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MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
Geological Survey of Western Australia, 100 Plain Street, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia
Center for Geo-environmental Science, Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University, Japan
d
China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100029, Beijing, China
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 May 2010
Received in revised form 2 August 2011
Accepted 13 August 2011
Available online 27 August 2011
Keywords:
Porphyry CuAuMo deposits
Epithermal CuAgAuZnPb deposit
Shear zone-hosted gold deposit
Mesozoic
Dexing area
East China
a b s t r a c t
Based on previous studies and detailed eld investigations of the Dexing porphyry copper deposit, the Yinshan Ag-Pb-Zn deposit and the Jinshan shear zone hosted gold deposit in the Dele Jurassic volcanic basin,
in the northeastern Jiangxi province, East China, we propose that the three deposits share spatial, temporal
and genetic relationships and belong to the same metallogenic system. Dexing is a typical porphyry CuAu
Mo deposit in which both ore-forming uid and metals are derived from the granite porphyry. The Yinshan
deposit consists of a porphyry copper ore located in the cupola of a quartz porphyry stock, in the lower part,
and AgPbZn ore veins in the upper part. The hydrothermal uids were mainly derived from the magma in
the early stages of the mineralizing event and became mixed with meteoric waters in the late stages. Its ore
metals are magma-derived. Both the Jinshan base metal veins and the Hamashi, Dongjie and Naikeng quartz
vein-type gold deposit are hosted by brittleductile structures, which are distal in relation to the porphyry
intrusions and were formed by mixed magmatic uids and meteoric water, whereas the gold was mainly
leached from the country rocks (Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group phyllite and schist). The deposits
show a distinct spatial arrangement from porphyry Cu, to epithermal AgPbZn and distal Au. We suggest a
porphyryepithermaldistal vein ore system model for this group of genetically related mineral deposits.
They were formed in a back-arc setting in a Middle Jurassic active continental margin, with magmas derived
from the subducted slab.
2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
The Dele Mesozoic volcanic basin in the northern Jiangxin province,
Southeastern China (Fig. 1) hosts three signicant ore deposits: the
Dexing porphyry CuAuMo deposit; the Yinshan AgPbZn vein deposit; and the Jinshan shear zone-hosted gold deposit. Mining of these
deposits began in the Sui and Tang Dynasties (605908 A.D.) for Dexing
and Yinshan, and in the Song Dynasty (9601279 A.D.) for Jinshan. Extensive geological surveying and mineral exploration were conducted
in the Dexing and Yinshan areas by the Jiangxi Bureau of Geology, Mineral Resources, Exploration and Development from the 1950s to the
1970s and in the Jinshan area by the Jiangxi Bureau of Nonferrous Geology and Mineral Resources in the 1980s. By 2000, the Dexing porphyry
CuAuMo deposit, which consists of three orebodies (Tongchang,
Fujiawu and Zhushahong) was reported to contain the following measured reserves: 5.2 Mt Cu at 0.45%, 128,000 t Mo at 0.01%, 215 t Au at
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Fig. 1. Simplied geology of Cathaysian Block and the distribution of the granitoid-related CuAuAgPbZn ore deposits along the Shihang (or QinzhouHangzhou) rift belt and
adjacent areas (modied from Guo et al.(2010)).
the Yangtze Craton comprises Cambrian to Early Triassic carbonates intercalated with clastic rocks, and Jurassic to Cretaceous clastic rocks intercalated with volcanic rocks. The Cathaysia Block has a Proterozoic
basement in the Wuyishan uplift in the east, the Dayaoshan uplift between the Guangdong and Guangxi provinces and the western Hainan
Island uplift. Sinian (Neoproterozoic) to Ordovician metasandstone
and slate occur in the Nanling region, central portion of the Cathaysian
Block, overlain by Devonian to Permian carbonate rocks. Jurassic clastic
rocks intercalated with volcanic rocks, as well as Cretaceous red-bed
sandstones, occur in a series of NE-trending rift basins (Cheng, 1994;
Jiangxi Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1984, 2005).
