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P. SWAIN
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THE
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JOURNAL
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which the classical concerto is an essential contributor, and the undiminished popularity of the classical concerto repertoire, it is time for a new
appraisal of the cadenza.
There are at least three approaches to the issue. The first is to investigate the origin of the cadenza and the opinions of eighteenth-century
theorists and critics about it. In this way we may learn, not infallible rules
for cadenza composition, but something about the original purpose of
cadenzas, what they were supposed to do for the movements that contained them.
The second approach is to analyze the numerous authentic cadenzas that Mozart and Beethoven have left for their own concertos. There
could hardly be a better source for learning about the general structure
and function of cadenzas, and also about the specific relationships between certain cadenzas and their parent concerto movements. Recent
scholarship, including large studies by Paul Badura-Skoda2 and Paul
Mies3, has emphasized this approach.
The third approach is to apply modern theories of concerto form
and the classical sonata style to the cadenza problem. Is there anything
we can say about the form and function of the cadenza given what we
know about the workings of concertos and the classical style of Mozart
and Beethoven? The theoretical approach is risky, as always, because its
assumptions are more easily challenged, but how else can conclusions
from the other two approaches be assimilated and confirmed? Critics
and theorists of the eighteenth century are just as fallible in their opinions about music of their own time as we are about music in ours; there is
no reason to adopt their "rules" without further consideration of the
music itself. The solutions of Mozart and Beethoven may be perfect, of
course, but they left no explicit instructions on how to make more. The
elements that they left in their cadenzas only make sense when connected with a conception of the concerto as a whole.
Origin and Development
of the Concerto Cadenza
The word itself would indicate a link with the notion
of "cadence." Indeed, of English, German, French, and Italian, only in
the English language is there any verbal distinction between the two
ideas, and that is made by borrowing the Italian word for "cadence" as a
special term. The German theorist Daniel Gottlieb Turk, writing
around 1789, also points to the cadence as the source of the cadenza:
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
nachzugeben (zu verweilen), bis endlich nach und nach unsre verzierten Kadenzen daraus entstanden sind. Ihren Ursprung setzt man in die Jahre 1710 bis 1716.* Das Vaterland derselben isst wahrscheinlich Italien."
Johann Friedrich Agricola's work is Anleitungzur Singekunst(Berlin, 1757), a translation
of Pier Francesco Tosi's Opinionide' cantoriantichie moderni(1723) with some additions of
his own.
5 Heinrich Knodt, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kadenzen im Instrumentalkonzert, Sammelbdndeder internationalenMusik-GesellschaftXV (1913/14), 392.
6 Carl
Phillip Emmanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing KeyboardInstruments,
(1753) trans. and ed. WilliamJ. Mitchell (New York, 1949), p. 380.
7 See Quantz,
p. 179 and Turk, p. 308.
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THE
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By the time of Turk's writing Mozart was making a distinction between "cadenzas" and other improvisatory passages called "Eingdnge"
(see letter of February 15, 1783). In contrast to cadenzas, which appear
at the end of a movement and are associated with a final cadence, these
Eingdnge may appear in any part of the movement, most often just before the beginning of a new section, as in the return of a rondo theme,
and have the function of "leading in" to the next section. They contain
no references to thematic material, and are usually constructed of
passagework based on dominant harmony which the onset of the next
section resolves. Because the resolution is elided with a new beginning,
the character and function of the Eingang can be clearly distinguished
from those of the true cadenza, which, according to the eighteenthcentury theorists cited above, has a function of conclusion on a high
structural level.
The elements of improvisation and thematic reference, associated
intimately with the classical cadenza today, seem to have come together
slowly during the second and third quarters of the eighteenth century.
Knodt shows that cadenzas in Vivaldi concertos have virtuoso technique
and a certain motivic relationship with the movement proper, but little
improvisatory character. These cadenzas are written directly into the
movement without any suspension of meter.8 On the other hand, the
Capricciof Pietro Locatelli, which are supposed to be used in his concertos of 1733, L'Artedel violino, are composed entirely of virtuosic scales
and arpeggios, typical devices of improvisation, but ones which do not
refer thematically to the parent movement.9 C. P. E. Bach's image of the
cadenza seems to be that of a "fantasia-like interlude," which seldom
uses any melodic fragments from the concerto.10 Even Mozart's early
keyboard cadenzas did not use thematic references.' Quantz, however,
while recognizing the possibility of fresh invention in a cadenza, offers
the alternative of thematic reference when the player's imagination
fails:
Cadenzasmust stem from the principalsentimentof the piece, and
include a short repetition or imitationof the most pleasing phrases
containedin it. At times, if your thoughts are distracted,it is not immediately possible to invent something new. The best expedient is
then to choose one of the most pleasingof the preceding phrasesand
fashionthe cadenzafrom it. In this manneryou not only can makeup
for any lack of inventiveness,but can alwaysconfirm the prevailing
8
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
passion of the piece as well. This is an advantage that is not too well
known which I would like to recommend to everyone.12
Evidently, aside from the basic conception of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence, there was no consensus about what form that elaboration
should take until late in the eighteenth century, when the cadenza had
gained the status of a performance tradition. Even then, the practice
maintained considerable variety, evident in the cadenzas of Mozart and
Beethoven alone. Unfortunately,
the various cadenza styles among
other eighteenth-century
composers cannot be discussed in detail here.
