1869

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 9, No. 4, October 1994

TRANSIENT

C. M. Wiggins,
Senior Member, IEEE

ELECTROMAGNETIC

D. E. Thomas,

INTERFERENCE

IN SUBSTATIONS

S. E. Wright
Senior Member, IEEE

F. S. Nickel,

T. M. Salas
Student Member, IEEE

Electric Power Research Institute

3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94303

BDM International, Inc.

1801 Randolph Road, S.E.
A1 buquerque, NM 87106

(now at Huddersfield Polytechnic

School of Engineering
Huddersfield, England HD13DH)

Abstract - Electromagnetic interference levels on sensitive electronic equipment are quantified experimentally and theoretically in air and gas insulated substations of different voltages. Measurement techniques
for recording interference voltages and currents and
electric and magnetic fields are reviewed and actual
interference data are summarized. Conducted and
radiated interference coupl ing mechanisms and levels in
substation control wiring are described using both
measurement
results and electromagnetic models
validated against measurements. The nominal maximum
field and control wire interference levels expected in
the switchyard and inside the control house from
switching operations, faults, and an average lightning
strike are estimated using high frequency transient
coupl ing models. Comparisons with standards are made
and recomnendations given concerning equipment shielding and surge protection.
Keywords - Electromagnetic interference, EMI, switching
transient, electric field, magnetic field, fault,
lightning, substation, shielding, surge protection.
INTRODUCTION
Increasingly, electronic equipment is being used
in switchyards and inside control rooms. Substation
switching operations, spontaneous faults, or lightning
strikes inside the substation, can cause potentially
damaging levels of high frequency electromagnetic interference (EMI). This EM1 can couple into low voltage
control circuits and electronic equipment unless it is
suitably protected. This transient EM1 environment
needs to be fully characterized by waveforms and
spectra for the highest expected levels both in the
switchyard and inside the control house. These EM1 environment levels may then be compared with equipment
suscepti bil i ty levels (if they can be determined) for
upset and damage, and also with applicable surge
withstand capability (SWC) test levels to assess their
mutual compatibility and adequacy.
Substation EM1 issues have been investigated in a
number of studies, such as [l] - [7]. Switching transient currents, voltages and fields were measured in
94 WM 146-1 PWRD
A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Substations Committee of the IEEE Power
Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE/PES
1994 Winter Meeting, New York, New York, January 30 February 3 , 1994. Manuscript submitted September 1,
1992; made available for printing December 15, 1993.

[l] - [6]. Potential EM1 impacts and suggested protection remedies on solid state relays were discussed in
[l] and [7]. In [7], several types of EM1 sources were
identified including the fast transient and the "walkie
talkie" transient which have contributed to improved
test standards [81,[91.
Investigations under project RP 1359-2 by Texas
A&M for the Electric Power Research Institute [I] are
particularly relevant to the work reported here. Some
of the conclusions of this earlier work indicated: an
expectation that radiated EM1 would become more important as new distributed automation systems were introduced in substations; a need for further analysis of
the nature of radiated EM1 transients in substations;
recognition that no appropriate standard existed for
determining equipment susceptibility to transient
electromagnetic fields, particularly for equipment located in switchyards; and a need for pre-purchase susceptibility testing. Improved equipment design along
with the use of surge suppression devices and shielding
enclosures was recommended to mi tigate EM1 effects.
In 1985 EPRI initiated project RP2674-1 with BDM
International to further address these concerns.
Under RP2674-1 there has been a strong attempt to broaden
the substation EM1 environment characterizations and
their understanding by developing validated high frequency traveling wave models as well as by gathering
additional detailed measurements of EM1 phenomena in
substations. This paper summarizes the major findings
o f this study as reported in [lo]. The emphasis here
is on presenting the highest expected EM1 levels in the
switchyard, in the control house and on shielded control wires in substations up to 500 kV. These estimates are based on the results of all measurements
and model predictions for switching transients and for
faults and lightning strikes occurring in the substation. The manner in which EM1 couples from sources on
the high voltage bus to wires inside shielded control
cables is discussed qualitatively and quantitatively.
Control wire EM1 levels are compared with oscillatory
and fast transient SWC test waveforms (IEEE/ANSI
C37.90.1-1989). EM1 fields in substation switchyards
have now been characterized, but currently there is no
standard with which to c o m a r e them. Possible test
waveforms for switchyard fields and for control wires
are discussed.
MEASURED SUBSTATION EM1 CHARACTERISTICS
Measurement Techniaues
A number of different types of transient measurements were required to completely describe first how
typical substation EM1 arises and then how it couples

0885-8977/94/$04.00 0 1994 EEE

1870

to other circuits. Switching a disconnector or circuit

breaker, for example, produces a complex sequence of
high frequency traveling wave current and voltage transients on each phase of the high voltage bus. Traveling wave bus current transients excite the threedimensional bus structure which acts as a complex antenna, radiating energy into the substation as transient electric and magnetic fields. Bus current transients can also couple into low voltage circuits that
are connected directly to the bus. The net transient
EM1 at some point in the substation is therefore the
superposition of both conductive and radiative coupling
components. The net transient electric and magnetic
fields at a point include contributions from the ground
and from all three bus phases, as well as scattering
from nearby conducting structures.
In general, the required types of transient EM1
measurements included currents on the high voltage bus,
electric and magnetic fields at various locations on
and above ground, and currents and voltages on substation control wiring. Switching operations, faults, and
flashovers from lightning occurring on the high voltage
system all cause abrupt arcing discharges between affected substation conductors when their potentials are
sufficiently different.
Peak transient current
amplitudes produced during arcing depend on the surge
impedances of the conductors and the peak instantaneous
phase-to-ground system voltage. Voltages in transmission substations generally range between 115 kV and 500
kV. Surge impedances over this voltage range also tend
to be relatively constant at approximately 350 ohms.
As a result, arcing discharges produce traveling wave
currents proportional to the substation voltage. Since
field and control wiring EM1 originate from the transient bus currents and voltages, their relative
amplitudes are also generally proportional to substation voltage. Therefore, the levels of EM1 in substations should be expected to be higher at higher substation voltages.
Overall risetimes of transient EM1 phenomena
caused by arcing discharges on the high voltage system
are governed by the effective charging time constants
of the circuit driven by the arc, typically the entire
substation bus structure, and are on the order o f 200
nanoseconds or more in air-insulated substations (AIS).
Because gas insulated substations (GIs) have relatively
small dimensions, EM1 risetimes can be up to 10 times
Bus charging times should
faster than in A I S .
generally be expected to increase as the physical size
of the circuit excited by the arc increases, and viceversa.
In short, substation EM1 measurements were found
to require:
(1) wideband sensors for measuring bus current traniients at levels from 300A to lOkA, electric and
magnetic fields up to 100kV/m and 300 A/m, and
control wire transients of 10 kV and 100 A peak
amp1 i tudes.
(2) at least four data channels to correlate different EM1 measurements simultaneously.
(3) each channel should have a bandwidth of at least
100 MHz and a dynamic range of at least 45 dB.
( 4 ) 100 m to 200 m long, remotely controllable,
analog fiber optic data links for immunity from
EM1 environment and installation flexibility.
(5) high speed, large memory transient digitizers to
record individual transients at high resolution
as well as bursts of consecutive transients from
restriking switches.
(6) versatile triggering t o ensure capture of
selected events including the most significant.
(7) fast, large capacity data acquisition, processing
and control system.

For more detailed discussion of these specific requirements, and the mobile transient EM1 measurement system
developed to meet them, see [lo] - [12].
Characteristic EM1 Data
During project RP2674-1, detailed transient EM1
measurements of bus currents, electric and magnetic
fields, and control wiring currents and voltages were
made in 12 separate tests at 8 different air and gas
insulated substations at voltages of 115 kV - 500 kV
addressing the requirements and using the techniques
outlined above. In all, over 800 separate events of up
to 4 transient measurements per event totaling 700
megabytes of data were recorded during the tests occurring between 1985 and 1991. Many results from these
tests have already been reported. For example, switching transients measured in 115 kV substation are
reported in [5]. Many detailed attributes and characteristics of switching transient electric and magnetic
fields in 115 kV, 230 kV, and 500 kV A I S and in 230 kV
and 500 kV GIs are summarized in [ 6 ] . A complete discussion of the results o f all types of substation EM1
measurements of staged faults and switching transients,
including line energizations, can be found in [13] and
[14]. These references also describe the details of the
substations, the switching operations performed, and
the various measurement configurations used to record
the data.
Here we present only representative data to
characterize switching transient EMI, emphasizing
measurements in 500 kV A I S and GIs where the levels
were found to be the highest. Waveshapes of bus currents, fields, and control wire EM1 at lower voltage
substations are the same as those provided here;
however, the dominant frequency components tend to increase somewhat as the substation voltage decreases
r61~131.