The stratigraphic sequence in the Dexing area consists of the Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group, the Neoproterozoic Dengshan Group,
the Lower Cambrian Hetang Formation, the Lower Jurassic Linshan and
Ehuling Formations and the Cretaceous Shixi Formation (Fig. 2). The
Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group has extensive outcrops, accounting for about 70% of the total area, and consists of a lower greenschist facies of sandstone, volcaniclastic rocks, intercalated with basaltic
lavas. It can be further divided into an upper subgroup and a lower subgroup. The lower subgroup comprises abyssal facies siltstone and mudstone intercalated with volcaniclastic rocks, characterized by a ysch
setting that is suggested to have developed in a marginal depression of
a stable continent at ca. 1515 Ma (Liu et al., 1989, 1993). The upper subgroup is composed of graygreen turbidite and basaltic lavas developed
in a 1371 Ma active continent marginal depression setting (Jiangxi Bureau
of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1984). Neoproterozoic rocks outcrop in the southeast of the area and overlie the Mesoproterozoic
Shuangqiaoshan Group along a sheared contact (Fig. 2). They are
composed of terrestrial volcaniclastic and clastic rocks of paralic
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Fig. 2. Sketch map of geology and the distribution of granitoid-related CuAuAg polymetallic deposits in the Dele Mesozoic basin (or Dexing area), northeastern Jiangxi Province
(modied from Zhu et al.(1983) and Li and Sasaki(2007)).
ductile shear zone (Xu and Qiao, 1989; Zhou and Zhao, 1991), and Middle Jurassic daciticrhyolitic volcanic rocks and associated subvolcanic
rocks, such as quartz porphyry, dacitic porphyry (183 Ma; Li and Sasaki,
2007) and granodiorite porphyry (171 Ma; Wang et al., 2004) in the
southwest and southeast.
3. Geology and geochemistry of the deposits
3.1. Dexing porphyry Cu ore system
The Dexing porphyry copper system lies in the northeastern part of
the Dele ore district (Fig. 2) and is hosted in the Tongchang, Zhushahong,
and Fujiawu granitic porphyries and surrounding county rocks (Zhu et
al., 1983). These granitic porphyries occur as small stocks and lie at the
intersections of NWW-trending and NE-trending faults (Fig. 1). Each
porphyry stock exhibits a pipe-like shape plunging to NW (Fig. 3). The
country rocks intruded by the granodiorite porphyries are sericitic phyllite, tuffaceous phyllite and meta-sedimentary tuff of the Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group.
3.1.1. Granitoids
The Tongchang granodiorite porphyry has a surface outcrop area of
ca. 0.7 km2; the Fujiawu granodiorite porphyry has a outcrop area of
0.2 km2; and the Zhushahong granodiorite porphyry occurs as a group
of dykes, in which the largest dykes has an outcrop area of ca. 0.06 km2.
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Fig. 3. Plans and sections of the Zhuashahong, Tongchang, and Fujiawu in the Dexing porphyry CuAuMo ore district, Northeastern Jiangxi (modied from Zhu et al.(1983) and Rui
et al.(2005)).
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Fig. 4. Plan of the Yinshan porphry CuAu vein-type AgPbZn deposit in the Dele Mesozoic basin. There is an apparent mineralization zonation with the CuAuS in the center and
AgPbZn at the outer margin (modied from Ye(1987), and Li et al.(2007a, 2007b, 2007c)).
zonepyritic and sericitized dacite porphyry zone and phyllite zonepyritic, sericitized and chloritized (carbonate) phyllite zone chloritized
and carbonated phyllite zonecarbonated and chloritized pyroclastic
rocks zone. The mineralization also shows a metal zoning of CuCu
PbZnPbZnPb (Ag) from the dacitic porphyry outwards. These alteration and metal zoning are similar to those in the classic porphyry Cu
systems (Seedorff et al., 2005; Pirajno, 2009).
Zhang et al. (2007) carried out systematic uid inclusion studies in
the Yinshan district area, and recognized that three major types of uids
were involved in the ore-forming process. They are: type I vapor-rich;
type II liquid-rich (accounting for N90% of total); and type III halitebearing inclusions within the H2ONaCl system. Textural characteristics
indicative of boiling are commonly seen in the Yinshan deposit. The
early uids exsolved from such silicate melts (represented by type I inclusions) have a very low salinity due to the low pressure conditions.
Such a dilute hot uid is considered responsible for the development
of early barren and possibly some pyrite-bearing quartz veins. With
continued crystallization saline uids were then exsolved from the
crystallizing magmas. Under high pressure conditions (N900 bar)
high-salinity uids were trapped. Collapse of the overpressured system
through explosion and accompanied by introduction of meteoric water
resulted in the generation of low to moderate salinity uid inclusions.
Therefore, the latter two mineralization stages are mainly dominated
by vaporliquid inclusions, locally with coexisting high-salinity and
low to moderate salinity uid inclusions indicating boiling. Zhang et al.