Quantz's point about thematic reference having an advantage because it will "always confirm the prevailing passion of the piece" reflects
one ideal about cadenzas that theorists agree on. Another is surprise.
The cadenza, while remaining faithful to the spirit of the work, should
strive for improvised variety and the unexpected. In the words of Daniel
Tiirk:
Although unity demands a well-ordered whole, just as necessary
is variety, so that the listener will be kept attentive. That is why in cadenzas one does as many unexpected and surprising things as is
possible.'3
Central to this ideal of surprise is the suspension of meter. Quantz
and Turk, writing about forty years apart, are in remarkably close
agreement on this point:
Regular meter is seldom observed, and indeed should not be observed, in cadenzas. They should consist of detached ideas rather
than a sustained melody, as long as they conform to the preceding expression of the passions.'4
Steady motion and meter (Taktart) should not be maintained
throughout the cadenza; in addition, broken-off measures (not completely played through) must be adapted to go with one another. For
the whole should seem more like a fantasy originating from overflowing sentiment than a strictly worked-out piece.15
12
Quantz, p. 182.
Turk, pp. 311-12. "So wie die Einheit zu einem wohlgeordneten Ganzen erfordert
wird, eben so notig ist auch die Mannigfaltigkeit, wenn der Zuhorer aufmerksam
erhalten werden soil. Daher bringe man in Kadenzen so viel Unerwartetes und Ueberraschendes an, als nur immer m6glich ist."
14 Quantz, p. 185.
15 Turk, p. 312. "Einerlei
Bewegung und Taktart darf man in der Kadenz nicht durchgangig beibehalten; auch miissen bios einzelne abgebrachene (nicht vollig ausgefuihrte)
Takte geschickt mit einander verbunden werden. Denn das Ganze soil mehr einer nur
eben aus der Fulle der Empfindung entstehenden Fantasie, als einem regelmassig ausgearbeiteten Tonstiicke gleichen."
13
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31
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The writers' opinion that the absence of meter adds to the improvised,
surprising effects of cadenzas conforms to modern theoretical views
about meter. Meter supplies low-level continuity to musical structure by
virtue of its regular grouping of beats, allowing the human mind to organize easily the incoming rhythmic fragments and to proceed to
higher-level perceptions. When that continuity is missing, the rhythmic
patterns presented to the listener seem disjointed, unexpected, and surprising.
Turk is careful to balance his desire for spontaneity and surprise
with the necessity of maintaining some relationship with the parent
movement. What is more surprising, in view of the cadenza's reputation
as a performer's improvisation, is his recommendation to some players
to prepare the cadenza ahead in order to insure this relationship:
It follows from the above that a cadenzathat has been learned by
heart with some effort perhaps, or one that has been writtendown,
must be played, ratherthan havingrandom and unexceptionalideas
thrownout, whateverthe playerhappens to think of first. 6
32
Perhaps Turk's recommendation is a response to abuses of the cadenza practice already present in his own time. Evidently, the tendency
of singers and players to get carried away by their skills of improvisation
goes well back into the first half of the century. Tosi's complaint about
cadenzas in operatic arias is quite famous,'7 but the use of aria cadenzas
reported by Quantz is even more preposterous:
The object of the cadenza is simply to surprisethe listener unexpectedlyonce more at the end of the piece, and to leave behind a special impression in his heart. To conform to this object, a single cadenza would be sufficient in a piece. If, then, a singer makes two
cadenzas in the first part of an aria, and yet another in the second
part,it must certainlybe consideredan abuse;for in this fashion,because of the da capo, five cadenzasappearin one aria.'8
These complaints are by no means limited to singers. Players of concerto
cadenzas also earn the ire of the critics:
The abuseof cadenzasis apparentnot only if they are of littlevalue
in themselves,as is usuallythe case, but also if in instrumentalmusic
'l Turk, p. 313. "Ausdem Vorigen folgt, dass eine vielleichtmit noch so vieler Muhe
auswendiggelernte oder vorher aufgeschriebeneKadenzdoch so ausgefuhrtewerden
muss, als waren es bloss zufallig und ohne Auswahlhingeworfene Gedanken,welche
dem Spielereben erst einfielen."