When high voltage switches are operated in AIS,

bursts of up to 5,000 to 10,000 individual transients
varying 60 dB or more in amplitude are typically
produced during the complete arcing sequence as the
switch contacts open or close. Similar bursts, but of
fewer total transients, occur under similar conditions
in GIs. These complex sequences of events during a
switching operation give rise to an overall macroscopic, or macroburst, characteristic of a switching
transient. Depending on the type of switch and how fast
it operates, macrobursts may last from 40 ms up to 2
seconds. Any single arcing component of the macroburst
produces one transient having a specific waveform and
i s termed a micropulse.
The specific micropulse
waveform is mostly determined by the length of excited
bus and its traveling wave properties [IS] and typically has a time-varying amplitude duration of no more
than 10 to 15 microseconds in A I S and less than 4
microseconds in GIs. The most severe transients, those
of maximum burst size and amplitudes, occur during
operation of relatively slow hand-cranked disconnect
switches. While they do generate much higher frequency
components than disconnect switches, circuit breaker
operations were found to produce much fewer and lower
amplitude transients [6].
Within a macroburst,
the highest amplitude
micropul se transients are those that are produced when
the switch contacts are as widely separated as possible
and still arc. Such a condition only occurs once per
half-cycle (at 60 Hz), but can occur many times over
consecutive half-cycles for a switch with relatively
slowly moving contacts. Thus, a substantial number (20
or more) o f these highest amplitude transients can be
produced during a single switch operation, depending on
its speed. When characterizing the maximum EM1 en-

1871

vironment of a particular substation switching operation, it is necessary to measure these highest

ampl itude transients. During disconnect switch operation, these highest amplitude micropulses occur first
on closings 'and last on openings.
Representative micropul se switching transient EM1
characteristic of the highest levels found in 500 kV
substations are presented below. Since the highest EM1
levels were recorded in 500 kV substations, these
levels are also representative of the highest levels
found in all substations investigated in this project.
This is generally true of bus current, field, and control wiring transients. However, peak field amplitudes
can vary significantly within a substation due to a
number of factors as discussed below.
Electric and magnetic fields are vector quantities; different orthogonal components have different
peak ampl i tudes. Normally one component will dominate
the other two in amplitude when the field is measured
relatively close to its source. Thus, the vertical
electric field between the bus and ground and the magnetic field component perpendicular to the bus and
horizontal to the ground usually have the highest
amplitudes. In this study, these polarization components were measured on the ground directly beneath
the section of excited bus to standardize the measurement at all substations for comparison purposes, but is
an arbitrary choice otherwise. Amplitudes of electric
and magnetic fields, which generally increase with increasing substation voltage for a given polarization
component and measurement geometry, will a1 so increase
strongly as the distance between the field point and
the excited bus (source) decreases. As a result,
electric and magnetic field amplitudes at other locations within the substation can easily be much higher
or much lower than those referenced to the ground
directly below the excited bus. Moving the field
measurement point only a few meters closer or farther
away from the bus relative to the arbitrary ground
reference location can easily cause peak field
amplitudes to change by a factor of 2 or more [6]. For
this reason, the peak electric and magnetic field
ampl itudes reported below are only representative of
those on the ground (approximately 8 meters below the
excited bus) in 500 kV substations; higher amplitudes
could be measured closer to the bus.
Bus Current Transients. Figure l(a) shows the sensor
installation used to measure the transient bus currents
from switching operations in a 500 kV AIS. The sensor
and fiber optic transmitter can be seen on the closest
phase conductor about midway between the column CT on
the left side of the photo and left side of an .airbreak motor-operated disconnect switch on the right.
The fiber optic cable providing remote control to the
transmitter and bringing the bus current transient signal to the receiver inside the measurement van is the
vertical line seen dropping from the transmitter. The
fiber optic cable also provides the required electrical
isolation from the 500 kV bus potential.
A bus current transient (typical of the highest
ampl itude bus transients) produced during a disconnect
switch operation that excited a short section of 500 kV
bus is shown in Figure 2. The zero-to-peak amplitude
and risetime are about 2.3 kA and 400 nanoseconds. The
transient damps out to zero amplitude in about 10 to 15
microseconds; it has a dominant frequency component
near 0.5 MHz, with other significant components up to
about 3 MHz.
Electric and M a m e t i c Field Transients. Figure l(b)
shows the location of the vertical component electric
field sensor (on the left) and horizontal component

Bus current transient measurement configuration.

(b) Ground-plane electric and magnetic field transient

measurement configuration under bus.
Figure 1. Switching Transient Measurement Geometry in
500 kV AIS
magnetic field sensor (on the right) on the ground
directly below the location of the bus current sensor
shown in Figure l(a).
The magnetic field transient
shown in Figure 3(a) was measured at the same time as
the bus transient measurement shown in Figure 2 and has
a zero-to-peak amplitude of about 92 A/m. Note the
strong similarities in the bus'current and magnetic
field waveforms and spectra. This is because this component of the magnetic field is directly proportional
to the current on the bus,
H = l / (xh)

where H is the magnetic field in A/m, I is the bus current in A, and h is the height of the bus above the
ground (7.58 m). The factor of 2, normally present in
the denominator of this expression, does not appear

1872

microsecond. The electric field transient exhibits a

waveshape that is characteristically different from the
magnetic field and bus current transients. This is because the electric field is proportional to the charge
on the bus, i.e., the time integral of the bus current.
Since the charge is equal to the product of the peak
phase-to-ground voltage (408 kV for 500 kV system) and
the capacitance of the transmission line (the latter
being further related geometrically to the surge
impedance), the vertical electric field below an excited bus can be expressed as [16]:

+
Q

L
U

ul

m
a

'

-2.50

' '

377

'
2.8

.0

E=-F

' ' ' '

4.0

6.0

10.0

0.0

Time (seconds)

Figure 2. Measured Bus Current Transient from Opening

a Disconnect Switch in a 500 kV AIS.
(Event C2.628)

.e

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.9

10.0

nI0-6

Time (seconds)

(a) Magnetic field transient.

C4.628

Open DSS4818 Uatleu Sub S08kU OCD-60

[ z,

h]

-6

*le

10"s +6dB

2.6u

where E is the electric field in V/m, V

is the
phase-to-ground voltage, 2 , is the surge 'Qmpedance
(about 328 ohms for this location), and h is the bus
height above the electric field sensor. If the simple,
single transmission line over a ground plane is used to
calculate the line capacitance or surge impedance,
rather than the more complicated (and exact) three
phase model, the simple expression given above overpredicts the observed peak electric field somewhat.
Again, the factor of 2, normally present in the
denominator of the E-field expression, has been suppressed since the vertical electric field component
tends to double upon ground reflection. The electric
field waveform is characterized by damped oscillatory
and quasi-static components. The oscillatory behavior
is due to the damping of the time-varying charge,
whereas the quasi-static component results from the
fact that the switched section of isolated bus is left
in a trapped charge (or non-zero voltage) state until
the next transient (arc) occurs. For this reason,
electric fields do not damp to zero amplitude over
time; rather, they step from one quasi-static voltage
state to another at the rate at which arcs occur during
the switching operation. Since the rate at which arcs
occur can vary from 40 kHz to 120 Hz during disconnect
operations, the duration of the electric field quasistatic component steps can vary from 25 microseconds up
to about 10 milliseconds.
The highest amplitude
electric field transients, such as shown in Figure
3(b), occur at a repetition rate 120 Hz, and therefore
The
typically have durations o f 10 milliseconds.
quasi-static component of the last electric field transient produced on opening a disconnect can obviously
persist for longer than 10 milliseconds. Examples of
quasi -static (1 ate-time) electric field measurements
may be found in [6].

since the horizontal component ot the magnetic field

amplitude tends to double upon reflection from the
ground at normal incidence.

Representative electric and magnetic fields

measured on the ground beneath the gas enclosure near
the gas/air bushing in a 500 kV GIs produced by a disconnect switch operation are shown in Figure 4. Four
things are readily apparent when comparing GIs fields
with those of AIS at the same voltage and for the same
type of switching operation. First, the principal frequencies of GIs transients are at least 10 times hi her
than those found in AIS, undoubtedly due to the smafler
substation dimensions.
Second, the peak field
amplitudes in GIs are somewhat lower (E-field a factor
of nine, H-field a factor of two) than those of AIS;
the gas enclosure probably acts as a shield. Third,
the durations of the GIs transients are much shorter
Fourth, the GIs electric field no
than those o f AIS.
lon er has a quasi-static component and damps to zero
ampqitude as fast as the magnetic field. Both of the
last two observations are probably due to the fact that
the gas enclosure (the source of most of observed transient fields) was grounded at many different locations
in these substations.

