TVM4162 Industrial Ecology

Examination 7 December 2010

Guide to solutions

Assignment 1: Framing industrial ecology

1.1

The evolution of environmental awareness and ways of handling

ecological challenges have taken us from end-of-pipe treatments
towards an integrated strategic approach. Discuss how the principles
of industrial ecology differ from end-of-pipe treatment.

We can answer this question by beginning with Robert Whites comprehensive definition of
industrial ecology which presents the principles in a condensed form.
Industrial ecology is the study of the flows of materials and energy in industrial and
consumer activities, of the effect of these flows on the environment, and of the influence
of economic, political, regulatory and social factors on the flow, use and transformation
of resources. The objective of industrial ecology is to understand better how to integrate
the environmental concerns into our economic activities. The integration, an ongoing
process, is necessary if we are to address current and future environmental concerns.
Now let us flash back to what end-of-pipe treatment means. Given certain production
processes and consumption behaviours, demanding and generating resources and products for
consumption, there is an outflow of wastes and by-products which have to discharged into the
air, water and soil. One can conceive a pipe of processes ranging from the extraction of
materials to the final discharge of waste products to the environment, and focus on the socalled end of this pipe. In other words, on treating the waste flows gaseous, liquid and
solids in order to make them as conducive as possible to the environments into which they
are to be discharged. In many cases, even this is not possible, and one would focus simply on
doing away with the wastes land-filling, incinerating, etc. This was how one perceived
environmental engineering in the 1960s and 70s, till it was realised that both the sources from
which the economy gets its material and energy inputs and the sinks into which the economy
discharges its waste products have limited capacities. A breaking point exists, beyond which
the source is not able to provide adequately for the needs of the consumers and the sink is not
able to accept the inflow of the wastes, without undergoing irreversible damage. This
realisation triggered what we know today as industrial ecology thinking. Now we refer back
to Whites definition.
As mentioned, the metabolism in an industrialised society includes the extraction and flow of
raw materials into production and consumption systems and the discharge of wastes (flows of
materials and heat energy) into the environmental compartments. With the foreknowledge of
the aforesaid limitations and the carrying capacity of natural resources, atmosphere,
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hydrosphere and pedosphere without suffering permanent (or hard-to-reverse) damage (global
warming and rise in temperatures, permanently eutrophied lakes which cannot support aquatic
life, or totally acidified soils which are rendered arid and non-cultivable, etc.), industrial
ecology promotes (encourages) a systems thinking approach where the end of the pipe is
replaced with the throughout the pipe approach. All processes upstream are examined for
resource productivity. The scope for reducing material and energy losses is given higher
priority over the mere treatment of the wastes before disposal. Thought is given to issues like
dematerialisation, decarbonisation, transmaterialisation and decoupling economic growth
from environmental deterioration. The general fear that economic growth and environmental
upkeep are at loggerheads with each other is quashed by promoting a balance and what one
could term as a triple-bottom-line approach to development. White believes that the industries
themselves cannot change the ways the systems function, as the system is composed of
entities other than the producers. The consumers and the regulatory authorities the
governments play a key role. Total cooperation and a concerted endeavour with total
awareness of all the three arms of the system government (legal and political arm),
consumers (social arm) and producers (economic arm) is what is advocated by Robert White
if sustainable development is to become a reality.
The famous IPAT formula is often evoked when the superiority of industrial ecology over the
end-of-pipe environmental engineering of bygone days needs to be put forth. According to
this formula, the impact (I) is directly proportional to the population (P), level of affluence or
consumerism (A), and the impact per unit of GDP (T). While the last factor T depends on
technological development, the first two depend more on how society copes with the
challenge and adjusts and cooperates. For all these to be kept under control, the government
needs to be proactive with its regulations, incentives and legal restrictions; while ensuring that
economic growth and social welfare are not impeded. Industrial ecology is not a silver bullet
or a panacea to all the problems that plague the earth. It attempts to find the elusive via media
and shows the best possible way forward to sustainable development.

1.2 Draw an illustration of a Type I, Type II and Type III ecosystem, and
explain the differences between the systems. Which type of ecosystem
could best characterize the current typical metabolism in
industrialized countries? Give arguments for your choice.

