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TEACHING OF LANGUAGE
SKILLS IN ENGLISH FOR
PRIMARY SCHOOLS
(MODULE)
BRI3043
TEACHING OF LANGUAGE SKILLS IN
ENGLISH FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Writers
Goh Hock Seng
Seva Bala Sundaram
Abdul Halim Ibrahim
Mahendran Maniam
PREFACE
This module is written as a primary resource for the students taking the course BRI3143
Teaching of Language Skills in English for Primary Schools and especially for those
undergoing the distant learning programme. Indeed, there is abundant research and
discussion on the teaching of each individual language skill and that covering all that
literature is certainly impossible. Hence, the learning points covered in this module is
highly selective and more importantly, deemed essential in meeting the learning
outcomes of the course.
There are 12 units in this module covering much of the syllabus outlined in the
Instructional Plan of the course. Undoubtedly, it should be noted that these units will only
cover highly selected points in both the theoretical and pedagogical aspects of each
language skill with special emphasis to the primary school level. Tasks and sample
activities are provided to consolidate the learning points in each unit.
COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
This course guide is aimed at giving essential information to students with regards to the
content of the course so as to enable successful completion of the course. BRI 3143
Teaching of Language Skills in English for Primary Schools seeks to provide students
the necessary theoretical and pedagogical knowledge with regards to the teaching of
English language skills i.e. reading, writing, listening and speaking with particular focus
on the context of the primary schools. This module will cover the teaching of the four
skills as well as the aspect of grammar. Besides that, the integration of the skills within
lessons and between lessons will also be given emphasis. It is hoped that having gone
through the course, students will be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to
teach the four skills effectively and to improve further in their practice.
TARGET AUDIENCE
This course is designed specifically for students taking the B.Ed (Teaching of English as
a Second Language) programme.
ii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course gives exposure to some approaches and techniques concerning the teaching
and learning of the four basic skills, reading, writing, listening and speaking and not
forgetting grammar to the primary school students. Where classroom teaching and
learning are concerned, the skills should be integrated and therefore this course gives
some ideas about how these skills are integrated in English lessons. Students are also
taught on how to write lesson plans integrating these four skills. Macro-teaching sessions
at the end of the course provide students with the practice and exposure in teaching
English confidently in the future.
(Kursus ini memberi pendedahan kepada pendekatan dan teknik pengajaran dan
pembelajaran dalam keempat-empat kemahiran berbahasa iaitu membaca, menulis,
mendengar dan bertutur dan tata bahasa kepada pelajar-pelajar sekolah rendah. Untuk
pengajaran dan pembelajaran di dalam kelas kemahiran-kemahiran ini hendaklah
bersepadu dan oleh kerana itu kursus ini memberi cara dan pendapat untuk
menyatupadukan kemahiran-kemahiran tersebut. Pelajar juga diajar cara menyediakan
rancangan pelajaran dengan menyatupadukan kemahiran-kemahiran tersebut. Sesi
pengajaran-makro di penghujung kursus memberi pelajar latihan dan pendedahan dalam
pengajaran Bahasa Inggeris dengan yakin pada masa akan datang).
iii
CONTENTS
Preface
Course Guide
ii
Contents
iv
UNIT 1
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Learning Points
1.1 Teaching English at the primary level
teaching
1.4 Which Method?
References
UNIT 2
12
15
Teaching of Listening I
(Seva Bala Sundaram)
Learning Outcomes
16
Introduction
16
Learning Points
2.1 Perception skills
16
17
17
17
17
18
iv
19
2.8 Five parts of critical listening skills that will help you
22
23
23
25
References
UNIT 3
28
Teaching of Listening II
(Seva Bala Sundaram)
Learning Outcomes
29
Introduction
29
Learning Points
3.1 Listening and Speaking
29
31
36
37
38
39
40
42
43
v
UNIT 4
Speaking Skills
(Abdul Halim Ibrahim)
Learning Outcomes
44
Introduction
44
Learning Points
4.1 Definition of speaking skills
45
50
52
52
53
53
54
54
57
57
58
59
63
65
66
67
68
69
70
70
70
71
References
73
vi
UNIT 5
Teaching of Speaking
(Abdul Halim Ibrahim)
Learning Outcomes
74
Introduction
74
Learning Points
5.1 The English language syllabus in primary schools
76
77
81
83
86
87
88
89
96
vii
UNIT 6
Teaching of Reading I
(Goh Hock Seng)