The electric field transient, measured simultaneously with the bus current and magnetic field,is
shown in Figure 3 (b). The electric field rises to a
peak amplitude o f about 13.2 kV/m in about 1

Control Wirinq Current and Voltaqe Transients. Figure

5 presents control wire data representative of the
highest levels measured on terminal strips near relay

c,

...

.3

.......................................................................

~ , , , ~ , , , , , 1 , , , , , , , , , 1 , , , , ~

-2.0

.e

4.0

8.0

12.0

16.0

20.0

-10

-6

Time (seconds)

(b) Electric field transient (early-time only).

Figure 3. Magnetic and Electric Field Transients
Measured on the Ground from Opening a
Disconnect Switch in 500 kV AIS (Event
C3.628)

1873
H<t>

<Wm>

Event C3.523

4.0

6.0

20.0
10.0

-10.0

-20.0

-30.0

.e

a.0

8.0

10.0

xle-.

Time (seconds)

(a) Magnetic field transient.

E<t>

<U/m>

Time (seconds)

(a) Control wire voltage transient.

E v e n t C4.523

(b) Electric field transient. .

Figure 4. Magnetic and Electric Field Transients
Measured on Ground Under Gas Enclosure
Near Gas/Air Bushing from Opening a
Disconnect Switch in a 500 kV G I s
(Event C3.529)
equipment inside of the control house of a 500 kV A I S .
A (zero-to-peak) voltage of about 4 kV measured between
a CT wire and ground is shown in Figure 5(a).
This
transient rises to peak in about 200 nanoseconds and
continues to ring at low amplitude for up to 25 to 30
microseconds. Figure 5(a) shows significant frequency
components as high as 20 MHz. The corresponding current transient measured at the same time i s shown in
Figure 5(b). The current on the C phase CT wire rises
to a peak o f 10.5 A in about 3 microseconds (it actually rises to an initial, slightly lower, peak of 9.5
A in 700 nanoseconds) and damps out in 25 - 3 0
microseconds. Major frequency components occur near
0.25, 0.50, and 1.0 MHz. The frequencies of the two
transients are very different. This suggests that the
impedance varies with frequency.
Summarv of TvDical Highest Measured EM1 Levels
In the substations examined in this project, EM1
levels were found to be the highest in 500 kV substations (the highest tested). Disconnect switching was
found to produce higher amp1 itude transients than circuit breaker switching. Table I summarizes how peak
EM1 levels were found to scale at other voltage levels
of AIS for both disconnect and circuit breaker switching.
The peak levels reported are nominally the
highest observed for each type of transient at substation voltages of 115, 230, and 500 kV, that is, they
are averages over many measurements made at each sta-

(b) Control wire current transient.

Figure 5. Control Wire Transients Measured
Between C Phase CT Wire and Ground on
the Terminal Strip Near Relay in a 500 kV
A I S Control House (Event C2.643, from
disconnect switching).
tion under exactly the same measurement conditions
while trying to record the highest EM1 levels produced
by a particular switching operation.
Table I summarizes the peak EM1 levels measured for bus current
transients, principal component electric and magnetic
fields on the ground beneath the excited bus, and
field-induced current on a 26.5-111open circuited test
cable. This latter measurement was performed to aid in
the validation of the coupling models described in
[17].
In Table I, measured bus currents, magnetic
fields, and test cable currents are reported in terms
of their peak-to-peak values. Zero-to-peak amplitudes
may be estimated (because of the asymmetry of the
waveforms) by taking 70% of the bus current and magnetic field peak-to-peak values and 50% of the reported
f i el d-driven cab1 e shield peak-to-peak currents.
Electric field amplitudes are already quoted as zeroto-peak, since their waveforms are unipolar.
Peak
fields for several locations above ground are also
reported in Table I and indicate how amplitudes increase closer to the bus. Peak levels of control wire
current and voltage transients measured in all' substations are summarized in [17] and in Table V.
Generally, EM1 levels were found to scale linearly with
substation voltage, thus EM1 levels in substations at
voltages above 500 kV are expected to be higher than
those reported here.

1874
Table I
SUMMARY OF NOMINAL PEAK AMPLITUDES OF VARIOUS EM1 TYPES
AS FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND SWITCHING OPERATION
(measured, peak-peak)
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE

BUS
CURRENT

(4

0
115

488 'h-d88m

230

1040

ELECTRK:

FIELD
(hV/mJ
15.4 h - 2 3 m
14.0 h-l.Om
7.0 h-Om

h-Ll8m

I
115

11.8

h-4.88m

230
500

76.8
,132

h-Cl8m
h-8.3Bm

MAGWETIC
FIELD

TESTCABLE
Open Circuiied

( h l

(AI

56.1 h-2.3m
45.2 h-l.Om
36.7 h-Om
82.2 h-2.3 m

5.5 h-Om

70.4 h-Om

9.1 h-2.3m
3.7 h-Om
O.9h-Om
5.6 h-Om

0.62
5.3
18.9

h-Om
h-Om
h-Om

25.8

h-Om

52.3

h-Om

0.36
2.4
5.3

h-Om
h-Om
h-Om

PREDICTIVE SUBSTATION EM1 MODEIS

Model Requirements
Substation EM1 models were developed to aid in understanding the measurements and to provide a means for
estimating EM1 levels beyond measurement limitations.
The goal for models was to replicate all details, including waveshape and peak amplitudes, of the transient
EM1 measurements.
Since fields arise from transient
bus currents, and since both can produce transient EM1
in control wiring, models describing each different
type of substation EM1 were required. Thus, traveling
wave models of air and gas insulated substations were
developed to predict transient bus currents and voltages and their radiated fields as a function of a given
excitation (switching operation, fault, lightning
strike).
The outputs of the bus current and field
models were designed to be the inputs to various conducted and radiated cable coupling models.
In this
way, control wire current and voltage transients were
linked back to their causes and predicted.
Initial conditions for the source excitations on
the bus determine the levels of all resulting EM1
produced. Disconnect switching transient calculations
were often made for the condition that twice the peak
phase-to-ground voltage appears initially across the
switch gaps. This situation can occur when switching
an isolated section of bus,,with trapped charge.
;n
this paper, the statement;
2PU !nitial condition ,
2PU switching transient , and 2PU prediction" all
refer to this condition, not to the amplitude of a
transient that may result from it (which could be 3PU
or higher).
In this way estimates of EM1 produced
from, for example, 2PU initial conditions across a
switch, or from a 10 kA lightning strike to the bus,
were made relatively easily using the models, whereas
their measurement under precisely these conditions
could be very difficult.
All the EM1 models were
tested to verify their ability to generate known
results before using them to make estimates in regimes
where comparisons with test results were not possible.
Model details and their validations are discussed in a
companion paper [17], and in [lo] and [18].
EM1 Control Wirinq Couolina Modes
Important conductive and radiative mechanisms for
coupling substation EM1 into shielded and unshielded CT
and CCVT control wiring have been investigated and
quantified in some detail using measured data and
transfer functions [17]. These couplinq mechanisms are

briefly reviewed here to illustrate how estimates of

control wire EM1 levels presented later are the sum of
contributions from each distinct coupling mode. Each
mode contributes only a portion of the total control
wire transient amp1 i tude and frequency content.
Conducted EM1 CouDlinq. When a shielded or unshielded
control cable connects to an EHV CT or CCVT, there is
a deliberate coupling of the control circuit to the
hiah voltaae circuit.
At sufficiently high frequencies, the CT and CCVT becomes conductively coupled
to the high voltage bus via, e.g., the parasitic
capacitance between the primary and secondary and their
Faraday shields. When this coupling mode is present, a
portion of the bus current transient couples directly
to the conductors inside the shielded or unshielded CT
and CCVT cable. This conducted coupling mode is particularly significant because it is not reduced by
shielding the control cable. This type of coupling can
be reduced using surge suppression devices.
Radiated EM1 Couplinq.
In unshielded cables, high
frequency radiated electric and magnetic fields couple
directly to individual control wires and produce current and voltage transients at cable loads with little
or no attenuation. Transient field coupling to wires
inside shielded cables is a two step process. In the
first step electric and magnetic field coupling induces
voltages and currents to flow on the shield. The tangential component of the electric field over a short
length of the shie)d acts as a local voltage source
driving the cables impedance [19].
Similarly, the
component of the magnetic field normal to the effective
loop area formed by the cable shield and any nearby
impedance-coupled conductors (e.g. CT and CCVT ground
straps and their grounded pedestals), causes currents
to flow in the loop [lo], [17].
Once field-induced
current transients are present on cable shields, they
can then couple onto the cable conductors. Shield-toconductor coupling can occur several ways. One way is
via the transfer impedance that exists between the
shield and each wire [19]. The other way is through
the mutual inductance between the shield pigtail and a
conductor at the shield terminations [17]. The effectiveness with which EM1 couples to the conductors from
both o f these coupling modes increases as the frequency
increases, particularly at frequencies above about 1
MHz. Studies [17], [ZO], [21] indicate that pigtail
coupling will be minimized by making the pigtail length
parallel to the conductors as short as possible.
Transfer impedance coupling can be minimized by using
high-quality cable shields, but there is little advantage in providing any better cable shielding than is
required to reduce transfer impedance coupling to a
level below that of pigtails.
When summed, the three control cable EM1 coupling
modes just discussed were found to generally account
for the observed control wire EM1 voltage and current
waveforms and levels. It is interesting to note that,
individually, conducted and pigtail coupling were found
to each contribute up to 70 % of the observed coupling
[lo]. However, both of these when added together with
the 20% transfer impedance contribution, produced 100 X
of the total wire EMI. The reason for this was that
each different coup1 ing mode contributed EM1 components
with different waveshapes, frequency content, and relative phase.
ComDarina Model Predictions With Measurements
In [17] and [18], overlays of predicted waveforms
with those actually measured for transient bus currents, electric and magnetic fields, and control wiring
currents and voltages for substation disconnect switching unambiguously illustrate the capabilities of the
models described above.
Here, we simply compare
measured peak amplitudes with 1PU and 2PU predictions.