(1997) obtained 18O values of uids from 6.6 to 9.5 and D values
of inclusion uids from 48 to 34 with calculated temperatures
from 390 C to 270 C. Zhang et al. (1996) proposed that the isotopic
compositions of the late mineralization uids related to galena and
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Fig. 5. Section through the Yinshan ore deposit showing the mineralization zoning with CuAuS in the depth and AgPbZn upward (after Ni(2010)).
Fig. 6. Photograph showing the porphyry CuAu ore taken in the adit in the Jiuqu mine,
Yinshan ore deposit. The ore displays a structure of orientation arrangement mainly
consisting of quartz, sericite and pyrite.
210
water (Ji et al., 1994), and nally mixtures of magmatic water, metamorphic water and meteoric water (Liu et al., 2005).
Apart from the three large deposits mentioned above, other quartz
vein-type gold deposit include Hamashi, Dongjia and Naikengalso
within a NE-trending shear zone, to the northeast of the Yinshan deposit
and southwest of the Zhushahong (Fig. 2). Small-scale auriferous quartz
vein-type gold mineralization is also developed along a steep strike-slip
brittleductile shear zones. The altered wall rocks have low grade gold
on both sides of the auriferous quartz veins. Wall rock hydrothermal alteration consists of silicication accompanied by arsenopyrite and
pyrite.
Li et al. (2009) suggested that mineralization in the Hamashi gold
deposit can be divided into three (a) quartzpyrite stagecomprising
dominant quartz and a small amount of pyrite and native gold; (b)
sulde stagecharacterized by massive sulde (pyrite, arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite, minor galena and sphalerite); and (c) carbonatesulde
or sulfatesulde stageconsisting of abundant calcite, siderite and
ankerite. Ore minerals are native gold, pyrite and arsenopyrite, with
small amounts of galena and sphalerite; gangue minerals comprise
quartz, calcite and sericite.
4. Discussion and conclusions
4.1. Porphyry copperepithermal AgPbZndistal hydrothermal Au
deposits: a new mineral system
Porphyry mineral systems are usually divided into porphyry CuAu
and porphyry CuMo, but most porphyry deposits in China are porphyry
CuMo and CuMoAu deposits; porphyry CuAu deposits are quite rare.
These differences in the element associations of porphyry systems can be
related to tectonic setting and its implications to the composition of the
magmatic system. Copper could be derived from the mantle (including
remelting of subducted slab and mantle or basaltic underplates), whereas
Mo would be mainly from the lower crust. In the southwest Pacic
islands arcs there are many porphyry CuAu deposits and these are usually associated with epithermal Au and/or AuAg deposits. Along the
western South American continental margin and in the southwestern
part of the United States of America and the northwestern part of Mexico
CuMo porphyry deposits are dominant (Cooke et al., 2008). Recently,
the Pebble porphyry CuAuMo deposit in southwest Alaska (Kelley et
al., 2010; Lang et al., 2008; Rebagliati and Payne, 2005) has been shown
to contain a similar element association as the Dexing porphyry deposit.
Fig. 7. Section through the Jinshan shear zone-hosted gold deposit, reecting the relationship of the gold orebodies to the mylonitic rocks (modied from Wei(1996); Li et al.
(2007a)).
Porphyry CuAu deposits are associated with low-K, mid-K and high-K
calc-alkaline granitoids, whereas porphyry CuMo deposits are related
to alkali-rich granitoids (Cooke et al., 2008). If the denudation of a metallogenic belt is comparatively shallow, one can observe the coexistence of
a porphyry copper deposit developed in the lower part of the volcanic edice, evolving upward to epithermal systems in andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks (Seedorff et al., 2005) and laterally to base metal (CuPbZn)
vein systems (Pirajno, 2009). Comparable systems are known, for example, from the Metaliferi Mts., Romania (Cook and Ciobanu, 2004).
In the recent past, almost all calc-alkaline granitoids related to
porphyry (or porphyryskarn) Cu deposits have been argued to be
adakitic rocks (Zhang et al., 2001), which used to be classied as
magnetite-series granitoids (Ishihara, 1977) or crustmantle syntectic granitoids (or syntexis type) (Xu et al., 1982). These granitoids
are derived from a deep source (lower crust), high level of emplacement and high oxidation degree. As mentioned above, these porphyry deposits are also associated with epithermal AuAg deposits,
skarn deposits (if carbonate rocks are present), and vein-like Ag
PbZn deposits. The Yinshan AgPbZn deposit in Northeastern
Jiangxi province is genetically related to the Mesozoic volcanicsubvolcanic rocks, similar to deposits in Mexico (Simmons et al., 2005).