Learning Outcomes
97
Introduction
97
Learning Points
6.1. What is reading?
98
99
99
101
102
104
105
References
UNIT 7
108
Teaching of Reading II
(Goh Hock Seng)
Learning Outcomes
111
Introduction
111
Learning Points
7. 1 Word recognition
112
Sample activity 7. 1
113
Sample activity 7. 2
114
7. 2 Vocabulary development
114
Sample activity 7. 2
116
7. 3 Comprehension
Sample Activity 7. 4
References
117
120
121
viii
UNIT 8
Teaching of Writing I
(Mahendran Maniam)
Learning Outcomes
122
Introduction
122
Learning Points
8. 1 The Development of the Teaching of Writing
123
123
125
Classroom
8.3.1 Issues in the Teaching of Writing
8.3.2 Traditions of Recognition
8. 4 Approaches to the Teaching of Writing in ESL
126
129
ESL
8.5.1 Writing Goals and General Techniques of
Teaching Writing in ESL
8.5.2 Getting started
8.5.3 Writing Assignments and Responding to Students
Writings
8. 6 Writing Activities- Initial Steps
130
ix
131
8.6.2 Brainstorming
Sample Activity 8.2
132
133
UNIT 9
136
Teaching of Writing II
(Mahendran Maniam)
Learning Outcomes
138
Introduction
138
Learning Points
9.1 Journal Writing (Guidelines)
139
139
140
140
142
142
143
144
144
145
145
146
146
147
147
148
x
References
UNIT 10
149
Teaching of Grammar
(Abdul Halim Ibrahim)
Learning Outcomes
150
Introduction
150
Learning Points
10. 1 Teaching Approach
151
155
158
165
169
170
References
UNIT 11
Learning Outcomes
174
Introduction
174
Learning Points
11.1. Beginning reading and writing: introducing letters
175
178
179
183
185
UNIT 12
190
194
Macro Teaching
(Mahendran Maniam)
Learning Outcomes
195
Introduction
195
Learning Points
12.1 Micro Teaching
196
196
198
198
198
200
200
204
208
211
References
212
xii
UNIT 1
Teaching of English Language Skills
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. identify the main reasons of teaching English at the primary level.
2. describe the standards found in the Malaysian English language Curriculum for Primary
Schools
3. compare and contrast between language teaching methods.
4. evaluate own teaching practices.
Introduction
Learning English is presently a global phenomenon and being proficient in English has become
essential to millions around the world for numerous reasons. It is undeniable that the English language
is the lingua franca in many spheres of our daily lives such as in technology, politics, business, social
networking and so on. Of course, one seeks (or is encouraged, e.g. in the countrys educational
system) to learn English for his or her own reasons.
If the learning of English is so important, the teaching of it is certainly no less important and
more so in the primary schools when young children are required to learn the language. Hence, it is
essential that English language teachers in the primary schools are grounded with sound theoretical
and pedagogical knowledge to enable them to become effective teachers. This module is aimed at
contributing towards that quest of preparing teachers to teach English language skills effectively in the
primary schools.
Learning Points
1. 1 Teaching English at the primary level
As much as the English language has gained popularity and importance throughout the world,
it is well to note that the teaching of English is carried out in a wide variety of contexts of English as
a foreign language or English as a second language. Similarly, the age of the learners varies from
the very young to the very old. We will focus our attention to learners who at the primary school level.
In the context of Malaysia, this would mean students who studying in Primary 1 to Primary 6 where
every student is taught English.
While it is debatable with regards to when is the best time to learn (and teach) another
language, many scholars believe that the best time to learn a language is when one is young as
compared to when one is an adult already. Brumfit (1991, p. vi) offers a few other reasons for the
teaching of English at the primary level:
the need to expose children from an early age to an understanding of foreign cultures so
that they grow up tolerant and sympathetic to others
the need for maximum learning time for important languages the earlier you start the
more time you get
the advantage of starting with early second language instruction so that the language can be
used as a medium of teaching
These reasons are indeed applicable to a multicultural and multilingual country such as
Malaysia. Nonetheless, it is also these cultural and linguistic diversity that an English language teacher
in Malaysia should take into consideration and be aware of the sensitivities that exist.