1875

The measurement and prediction geometries are identi cal. Bus current transients are nominally referenced
to the center of the section of bus being excited;
fields are referenced to locations on the ground
directly below the bus sensor; control cable geometry
and coup1 ing (including source impedances) are represented by the actual CT and CCVT cable installations
found i n the 500 kV substation measured and modeled;
and control wire current and voltage transients are
referenced to the inputs of the actual load impedances
measured inside the control house [17]. Predictions
for 230 kV and 345 kV substations are based on linear
extrapolations between 115 kV and 500 kV models, since
the former substation voltages were not modeled.
Table I1 compares predicted and measured bus current transients produced by disconnect switching in 115
kV - 500 kV AIS. For each substation voltage, measured
bus current peak amplitudes are given both for the
average of all peak amplitudes measured at the substation and for the highest peak amplitude measured there.
Comparing the two types o f measured results may indicate that, while capture of the highest amplitude
transient was always attempted, it was rarely successful. In general, measured bus currents tend to fall
between the 1PU and 2PU model predictions and indicate,
that on average, somewhat less than 2PU is measured.
Peak measurements are much closer, but somewhat less
than, the 2PU predictions for all substation voltages.
This indicates that the 2PU model predictions provide a
reasonable upper bound to the measured transient bus
current level s.

Table 111
COMPARING 1PU AND 2PU PREDICTED WITH MEASURED MAGNETIC
FIELD TRANSIENTS FOR SEVERAL SYSTEM VOLTAGES
(Horizontal component fields measured
on the ground bel ow excited bus)
(zero-peak)

I
I

System
Voltage
(kV)
115
230
345

I
I

(1 PU
Predicted)
(")
19.2'
40.2"
61.2'.
_ _

I
I

(Average
Measured)

(Nm)

(Nm)

26.2
45.3

34.7
54.4

~~

__

69.0
-

89.5'
97.4
* Predicted by TRAFIC model
*. - Interpolated

5 0 0 1

I
I

69
..

131.5

(Ah)

38.4'
80.4"
122.4"
179.0'

Table IV
COMPARING 1PU AND 2PU PREDICTED WITH MEASURED ELECTRIC
FIELD TRANSIENTS FOR SEVERAL SYSTEM VOLTAGES
(Vertical component fields measured
on ground below excited bus)
(zero-peak)

Table I1
COMPARING 1PU AND 2PU PREDICTED WITH MEASURED BUS
CURRENT TRANSIENTS FOR SEVERAL SYSTEM VOLTAGES
(zero-peak)

System
Voltage
(kv)
115
230

(1 PU
Predicted)
(A)
295'

(Average
Measured)
(A)
330
735

(Peak
Measured)
(A)
-496
860

P s z d )
(A)
590'
1203"

** Interpolated

Tables I 1 1 and IV provide similar comparisons for

magnetic and electric field transients produced by the
bus currents. Magnetic field predictions at 2PU initial conditions are seen to just bound the peak
measured in all substations.
Electric field comparisons are presented slightly differently. Predicted
and measured amplitudes are reported for both the peak
as well as the DC, or late-time (quasi-static), level
since they differ substantially. The peak electric
field is governed by the transient charge redistribution on the bus caused during arcing, and is
further affected by the way the excited bus causing the
field is loaded (or terminated). The DC (or quasistatic) electric field is governed by the phase-toground bus potential. Also, a separate column of peak
measured electric field is not provided; the minimum
and maximum values are indicated as adjustments to the
average peak amp1 itudes. Peak measured electric fields
are seen to fall much closer to the 1PU model predictions. This suggests the possibility that either the
measurements are too low or the model predictions are
too high. Both possibilities have been considered, but
not resolved at this time. For example, it has been
shown in [6] that measured electric field amplitudes

actually double at a height of just 1 meter above

ground. At 1-meter above ground 2PU predictions and
measurements agree much better. This suggests that
perhaps ground plane electric field amplitudes were
suppressed somehow. Since vertical metallic structures
(insulator posts, switchgear supports, etc.) were often
within a meter or so of the measurement location, it is
possible that they could have produced scattered fields
which tended to lower the vertical field component
measurement.
In [6], enhancements of the electric
field strength by more than a factor of 4 were reported
near grounded structures protruding 2 meters above an
otherwise flat ground plane. An insulator bus support
column is such a structure that protrudes even higher;
perhaps the field near the top of these posts is
greatly enhanced and reduced at locations further away,
such as where sensors were placed.
Alternatively, only a single phase of the three
phase bus was modeled. It may be possible that the
presence of other two phase conductors could change the
line capacitance (surge impedance) enough to lower the
electric field. Such a tendency was noted earlier
during the discussion of the simple scaling formula for
calculating the peak electric field. Also, the models
currently ignore bus supports and possible effects
caused by them. For now, the matter is unresolved.
Using the data in table IV, the 2PU predictions may be
overpredicting ground-plane electric fields by almost a
factor of 2. On the other hand, when comparing 2PU
predictions with peak measurements at heights of 1-m
and 2-m above ground the relative agreement is much

1876

closer and, of course, the field ampiitudes are much

higher. It is interesting to note that magnetic field
measurements and predictions were found to agree
closely at all locations, and showed no tendency to
double in amplitude over their ground-plane value at
just 1-m above ground.
Table V compares predicted and measured voltage
and current EM1 transient peak amplitudes on conductors
inside partially-shielded CT and shielded CCVT control
cables at a point near the equipment load in a 500 kV
control house. To validate model predictions, it was
necessary to use actual frequency-dependent load impedances.
T h i s is b e c a u s e c o m m o n - m o d e and
differential-mode measurements at the inputs of a solid
state transformer differential relay reported in [20]
have shown that relay impedance can vary over two orders o f magnitude (from 10s to 1,000s of ohms) over a
frequency range from 100 kHz to 100 MHz, and gives different frequency responses dependent upon the input
measured. The CT inputs for the relay in [20], for example, while having an average impedance of a few
hundred ohms over all frequencies, exhibited a high Q
impedance resonance of about 2,000 ohms at a frequency
of about 1 MHz. Most control wire switching transients
observed during this project have strong spectral components near this frequency and could be strongly affected by it. In general, load impedances are complex
functions of frequency.
This point was made evident
during the tests by observing the dramatically different wire transient current and voltage waveforms
that were simultaneously measured at the rack terminal
block near the relay [lo]; but, since these measurements were not made at the relay inputs, one cannot
conclude that observed impedance variations represent
actual relay impedances, some of which were protected
with surge suppression devices. The effect of measured
frequency-dependent loads on predicted wire EMI, is
discussed further in [lo] and 1211.