17
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
they are introduced in pieces in which they are not at all suitable; for
example, in gay and quick pieces in two-four, three-four, three-eight,
twelve-eight, and six-eight time. They are permissible only in pathetic
and slow pieces, or in serious quick ones.19
I would say nothing new, but only repeat often heard complaints,
if I spoke against the very great abuse of the embellished cadenzas
(verzierten Kadenzen). For it is not seldom that a concerto seems to be
played solely for the sake of the cadenzas. The performer struggles
not only to achieve pointless length, but also introduces all sorts of
ideas that have not the slightest relation with the preceding composition, so that the good impression which the piece has perhaps made
upon the listener for the most part has been cadenza-ed away
("wegkadenziert"-emphasis Ttirk's).20
Polemic was not the only response to these abuses. The eighteenthcentury theorists were not short on advice on how to correct them. Some
advice focuses on length, particularly excessive length, and for good
reason. Arnold Schering, in a 1906 study of the eighteenth-century
cadenza, writes that most of the written cadenzas he had been able
to collect were of great length, comparable to modern ones, thus corroborating the complaints cited above.2 Knodt traces a controversy
between Agricola and Tosi over singer's cadenzas, whence comes Agricola's rule that a singer's cadenza should be "no longer than a breath."22
Turk's advice begins with that rule (without citation) and then goes on
to elaborate:
With songs or wind instruments, a cadenza should last only as long as
the breath of the singer. With string instruments, perhaps this rule
need not be followed too strictly; however, monstrously long cadenzas, which often last many minutes, are in no way to be excused.23
wieder wegkadenziertwird."
21
"Die Freie Kadenz im Instrumentalkonzert des 18. Jahrhunderts," InternationalMusicologicalSocietyCongressReport(1906), p. 204.
22
Knodt, p. 394.
23
Turk, p. 311. "In Gesangeoder auf Blasinstrumentensoil eine Kadenzeigentlich
nur so lange dauern, als der Athem des Sangerszureicht.Auf besaitetenInstrumenten
mochtezwardieserGrundsatznichtso strengezu befolgen sein; aberdessen ungeachtet
sind doch die ungeheuer langen Kadenzen, welche nicht selten mehrere Minuten
dauern,keinesWegeszu entschuldigen."
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THE
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OF MUSICOLOGY
34
the impression (Eindruck) of the piece, citing the use of fancy passages
in slow movements
as a special offense.27
Bach, p. 431.
Quantz,p. 184.
26
Turk, p. 311. "Ausweichungen in andere, besonders sehr entfernte, Tone finden
entweder gar nicht statt z.B. in kiirzen Kadenzen, oder sie missen mit vieler Einsicht,
und gleichsam nur im Vorbergehen angebracht werden. Auf einen Fall sollte man in
Tone ausweichen, worein der Komponist in dem Tonstucke selbst nicht ausgewichen ist.
Diese Regel griindet sich, wie mich dunkt, auf die Gefess der Einheit, welche bekanntermassen in alien Werken der schonen Kunste befolgt werden milssen."
24
25
27
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
369.
29
P. Badura-Skoda, p. 215.
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THE
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abruptly. Both Eduard Melkus and Paul Mies use the word "quotes" (Zitate)to describe this effect.30 Most of all, Mozart strictly observes the prohibition against distant modulation. Indeed, as Paul Badura-Skoda
points out, he never modulates at all, but remains firmly rooted in the
tonic key, and this characteristic is not usually written into modern cadenzas for Mozart concertos.31 The harmonic effect of this is by no
means stable or tranquil, but one of significant tension on the low level,
as described by Denis Matthews:
They appeared to be suspended between the six-four chord and its
resolution:they may have tacked on other keys but rarelyif ever establishedthem in the Beethoven way.32
36
30
XXXVI
(1982), 26.
P. Badura-Skoda,pp. 219-20.
32
Denis Matthews, "Adrian Boult Lecture: Cadenzas in Piano Concertos," Recorded
Sound LXVIII (1978), 724.
33 Bach,
p. 381.
31
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CLASSICAL
EXAMPLE
CADENZA
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37
THE
JOURNAL
OF MUSICOLOGY
rC.
Jr
" f
'f '
i I
38
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fe
CADENZA
CLASSICAL
EXAMPLE
'-'
v^J-
'
';
'l
r?-: *
#;
'?,-'
very same low F-sharp which introduced the passage. Thus Mozart
presents the listener with a brief development of an important motive of
the concerto in the right hand, supported by quick harmonic changes
which allow him to avoid the tonic cadence and maintain the dominant
tension throughout. The chromatic changes simply prolong the dominant chord, so that it can last twelve measures instead of three or four.
