed et al. [16] compared the dynamic behavior of gravelly
soils with that of sands and concluded that damping ratio
The available experimental results on the dynamic values of sand and gravels are very similar. The shear
properties of compacted cohesive soils—under conditions modulus of gravels, however, is significantly higher, and
of full saturation—are rather limited. Kallioglou et al. [9] the degradation of normalized shear modulus, G/G0, with
have found that the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of compacted shear strain is stronger in the case of gravelly materials,
clays are similar to those of natural soils as described by compared to sands.
Vucetic and Dobry [10]. The low-amplitude damping ratio, Rollins et al. [17] have reported experimental results
D0, of compacted clays however, was found to be much pertaining to the effect of confining pressure, relative
higher (2.1–9.8%) compared to the case of naturally density and gradation on the dynamic properties of
occurring geomaterials. High values of D0, for compacted gravelly soils. These results are shown in the diagram of
sand–bentonite mixtures have been also reported by Fig. 2, depicting the variation of normalized shear
D’Onofrio et al. [11] as well as for natural cemented modulus, G/G0, and damping ratio with cyclic shear strain
cohesive soils [12,13]). for gravelly materials. Based on these results it is concluded
The effect of compaction water content on the dynamic that the G/G0–gc curve is not dependent on gravel content,
properties of saturated cohesive soils has also been fines content and relative density. However, the effect of
investigated by a few investigators. Santucci de Magistris confining pressure is more significant indicating that the
et al. [14] on the basis of resonant column test results have curve moves towards the upper range of data with
concluded that the low-amplitude shear modulus, G0, of increasing confining pressure. Similar observations prevail
clayey materials compacted at water content wopt+2%, is for the D–gc curve of gravelly soil materials indicating that
reduced compared to the value measured at optimum water the effect of gradation and relative density on D–gc curve is
content. Vinale et al. [15], on the basis of small-strain cyclic not significant. On the contrary, damping ratio values
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Fig. 2. Proposed G/G0–gc and D–gc curves for gravelly soils based on the experimental results of several researchers [17].
maximum dry unit weight, gd max, was found to be equal to determined according to ASTM D4253 and D4254 and
17.9 kN/m3, whereas the optimum water content, wopt, was found to be emax ¼ 0.44, emin ¼ 0.20. By taking into
equal to 17%. It should be noted that the specimens used in consideration the limitation that the largest particle size
the current experimental investigation were prepared from of tested material should be smaller than 1/6 the specimen
material compacted following the above mentioned proce- diameter (ASTM D3999 [30]) the specimens used in the
dure with water content values equal to wopt, wopt1%, cyclic triaxial tests of the current experimental investigation
and wopt+2%. had a maximum particle size equal to 19 mm. This was
The gravelly material used in the present study has achieved by sieving a quantity of the gravelly material and
characteristics that make it suitable for the construction of removing the fraction having diameter greater than 19 mm.
the shells of earthfill dams. The grain size distribution of The grain size distribution of the material used in the tests
the natural material is presented in the diagram of Fig. 3 is also included in the diagram of Fig. 3. The mean grain
indicating that the soil sample is composed of 53.5% size of the tested material is D50 ¼ 2.7 mm with a
gravel, 44% sand and 2.5% fines and may be characterized uniformity coefficient equal to Cu ¼ 13.4. By utilizing data
as sandy gravel (GW). The soil material has uniformity presented by Cubrinovski and Ishihara [31] the maximum
coefficient Cu ¼ 27, mean grain size D50 ¼ 6 mm, and and minimum values of void ratio of this material were
specific gravity, Gs, ranging from 2.73 to 2.80. The found to be approximately equal to the values of the
maximum and minimum values of void ratio was natural material.
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100
90
80
Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of the clayey and sandy gravel materials used in the present study.
4. Experimental procedure simulate the condition of the clay core material during
most of the lifetime of the dam.