Based on the objectives outlined above, it can be seen that the curriculum revolves around the teaching
of language skills (i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing) and grammar. These elements make up what is
called the language focus which is the first strand in the overall design of the curriculum. The second strand is
Language Arts which is included to allow pupils to engage and enjoy stories, poems, songs, rhymes and
plays written in English (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2012, p. 4)
Given in Table 1.1 below are details of how the language skills and language arts should be taught and
also the standards (Core standards and Learning standards) set for the primary school students to achieve. The
Core Standards specify the essential knowledge, skills, understandings and strategies that pupils need to learn
while the Learning Standards describe in detail the degree or quality of proficiency that pupils need to display
in relation to the Content Standards for a particular year (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2013, p. 10).
Table 1.1: Language Skills and Standards in the KSSR English Language Curriculum
SKILLS
Content Standards
Learning Standards
Reading Skills
The teaching of reading skills:
enables pupils to become independent readers
who are able to comprehend a text effectively
and efficiently.
begins at the word and phrase levels before
progressing to sentence recognition and reading
at the paragraph level.
focuses on basic literacy with the use of phonics
in Year 1 and 2.
teaches pupils to extract specific information
from a text and respond to a text with their own
ideas and opinions.
Table 1.1: Language Skills and Standards in the KSSR English Language Curriculum (Continue)
SKILLS
Content Standards
Learning Standards
Writing Skill
Table 1.1: Language Skills and Standards in the KSSR English Language Curriculum (Continue)
SKILLS
Content Standards
Learning Standards
Language Arts
As can be seen from the table above, all the four language skills of listening,
speaking, reading and grammar are given emphases with the intention of helping students
develop these skills. As for the language arts strand, teachers may plan lessons in
relation to the language skills taught or they may come up with generic lessons. Teachers
should incorporate the fun element in specified contexts to make their lessons
meaningful. (ibid, p. 5).
With regards to the four language skills, they are often placed under two
categories which are receptive skills and productive skills. The skills of listening and
reading are categorized as receptive skills because the user receives information
through the skills. Productive skills, then, are speaking and writing skills whereby the
user produce the language that is required in a discourse. Nonetheless, it should be
noted that the skills are seldom used in isolation in real life contexts. For example, the
skills of listening and speaking goes hand in hand during a conversation or discussion.
Additionally, the all the skills would probably be used in a situation such as a lecture.
Hence, it is important to note that integration of language skills is an important
consideration in the curriculum.
Indeed the new curriculum is well thought through and it is hoped the English
language teachers in Malaysian primary schools will be able to implement the curriculum
effectively and efficiently. Should that happen, the teaching and learning of English at the
primary level in Malaysia should lead the achieving the aim of the curriculum.
techniques. Although a quick survey of the literature involving these terms would show
that there is not a general consensus as to what these terms actually mean and how they
are use, a few common strands would emerge to provide generally accepted
understanding of the terms. To simplify matters, the meanings of the terms provided here
are based on two sources i.e. Richards and Rodgers (1987) and Harmers (2007) work.
Richards and Rodgers (1987) place the term method as the umbrella term under
which three interrelated elements of organization upon which language teaching
practices are founded (p. 146). These elements are approach, design and procedure.
Harmer (2007) does not propose a system to show how the elements are interrelated but
merely defines the terms approach, method, procedure and technique. Nonetheless, it is
clear from the definitions that these terms are related to one another.
Richards and Rodgers (1987) and Harmer (2007) agree that the term approach
refer to the theories on the nature of language and the nature of language learning. These
theories provide the theoretical underpinnings of a method where designs, procedures and
techniques are utilized. While, as mentioned earlier, Richards and Rodgers see the term
method as consisting the three other interrelated terms, Harmer defines method as
practical realization of an approach and that Methods include various procedures and
techniques as part of their standard fare (ibid, p. 62).
Different approaches would of course lead to different designs. According to
Richards and Rodgers (1987), a design includes specifications of 1) the content of
instruction i.e. the syllabus, 2) learner roles in the system, 3) teacher roles in the system,
4) instructional materials types and functions (p. 148). Based on the design, the aspect of
procedures and techniques are considered as practical implementations of the methods in
the language classrooms. Richards and Rodgers (1987) explain that procedure describes
the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and activities that operate in
teaching and learning a language according to a particular method (p. 153). Harmer
(2007, p. 62) describes procedure as a sequence which can be described in terms such as
First you do this, then you do that , Smaller than a method, it is bigger than a
technique.