Sometimes the chromatic harmony supports the dominant more directly as a series of secondary dominants or diminished chords circumscribing the fifth degree of the home tonic. This is the case at the end of
the very brief first cadenza to the first movement of K.456, as shown in
Example 4. The descending minor scale leads right through the dominant F to a diminished seventh on E natural, which acts like a large leading tone or appoggiatura to the dominant, which arrives presently after
a flourish.
EXAMPLE
rit,La b; v
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39
THE
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The effects of all of these harmonic devices are amplified by Mozart's careful exploitation of the piano register, principally the bass. This
is reserved for the principal tones of the prevailing dominant harmony,
so that they seem like a pedal for the entire cadenza. Note that in Example 2 from K.453 above, the two F-sharps which frame the chromatic
passage are in the same octave, and they are the lowest notes in the cadenza to that point. Because the listener accords a stronger harmonic
function to low notes, the effect of the dominant harmony is more credible than the variety of implied keys that follow, especially when the same
note returns after the passage.35
While the bass register strengthens the dominant prolongation in
Mozart's cadenzas, the high register weakens any authentic cadences
that have to be made for purposes of low-level articulation, or because
they are intrinsic to the original material (see Example 5). The series of
V-I progressions in measures 22 to 27 is included because Mozart is
quoting exactly the original setting of the motive (although in the concerto it immediately precedes rather than follows the half-note idea).
But even the rather firm gesture in measure 27 does nothing to resolve
the tension of the high-level dominant in the cadenza because it is so
high in the piano register. The very next passage resumes the dominant
with octaves on F, deep in the bass.
In the commentary on Mozart's cadenzas, two writers, Matthews
and Paul Badura-Skoda, have noticed a consistent three-part form:
In almostallof Mozart'sgreatcadenzascan one ascertaina definite
three part form: a cadenzabeginning (I) which startsa) either with a
theme from the concerto movementor b) withvirtuosoruns, at times
alreadyknown,at times newlyinvented, and flowsinto a middle part
(II), which almostcontinuallydevelops with sequencesan important
theme or motive from the concerto movement, mostly over a sustained bass note or chord. This leads into a number of virtuosoruns,
passagesin thirds,etc., until the close of the cadenza(III), whichusuallyends with a trill.36
The details of Badura-Skoda's description support the idea of the
cadenza as a prolonged dominant. The rarity of the principal theme at
the beginning of the cadenza is due to its close association with tonic stability. After all, its firstjob is to establish the key clearly at the beginning
of the concerto. When it is used, it must be transformed or harmonized
anew to match the dominant function of the cadenza. We have already
35 The importance of the bass register with respect to harmonic function is discussed in
Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, A GenerativeTheoryof Tonal Music (Cambridge, Mass.,
1983), pp. 88, 162-63.
36 P. Badura-Skoda,
p. 216.
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE
A r-O-
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seen an example of this in the first cadenza for K.453, where the theme
is harmonized with the I 6-4. A different sort of case is found in the
cadenza for the Piano Concerto K.459, as seen in Example 6. After a
series of virtuoso triplets over the dominant C, Mozart transfers the triplet figure to the bass and introduces the main theme, a martial tune
which originally was harmonized with I and V on the first two measures
of it. Now, in order to blend with the preceding harmony and to sustain
the dominant function, Mozart uses a slightly different version of the
tune which can be harmonized V-I. Mozart's transformation emphasizes the V, because it is heard first in a metrically stronger position than
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THE
JOURNAL
EXAMPLE
OF MUSICOLOGY
dr, ^IrF
rI F
I
:'~
42
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
-rr
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ef9
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43
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the maximum that can be accommodated in a cadenza.38The only alternative is to change the key or to change the fundamental harmony, either of which would undermine the original intent. The consistency of
the three-part structure in Mozart's mature cadenzas reveals the constraint under which he is working.
This constraint on the length of the cadenza can be easily noticed in
a brief survey of the proportions of some of these cadenzas compared to
their parent movements, as seen in Table 1. With two exceptions-the
first cadenza to the slow movement of K.453, and the first cadenza to
K.456-the proportion of the cadenza to the rest of the parent movement is quite consistent. This consistency indicates both the limits of the
dominant function of the cadenza and the structural level to which the
cadenza would belong. If it occupies one tenth of the movement, it be38 This assertion is based on recent evidence concerning human musical perception.
See Joseph P. Swain, "The Need for Limits in Hierarchical Theories of Music," Music
PerceptionIV (Fall, 1986), 121-47.