The effect of isotropic effective confining pressure, water The resonant column tests of this study were conducted
content and cyclic strain amplitude on the values of following the specifications of ASTM D4015 [33]. By
dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio of the soil processing the data obtained from each resonant column
materials examined in the present study was investigated by test, the values of dynamic shear modulus, G, and damping
conducting resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests. The ratio, D, of the clayey material were obtained as a function
determination of shear modulus, G, and damping ratio, D, of the average cyclic shear strain, gc. The values of dynamic
at small strains was based on the resonant column testing, shear modulus are obtained by vibrating the cylindrical
whereas the dynamic properties for greater strain values specimen at its resonant frequency, whereas the values of
were estimated by the results of cyclic triaxial tests. The damping ratio are determined by recording the free
liquefaction resistance of the gravelly soil material and its decaying vibrations of the specimen when the driving
dependence on the void ratio was also investigated by signal is shut-off. It should be noted that the specimen
conducting cyclic triaxial tests. vibration was imposed under undrained conditions. In
order to investigate the effect of confining pressure on the
4.1. Clayey material dynamic properties of the clayey material the resonant
column tests were conducted under values of confining
The resonant column tests of the current study were pressure varying from 15 to 600 kPa. For each value of
conducted by using a torsional resonant column device of confining pressure the test specimen was left to consolidate
the fixed-free type [32]—designed and fabricated by the for a duration of approximately 1 day and then the
junior author—which accommodates cylindrical specimens resonant frequency and the free decaying vibrations were
having values of diameter and height equal to 36 and recorded under low-amplitude vibrations. From these
80 mm, respectively. The torsional driving system of the recorded data the low amplitude shear modulus, G0 and
device consists of two electrical coils—attached to opposite damping ratio, D0, were estimated. The amplitude of
sides of the top cap of the specimen—surrounding vibration was then gradually increased stepwise and the
permanent magnets fixed to the frame of the device. The new resonant frequency and decaying vibrations were
specimens used in the tests were trimmed to the required recorded in each step, in order to investigate the effect of
dimensions from material compacted following the proce- cyclic shear strain amplitude on the dynamic properties of
dure of standard Proctor compaction test (ASTM D 698 the clayey material. By testing the specimens under
[29]). In order to investigate the dependence of the dynamic successively increasing strain amplitudes, any previous
properties of the clayey material on water content, the soil cyclic loading does not affect the results of subsequent
material was compacted having three different values of higher amplitude loading. Following the completion of the
water content: wopt1%, wopt and wopt+2%, with series of measurements described above, the confining
corresponding values of degree of saturation, Sr, ranging pressure was increased, the specimen was left to consolidate
from 88% to 97%. It should be noted that the clayey for a period of 1 day (during which the disturbance caused
material was tested under unsaturated conditions to by the previous cyclic loading is erased, as shown by [34])
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and a new series of measurements was obtained. Typical connection between the specimen top cap and the load cell
measurement results in a resonant column test, conducted makes it possible to apply an axial cyclic stress, sc, to the
on a specimen having water content w ¼ wopt+2% under specimen with a maximum value equal to 7s3, where
confining pressure s0 0 ¼ 300 kPa are shown in Fig. 4. The s3 ¼ cell pressure. The pore water back pressure is applied
test conditions of all resonant column tests conducted in at the bottom of the specimen whereas the pore water
the present study are summarized in Table 1. pressure is measured at the other end (top) of the specimen.
The cyclic triaxial tests were conducted using a GDS The tests were conducted on clayey specimens identical
2 Hz fully automated cyclic triaxial testing device, which is to those used in resonant column tests, which were
controlled by a personal computer and has the capability of prepared using the same procedure described above and
applying cyclic loading under both stress-controlled or having the same values of water content. The stress-
strain-controlled conditions. In the above device, the axial controlled cyclic triaxial tests were conducted according to
load is applied at the bottom of the specimen whereas the the specifications of ASTM D3999 [30] with a frequency
value of the load is measured at the top by a load cell ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 Hz. By conducting cyclic triaxial
placed inside the pressure cell. A special arrangement at the tests under different values of confining pressure (from 150
to 900 kPa) the effect of confinement on the values of
dynamic modulus of elasticity and damping ratio of the
6
t = 1200min clayey material was investigated. Values of dynamic
5 elasticity modulus, Edyn, and damping ratio, D, were
Amplitude (x 10-6)
gc ¼ ð1 þ vÞc , (2)
Table 1
where the value of Poisson’s ratio, v, was assumed to be
Test conditions for the resonant column tests conducted on clayey
specimens 0.40, and ec is the cyclic axial strain.