Table V compares 1PU and 2PU model predictions to

the maximum measured CT and CCVT control wire current
and voltage transients for a 500 kV substation. In
each case, the model predicts the total wire transient
EM1 from all important coupling modes based on the actual cable configurations (see Table V footnotes). For
both CT and CCVT cables, the 2PU initial condition only
slightly overpredicts the maximum measured control wire
EMI, indicating that this model provides a reasonable
upper bound in terms of peak amplitudes. Had the load
been an open circuit, the predicted voltage would have
increased (perhaps doubled) from the values cited in
Table V, while the predicted current would have gone to
zero. In the case of a short circuit load, the effect
on predicted currents and voltages would be reversed.
ESTIMATED MAXIMUM SUBSTATION EM1 LEVELS
Using the validated models, estimates of the maximum (zero-to-peak) EM1 levels expected in substations
from switching operations, faults, and lightning are
summarized in Table VI [lo]. Maximum levels are given
for EM1 types including: bus current transients,
switchyard electric and magnetic field transients, and
current and voltage transients on unshielded control
wiring as seen from inside the control house near the
cable loads. Electric and magnetic fields are representative of those found on the ground directly beneath a
section of excited bus. Both vertical and horizontal
electric field components are reported; the vertical
component gives the highest overall peak amp1 itude, but
the horizontal component is typically important for
electric field coupling to cables. Ground currents (CT
and CCVT groundstrap and pedestal currents) are very
strong sources of magnetic field coup1 ing to nearby
control wiring. Voltage and current EM1 estimates are
given for both open circuit and short circuit loads on
unshielded control wiring and include conducted and
radiated EM1 coupling modes.
Table VI
COMPARISON OF SWITCHING, FAULT, AND LIGHTNING
TRANSIENTS EXPECTED IN SWITCHYARDS
AND ON CONTROL WIRING INSIDE CONTROL HOUSE
(zero-peak)

TYPE OF
CONTROL CIRCUIT

PREDICTION
1p u
I 2PU

MAXIMUM
MEASURED

CT(1)

5.9A
2.1 KV

11.8A
4.2 KV

10.3 A
3.9 KV

ccvr(2)

0.48 A
1.76 KV

0.96 A
3.4 KV

0.81 A
2.4 KV

For model validations, the effective frequencydependent load impedance was obtained by calculating
the ratio V(w)/I(w) where V(w) and I(w) are the Fourier
integral transforms o f the simultaneously measured
voltage and current waveforms, respectively. A smoothed
fit for the calculated impedance was developed and used
for the model validations. Once models have been
validated, open or short circuit impedances can be used
to generate the extreme load conditions for control
wire EMI.

Switching transient predictions are given for disconnect operations under 2PU initial conditions across
the switch gaps, nominally the worst case. Switching
transient EM1 is reported for 115 kV and 500 kV AIS and
for 500 kV GIs. A phase-to-ground fault occurring at a
closed 500 kV circuit breaker, where it and the local
bus both happen to be charged to, say -1PU, at the instant an incoming traveling wave arrives from having
closed a remote switch charged to, say tlPU, was simulated as a worst case, 2PU initial fault condition.
The fault was simulated by inserting a short, low im-

1877
pedance transmission l i n e t o ground a t t h e c i r c u i t
breaker.
Only t h e h i g h frequency EM1 o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g
t h e f i r s t 20 microseconds o f t h e f a u l t was predicted,
r e s u l t i n g i n a f a u l t c u r r e n t o f 15.9 kA; no attempt was
made t o include normal l o a d c u r r e n t s o r t o p r e d i c t t h e
l a t e - t i m e , low frequency (60 Hz) f a u l t EM1 which may
a l s o have very l a r g e amplitudes.
EM1 produced by a
l i g h t n i n g s t r i k e t o a 500 kV A I S was a l s o estimated.
I n t h i s case, a 10 kA stroke was d i r e c t l y attached t o a
transmission l i n e j u s t outside t h e substation t o r e p r e sent t h e maximum t h a t might be expected from a s h i e l d ing failure.
This l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t waveform r i s e s t o
a peak o f 10 kA i n 200 ns, f a l l s t o 525 A a t 100
microseconds, f a l l s t o 75 A a t 5 milliseconds, and i s
f i n a l l y zero a t 10 milliseconds.
A s t r i k e on a 500 kV
substation was considered t o be worse than one on a 115
kV substation.
It could be argued t h a t t h e same 10 kA
on a 115 kV s t a t i o n would produce much higher f i e l d s on
t h e ground due t o t h e s h o r t e r bus height, b u t t h e
flashovers would occur a t lower voltages, thus lowering
t h e surge c u r r e n t on t h e bus which d r i v e s t h e f i e l d s .
The d a t a i n Table V I show t h a t t h e 2PU c i r c u i t
breaker f a u l t produces t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s f o r a l l EM1
types. The l i g h t n i n g s t r i k e produces l e v e l s comparable
t o those o f 500 kV A I S disconnect switching. O v e r a l l
EM1 i s worse a t 500 kV than a t 115 kV, as expected.
Levels i n 500 kV A I S are g e n e r a l l y higher than those i n
500 kV G I s , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g lower presumably due t o
s h i e l d i n q provided by the gas enclosure.
(However, the
GIs models a r e a l s o more complex and n o t as w e l l
v a l i d a t e d as those f o r AIS.) The p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence o f EM1 from t h e f a u l t and l i g h t n i n g s t r i k e
scenarios should be low, whereas from switching operat i o n s i t i s r e l a t i v e l y high. These f a c t o r s should be
considered i n choosing whether t o use t h e f a u l t o r t h e
disconnect s w i t c h i n g t r a n s i e n t as t h e upper bound on
substation EMI. I n a l l cases, t h e EM1 l e v e l s i n a 115
kV substation are considerably lower than those o f 500
kV

a r e based s o l e l y on t h e s h i e l d i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s
measurements obtained f o r a metal c o n t r o l house w i t h
windows i n a 115 kV substation [13], and do n o t include
any e x p l i c i t c o n t r i b u t i o n s from f i e l d s generated i n s i d e
t h e c o n t r o l house by inadvertent (ungrounded) conductor
penetrations. For example, penetrations by bundles o f
telephone cables, etc., have been observed t o cause l o c a l l y h i g h f i e l d l e v e l s i n s i d e of otherwise w e l l s h i e l d e d communications rooms [lo] which,
i n some
cases, could be higher than those given i n Table V I I .
COMPARING MAXIMUM EM1 LEVELS TO STANDARDS

Estimates o f t h e maximum EM1 l e v e l s expected i n

s u b s t a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t types and v o l t a g e s a r e summarized i n Table V I i n terms o f peak amplitudes. For
comparing w i t h standard t e s t waveforms, i t i s more i n formative t o compare waveform ampl itudes versus time o r
spectral ampl itudes versus frequency.
Figure 6 i s an overlay o f three predicted 500 kV
A I S v e r t i c a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d spectra: 1) 2PU phase-toground c i r c u i t breaker f a u l t ( b o l d curve), 2) 10 kA
l i g h t n i n g s t r i k e t o bus due t o s h i e l d i n g f a i l u r e
( d o t t e d curve), and 3) 2PU disconnect s w i t c h i n g t r a n s i e n t ( t h i n curve).
Since t h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y no
s w i t c h y a r d f i e l d t e s t standard, t h e envelope o f these
s p e c t r a has been approximately f i t t e d w i t h t h e smooth
dashed curve as a suggested upper bound. The waveform
o f t h e dashed curve i s g i v e n by a simple double exponential o f t h e form:
E ( t ) = A[exp(-at)

E = e l e c t r i c f i e l d amplitude a t time t
A = 100 kV/m, t h e peak e l e c t r i c f i e l d amplitude
a = 1.OE5 Hz, d e s c r i b i n g t h e l a t e time decay r a t e
b = 3.5 E7 Hz, describing the r i s e time

Table V I g i v e s t h e maximum estimated EM1 l e v e l s

expected i n t h e switchyard and on unshielded CT w i r e s
i n s i d e t h e c o n t r o l house near equipment loads.
Peak e l e c t r i c and magnetic f i e l d EM1 l e v e l s i n s i d e o f c o n t r o l houses r e s u l t i n g from t h e same EM1
sources and scenarios j u s t discussed were a l s o estimated and are reported i n Table V I I . These estimates

- exp(-bt)]

where

The (10% - 90%) r i s e t i m e o f t h i s e l e c t r i c f i e l d i s

58.6 ns and i t s a c t u a l peak amplitude i s 99.6 kV/m.
Decay t o 50% of peak amplitude occurs i n about 10
microseconds as seen i n F i g u r e 7. A s i m i l a r waveform
can a l s o be generated f o r t h e magnetic f i e l d simply by
s c a l i n g t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d by an impedance o f about 300
ohms. This w i l l generate a peak magnetic f i e l d of about
332 A/m.
A method f o r g e n e r a t i n g these waveforms f o r
t e s t purposes i s described i n [lo].
1
U

Table V I 1

PEAK TRANSIENT FIELD LEVELS INSIDE CONTROL HOUSES

(Based on c o n t r o l house s h i e l d i n g effectiveness only)
(zero-peak)

U
-1
18

-'

z l 8-a
v)

U
3

l8
-6

im

l
8
.

l
8
'

US

1
8
'

U
'

;me

FREQUENCY (Hertz)

Figure 6.

Comparing Highest Expected Levels o f

E l e c t r i c F i e l d Spectra i n 500 kV
Switchyard w i t h a Suggested Test Envelope

1) 2PU c i r c u i t breaker f a u l t
2) 10 kA l i g h t n i n g s t r i k e ( s h i e l d i n g f a i l u r e )
3) 2PU disconnect switching t r a n s i e n t
4) Envelope

1878
TOTAL VERTICAL ELECTRIC FIELD
~

by the fast transient (curve 4) at all frequencies.