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THE
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TABLE
Work
Measuresin
Concerto
1
Measuresin
Cadenza
%Lengthof
Cadenza
K.453, II
372
374
141
37
39
19
10.1
10.4
13.5
136
14
10.3
K. 456, I
382
18
4.7
399
35
8.8
357
433
559
33
34
53
9.2
7.9
9.5
(incl.cad.)
K.453,
K. 456, III
K. 459, I
K. 459, III
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
Beethoven had composed them all by 1809, for various students and acquaintances, but there is no hard evidence for this; 1809 is chosen because it is the year of completion for the last concerto, the "Emperor."
Willy Hess points out that the three cadenzas composed for Op. 15 must
date from 1804 at the earliest, since they make use of notes above f3, a
range not used previously.39 This observation would not apply to the
cadenza for Op. 19, which does not go beyond the f3.
What Hess makes clear, however, is that at least in the case of Op.
and
15,
perhaps likely in all the piano concertos except Op. 73, the cadenzas were composed well after the composition of the parent concerto. With Mozart, whose style changes during the period of his mature
piano concertos are quite subtle, this issue of a time lapse is not so serious. With Beethoven, whose change in style between Op. 19 (1794) and
Op. 73 (1809) is far-reaching and continuous, difficult questions arise
about the composer's opinions of his earlier work, compositional process, whether he could really compose in a personal style from which he
had since evolved, and whether he would even want to.
One aspect of this chronological tangle is sure. When Beethoven
wrote his "Emperor" Concerto in 1809, he no longer wished to allow the
soloist the option of playing his own cadenza. Instead, at the point of the
I 6-4, Beethoven writes directly in the score: "Do not make a cadenza
here, but play immediately the following."40 There follows a brief cadenza of nineteen measures with a single thematic reference and clear
dominant function. Evidently, Beethoven had had a change of heart
about the cadenza and its role in a concerto movement.
A story told by Ferdinand Ries about his performance of Op. 37 in
July 1804, with Beethoven conducting, might reveal some interesting
aspects of Beethoven's earlier attitude toward the concerto cadenza:
I had asked Beethoven to writea cadenzafor me, but he refused and
told me to write one myself and he would correct it. Beethoven was
satisfiedwith my compositionand made few changes; but there was
an extremelybrilliantand very difficult passage in it, which, though
he liked it, seemed to him too venturesome,wherefore he told me to
write another in its place. A week before the concert he wanted to
hear the cadenzaagain. I playedit and floundered in the passage;he
again, this time a little ill-naturedly,told me to change it. I did so, but
the new passagedid not satisfyme; I therefore studied the other, and
zealously,but was not quite sure of it. When the cadenzawas reached
in the public concert Beethoven quietly sat down. I could not persuade myself to choose the easierone. When I boldlybegan the more
39 WillyHess, "DieOriginalkadenzenzu BeethovensKlavierkonzerten,"
Schweizerische
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45
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46
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
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THE
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
key reigns, the tonic that is appropriate to the cadenza's position in the
structure of the movement.
Beethoven tried a new approach to the problem of making the cadenza connect the recapitulation with the coda in his G Major Piano
Concerto, Op. 58 (composed 1805-06). When the orchestra enters after
the conclusion of the cadenza, it does so on a dominant seventh, rather
than a tonic chord, so that instead of the traditional cadential formula
we have the pattern: I 6-4 - cadenza - V7. In this way the end of the
concerto can no longer be thought of as a pair of structural cadences,
one embellished in the cadenza and finished by the orchestra and a second, through-composed one by the full ensemble, but rather as a single
structural cadence, whose dominant part is embellished by the soloist,
then continued and resolved by the orchestra.
The connection is more than a matter of harmonic function.
Beethoven introduces the cadenza with a lyrical theme whose phrases
always move to the dominant (see Example 8). Then, when the dominant trill of the cadenza arrives, the same theme is played in the clarinet
over a variant in the piano. To understand the special problem that this
structural arrangement creates for Beethoven, we must review the earlier occurrences of this theme. In the orchestral part of the exposition,
the theme is heard once (mm. 50-60), in a fortissimo orchestral tutti
which then leads into cadential material before the soloist's entrance. In
the second part of the exposition it is heard in the winds, accompanied
by virtuoso passagework in the piano (mm. 158-69), but then, rather
than leading to the exposition's cadence, the theme is reiterated in a
beautiful, much quieter version nearly identical to that quoted above
(mm. 170-74), then giving way to the vigorous orchestral statement
(mm. 175-80), so that the double announcement of the theme seems
like an expansion of the original. In the recapitulation, this reiteration is
done again, beforethe cadenza begins. This means that we hear it twice
immediately before the cadenza, and once again right after it.