The test conditions of all cyclic triaxial tests conducted
Test no. Water content Void ratio Confining pressure, s0 (kPa) on clayey specimens are summarized in Table 2.
1 wopt1% e ¼ 0.50 20a 150a 300 600
2 wopt e ¼ 0.51 25a 150 300 600 4.2. Gravelly material
3 wopt+2% e ¼ 0.52 15a 150a 300a 600a
a
Following the evaluation of low amplitude shear modulus and The gravelly material tested in the current study was
damping, successively increasing strain amplitudes were applied for subjected to stress-controlled cyclic triaxial testing using
establishing the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves. the GDS system described in the previous section and
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following the specifications of ASTM D5311 [35]. The Similar tests were conducted for the evaluation of the shear
results of tests were used for evaluating the liquefaction modulus and damping ratio for a limited range of cyclic
resistance of the material as a function of void ratio. shear strains, for material having a void ratio e ¼ 0.22
under a confining pressure of s0 3 ¼ 200 kPa (by using
120
hysteresis loops recorded during the first 10 cycles of
loading).
80
All tests were conducted on saturated cylindrical speci-
40 mens of sandy gravel having maximum particle size equal
σc (kPa)
Table 2
Test conditions for the cyclic triaxial tests conducted on clayey specimens
Test no Water content Void ratio, e Confining pressure, Cyclic deviator stress, sc (kPa)
s0 3 (kPa)
150
150
100
50
σc (kPa)
100
0
-50 50
σ1-σ3 (kPa)
-100
-150 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
200 -50
150
-100
Δu (kPa)
100
-150
50 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Cyclic axial strain, εc (%)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
80
2
1 60
0 40
q = (σ'1-σ'3 ) / 2 (kPa)
εc (%)
-1
20
-2
-3 0
-4 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Number of cycles, Nl -40
Fig. 6. Results of a cyclic triaxial test on a gravelly specimen having void -60
ratio e ¼ 0.30: variation of cyclic axial stress, sc, excess pore pressure
development, Du, and cyclic axial strain, ec, with the loading cycles. -80
0 50 100 150 200 250
p' = (σ'1+σ'3) / 2 (kPa)
corresponding to relative densities of 90%, 50% and 20%, Fig. 7. (a) Axial stress–strain curve and (b) effective stress path for the
loading shown in Fig. 6.
respectively.
During the cyclic loading continuous records were
obtained of the excess pore water pressure, Du, and cyclic confining pressure, water content and cyclic shear strain
axial strain, ec, as well as of the cyclic axial stress, sc, amplitude on the values of dynamic shear modulus and
applied to the specimen. Each test was continued until damping ratio of the clayey material is first presented
initial liquefaction occurred, i.e. until the excess pore water and discussed. Regarding the gravelly material, plots of
pressure became equal to the initial consolidation stress, G/G0–gc and D–gc curves, on the basis of the limited
s0 3, of the specimen. Typical results obtained from a cyclic experimental results of this study and on data from recently
triaxial test conducted on a specimen having void ratio, e, published studies, are first presented and discussed
equal to 0.30 are presented in Fig. 6. The corresponding followed by the results of liquefaction testing under
diagrams of axial stress–strain and the effective stress path different degrees of compaction.
(p0 , q diagram) of the particular test are shown in Fig. 7.
Data pertaining to all tests conducted on sand-gravel 5.1. Clayey material
specimens are summarized in Table 3.