Based on the descriptions above, it may be seen that the terms essentially points
to two core aspects of language teaching methodology i.e. theoretical aspect and practical
Direct method
Audiolingual
method
Presentation,
practice and
production (PPP)
Brief Description
Students were given explanations of individual points of grammar,
and then they were given sentences which exemplified these
points. These sentences had to be translated from the target
language (L2) back to the students first language (L1) and vice
versa
Translation was abandoned in favour of the teacher and the
students speaking together, relating the grammatical forms they
were studying to objects and pictures, etc, in order to establish
their meaning. The sentence was still the main object of interest,
and accuracy was all important.
When behaviorist accounts of language learning became popular in
the 1920s and 1930s the Direct method morphed, especially in
the USA, into the Audiolingual method. Using the stimulusresponse-reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous
process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in
language learners.
The teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the
language to be taught. The language, too, is then presented. The
students now practice the language using accurate reproduction
techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition and cueresponse drills. Later, the students, using the new language, make
sentences of their own, and this is referred to as production.
Community
Language Learning
Suggestopaedia
Total Physical
Response (TPR)
Communicative
Language Teaching
(CLT)
Task-based learning TBL makes the performance of meaningful tasks central to the
(TBL)
learning process. It is informed by a belief that if students are
focused on the completion of the task, they are just as likely to
learn language as they are if they are focusing on langue forms.
Instead of a language structure or function to be learnt, students are
presented with a task they have to perform or a problem they have
to solve.
10
Johnson (2001) went on to suggest seven questions that one should attempt to
answer in distinguishing one method from another. In a way, the answers to the questions
posed will enable one to further understand the what, why, and how about a
particular methodology. Additionally, answers to them will help one to view the differing
methods in relation to each other. These questions can be seen in Table 1.3 below.
11
Task 1.1
1) Select any two methods for language teaching and answer the questions set by Johnson
(2001) with regards to the selected methods.
2) Based on the two selected methods again, provide the descriptions for the elements of
approach, design, procedure, and technique as explained by Richards and Rodgers
(1987) and Harmer (2007).
1. 4 Which Method?
With the long history of language teaching methodology and the numerous methods
proposed, one would think that language teachers are spoilt for choice and that it is
merely a matter of selecting the best or most appropriate method to be used in the
classroom. Unfortunately, that is definitely not the case as each method is designed based
on certain contexts and theoretical assumptions that may not be applicable to the local
context in which a foreign language is taught. Harmer (2007, p. 77) rightly give the
following advise.
12
Task 1.2
1) Consider your own practice in the classroom thus far. What are your answers to the
seven questions posed by Johnson (2001) given above. For example, what are the big
ideas that influence you when you teach? How do you view about the nature of
language learning?
2) Based on a lesson that you have taught, briefly state your practices based on the terms
approach, design, procedure and technique.
What about teaching English in the Malaysian primary schools? The authors of
the KSSR Guidebook for English Year 3 (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2012, p. vi)
have this to say:
There is no single best way and teachers have to use their pedagogical
content knowledge, experience, skills and creativity to plan their lessons in
order to help their pupils learn better. Teachers should decide on a
theme/topic and then select suitable listening and speaking, reading,
writing and language arts activities to be used for teaching that topic.
13
Additionally, some other points about the curriculum should also be noted.
Firstly, the four language skills are to be integrated within a lesson or over a few lessons
based on a topic. For example, it is noted that activities are contextualized and fun-filled
with integration of language skills in meaningful contexts (Kementerian Pelajaran
Malaysia, 2012, p. 4). Besides that, the aspects of vocabulary, grammar and sound
14
systems that are needed to perform the language skills are to be included and taught.
Furthermore, grammar should not be taught in isolation but in context.
The teaching of English in the primary school is indeed a crucial element in the
overall educational system in Malaysia and the importance of English proficiency in the
human resources of the nation is undeniable. Hence, the English teachers in the primary
school have the challenging task of teaching the language effectively in varied contexts
found in multicultural and multilingual Malaysia. It is hoped that the teachers will rise to
the occasion.
References
Geyser, J. P. (2006). English to the world: Teaching methodology made easy. Subang
Jaya: August Publishing.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (4th ed.). Harlow: Pearson
Education.
Johnson, K. (2001). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching. Harlow:
Pearson Education.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2012). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR):
Teachers Guide SK & SJK: English Language Year 3. Bahagian Pembangunan
Kurikulum. Retrieved from
http://www.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/kssr/dokumen_kurikulum/tahap_ii/mata_pelajara
n_teras/bahasa_inggeris
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2013). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR):
Teachers Guide Book English Year 4. Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum.