Beethoven needs a cadenza which does not emphasize tonic stability,
since he is moving from dominant to dominant, yet presents something
substantial in order to break up the triple presentation of this lyrical
theme.
Beethoven's solution in one cadenza is a tonic prolongation, similar
to the others we have seen, but with certain features that weaken its
overall function of tonic stability. There is careful use of the bass register
for dominant implications. The movement to the key of B-flat major
close to the beginning is significant, but the theme heard is the one that
modulates to its relative minor; the overall sense of G is perhaps not lost,
but is not in the foreground either. Strong emphasis on E-flat and D-flat
corresponds to the structural roles these pitches play in the concerto, but
also supports the explicit dominant harmony on D that occupies the last
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49
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seventeen measures. The idea behind this cadenza seems to be that since
a tonic prolongation is the only option for a cadenza of this length, one
that has significant lower-level dominant features can function on the
high level as a tonic, but yet not resolve the dominant tension which
must continue when the orchestra enters. This connection between the
function of the cadenza and the material that surrounds it is made explicit in the last twenty measures of the cadenza, which present the lyriEXAMPLE
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE 8. (continued)
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cal theme quoted above in the minor mode, so that its resumption by the
orchestra in major is even more effective.
Because he cannot prolong the dominant explicitly for the length of
time required in these long cadenzas, Beethoven, in another solution to
Op. 58, tries to fashion an improvisation on the concept of unresolved
harmonic tension. It is titled "Cadenza, ma senza cadere." Not only is
there not the slightest hint of any cadence, not even any dominant preparation before the end, but no key is consistent for more than five measures or so. The cadenza is a succession of wild harmonic, rhythmic, and
tempo contrasts. A single thematic quotation and the main motive repeated at the end are this cadenza's only link with the parent movement.
The concluding trill, the audible signal of the cadenza on G-sharp, G
natural, and A. Evidently, the listener, faced with this jumble, is to conclude that this improvisation must be supporting the dominant. That is
the last clear harmony he has heard and the very next one he will hear.
The reason for the extremely unusual thematic context into which
the cadenza is placed becomes clear only after the last hearing of that
lyrical theme. Of five renditions, only the final one makes a strong cadence (m. 356), which leads directly into the last high-level cadence of
the movement. The function of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence
depends on such a transformation of the theme. In a sense, the cadenza
forces this once transitional material to close, simply because after the
cadenza nothing else would suffice.
How long are these long cadenzas? Table 2 presents the data. With
the exception of the little cadenza for Op. 15, they are significantly
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TABLE
Work
Measuresin
with
Concerto
Cadenzaincluded
Op. 19
Op. 15
479
540
510
604
507
437
421
Op. 37
Op. 58
2
Measuresin
Cadenza
79
62 (inc.)
32
126
64
6745
51
Cadenzaas %
ofMovement
16.5
11.5
6.3
20.9
12.6
15.3
12.1
In contrast to these stand the two short cadenzas: one of twelve measures for Op. 58, and of course the nineteen-measure cadenza that is
mandated for the "Emperor." Beethoven possibly considered another
for the Op. 37 concerto. Willy Hess reports that alongside the long one
in the autograph, Mh 71 of the Bodmer Collection, is a page containing
twenty measures of music with "Cadenza"written at the top.46
The short cadenza for Op. 58 presents a delicate problem because
of the construction of the concerto. Will twelve measures be enough diversion to break up the triple presentation of that descending lyrical
theme harmonized by the dominant? That question, I think, can be answered only after repeated hearings of the cadenza in the context of the
entire movement (if any pianists can be persuaded to give up the virtuosic displays of the longer ones). Beethoven, however, has chosen a
unique construction to solve the problem. In a cadenza so short, shorter
even than the typical Mozart cadenza, it would be an easy matter for
Beethoven to fashion a prolonged dominant according to Mozart's conception. However, since the preceding orchestral theme was based on
the dominant, and will resume with that harmony at the cadenza's end, a
dominant prolongation would only emphasize the thematic repetition.
Indeed, this cadenza could not be described as a sustained dominant
(see Example 9).
45 This cadenza has i o actual measures, but some have a signature of 6, others 4, which
is the signature for the movement. By considering two 8 measures to be a number of beats
equal to one 4, the number 67 was calculated for purposes of comparison.