The results presented and discussed in this subsection
5. Tests results and discussion pertain to the effects of confining pressure, water content
and cyclic strain amplitude on the values of dynamic
For the clayey material the experimental results of the modulus and damping ratio of the tested material.
resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests of the current
study were combined in order to determine the dynamic 5.1.1. Effect of confining pressure
properties of the material over a wide range of cyclic shear The effect of confining pressure, s0 0, on the low
strain. More specifically, in this section the effect of amplitude shear modulus, G0, is depicted in the diagram
Table 3
Test conditions for the cyclic triaxial tests conducted on sand-gravel specimens
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
Test no. Specimen dimensions Void ratio Relative Pore Cell Back Conso- Frequency Cyclic CSR tc/s0 3 No of
density Dr pressure pressure s3 pressure pb lidation f (Hz) stress sc cycles Nl
Diameter Height H e emax emin (%) coefficient (kPa) (kPa) stress s0 3 (kPa)
D (mm) (mm) B (kPa)
8 97.9 214.0 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 101 0.25 –
9 97.9 213.5 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 600 400 200 0.3 122 0.305 –
10 97.7 212.5 0.225 0.438 0.198 89 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 140 0.35 –
11 98.1 213.5 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 600 400 200 0.3 160 0.40 –
12 97.8 214.4 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 180 0.45 –
13 97.9 213.3 0.224 0.438 0.198 89 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 180 0.45 –
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14 96.3 215.0 0.31 0.438 0.198 53 0.96 600 400 200 0.1 100 0.25 120
15 96.5 215.0 0.31 0.438 0.198 53 0.96 600 400 200 0.1 116 0.29 100
16 96.0 213.0 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.97 650 450 200 0.1 138 0.35 70
17 96.1 211.0 0.28 0.438 0.198 66 0.98 650 450 200 0.1 150 0.38 90
18 96.0 214.5 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.95 650 450 200 0.1 156 0.39 50
19 95.7 214.0 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.96 700 500 200 0.1 174 0.43 35
20 96.8 214.0 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 52 0.13 290
21 96.7 213.0 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 72 0.18 65
22 96.4 214.0 0.39 0.438 0.198 20 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 90 0.22 115
23 96.6 212.5 0.395 0.438 0.198 18 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 102 0.26 30
24 96.5 214.1 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 123 0.31 8
25 97.6 214.0 0.22 0.438 0.198 90 0.95 500 300 200 0.1 94 –
107 –
120 –
134 –
147 –
160 –
174 –
187 –
195 –
613
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Do (%)
functions:
6
0:38
G0 ¼ 24:6s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt 1%Þ, (3a)
4
0:48
G0 ¼ 11:6s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt Þ, (3b) 2
e = 0.50-0.52
0:43
G 0 ¼ 14:8s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt þ 2%Þ, (3c) 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
where G0 is measured in MPa and s0 0 in kPa. σ'o (kPa)
In the diagram of Fig. 8 the curve corresponding
to ‘‘Hardin equation’’ for normally consolidate soils Fig. 9. Effect of confining pressure on the low amplitude damping ratio
(Eq. (4)) has been also plotted, and compared to the test for a clayey specimen having water content w ¼ wopt+2%.
results [21]:
636 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
G0 ¼ 2
pa s00 , (4) 1.0
0:3 þ 0:7e w = wopt
where pa is the atmospheric pressure, and e the void ratio of 0.8
e = 0.52
soil material.
It is observed that the results of measurements are in 0.6
G/Go
general agreement with the prediction of Eq. (4), especially σ'o = 150kPa
for confining pressure around 100 kPa. For values of s0 0 0.4 σ'o = 300kPa
lower or greater than 100 kPa, Eq. (4) underpredicts or σ'o = 600kPa
σ'o = 900kPa
overpredicts, respectively, the value of G0 by 20–25% on 0.2
the average. The diagram of Fig. 8 also indicates that, as Resonant column
Cyclic triaxial
shown in the next subsection, the value of G0 is affected by 0.0
the compaction water content. In particular, it is observed 10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
that for a confining pressure around 300 kPa the compac- Cyclic shear strain, γ c
tion at 1% dry of optimum results in an 18% increase in
Fig. 10. Effect of confining pressure on G/G0–gc curve for a clayey
the value of G0. On the other hand, a compaction at 2% specimen having water content w ¼ wopt.
wet of optimum has a rather insignificant effect and results
in a 4% decrease in the G0 value.