Retrieved from
http://www.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/kssr/dokumen_kurikulum/tahap_ii/mata_pelajara
n_teras/bahasa_inggeris
Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. (1987). Method: Approach, design and procedure. In M. H.
Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.). Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings
(pp.145-157). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
15
UNIT 2
Teaching of Listening I
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
Introduction
istening is not merely not talkingit means taking a vigorous human interest in
what is being told us. You can listen like a blank wall or like a splendid auditorium
where every sound comes back fuller and richer.
Alice Duer Miller
Learning Points
2. 1 Perception skills
- recognizing individual sounds
- discriminating between sounds
- identifying reduced forms in fast speech
- identifying stressed syllables
- identifying stressed words in utterances
- recognizing intonation patterns.
16
2. 2 Language skills
- identifying individual words and groups and building up possible meanings for
them.
- identifying discourse markers which organize what is being said, for e.g. then, as
I was saying, as a matter of fact, to start with.
17
In order to listen well you need to combine sub-skills at the same time when
listening to someone speaking. And these sub-skills depend on the type of text you are
listening to and why you are listening to the text. So, it is the duty of the teacher to teach
the strategies for listening.
Strategies
here
could
include
making
inferences,
realizing
where
misunderstandings have occurred and asking for clarification. As the students become
more competent listeners they will need less of these strategies, although even very
proficient listeners will have to resort to these strategies sometimes (Kathleen,. 2005).
It is thus important to interrupt the listening process and get students to reflect on
what they have been just doing in order to teach these strategies.
There are various reasons for our listening. We may listen to get information,
maintain or improve relationship, make judgment and for pleasure or entertainment. For
each of the listening situation we will require different listening skills.
18
informational type questions that can be asked at the end of the lecture,
for example I dont understand Can you please explain? You can
also write down clarifying type questions while listening to the lecture,
for example Is it true that ?
19
ii.
Speakers who have a high ethos may make errors in logic due to
carelessness or inattention to detail. Ethos cannot exist without logos. As a
critical listener, you will expect well supported arguments that consist of
propositions and valid conclusions from speakers. You will also again need to
ask clarifying questions to verify whether statements, data and data sources
heard from speakers are true and accurate.
20
iii.
21
2.8 Five parts of critical listening skills that will help you really hear the
other person.
2.8.1 Focus and Pay Attention
Focus on the speaker and pay attention to him. Match your nonverbal
body language with your words so he knows you are listening. Look at him
while he speaks and don't let distractions get in the way. In a group setting,
don't talk to others if a main speaker has the floor. Don't try to find something
to counter the speaker's thoughts.
2.8.2 Listen Actively
Communicate through your body language that you are focusing on the
speaker. You want to not only understand the meaning of the conversation but
you want to connect emotionally through a smile and interested expressions.
Remain engaged by nodding from time to time, keeping an open stance and
encouraging the speaker with little verbal affirmations.
22
23
i.
ii.
iii.
24
25
Respond appropriately: Show that you understand. Murmur (uh-huh and umhmm) and nod. Raise your eyebrows. Say words such as Really, Interesting, as
well as more direct prompts: What did you do then? and What did she say?
f. Focus solely on what the speaker is saying: Try not to think about what you are going
to say next. The conversation will follow a logical flow after the speaker makes her
point.
g. Minimize internal distractions: If your own thoughts keep horning in, simply let them
go and continuously re-focus your attention on the speaker, much as you would
during meditation.
h. Keep an open mind: Wait until the speaker is finished before deciding that you
disagree. Try not to make assumptions about what the speaker is thinking.
26
i.
Avoid letting the speaker know how you handled a similar situation: Unless they
specifically ask for advice, assume they just need to talk it out.
j.
Even if the speaker is launching a complaint against you, wait until they finish to
defend yourself. The speaker will feel as though their point had been made. They
wont feel the need to repeat it, and youll know the whole argument before you
respond. Research shows that, on average, we can hear four times faster than we can
talk, so we have the ability to sort ideas as they come inand be ready for more.
k.
Engage yourself: Ask questions for clarification, but, once again, wait until the
speaker has finished. That way, you wont interrupt their train of thought. After you
ask questions, paraphrase their point to make sure you didnt misunderstand. Start
with: So youre saying
As you work on developing your listening skills, you may feel a bit panicky when there is
a natural pause in the conversation. What should you say next? Learn to settle into the
silence and use it to better understand all points of view.