46 Hess, p. 272.
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE
9. Shortcadenzato PianoConcertoOp. 58, I.
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53
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EXAMPLE 9. (continued)
nu
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54
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None of the usual Mozartean devices appear. The rushing scales begin not from D, but from a G deep in the bass register. The tonic chord is
in root position (m. 2) with the attending dominants in weaker inversions. Then, in measure five the main motive is sounded on a root tonic
which encompasses more than four octaves of the piano. Only then does
the harmony change, moving through VI to diminished and finally
dominant harmony. Beethoven has created a low-level I-V progression
which can be subsumed in the higher-level dominant function of the
end of the movement, and yet which might be a sufficient articulation as
to make the third hearing of the lyrical theme acceptable.
The cadenza in the "Emperor" Concerto has caused considerable
comment, not because it is short, or because of the way it is written, but
because Beethoven seems to have cut off the accepted "tradition"of the
soloist's improvisation in a concerto. No longer is there any option. Paul
Mies attributes this to a disappearance of improvisational skill and a lack
of interest in improvisational genres such as the fantasy.47We have seen,
however, that cadenzas were not always improvised on the spot, and that
Beethoven himself approved previously composed and practiced "improvisations."
Matthews thinks that Beethoven obviated the need for a long cadenza late in the movement by beginning the "Emperor" with great improvisatory flourishes by the piano.48 Hess points out that Beethoven's
47 Mies, pp. 49-50.
48 Matthews, "Beethoven and the Cadenza," p. 1206.
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
aborted D major piano concerto of 1814/15 begins with a strong orchestral tutti followed by a short solo passage with the word "Cadenza"written over it.49This is indeed an interesting correspondence, but to speak
of a "need" for a cadenza or other improvisatory passage would presume that our theories of concerto form would explain and account for
such need. They do not. Indeed, they ignore the cadenza altogether.
Hess sees the "Emperor" Concerto as the last stage of a smooth development of the cadenza from an improvised virtuoso passage to something that is integrated tightly into the movement. If he is right, we
would then have a rationale for placing all the cadenzas in some provisional order, with the loosest, most fantastic ones such as the huge one
for Op. 15, at the beginning, and the short ones at the end, but clearly,
some external evidence supporting this chronology would be most welcome.
In substance, the cadenza of the "Emperor," like so many of
Beethoven's late works, can be viewed as a return to conservative classical principles, but one which distills the essence of those principles into
music of understated concision. The main motive is presented on the
dominant first, and rises sequentially, eventually generating a chromatic
scale that goes to the top range of the piano, falls precipitately, and lands
on the first real chord of the cadenza, a dominant seventh. The expected
trill is heard, and gives way to the martial theme in E-flat minor. As it
does in the movement proper, this theme moves briefly through G-flat
major, then returns to the dominant of E-flat to end the phrase. Now the
horn enters, and on the downbeat the strings play a pizzicato E-flat
chord in root position. Throughout the martial theme, Beethoven is
careful to make B-flat the lowest sounding pitch. The cadenza, then, is
built around the idea of the prolonged dominant as an embellished cadence, and yet it makes a reference to an important subsidiary key of the
piece and, by dispensing with the trill at the end, seems to achieve a
higher degree of integration with the end of the movement. In nineteen
measures Beethoven has combined Mozart's conception of the functional cadenza with aspects that have become important to his own conception of it.
Since a cadenza always means an interruption in the flow of the
movement-caused by its characteristic feature of suspension of meter,
steady tempo, broken phrases, all of the devices of improvisatory
music-including a cadenza of significant proportion means a looser,
less integrated movement.50 Evidently Beethoven felt that the third
49 Hess, p. 273.
50
For a more precise and technical discussion of "loose" and "tight" structures, see Joseph P. Swain, "Limits of Musical Structure," (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,
1983), Chapter V.
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movement rondo forms, which are not as tightly organized as the opening movements, would not benefit from such cadenzas. Only two of the
five piano concertos, Op. 15 and Op. 58, and the Violin Concerto Op. 61
provide spots for third-movement cadenzas. The cadenzas left for the
piano concertos are all exceedingly short. In the score for Op. 58,
Beethoven writes in the measure indicating the cadenza, "Lacadenza sia
corta," in case anyone doesn't get the point. They are all very brief
flourishes on the dominant, with the exception of the longer, well
known cadenza to Op. 58. This one makes a clear reference to the key of
C major, and since the cadenza as a whole prolongs the tonic chord of G,
it recalls the special relationship between these two chords that is so
characteristic of this movement.
While the short cadenzas, for both first and third movements, seem
closely allied to Mozart's conception of the cadenza, the long ones
present a different notion entirely. Because they approach the dimensions of the recapitulation itself in their length, they can hardly be considered as harmonic supports for that part of the sonata. They must instead be considered as a section added to the high-level sonata form, an
expansion which corresponds to that of the coda in Beethoven's symphonies and string quartets. If that is the case, how then do these cadenzas, in their great variety of compositional technique and form, fit into
our refined theory of concerto form?