The dependence of low-amplitude damping ratio, D0, on the values of D0 do not depend on confining pressure
confining pressure for a specimen having water content, for values of s0 0 ranging from 15 to 600 kPa. It can also
w ¼ wopt+2% is shown in Fig. 9. It may be concluded that be observed that the values of D0 of the compacted
clayey material are particularly high, ranging from 6% to
8.5%. Similar high values of damping ratio have also
5000 been reported, as mentioned previously, for compacted
w = wopt-1%
w = wopt materials by Kallioglou et al. [9] as well as for natural
w = wopt+2% cemented soils by Tika et al. [12]. A possible explanation
''Hardin equation''
of the above behavior may be that the soil compaction
energy produces an ‘‘equivalent cementation’’ of soil
Go/pα
G/G0
modulus, G, for two different values of confining pressure
is demonstrated in the diagrams of Fig. 11. More 0.4
specifically, specimens having different values of water w = wopt-1%
content were tested under s0 0 ¼ 150 and 900 kPa for a wide 0.2
w = wopt
range of cyclic shear strains, gc. The test results indicate w = wopt+2%
that the effect of water content on the values of shear 0.0
modulus is more significant for low values of cyclic shear 30
w = wopt-1% σo = 15-900kPa
strain as well as for low values of confining pressure. On w = wopt e = 0.50-0.52
25
200
Dynamic shearmodulus, G (MPa)
350
σ'0 = 900kPa of the current study, the following curves are also included:
300 e = 0.52 (1) the Vucetic and Dobry [10] curves for PI ¼ 20, (2) the
250 curves proposed by Stokoe et al. [38] for CL soils (e ¼ 0.64,
200
PI ¼ 20, OCR ¼ 1.5), and (3) the curves proposed by
Zhang et al. [39] for tertiary or older age cohesive soils
150 (PI ¼ 21). A remarkable agreement is observed in Fig. 13
100 between the behavior of the compacted clay of the current
w = wopt
study and the behavior of naturally occurring (i.e.
50
w = wopt+2% undisturbed) cohesive soils, regarding the shear stiffness
0 of the material. On the other hand, a striking difference is
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
observed regarding the low-amplitude damping behavior
Cyclic shear strain, γ c
as mentioned above: the measured damping ratio of the
Fig. 11. Effect of water content on G–gc curves for the clayey soil (a) for
compacted cohesive soil (D0 ¼ 7–8%) is significantly high-
confining pressure s0 0 ¼ 150 kPa and (b) for confining pressure er (by about four times) than the corresponding value of
s0 0 ¼ 900 kPa. naturally occurring clays (D0 ¼ 1–2%).
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1.0 1.0
CSR = 0.25
0.8 e = 0.39
0.8
0.6
G/Go
0.6
Δu / σ'3
e = 0.30
0.4 Rollins et al. 1998
Hardin and Kalinsky 2005
Stokoe et al. 2004 0.4
0.2 Ishihara 1996
This study, Go = 267MPa
D<19mm, σ'3 = 200kPa, e = 0.22~0.23, Dr = 90%
0.0 0.2
e = 0.22
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2
25 0.0
Rollinset al. 1998
Stokoe et al.2004, GW, e = 0.50 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
20 Ishihara 1996 Number of cycles, N
Damping ratio, D (%)
10
1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N=5 N = 5 cycles CSR = 0.25
0.9 e = 0.29-0.31 0.9
N = 30cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 0.7
σ3 = 600kPa
0.6 0.6
σ'3 = 200kPa
Δu/σ'3
Δu/σ'3
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e
1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N = 10 N = 5 cycles CSR = 0.275
0.9 0.9
e = 0.29-0.31 N = 30 cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 0.7
σ3 = 600kPa
0.6 0.6
σ'3 = 200kPa
Δu/σ'3
Δu/σ'3
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e
1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N = 30 CSR = 0.30
0.9 0.9 N = 5 cycles
e = 0.29-0.31 N = 30 cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 σ3 = 600kPa 0.7
0.6 σ'3 = 200kPa 0.6
Δu/σ'3
Δu/σ'3
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e
Fig. 16. Effect of void ratio and cyclic stress ratio on the development of Fig. 17. Effect of void ratio and number of cycles on the development of
excess pore water pressures in the sandy gravel specimen for (a) N ¼ 5 excess pore water pressures in the sandy gravel specimen for (a)
cycles, (b) N ¼ 10 cycles and (c) N ¼ 30 cycles. CSR ¼ 0.25, (b) CSR ¼ 0.275 and (c) CSR ¼ 0.30.