The fast transient spectrum was generated using the
double exponential waveform:
V(t) = A[exp(-at)

2PU CIRCUIT BREAKER FAULT

exp(-bt)l

where

= Voltage amplitude at time t

A = 4.57 kV, the peak fast transient
SWC test wave open circuit voltage
a = 5.0 E6 Hz, describing the late
time decay rate
b = 1.75 E8 Hz, describing the rise time

.0

1.0

8.0

a..

4.0

TIME

Figure 7.

1.0

a..

7.0

0.0

,..

(microseconds)

Suggested Electric Field Test Waveform

Compared wi th Faul t , Lightning. and
Disconnect Switching Transient Waveforms

Similarly, 500 kV control wire Spectra Were

compared with the fast transient and OSCillatOry swc
test waves of IEEE/ANSI C37.90.1-1989 1151. TO make
this conuparlson, open-circuited and unshielded cables
were assumed. Figure 8 shows an overlay of 5 curves Of
voltage spectral anplitudes for the fault, lightning.
and disconnect switching transient data summarized
earlier in Table VI. The other two (solid bold) curves
are the fast transient and the oscillatory SWC Voltage
spectra. All five curves are labeled and identified in
the figure. The model predictions do not include loss.
Based on measurements in a 500 kV GIs. losses W i l l
would be expected to decrease predicted Spectral
amplitudes above 7 MHz by a factor of 2 or 3. For
control cables that are shielded, analysis shows that
spectral amplitudes will also be lower at all
frequencies shown for the environments in Figure 8.
The alnount of decrease is greatest at low frequencies
and least (factor of 2) at high frequencies, i.e..
above 1 MHz. However, even for shielded cables, the
fault, lightning, and disconnect switching transient
spectral voltages still exceed the envelope presented
a OIPCCIIIWIT

I--

ALPONCL.

cI'xalIu* u-xWGc.OI1)*lyLT(-

mn UIWILWI,
-3.

Q
-

W. SNWOLD)

FREQUENCY (Hertz)

Figure 8 . Comparing Open Circuit Voltage spectral

Amplitudes for Predicted CT Cable EM1
from a 2PU Fault, 10
lightning, and
2PU Disconnect Switching with the SWC
Fast Transient and Oscillatory Test
Voltage Spectra in 500 kV Substation.
1) Predicted fault EM1
2) Predicted lightning strike EM1
3 ) Predicted di"nect
switching transient EM1
4) Fast transient SWC test wave
5) Oscillatory SWC test wave

With these choices of coefficients, the peak Voltage is

4 kV. The rise time is about 10 ns and the fall time
(to one-half maximum) is about 150 ns.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The highest expected levels of several types of
EM1 inside substations of up to 500 kV have been estimated using measurements and models based on measured
transient interference data. In most cases, the 2PU
switching transient models only slightly overpredict
the highest levels o f EM1 actually measured. EM1 from
switching operations, faults, and 1 ightning have been
compared. The 2PU phase-to-ground circuit breaker fault
occurring during remote switching produced the highest
EM1 levels overall. The probabilities of occurrence of
EM1 from the fault and lightning scenarios considered
here are believed to be very low compared to that o f
2PU disconnect switching. However, protection against
EM1 effects from a 2PU circuit breaker fault may be required. Lightning arrestors, which may reduce EM1
levels in the bus, were not included in the model.
Generally, EM1 levels from routine disconnect
switching are shown to increase linearly with substation voltage. Measured and predicted bus current transients from disconnect switching are presented and
agree well at all substation voltages. Bus current
transients are also shown to be the origin of observed
transient electric and magnetic fields; simple peak
amp1 itude field scaling formulas have been provided.
Maximum predicted transient electric and magnetic field
levels (from disconnect switching) on the ground under
the bus in 500 kV substations are predicted to be 30
kV/m and 179 A/m, (zero-to-peak). (Faults produce peak
field levels about three times higher.) The groundplane electric field level estimate was found to be
about a factor of 2 higher than the measurements;
agreement improves at above-ground locations. Several
possible explanations for the discrepancy were discussed; it was also indicated that electric fields near
grounded structures can even be higher. The 2PU predicted electric field from disconnect switching is
but both the
close to the value reported in [l],
measured and 2PU predicted magnetic field levels found
in this study were 80 times higher than those reported
in [I].
Maximum control wire EM1 inside the control house
has been described as the sum of contributions from
principal coupl ing pathways in unshielded cables: conduction Of bus current transients parasitically through
instrument transformers, and coupl ing of radiated
electric and maqnetic fields.
Fault, lightning, and disconnect switching transient EM1 coupling to shielded and filtered control
cable loads was also investigated using the models
described earlier [lo]. In shielded cables, fields
couple first to control cable
and then to the
inner conductors via piqtails and transfer impedance.

1879

Comparison of the data in Table VI11 with that of Table

IX illustrates the effectiveness of using shielded control cables.
Table VI11
PEAK EM1 COUPLING BY MODE IN AN UNSHIELOED CT CABLE
(2PU disconnect switching transient; 150 ohm load)
I

I CURRENT I VOLTAGE

COUPLING MODE. 0-PEAK MPLITUDE

I).

1.bb
.)n

I.

0.ZW
c

ee

Table X
EFFECT OF SHIELDING AND FILTER CAPACITANCE ON LOAD AND
FILTER EM1 STRESS LEVELS IN CT CONTROL CABLES
(EM1 source: 2PU circuit breaker fault; load: 150 ohms)
(500 kV substation)

Table IX
PEAK EM1 COUPLING BY MODE IN A SHIELDED CT CABLE
(2PU disconnect switching transient; 150 ohm load)
I

COUPLING

MODE. 0-PEAK AnPLITUDE

load remonse

CURRENT

VOLTAGE

Table V I 1 1 shows that magnetic field coupling to the CT

ground strap and pedestal is the most important coupling mode, nearly twice that of conducted coupling,
when the CT cable is unshielded. However, Table IX
shows that once the cable is shielded then conducted
coupling dominates all other modes.
High frequency conducted coupl ing through bushing
and column type CTs and through CCVTs was found to be a
significant contributor to control wire EMI. High frequency transfer function measurements of instrument
tranformers are recommended to fully understand this
mechanism because coupling is directly from the bus to
the control wire and is not reduced by cable shields.
In CTs and CCVTs employing shields, their effectiveness
should be evaluated between 100 kHz and 150 MHz, unless
known. From the CT transfer function data measured in
project RP2674-1 [lo], coupling efficiency was found to
increase at higher frequencies. Furthermore, because of
the short time constants associated with arcing in the
interrupter gaps, switching transients from circuit
breakers, while of much lower overall amplitude than
those of disconnects, do tend to produce EM1 having
much higher frequency components; these frequencies may
couple more efficiently through the CT to control
wiring.
Surge suppressors such as filters and MOVs are
also very effective in reducing EM1 levels, especially
the conducted EM1 mode. Simple capacitors of 0.5 uF,
0.05 uF, and 0.01 UF are typically used to protect
relay equipment, with the latter two values more typical for protecting solid state and digital relays,
respectively. When appropriate cable shields and filters are used, even EM1 levels from the severe 2PU circuit breaker fault can be reduced significantly at
relay equipment inputs. This is illustrated in Table X
for various shield and filter combinations. Proper
sizing of EM1 protection devices such as filter working
voltage is also important to prevent damage from the
EMI. Information concerning single transient peak voltage, peak current, peak power, average power, and peak
energy delivered to cable shields, filters, and equipment loads can be easily calculated using the models;
many of these quantities are reported in Table X.

Disconnect switching transient macrobursts imply

a quasi-random repetitive EM1 stress of up to 5,000
varying amplitude micropulses on cable loads per switch
operation. Up'to 20 - 50 of these transients occur at
maximum amplitude (2PU) at a rate of 120 Hz per operation. At a maximum control wire EM1 level of 10 A and 3
kV per pulse, this amounts to 30 kW peak power per
pulse. At 120 Hz this amounts to about 90 watts average
power. For 50 pulses of 25 microsecond duration, this
represents an energy of about 38 joules delivered to
the cable load (or to a surge protection device) per
disconnect switching operation. Cable loads and protection should be designed to withstand these EM1 levels.
The shielding and protection recommendations from
[l] are reconfirmed here. Because of the possibility of
conducted coupl ing, surge protectors are recommended in
addition to cable shielding. Surge protectors may be
required anyway to limit pigtail coupling to compatible
levels.
Analytic descriptions of possible test waves
characterizing bounding levels of electric and magnetic
field EM1 in switchyards up to and including 500 kV
have been presented. Comparisons of expected control
wire EM1 levels with standards suggest possible increases in the fast transient test wave at certain frequencies below 7 MHz be considered. The oscillatory
test wave was not found to provide an effective bound
on the expected maximum EM1 levels for substations
greater than 115 kV.
Susceptibility levels for control-critical substation equipment, not just relay equipment, should be
determined, if not known, and compared with expected
maximum EM1 stress levels and SWC test criteria to ensure that adequate margins exist. During substation
switching transient tests, many upsets and damage o f
non-relay equipment occurred [lo].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the guidance
provided by F . M. Phillips, S . L. Nilsson and L . L.
Mankoff of EPRI. Public Service Company of New Mexico
and Virginia Power have been strong supporters
throughout this project.