Figure: Depiction of Type I, Type II and Type III systems

Figure above depicts schematically the three types of systems in any industrial economy
(society) in general. In Type I, the system depends on the environment for its energy and
resources, consumes the same to produce goods and services for the end-users and in the
process, and discharges all the wastes (waste heat and waste solids and fluids) back to the
environment. There is no recycling as such.
In Type II, the system manages to recycle or reuse some of the material outputs at the end of
the useful lives of the products which are supplied by its production sub-system. However,
there is still a lot of material wastes which are discharged to the environmental media.
Type III can be looked upon as an ideal and elusive arrangement, where the system does not
need virgin material inputs at all. Either the materials in use in products stay in the system
owing to the greater durability imparted to the products, or the recycling system manages to
take back 100% of all the material inputs and reuse/recycle them. However, energy would
continue to be generated continuously.

Type II is what the industrialised countries have managed to achieve. However, the degree of
resemblance to Type II as far as the extent of limited is concerned varies from one
component of the system to another. There may some pockets within the economy or some
industrial systems (specific to some products), where the dependence on virgin resources is
very low, while some others may perhaps not be able to do without a continuous supply of
virgin inputs for a variety of reasons difficulty to collect and recycle (institutional or
economic reasons or both), or functional requirements at the end-users. It must be mentioned
the non-productive heat loss to the environment has also been reduced perceptibly in Type II
and Type III systems, with some heat recovery and reuse for productive and value generating
processes and functions within the economy.

1.3 Define the following terms and give examples for the same.
1.3.1

Bio-mimicry: Designing systems, processes or products inspired by what happens in

natural biological systems, is termed as bio-mimicry. For example, treating wastewater
by using activated sludge treatment and thus exploiting what actually happens in
nature microbial decay of organics turns out to be more effective, economical and
environment-friendly than other methods of treatment.

1.3.2

Dematerialisation: Reducing the mass or quantities of materials used in a product to

perform a particular service or for that matter, to perform a defined service. An
example could be reducing the mass of computers and laptops, without compromising
on other aspects of performance. It could also simply refer to simpler lifestyles of
consumers. Being content with limited material goods and possessions and using each
good or product one possesses for as long as possible, enables a dematerialised or
rather a non-materialistic lifestyle.

1.3.3

Decarbonisation: If defined for a national economy, this implies reducing the use of
fossil fuels and thereby the emissions of carbon dioxide (and other organic
compounds), while maintaining the same level of economic output or increasing it. It
could also imply maintaining the level of fossil energy use constant while increasing
the level of economic output. For example, if an industry reduces its dependence on
coal, oil and natural gas by increasing the efficiency of energy use of its equipments,
and resorts to captive solar power generation and wind-turbines on-site, while
maintaining the same level of economic output, one cans ay that this industry has
decarbonised its output.

1.3.4

Decoupling: This, in literary terms, would mean disassociating one aspect from
another. In the context of economic growth and environmental stress, if a country
increases its Gross Domestic Product and manages to reduce its environmental
impacts or keep them constant, it is said to decouple its economic growth from
environmental impacts. Of course, here we believe that the GDP usually tends to
increase with time, though of course, it is not always so. Expressed mathematically, if
the ratio of the GDP to environmental impacts (the latter could be a specific impact or
a suitable aggregation of a set of impacts or simply the emissions of the element or
compound of interest, to the environmental media) increases with time, there is a
decoupling. One can further talk of relative and absolute decoupling. In the first case,
both the GDP and the impacts increase (or decrease), but at different rates. In the
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latter, one increases and the other decreases. Having said that, we can also conceive a
situation where the GDP decreases and the environmental impacts increase.
For instance, countries in the developed world, have been able to reduce their absolute
sulphur dioxide emissions drastically over the last 15 years. The GDPs have increased
over this time period appreciably. We see an absolute decoupling here of the sulphur
dioxide emissions from economic growth.
1.3.5

Trans-materialisation: As different from 1.3.2, this refers to substituting one material

for another. A scarce material can be replaced with a relatively more-abundant
substitute, a toxic material by a less-hazardous substitute or a non-recyclable one with
a recyclable one. Replacing copper with aluminium in applications where both can be
used (radiators in cars, electric wires etc.) is an example. This was resorted to, in many
parts of the world, when copper became very expensive (owing to scarcity). Using
cloth and paper bags in lieu of plastic ones is another example of trans-materialisation
while serving the same end-purpose.