Ironically, as your listening skills improve, so will your aptitude for conversation. A
friend once complimented me on my conversational skills. I hadnt said more than four
words, but I had listened to him for 25 minutes.
27
Task 2.1
Call a friend to carry out this activity. You were absent from school as you were not
feeling well. Call your friend to inquire about the days lesson and whether there is any
homework to be completed.
You
Call your friend to find out what happened in class that day and ask about whatever
homework there is that you need to complete.
Your friend
Tell your friend about the lessons for the day and if there is any homework to be
completed.
Task 2.2
References
Anne, A., & Tony, L.(2008). Language teaching: Listening. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Goodith, W. (2003). Resource books for teachers: Listening effectively. Alabama:
Prentice Hall.
John, A. K. (2003). Listening effectively: Achieving high standards inc. Ohio: Prentice
Hall.
28
UNIT 3
Teaching of Listening II
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. identify most of the skills and strategies in order to teach listening skills more
effectively;
2. to create suitable listening tasks for your students using the examples given in this
topic;
3. get students to participate actively in tasks which are related to their daily lives.
Introduction
This topic contains some sub-skills which actually make up the overall skill of listening.
They involve recognizing small bits of language and larger clues, such as knowledge of
the topic a speaker is talking about, the setting he/she is speaking in or the gestures used
in order to make listening more accurate. Although, others may use different terms or
categorize in different ways, this topic contains a wide range of possible skills as seen by
Goodith, W. (2003)
Learning Points
3.1 Listening and Speaking
In listening the settings may range from individual, for example, listening to your
favourite cd, to interpersonal, for example, gossiping on the phone with your best friend,
and to group-based, for example, hearing to announcements over the PA system. Some
29
form of listening may involve a response to others, interactional, while others may not,
non-interactional (Anne. & Tony, 2008).
Task 3.1
1. When you read, do you read aloud to yourself in your head and listen to your mental
voice? Are you reading or actually listening?
30
Task 3.2
How has your listening and speaking skills improved over the years? In your opinion,
what are the reasons for this evolution?
brain
via
the
auditory
nerve.
For
further
information
visit:
http://www.theearfound.com/anatomy.html
Speech perception takes place by identifying phonemes. English phonemes are
classified into consonants and vowels. Consonants are described in terms of:
Voicing;
place of articulation;
manner of articulation.
lip rounding;
tongue height;
tongue position.
In normal speech, phonemes do not occur in isolation but it the sounds that flow
into each other. During speech, the articulators are in constant movement. Assimilation
31
makes a sound become more like an adjacent sound due to articulatory features such as
voicing, place or manner of articulation. For example, the pronunciation of the plural
suffix (-s) usually agrees with the final consonants of words, that is, the voiceless /s/ is
used for words ending with a voiceless consonant (cats [kats]) and the voiced /z/ is used
for words ending with a voiced consonant (dogs [dagz]). Sometimes speakers insert
sounds into words, for example when doing it consciously for the single syllable word
please in order to emphasize it - /pli:z/. And very often native speakers delete sounds
especially unstressed vowels, for example, in the word mathematics is pronounced
/mmtiks/ and family is pronounced /famli:/ (Gerald, K. 2004)
Continuous speech is always perceived within a context and not in isolation. In
order to learn a language we must learn words in that language as without words there
will be no communication. We also need to learn to infer meanings from key words in
order to make meaningful interpretations. Here stress, intonation and non-verbal clues
will help us perceive words more clearly. Content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
carry the most information in a phrase and therefore are important while the less
prominent parts are function words (prepositions, articles, pronouns).
32
Names
Aida
: Paul.
It is clear here that Suzy must know more than one Paul. So the name Paul becomes
ambiguous.
33
Homophones
These are words with the same sounds but different spelling and meaning. For example:
sum
some
bare
bear
meat -
meet
seen
scene
sea
see
Homonyms
These are words with the same sounds and same spelling but different meanings. For
example:
i.
The words ripe and mature can be used to describe fruits and they mean the
same. But, when they used for animals they mean different things.
ii.
Profound and deep can be used to describe thoughts which would mean the
same. But, only deep can be used to describe water while profound cannot.
Source: Kathleen (2005) Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking
34
Task 3.3
In the following advertisements, identify the ambiguous items. How does the context help
you choose the correct meaning?
1. The best solution is no solution. (On an advertisement for disposable contact
lenses).