More specically, the epithermal AgPbZn ore veins in the Yinshan
mine are connected with the porphyry CuAu at depth, forming a
mineral system.
Dexing is a typical porphyry CuAuMo deposit. In outlining a genetic model, Rui et al. (1984) and Pei et al. (1998) proposed that
when 3560% of phenocrysts crystallized from the magma in a shallow
chamber, secondary boiling would lead to exsolution of an independent
criticalsupercritical magmatic uid phase. This uid phase is alkali and
silica-rich, and has high concentration of volatiles (i.e., H2O, HCl, HF,
SO2, and P2O5) as well as ore-forming metals. At temperatures of
650 C to 750 C and salinities of 0.155 wt.% NaCl equiv., the nature
and composition of this uid has two remarkable implications for the
deposition of mineralization. Firstly, the uids replaced (altered) the
porphyry and country rocks, resulting in a hydrothermal alteration
that is expressed as spotted biotite and K-feldspar (alkali metasomatism). Secondly, its large volume triggers formation of a stockwork fracture system in the roof pendants of the porphyry intrusion which, in
turn, is conducive to extensive convective circulation of magmatic uids
and meteoric water and the precipitation of ore. In fact, the uids that
exsolved from the magma adjusted or changed constantly with temperature decrease, depressurization, immiscibility of brine and gas (phase
separation), water/rock reaction and mixing with meteoric water. All
these contribute to the formation of signicant mineralization, hydrothermal alteration and their zoning from the intrusion outwards (see
Pirajno, 2009, and reference therein).
Since the Dexing porphyry and Yinshan porphyry CuAuepithermal
AgPbZn deposits occur within a small area and share the same Middle
Jurassic age it can be reasonably assumed that they belong to the same
mineralizing system (Chen et al., 1989; Pei et al., 1998; Ye, 1987). Following a comparative study of available geochemical data and Sr/Nd isotopic
systematics, we can safely assume that the granodiorite in the Dexing
area and the andesitic volcanicsubvolcanic rocks in the Yinshan area
are part of the same magmatic event. The igneous rocks of the Yinshan deposit plot in the elds of both high-K calc-alkaline granitoids and shoshonite, whereas those of the Dexing deposits plot in the eld of high-K calcalkaline granitoids (Fig. 8). Igneous rocks from both deposits have similar
REE patterns (Fig. 9) and both have an adakitic signature (Fig. 10), suggesting that they originated from enriched mantle with some mixing
with upper crustal material (Fig. 11). We therefore propose that the Dexing porphyry and Yinshan porphyry CuAuepithermal AgPbZn deposits belong to the same mineral system, with Dexing porphyry Cu
AuMo at depth and epithermal AgPbZn at shallow levels.
Whether the Jinshan gold deposit is genetically associated with the
Dexing porphyry CuAuMoYinshan porphyryvein CuAgAuMo
deposit system remains debatable. This is because of the lack of suitable
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Fig. 8. SiO2 vs. K2O (wt.%) diagram for the igneous rocks in the Dexing area. The chemical analyzed data are from Zhu et al. (1983), Liu (1994), Ye et al. (1998), Le et al.
(2000), Zhang (2001), and Wang et al. (2004).
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Fig. 9. REE patterns of igneous rocks from the Dexing area. Data are from Ye et al.
(1998), Le et al. (2000), Ling and Liu (2001), Zhang (2001), Wang et al. (2004), and
Qian and Lu (2005).
MiddleLate Jurassic age of mineralization. First, the mineralized structures in Dexing area closely match the Late Jurassic regional tectonic
events. As the Izanagi plate began to subduct beneath the Eurasian continent at ca. 180 Ma (Dong et al., 2007, Mao et al., 2007, 2008a, 2008b,
2008c; Maruyama et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2009), oblique compression
from the southeast triggered strike-slip movement on the Anlejiang,
Sizhoumiao, BashiyuanTongchang and JiangguangFujiawu faults in
the Dexing area. Furthermore, the Jinshan shear zone and its parallel
shear zones, which are oblique to the above mentioned regional
strike-slip shear zones appeared as extensional (Fig. 2). Li et al.