Assignment 2: Analytical methods 1 - LCA

2.1 Explain in general how systems theory is important in the field of
industrial ecology. List the dimensions and parameters that have to be
decided in a system definition. Exemplify your explanation by drawing a
simple life-cycle system for a passenger car. Include the main processes
that you would include in an LCA of a car.
Solution:
From the introduction to chapter 4 in the compendium:

Systems theory can structure the examination and modelling of production-consumption

systems, meaning the value chain of physical processes and activities throughout the whole
life cycle of production, distribution and consumption of a given product. This theory helps us
to understand why industrial ecology must use a holistic examination of productionconsumption systems. In such an examination we try and understand the system as a whole,
not just a selected part of the system. Hence, in addition to in-depth studies of elements, the
interactions between these elements and between the elements and the surroundings are
important. Industrial ecology offers a set of environmental systems analysis methods. Systems
theory can help us see how complex systems can be structured and analysed, for insight into
the systems behaviour or performance, and possible improvements. Environmental systems
analysis can therefore benefit from systems theory.

Avoiding problem shifting is also an important aspect that could be mentioned.

Simple flow chart for a passenger car:

2.2 Explain the analytical procedure that is used in LCA to get the
numbers in Table 1 and how they are transformed into midpoint
indicator values given in Table 2.
Solution:
Table 1 is the result of an inventory analysis. The inventory analysis is the most
technical phase of an LCA, and is at the core of the modeling step. In the
inventory analysis, the inputs and outputs of all processes in the system are
quantified. In the final step of the inventory analysis, the inputs from and outputs
to the environment are aggregated throughout the different processes in the
system to get the cradle-to-grave inventory for the whole system. An aggregation
like this is what is presented in Table 1.
The impact assessment aims to interpret and aggregate the items contained in
the inventory table and to develop indicators describing the environmental
indicators of the system, centered on the concept on impact categories. The
impact categories are classes of identical or similar effects that can be viewed as
the result of particular pollutant emissions or resource extractions. The

characterization step of the impact assessment is therefore the step in which the
characterization factors are used to convert and aggregate the data on emissions
and extractions into the category indicator results. Different characterization
methods can be used in the impact assessment. The main result of the
characterization is a list of category indicator results for the selected impact
categories, for which numerical results are produced, each in their own metric .
2.3 Based on the information in Table 2 and 3, calculate the single score
impact values of the S-class with the different engine types. Which
model is preferable from an environmental point of view?
Solution:
This calculation is carried out in two steps: Normalization and weighting.
First, the normalization is carried out by multiplying the midpoint indicator values
in Table 2 with the correct normalization factor from Table 3. For example the
normalized value for GWP for the model S 350 is 98400*1.9E-13=1.87E-08. The
rest of the results are given in the table below:
GWP 100

AP

EP

ADP

POCP

S 350

1.87E-08

4.88E-09

2.30E-09

8.81E-10

1.70E-09

S 400
Hybrid

1.54E-08

3.96E-09

2.30E-09

7.01E-10

3.78E-09

Secondly, the weighting is carried out by multiplying the results from the
normalization step by the weighting factors given in Table 3. The weighted value
for GWP for the model S 350 is then 1.87E-08*16=3.0E-07. The rest of the results
from the weighting step are given in the table below. (Please note that there can
be small differences in the results according to the number of digits that are
used in the calculations. This calculation is carried out in Excel with all the
available digits.)

GWP
100

AP

EP

ADP

POCP

Total/Single
score impact
value

S 350

3.0E-07 2.4E-08

1.2E-08

4.4E-09

1.4E-07

4.75E-07

S 400
Hybrid

2.5E-07 2.0E-08

1.2E-08

3.5E-09

3.0E-08

3.11E-07

The single score impact value is the sum of the weighted value for each of the
impact categories and is given in the last column of the table. The single score
impact value of the S 400 Hybrid is 35% smaller than the value for the standard S
350 and the impact is smaller (or equal) in all the impact categories already in

the LCIA data given in Table 2, so the S 400 Hybrid is clearly preferable from an
environmental point of view.

2.4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of presenting the results

of an LCA study as LCIA midpoint indicator values, normalized values
and single-score impact values.
Solution:
LCIA midpoint indicator values:
Advantages:

scientific methodology
objective

the information about performance within different impact categories is

kept
Disadvantages:

Difficult to communicate to everyone

Harder to get an overview of the results when they exist of a range of
numbers instead of a single-score value

Normalized results:
Advantages:

Compares the environmental performance of the system to the total extent

of environmental problems in a region and therefore gives an indication of
how significant this system is for the performance in each of the impact
categories within the region.
Keeps the information on an impact category level
Can be used for error checking of the results
Disadvantages

There can be high uncertainty in the normalization factors

Weighted results:
Advantages:

Makes it possible to compare the relative importance of each impact

category and is used as a quantitative form of priority setting
A single-score indicator is easy to communicate to anyone

A single-score indicator makes comparison between different options

straight-forward
Disadvantages

Subjective
Non-scientific
A lot of valuable information is lost in the calculation of the single-score
indicator.