In the present investigation dynamic laboratory tests were 1. The dynamic properties of the unsaturated cohesive
conducted on a clayey soil (CL), of the type used in the soil—compacted at optimum water content—are mainly
ARTICLE IN PRESS
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620 619
Dr
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR
Dr
=
0.35 respect.
90
55
%
0.30 (d) The D–gc curve derived from this study deviates
%
0.25 significantly from the Stokoe et al. [38], Zhang et al.
D
0.20
r =2 [39] and Vucetic and Dobry [10] curves. The deviation
0%
is particularly pronounced in the low-amplitude
0.15
range, where the measured damping ratio values of
0.10 the compacted clay are about four times higher than
0.05 occurence of liquefaction the corresponding values of undisturbed cohesive
liquefaction conditions not reached
0.00 soils. A possible explanation of this behavior may be
1 10 100 1000 the development of a weak cementation between
Number of cycles, Nl particles as a result of the compaction. However, the
subject needs further investigation.
Fig. 18. Effect of relative density on the liquefaction resistance of sandy
2. The behavior of the sandy gravel tested in the present
gravel.
investigation follows, in general, the trends reported in
the literature for gravelly soils. More specifically:
affected by the confining pressure and the cyclic strain (a) The limited experimental results obtained in the
amplitude, and to a lesser degree by deviations of water present study, regarding the values of shear modulus
content to the dry or to the wet side of optimum. More of the sandy gravel, are in agreement with results
specifically: reported recently for gravelly soils. The proposed
(a) The low-amplitude dynamic shear modulus of the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves can be used with con-
compacted cohesive soil increases with the confining fidence directly (or as a guide) in seismic response
pressure in a pattern similar to the one described by analyses of this type of soils.
the ‘‘Hardin equation’’. The measured G0 values are (b) The liquefaction resistance of the compacted gravely
in good agreement with the predictions of above material was found to be strongly affected by its
equation, for confining pressures s0 0 ¼ 100 kPa, relative density, with the effect being more pro-
whereas for lower or greater values of confinement, nounced for high values of CSR and low values of
Eq. (4) underpredicts or overpredicts, respectively, relative density. In particular, for the number of
the value of low-amplitude shear modulus by cycles associated with common earthquake events,
20–25% on the average. The value of G0 was also the sandy gravel tested in the present study liquefies
found to depend on the compaction water content: easily when placed in a loose state, whereas remains
the highest values of G0 were obtained for specimens stable for relative densities greater than 55%.
compacted to the dry side of optimum (showing an
increase of 18% with respect to the ones correspond-
ing to optimum value) with a trend of decrease as Acknowledgments
the water content increased through the optimum to
values to the wet side of optimum. The experimental results of the present study were
(b) The low-amplitude damping ratio, D0, of the obtained in the framework of a research project funded by
compacted cohesive soil was found to be practically the Institute for Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake-
independent of confining pressure and compaction Resistant Structures, (ITSAK) Thessaloniki, Greece. The
water content. The measured damping ratio values authors are grateful for this financial support.
(6–8.5%) of the compacted soils, however, were
found to be significantly higher than the values References
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