(2007a) identied three types of orebodies in Jinshan ore district: 1)
veins associated with fracture-lling; 2) extensional veins; and 3)
stockwork veins. These three types of veins indicate that they are the
products of hydrothermal lling and precipitation in an extensional tectonic regime.
The nature of the ore-forming uid system must exclude an orogenictype gold model. The most prominent features of orogenic-type gold deposits are ore-forming uids enriched in CO2 and 18O, low- to mediumsalinity, and a temperature range from 250 to 350 C (Goldfarb et al.,
2005). Ore uids in the Jinshan gold deposit, as revealed by abundant
but small uid inclusions, are, however, of signicantly lower temperature, medium- to high-salinity and are signicantly depleted in CO2
(Fan and Li, 1992; Hua et al., 2002; Zhang and Tan, 1998). Stable isotope
Fig. 10. La/Yb vs. Yb diagram distinguishing the types of the igneous rocks in the
Dexing area. Data are from Liu (1994), Ye et al. (1998), Le et al. (2000), Ling and
Liu (2001), Wang et al. (2004) and Qian and Lu (2005).
Fig. 11. Nd(t) vs. (87Sr/86Sr)i diagram showing the source of the igneous rocks in the
Dexing area. The elds in the diagrams are from Jahn et al. (1999) and Zindler and
Hart (1986). Isotopic data are from Zhu et al. (1983), Ye (1987), Zhu et al. (1990)
and Jin et al. (2002).
systematics suggests the involvement of magmatic uids. The sulfur isotopic values for pyrite in the Jinshan deposit (34S=+2.1 to +6.7; Fan
and Li, 1992) and for pyrite in Hamashi gold deposit (34S=+2.8 to +
3.4), are sufciently close to those of pyrite from the Dexing porphyry
deposit (34S=2.8 to 3.1; Zhu et al., 1983). However, isotopic exchange with the sulfur from the country rocks during ore formation
caused an increase of 34S, as has been shown for lode gold systems of
the Jiangnan Shield (Mao et al., 2002c). Hydrogen and oxygen isotope
compositions show a small range of values in the OH2O vs. D plot,
which are different from metamorphic uids, typically characterized by
a relative wide range. This suggests that the gold mineralization-related
uids are initially magmatic, and then gradually become dominated by
meteoric water. In the Dexing area, shear zones not only control the formation of gold deposits, but also are major controlling structures for porphyry CuAu and epithermal AgPbZn mineralization. For example, a
shear zone in the Yinshan mine hosts the epithermal AgPbZn ore
veins in the open pit, and also hosts disseminated and orientated Cu
Au ores (Fig. 6) in the quartz porphyry in the underground workings beneath the open pit. In both the North China Craton and the South China
block, Precambrian metamorphic rocks are the most important host
rocks for gold mineralization (Hart et al., 2002; Liu et al., 1993; Mao et
al., 2002a, 2002b; Mao and Li, 1997; Nie et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2002)
and these rocks are thought to have originally contained more leachable
gold. This is probably a feature of Precambrian metamorphic rocks that
have been subjected to later tectonicmagmaticthermal events, during
which gold is leached out and transported into a new uid system, and
then deposited in a lode system. However, the question remains whether
granite intrusions could induce and maintain a high-heat in a localized
area, which is available to mineralization. Seedorff et al. (2005) estimated
that the activity of a porphyry ore-forming system can last from 50,000 to
500,000 years, during multistage emplacement of intrusions over a period of a few million years. Thus, during the Late Jurassic, the emplacement
of deeply-sourced high-K calc-alkaline granites in the Dexing area not
only formed a porphyry CuAuMu depositepithermal-type Ag polymetallic deposit system after strong fractionation, but also triggered a
temperature increase in the whole area, leading to a series of convective
hydtrothermal cells (Fig. 12). The magmatic hydrothermal uids migrated from high potential energy to low potential energy, along ancient fractures or shear zones, away from the magma chamber, increasingly
becoming mixed with meteoric water and leaching out gold from the
country rocks. These uids precipitated gold ores within suitable structural host zones upon change in the physico-chemical conditions.
In summary, the Dexing porphyry CuAuMo deposit, Yinshan
porphyry CuAu-epithermal AgPbZn deposit and Jinshan distal
hydrothermal gold deposits formed in the Middle Jurassic and are
213
Fig. 12. Schematic model of porphyry CuAu, epithermal AgPbZn and distal hydrothermal Au deposits in the Dexing area.
214
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