Assignment 3: Analytical methods 2 - MFA

3.1 Draw an MFA diagram of the system and list all the system variables
(variable and name).
Solution:
The MFA diagram is shown below. To get full score, correct notation and system
borders should be used, and all processes, flows, stocks and stock changes
should be included.

Variables:
X0,1: Material import
X1,0: Export from production
X1,2: Production output entering use phase
X0,2: Import of cars
X2,1: Cars sent back to production due to manufacturing errors
X2,3: Cars taken out of use
X3,0: Export of used cars
S1: Production stocks
S2: In-use stocks
S3: Collection stocks
S1: Annual change in production stocks
S2: Annual change in in-use stocks
S3: Annual change in collection stocks

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3.2 Formulate all the balancing equations and model approach

equations and solve the equation system.
Solution:
As there are 13 unknowns, there will also be 13 equation in the set of equations.
3 balancing equations (1 for each process) and 10 model approach equations:
Balancing equations:
1. X0,1 + X2,1 = X1,0 + X1,2 + S1
2. X1,2 + X0,2 = X2,1 + X2,3 + S2
3. X2,3 = X3,0 + S3
Model approach equations:
4. X1,0 = 0.5*X0,1
5. X2,3 = 1/16*S2
6. X0,2 = 0.8*(X2,3 + S2)
7. X2,1 = 0.1*X1,2
8. S1 = 0
9. S2 = 100000
10.S3 = 0
11.S1 = 0
12.S2 = 0.05*S2
13.S3 = 0

Solution of the equation system:

X0,1= 4500
X1,0 = 2250
X1,2 = 2500
X0,2 = 9000
X2,1 = 250
X2,3 = 6250
X3,0 = 6250
S1 = 0

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S2 = 100000 at the beginning of the year, 105000 at the end of the year
S3 = 0
S1 = 0
S2 = 5000
S3 = 0

3.3 The LCA in assignment 2 and the MFA in assignment 3 are both
environmental studies of cars. Explain how the MFA study differs from
the LCA.
Solution:
Differences between the LCA in assignment 2 and the MFA in assignment 3:

Scope:

LCA: the life-cycle performance of a car, and the comparison of two

models.
o MFA: Overview of the stocks and flows of cars within the region.
Geographical boundaries:

LCA: Whatever is important for the life-cycle environmental

performance, independent of location
o MFA: The region under study
Temporal boundaries:

o
o

LCA: The lifetime of one car

MFA: One year. Can also be included in a dynamic study to show the
changes over time.

3d) Discuss how each of the methods LCA and MFA can contribute to an
evaluation of the environmental performance of the transportation
system in a region.
Solution:
LCA can be used to evaluate the environmental performance of different
car models and other modes of transportation that are available within the
region under study. Less preferable car models and transportation modes
can then be substituted by more preferable ones. The use of LCA studies
then ensures that the cars that are actually used are as environmental
friendly as possible.

MFA is on the other hand used to evaluate the total transportation system
in the region. Which processes and flows are the most important in the
system, how is the system changing over time and where in the system

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should effort be given to improve the overall performance? The MFA can
also be extended to include other modes of transportation.

Combined, the two analytical methods can give even more valuable
results. Knowing from the LCAs which car models and modes of
transportation that are the most environmental friendly, and extending the
MFA to include separate processes for different car models as well as
including other modes of transportation, the findings from the LCA can be
used to evaluate and optimize the performance of the system as a whole
through the MFA.

Assignment 4: The business case for industrial

ecology
4.1

Explain what is meant by the business case for industrial ecology and describe
important elements that governments, businesses and consumers should work on
to enhance implementation of industrial ecology (Hint: you may use the
framework developed by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development).