Theoretical
Considerations
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CADENZA
CLASSICAL
about concerto form and function. This type of cadenza is simply an embellished cadence:
Its function is to delay the strong closingand at the same time, to amplify its effect.51
In this sense the cadenza elaborates an essential, but lower-level event. It
would not appear in any high-level diagram of the entire sonata form
but might in a plan of the recapitulation:
RECAPITULATION
(Cadenza) (Coda)
Prevailing
key:
Subsidiary
functions:
I
I
IV
Prevailing
key:
DEVEL.
RECAP
CAD.
(none)
CODA
This conception of the cadenza's role still concurs with theories about
concerto form, but in the manner of an added section that emphasizes
the tonic key along with the recapitulation, rather than a harmonic gesture that supports the recapitulation.
The larger conception allows a different design for the cadenza. In
contrast to the Mozart-type, subsidiary keys can indeed be established in
this kind of cadenza, as long as the tonic governs overall. Beethoven has
chosen his subsidiary keys with great care for the most part. The closely
related keys of subdominant and dominant appear in the cadenzas for
Op. 19 and Op. 37 respectively, and the more unusual choices of E-flat
for the C major concerto cadenzas and B-flat for the G major concerto
are justified by particular structural relationships those keys have with
the parent movement, so that their subsidiary relationship with the tonic
51 P. Badura-Skoda, p. 215.
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has already been established. The one exception might be the longest
cadenza of all, the third one for Op. 15, which is problematic in several
respects. Here both the distance and treatment of the keys raise them to
more than subsidiary status, so that in effect, we hear significant harmonic development with only thirteen measures of orchestra to follow.
There is no question that these long cadenzas are full of thematic
development, centered, as Mies points out, on the main motive of the
movement.52 This contrasts with Mozart's practice, which usually makes
use of subsidiary thematic material or connective passagework borrowed from the movement as the principal material for the cadenza.
This may be due to the strong association the main theme will have with
the tonic key in any classical concerto. Mozart, whose aim is to have the
listener wait for the tonic chord, will avoid the main tune, while
Beethoven, whose long cadenza is a tonic prolongation, will use it as his
principal building block.
Both the emphasis on the principal motive and the use of subsidiary
keys will be among the most important components of a long cadenza
form. The main motive is heard invariably at the beginning and usually
at the end, and the appearance of the subsidiary key is a major articulation, accented by the use of a secondary theme which contrasts with the
first. Separating important events of the cadenza are generous amounts
of arpeggiated passagework, usually based on diminished chords with
the main motive being worked out. Such passages help to separate the
main thematic events of the cadenza, prolong the overall sense of the
tonic because they themselves are harmonically ambiguous, contribute
to the improvisatory effect of the music, and of course, display the virtuosity of the soloist. The structural organization of these basic elements,
however, differs from case to case. Beethoven's cadenzas, unlike Mozart's, are not consistent in their form.
There is good reason for this inconsistency. Even though they may
have been composed well after their parent concertos, the cadenzas are
designed to fit the particular structural requirements of each one. Why
does the fugal cadenza for Op. 19 make such a strong tonic cadence long
before the orchestra's entrance? Because that concerto concludes with
only six measures of coda after the cadenza. Why does the shorter
"senza cadere" cadenza for the first movement of Op. 58 seem almost
without tonal center? Because it must maintain the tension which will
continue when the orchestra picks up with a dominantchord, and yet create an articulation to separate yet a third hearing of a telling lyrical
theme. Indeed, if we can regard Beethoven's work in the concerto genre
as an evolution, we can certainly regard his cadenzas for those works as a
necessary parallel evolution.
52
pp 37-38.
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CLASSICAL
CADENZA
In conclusion: today's soloists have before them two types of cadenza that can make musical sense in a classical concerto, that are sensitive to the cadenza's position at the end of the work, and that are sensitive to the requirements of a particular concerto. I cannot agree with
Ludwig Misch, who believes that soloists should restrict themselves to
the authentic cadenzas that Mozart and Beethoven have left, resorting
to simple trills for those works which have none.53 On the contrary, the
cadenza presents the concert artist with an unmatched opportunity for
creativity in his performance of a repertoire that is very well known.
This opportunity must be approached, however, with a sense of responsibility that is only appropriate to the masterworks that will be recreated
every time a new cadenza is composed for them. A deepening appreciation of the cadenza, not just as a flashy solo that uses the themes of the
concerto, but as a functioning part of the whole concerto form as well,
can only help performers choose and compose cadenzas that will increase, rather than spoil, the pleasure of hearing these works.
ColgateUniversity
53
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59