2. You can bank on our bank. (On an advertisement for a local savings bank).
3. Vacation in England and gain some pounds. (On a travel advertisement)
35
Time : 10 15 minutes
Aims : To encourage the students to ask for clarification and to realize it is not always
their fault when they do not understand; to guess the meaning of words
they
have
missed.
Preparation: Find or write a short text that the students will find interesting, and which
is at their level. It must be fairly chatty. When you read the text you have to obscure
some of the words by coughing or mumbling. Do not have too many of such words. It is
a good idea to underline these words and it should be about one to every 20 words. Try
to find the best words to obscure.
Procedure: Tell the students that they are going to hear a story but you are having a sore
throat. When they are not able to hear any word they have to ask you politely to repeat
the last few words or if they think they can, let them guess the word. Every body in the
class must try to interrupt at least once.
Follow-up: Students can read texts in pairs and one interrupt or guess words.
Follow-up 1: For this story, the students suggest what the howling noise was.
Follow-up 2: In pairs, the students construct similar stories to tell each other. You could
also play short excerpts of news, talks or dialogues and ask students to say what the
topic is and to predict what will be said next. Give the students the opportunity to
become participants rather than overhearers. Allow them to answer back to the speaker
on the tape.
Source: Goodith (2003). Resource Books for Teachers: Listening Effectively
36
37
Published materials in the form of audio or video tape distances the original speakers in
time, space and culturally from the receivers in the classroom. Here the students will have
to react as an overhearer or judge to something that was not addressed to them. These
create a psychological distance between the students and what they hear. So,
a. adapt the recordings to make them more personal;
b. give the students the opportunity to become participants rather than overhearers;
c. allow them to answer back to the speaker on the tape.
iii.
This idea is to provide students with some strategies for coping with real-life listening
(radio and television programmes, lectures and so on.) When listening to these types of
texts the listeners cannot stop speakers and ask them to repeat or clarify something. These
38
types of listening give the students information about current world events and other
cultures.
(Source: Goodith (2003). Resource Books for Teachers: Listening Effectively.)
b. Sequencing:
Learners must listen and identify successive pictures that are described in the correct
sequence. The pictures can be events in a story or places visited by tourists. And the
spoken texts can be narratives or a conversation between tourists.
c. Locating:
Here learners are required to place items in their appropriate location, for example, on a
plan of a place. They can also follow a route on a map. The spoken text can be direct
instruction, description of a scene, a conversation or two people discussing.
39
3.6 Telephoning
Telephoning in English is usually quite difficult because you do this with
strangers. This is because if you are speaking to your family members or friends you will
be using your own language. And through the telephone you will not be able to see the
person you are talking to and will miss all the expressions and gestures which mean you
miss all the clues of listening. Furthermore, some of the 'telephone language' will also be
quite strange if you are not used to them. Telephone habits also differ from culture to
culture. For some people the speaker is important while for others the importance is given
to the listener.
It is important to lead the students slowly through several stages of learning how
to use the telephone before they really make telephone calls in the target language.
40
Stage 1
First, help the students by introducing them to telephone directories. They should be at
ease to look for numbers in the white pages as well as the yellow pages. The students will
understand how these pages are organised and what kind of information can be found in
the directory. The directories will also give the students an opportunity to identify
English speaking individuals and companies.
Stage 2
Teach 'telephone language' and how to be polite on the telephone. For example:
Hello, I wonder if I could speak to .........
Thanks for your help.
Would it be possible to leave a message for him/her?
At this stage the students can also practise role-playing telephone calls to each other in
class.
Stage 3
Get the students to make real telephone calls, but to each other, because they need to
practise speaking and listening to familiar people and people who would listen to them
before they speak and listen to total strangers.
Stage 4
By now the students would be confident enough to speak and listen to strangers. It
would be better if the conversation is first rehearsed in the classroom. A good idea
would be to record answering messages from companies and other lines and playing
them in the classroom
41
Task 3.4
Landlord / Landlady
You have a room for rent. Angela rings you up to enquire about it Give Angela the
information she wants about the room. Give her directions about how to get to you.
Angela
You have seen an advertisement for a room for rent. Ring up the landlord / landlady and
ask for information about the room: price, what the rent includes, house rules and public
transport. Ask if you can come and see the place
: Lower intermediate
Time : 15 20 minutes
Aims : To listen to a familiar voice; to listen for details and make a response.
Materials: The beginning of a story which the students are going to finish. A picture of a
scene, which you can describe and use as the setting for the story.