Solution:
The business case is a description of how industrial ecology strategies and techniques can
foster a more environmentally benign and responsible industrial practice, and at the same
time secure efficient and competitive business in the short and long term.
Elements (building blocks) of the WBCSDs business case:
1. The market
2. The right frame
3. Eco-efficiency
4. Corporate Social Responsibility
5. Learning to change
6. From dialogue to partnership
7. Informing and providing consumer choice
8. Innovation
9. Reflecting the worth of the Earth
10. Making markets work for all
Different elements can be discussed and grouped into a simplified business case model, see
the figure below:

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If using this framework, you may elaborate on the difference between the
business case for sustainable development and the business case for
industrial ecology (textbook Ch 23-9.): Industrial ecology less emphasis on
the social dimension, and on conditions for implementation.
Important elements for governments: External policy frameworks (The
right policy frameworks (2), reflecting the worth of the Earth (9)), and
contribute to establishing Fair and competitive markets (1 and 10)
Important elements for consumers: Awareness and asking for products
with environmental and social labeling, willingness to pay in the market
place, even the extra cost.
Important elements for business:
Earn the license to operate (4 and 5), empower eco-innovation (3 and 8),
manage for competitiveness (5 and 7).
4.2

Eco-efficiency has become one of the main concepts since it was adopted by
businesses in the early 1990s. How will you define eco-efficiency? How will you
measure eco-efficiency performance for an oil company? Discuss strengths and
weaknesses of your approach.

Eco-efficiency can, in brief, be defined as the product or service value per unit environmental
impact. What environmental impact entails is open to interpretation. One may focus on a
particular undesired emission to air, water or soil, or a suitably aggregated impact designator
which takes into consideration a host of emissions and a clutch of different impacts. While the
product of service value can either be interpreted as the revenue obtained from the
marketplace through the sale of the product/service or the quantities of products or services
supplied/delivered, the environmental impact can suitably be measured depending on,
among other things, area-specific concerns. A rise in eco-efficiency implies that economic
growth is being made possible along with environmental upkeep. It must be mentioned that
when the value of product or service is measured, especially if the eco-efficiency has to
tracked over time, one must make sure to calculate the value in real currency units.
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Measure eco-efficiency for an oil company:

Product or sales value: If both oil and gas: Tonnes of oil equivalents, or sales in monetary
terms. Here, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, attention must be paid to expressing the
value in real currency units. Here, it must be borne in mind that oil and gas prices fluctuate
wildly at times and hence, the eco-efficiency numbers in that case, tend to be misleading.
Only when the prices of products oil and gas in this instance move in perfect sync with the
general inflation, can the eco-efficiency metric be meaningful.
Environmental impact: Measuring the environmental impacts associated with the oil and gas
industry is a subjective exercise. The system boundaries need to be defined clearly.
Geographical differences need to be taken into consideration; and decisions have to made
regarding which impact is the most crucial in which part of the world the oil and gas company
has operations in. Further, it needs to be decided if life-cycle impacts from extraction to
end-use have to be considered against the market value of the products. While the oil and
gas company itself cannot be held responsible for the impacts on the upstream and
downstream for which it is not directly accountable, the concept of extended producer
responsibility would motivate this kind of thinking.
4.3

A logistics company transporting goods has the ambition of reducing its

greenhouse gas emissions. Use the principles of industrial ecology to advise the
company in this regard.
1) Define system boundaries
2) Analyse emissions along the value chain to get
a. a status by accounting of emissions under direct control of the company
b. list of important factors beyond the companys control
3) Eco-Efficiency improvements of existing operations:
a. Reduce the amount of energy consumption (fuel use) for a transport mode
when performing an activity
b. Driver important - education
4) LCA approach:
a.
Consider the well-to-wheel performance of shifting to alternative
energy sources or fuels (i.e. biofuel)
b. Vehicle improvements (hybrid engines, new materials) demateralisation and
transmaterialisation being the principles in this case.
5) Reduce the transport volume
a. Better coordination of logistics
b. Vehicle lengths,
6) Change the modal split
a.
Optimize the use of different transport modes

In the guest lecture, the following four options for reducing greenhouse gases were presented:
1. Reduce the energy consumption
a. Road pricing, to reduce the total volumes & congestion
b. Taxation on parking at employers parking lots
c. Driver training, environmentally friendly driving
d. More efficient engines

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e. More weight/volume per vehicle/engine

2. Alternative energy resources
a. Depends on governmental incentives for
i. biofuels,
ii. clean hydrogen demonstration projects,
iii. Plug in hybrid LDV and trucks/buses
3. Reduce transport volume
a. Area planning in cities, housing and work co-located
b. Less long distance cargo transportation (far East to Europe)
c. Increase use of home office activities when working
4. Change modal split
a. Governmental investments in public passenger systems
b. Subsidy in public passenger transport to reduce ticket price and/or to offer high
frequency
c. Shift from cargo trucks to rail transport
d. A national bicycle strategy, i.e. 10% of all short trips in towns on bicycle

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