1880

REFERENCES
B.O. Russell, S.M. Harvey, and S.L. Nilsson, "Substation Electromagnetic Interference, Part 1:
Characterization and Description o f the Transient
EM1 Problem", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-103, no. 7, July 1984.

S. A. Boggs, F.Y. Chu, N. Fujimoto, A. Krenicky,

A. Plessl, and D. Schlicht, Disconnect Switch Induced Transients andIITrapped Charge in GasInsulated Substations , IEEE Trans. PA&S, vol.
PAS-101, pp. 3593- 3602, October 1982.
J. Meppelink, K.Diederich, K. Feser, and P. Pfaff,
"Very Fast Transients in GIs", IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, vol. 4, pp. 222-233, January 1989.

D.E. Thomas, C.M. Wiigins, F. S. Nickel, C. D. K O ,

and S. E. Wright, Prediction of Electromagnetic
Field and Current Transipts in Power Transmission
and Distribution Systems , IEEE Trans. on Power
pelivery, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 744-755, January 1989.
E.F. Vance, Coupling to Shielded Cables, New York:

Wi 1 ey- Interscience, 1978, pp ., 108-176.

HEMP-INDUCED TRANSIENTS IN TRANSMISSION SUBSTA-.
National

m.
Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge
Laboratory, June 1990, ORNL/Sub-88-SC863.

[21] D. E. Thomas, C. M. k/iggins, T. M. Salas,

and P. R. Barnes, On the HEMP Environment for
Protective Relays", presented at the IEEE/PES 1993
Winter Meeting in Columbus, OH.

S.Ogawa, E.Haginomori, S.Nisiwaki, T. Yoshida,

K. Terasaka, "Estimation of Restriking Transient
Overvoltage on Disconnecting Switch for GIs", IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol.1, p. 9 5 (1986).
C. M. Wiggins, F. S. Nickel, A.J. Haney, "Measurement of Switching Transients in a 115 kV
Substation", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 4,
pp. 756-759, January 1989.
C.M. Wiggins and S.E. W;ight,"Switching Transient
Fields in Substations , IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, vol. 6, pp. 591-600, April, 1991.
W. C. Kotheimer and L.L. Mankoff, "Electromagnetic
Interference and Solid State Relays", IEEE Trans,
on P A E , vol. PAS-96, no. 4, July/August 1977.
ANSI/IEEE C37.90.1-1989 "IEEE Standard Surge Withstand Capability ISWC) Tests for Protective Relays
and Relay Systems , (P472/D9, January 6, 1987).
ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2-1987 "Withstand Capabil i ty of
Relay Systems to Radiated Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers".
[ 101 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS IN SUBSTATIONS, VOLUME
I : PROJECT SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS, Pal o A1 to,

Carl M. W i q q i n s (M'74,
SM'89) was born in Jackson,
MS on August 5, 1941. He
received the B.S. degree
from Lamar State College of
Technology, Beaumont, TX and
the M.S. degree from Sam
Houston State College,
Huntsville, TX in 1964 and
1966, respectively, both in
Dhvsics. From 1966 to 1973
studied postgraduate
physics at New Mexico State
University in Las Cruces,
NM.
In 1973 he joined BDM
International, Albuquerque, NM. His work has been in
the areas of transient electrodynamics, lasers, and optics. Currently, he is a senior principal scientist
investigating electromagnetic interference phenomena.
Mr. Wiggins is a senior member of the IEEE EMC and
Power Engineering Societies and has authored over 3 8
pub1 ications.

he

CA: Electric Power Research Institute, April 1993,

EPRI TR-102006.

[ll] C.M. Wiggins, F. S. Nickel, and A.J. Haney, "Mobile Transient Measurement System", 1987 IEEE International Symposium on EMC, vol 87CH2487-7, pp. 4254, August 1987.
[12] Proceedings: Telephone Lines Enterinq Power Substations. Palo Alto, CA:Electric Power Research Institute, August 1988, EL-5990-SR, Section 5.
[131 See

[lo],

section 4.

IN SUBSTATIONS, VOLUME
REPORT. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power
Research Institute, EPRI TR-102006, April 1993.

[ 141 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

UI: TEST

[15] See [lo], pp 5-13 - 5-18.

[16] See [lo], section 6.

[17] D.E. Thomas, C.M. W!ggins, T.M.Salas, F.S. Nickel,

and S. E. Wright, EMI-Induced Control Wire Tra!sients in Substations: Measurements and Models ,
presented for the IEEE/PES 1994 Winter Meeting in
New York.

7 curved mirrors was published

in the December 1980 issue
of Scientific American.
Currently, Mr. Thomas is
a Principal Staff Member in
the Advanced Electromagnetics Group of BDM International, Inc. His research areas include assessment of
electromagnetic effects on aircraft, ships, and on
electric power transmission and distribution systems.

1881

Frank S. Nickel was born in

Salina, Kansas in 1962. He
received the B . S . degree
(1984) in physics engineering and a minor in mathematics from Southwestern Oklahoma S t a t e Universitv
(SWOSU) .
Mr. Nickel joined BDM International, Inc., Albuquerque, NM in 1984.. He has
concentrated his work in the
areas of transient signal
anal ysi s , data acqui sit i on
and processing, electromagnetic and electrical network
model development, systems simulation, and hardware and
software engineering. Currently, he is an engineer
for an electromagnetics test and analysis group, and is
a project manager responsible for the operation, maintenance, enhancement, and application of a high
bandwidth, versatile data acquisition and processing
system.

and has worked in the areas

o f electromagnetic c o m patibility and transient
analysis. He is a student
member o f the IEEE Electromagnetics Compatibility
Soci etv.
Selwvn E. Wrisht (M86,
SM88) received the B.S. degree in physics from North
S t a f f s P o l y t e c h n i c in
England, the M . S . degree in
electronics in 1964, and the
Ph.D. degree in acoustics in
1969 from Southhampton
University. He became a
chartered engineer in the
United Kingdom in 1965.
Dr. Wright was Scientific
Advisor with the French
Government (ONERA) from
1976-1978. In 1978 he joined
Stanford University to start a laboratory in acoustics.
Dr. Wright joined the Electric Power Research Institute
in 1984, as a project manager in the Electrical Systems
Division. His specialties include acoustic and
electromagnetic fields, control s , and instrumentat ion.
Dr. Wright has authored over 50 principal publications.

1882

Discussion

Steven A. Boggs (Electrical Insulation Research Center, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3136
and Department of Electrical Engineering, University of
Toronto). The authors are congratulated on an interesting and timely study of transient electromagnetic interference in substations. My comments will be restricted
to the subject as related to GIS (SF6 Gas-Insulated Substations). The authors might have done well to separate
their results into two papers, as phenomena in GIs differ
SufEcientlyfrom those in AIS that treating both in a single paper is almost certain to result in confusion. For
example, the authors state that Voltages in transmission
substations generally range between 115 kV and 500 kV.
Surge impedances over this voltage range also tend to be
relatively constant at approximately 350 ohms. This
statement is correct of AIS but incorrect for GIS, where
the impedance ranges from about 45 to 65 ohms. In the
next paragraph, the authors relate the risetimes of transient EMI phenomena caused by arcing dischargeson the
high voltage system to the effective charging time constants of the circuit driven by the arc, typically the entire
substation bus structure. Again, this may be an appropriate description for AIS but is inappropriate for GIS,
where the coaxial structure forms a system of relatively
clean high frequency transmission lines capable of
supporting ns risetime travelling waves and reflections
thereof. Given that the typical time for collapse of the
voltage across a disconnect switch is in the range of 3 to
5 ns, the frequency spectrum resulting from switching of
GIS is related to details of station structuremore complex
than simply overall bus capacitance.
The authors state that the peak field amplitudes in GIS
are somewhat lower (E-field a factor of nine, H-field a
factor of two) than those of AIS; the gas enclosure probably acts as a shield. Where did the authors measure the
fields in GIS? One might expect the maximum field to
occur immediately under the gas-to-air termination. The
intercontact breakdown of a disconnector in GIS creates
a travelling electromagnetic wave within the GIS which
reflects and refracts within the GIS until it reaches a gasto-& termination, at which point part of the wave is reflected back into the GIS, while part is refracted out the
overhead line. The gas-to-air termination represents the
junction of three transmission lines, viz., (1) the overhead
line-to-earthtransmission line, (2) the GIs conductor-toenclosure transmission line, and (3) the GIS enclosureto-earth transmission line. Part of the refracted wave is
coupled into the GIS enclosure-to-earth transmission
line. The duration and waveform of this wave depends
strongly on the length and proximity of any ground
straps, as the base of the bushing is often grounded to the
station ground mat [l-31. The field below the bushing
will normally be greatest when a line disconnector is op-

erated, when the enclosure at the base of the bushing is

high above the earth, and when a ground strap is not
present near the base of the bushing. Did the authors
measure the field under bushings, and, in particular, did
they measure the field under a bushing which represented
such a worst case condition?
The authors relate many of their measured data to a 2 pu
breakdown across a disconnect switch. he operation of
GIs disconnectors has been understood for over a decade, and manufacturers take great pains to minimize the
likelihood of anything approaching a 2 pu intercontact
breakdown, as such a breakdown implies both large transients and a very long intercontact arc, both of which
reduce the reliability of the GIs. The intercontact breakdown voltage is basically controlled through careful attention to both the rate of contact separation and the
asymmetry between breakdown voltage in the two directions across the disconnector [4,5]. Thus while relating
data to a 2 pu intercontact breakdown provides a reasonable basis for normalizing reported data, the resulting
fields are substantially greater than can reasonably be
expected in a GIs.
The authors bottom line is that the measured fields are
sufficiently great that the IEEE/ANSI standard C37.90.11989 does not assure reliable operation. However, the
authors measured transients in substations based on the
standard practice which has grown up around the use
electromechanical relays. In many early GIS, control
wiring practice was so poor that even electromechanical
relays could be damaged, especially by breakdowns during commissioning tests, which represent the highest
normal exposure to EMI and control wiring transients.
The usual reason for such damage was that control wiring
shields were grounded at only one end in order to avoid
circulating currents in the shields. When the shield was
grounded at both ends, damage to electromechanical relays was eliminated. However, the resulting wiring practice was still poor. Control cable shields were grounded
through long pigtails, including such pigtails within local
cabinets. Such practice, however imperfect, has been
adequate for substations based on electromechanical relay technology.
More recently, a number of utilities have started to use
microprocessor-based relaying in GIS, and at least three
manufacturers have provided GIS which have incorporated or been used with such technology. To implement
such systems, control wiring had to beimproved substantially, with coaxial termination of control cable shields on
the outer surface of wiring cabinets, elimination of pigtails, etc. The net result is a control wiring system in
which the control wires travel through a continuous faraday cage from their point of origin to their point of termination. As noted above, such technology is now well-established with at least three manufacturers having imple-

1883

mented GIs incorporating such technology on a commercial basis.

Thus the authors' measurements do not relate to the easily achieved and established state-of-the-art in GIS control wiring but rather to earlier generations of technology
which was, and is, adequate when electromechanicalrelays are employed but which is clearly an inadequate
basis for implementation of microprocessor-basedrelaying.
The soon-to-be-published revision of IEEWANSI document on GIS includes a revised Specification and numerous Guides, some of which cover Fast Transients in GIs,
Transient Groundrise in GIs, and Control Wiring Practice for GIs.
None of the above comment detracts from the very substantial contribution of the present authors. Hopefully,
my comments serve to place these contributions in the
context of the present state-of-the-art as it relates to GIs.
1. Ford, G.L. and S.A. Boggs. Transient Groundrise in SF6
Substations Investigated. Transmission & Distribution
Magazine, Vol. 31, No. 8, Aug. 1979.

2. Ford, G.L., S.A. Boggs, and N.Fujimoto. Transient Groun-

drise in GIs. Transmission & Distribution Magazine Vol.

34, No. 4, April, 1982, p. 42.

3.Fujimoto, N., E.P. Dick, S.A. Boggs, and G.L. Ford. Transient Ground Potential Rise in Gas Insulated SubstationsExperimental Studies. IEEE Trans. PAS-101, October,
1982.
4. Boggs, S.A., F.Y. Chu,

N. Fujimoto, A. Krenicky, A.
Plessl, and D. Schlicht. Disconnect Switch Induced Transients and Trapped Charge in Gas-Insulated Substations.
IEEE Trans. PAS-101, October, 1982.

5. Boggs, S.A., N.Fujimoto, M. Collod, andE. Thuries. The

Modeling of Statistical Operating Parameters and The
Computation of Operation-Induced Surge Waveforms for
GIS Disconnectors. 1984 CIGRE, paper 13-15.

Manuscript received February 15, 1994.

Carl M. Wiggins, David E. Thomas, Frank S. Nickel

(BDM Federal, Inc., Albuquerque, NM 87106) and
Selwyn E. Wright (Electric Power Research Institute,
Palo Alto, CA 94303). The authors would like to thank
Mr. Boggs for his thoughtfbl comments. There are
indeed significant differences between transient
electromagnetic interference in air-insulated substations
(AIS) and gas-insulated substations (GIs). He is correct
in pointing out the differences in surge impedances in
AIS and GIs. While the high fiequency traveling waves
from an arcing switch do excite the entire bus structure,

we have also shown that it is the large impedance

discontinuities on either side nearest the arcing switch,
and to some extent the details of the switch itself, that
are predominately responsible for the observed transient
waveshape [ 101 (references in paper). Typically such
discontinuities are provided by the nearest instrument
transformers and (open) circuit breaker bushings in the
case of disconnect switching in AIS which offer low
impedance paths to ground at frequencies in the MHz
range. In GIs, the bus structure is more complicated
and often may be viewed as three different intersecting
transmission lines as Mr. Boggs points out. The surge
impedances for the three lines are all different. High
frequency electromagnetic interference produced by
arcing from a switch operating inside the coaxial line
couples onto all three lines. Circuit breakers and
disconnects (with its associated breaker open) were
operated to produce the measured transients; no external
line switch operations were allowed. Due to the
compactness of the coaxial structure, switching in GIs
produces transients with much higher frequency
components than in AIS, as we point out in the paper
(e.g., Fig. 4) and in [6,10, 141. We measured transient
electric and magnetic fields at 14 different locations
between the gas enclosure and ground and under the airinsulated line on both the line and transformer sides
[lo], but not between the bus and gas enclosure (i.e., not
inside the gas enclosure), as mentioned in the paper.
The peak fields may be much lower at these locations
than would be found inside gas enclosure. In some cases
fields were measured close to aidgas bushings [141 and
were found to be somewhat higher at these locations,
particularly the magnetic field. It should also be
mentioned that the field measurement geometry between
the enclosure and earth ground, which is often a threedimensional structure of steel w a k a y s , is not "clean".
Thus, field sensors will tend to measure the net field
scattered from these structures which may cause local
peak amplitude enhancements or cancellations. Of
course, the bottom line is: how do transients arriving at
equipment in GIS compare with those found in AIS?
Many results in [lo, 141 show that, generally, voltage
and current transients have about the same peak
amplitudes in GIS and AIS where the same type of
switching is performed at the same voltage levels, and
similar interference coupling to equipment (cable
practices) are employed. The major differences were
that GIS control cable transients measured near
equipment loads exhibited major fiequency components
up to 20 MHz (vs. up to 3 h4Hz in AIS), and they
damped out faster ( 4 p vs. 20 p).

The 2 pu initial condition across the disconnect switch

arises when its the line-side has been left charged to +1
pu on opening and then it is closed where the initial arc

1884

occurs at the instant the source side is at amhimum, -1

pu. The correlation between peak MeasuTemenfs and
travehg wave simulation model predictions set for 1 pu
and 2 pu initial conditions c~njirmthe possibility of
occurrence of 2 pu transients (see for example, Chapter
5 of [lo]).

protection, will not necessarily safely limit the peak

interference levels from switching, hults, and lightning
transients that can occur at inputs to protection
equipment. The paper characterizes quantitatively some
of the peak EMI levels for normal and abnormal high
frequency sources in AIS and GIs, their effects, and the
effectiveness of various mitigation procedures such as
cable shieldmg and surge suppression. The purpose of
this research is to provide high fiequency EMI data that
could be used to better understand and improve
protection of modem (digital and microprocessor)
substation electronic equipment placed either inside the
m t r o l house ot in the high yard (AISand GIs).

Our observations of cable shielding practices found in

the 10 AIS and GIs visited during project RP2674-01
show: only some use of shielded cables; sometimes cable
shields were grounded; and when grounded, pigtails
were used. Rarely did we encounter a substation where
all cables were .&ielded. We have not seen a substation
using high frequency coaxial shield terminations, but we
are pleased to learn that apparently some now do. We Manuscript received April 19, 1994.
would also like to point out that a key conclusion in the
paper is that cable shielding alone, without proper surge