Procedure:
i. Ask the students their opinions on the topic of the story. The example here is a setting
on a beach, so you can ask:
42
ii. Tell the students that you are going to tell them a story which they are going to finish.
Suggest that closing their eyes may help them to concentrate better
iii. Read the following story slowly to the students.
It is a hot, late afternoon at the seaside, and the sun is beating down. Most people
have gone home, and you have got the beach to yourself. All you can hear is the gentle
sound of the sea lapping over the sand, and some sea-birds calling. Nothing and nobody
for miles and miles except you, the sea, the sun and the sand... Suddenly, you catch sight
of something on the sea, a long way out to sea. You look very hard but you cannot quite
see what it is. You look harder. It comes closer to you, and you can see that it is a
speedboat with two people in it. At that moment the sun suddenly goes behind a cloud,
and you start to feel cold. You feel a strange sense of fear creeping over you...
iv. The students write the end of the story. They could then read it out to another student,
or teacher can call a few students at random to read what they have written, in front of the
class.
(Source: Goodith (2003). Resource Books for Teachers: Listening Effectively.)
References
Gerald, K. (2004). Teach pronunciation. Essex: Longman.
Goodith, W. (2003). Resource books for teachers: Listening effectively. Alabama:
Prentice Hall.
John, A. K. (2003). Listening effectively: Achieving high standards in communication.
Ohio: Prentice Hall.
Kathleen, M.B. 2005. Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking. New York, NY:
McGraw Hill.
http://www.theearfound.com/anatomy.html
43
UNIT 4
SPEAKING SKILLS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, students will be able to;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
Speaking is one of the most important skills in learning a language. When we speak, we
are imparting information from our mind in order to share the information in a form that
the other person can recognize or understand. Speaking is a productive skill which is
similar to writing. When we speak, we never merely pass over the information but we
create a shared meaning with others. Information or idea which is expressed in words and
sentences in oral forms must be made explicitly by providing evidences or enrich it with
our feelings about it. If the person whom we are trying to speak cannot understand what
we mean, then our attempts to communicate have failed. In learning to speak effectively,
it is important for us to adopt a suitable strategy to suit our purpose in objective. In faceto-face communication, listening is important for effective conversation. Conversation
will not take place without speaking and listening.
44
Learning Points
4.1 Definition of speaking skills
The main reason for speaking is to communicate and interact with others. Speaking is
like writing and both are language production skills. In writing, a writer produces
language in the written forms while in speaking language is produced in the oral mode of
communication. In speaking, a person produces language such as words, phrases,
sentences, paragraphs and discourse in the form of sounds. Speaking is very important
especially for effective conversation and interaction. The ability to speak, inform, and
interact with others is important especially for every students in learning, and for teachers
in instructing students to learn, without forcing them to learn. Teaching is no longer a
matter of command and control but requires the ability to speak and empower learners to
learn independently. The success depends, more than ever before, on teachers who are
able to speak effectively and the quality of their teaching depends directly on the quality
of their speaking with their students.
Task 4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
45
Receiver
Receiver
messages
channel
context
context
interferences
Senders and receivers are the individuals who participate in the interaction (see Figure).
As a sender, a participant forms and transmits messages using verbal symbols (words)
and nonverbal behaviors. Receivers on the hand receive and interpret the messages sent
by the sender. These participants can change their roles as both a sender and a receiver, in
speaking a large audience, one participant acts primarily as sender and presents an
extended message to which the other participants listen, interpret, and provide mostly
nonverbal feedback.
Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which
meaning is attributed during communication. In public speaking situations, messages are
typically speeches that are prepared beforehand and presented by one participant.
Meanings are the interpretations participants make of the messages they send and
receive. Messages are meant to convey the thoughts of the speaker but are easy to
misinterpret. So the meaning that the sender intends may not be the meaning that the
receiver understands.
46
Encoding is the process of putting our proposal messages into words and nonverbal
behaviors, while decoding is the process of interpreting the verbal and nonverbal
messages sent by others.
Feedback messages are sent by receivers as a respond to the sender, this is to ensure the
sender know how the receiver made sense of the original encoded message.
Channels are methods of transmitting the messages and the means of transportation. We
send and receive messages primarily through auditory (speaking and hearing) and visual
(seeing) channels.
Interference, also referred to as noise, is anything that interferes with the process of
making sense or meaning of the encoded messages. Noise can be physical or
psychological. Physical noise is any external sight or sound that distracts us from the
message. For example, when someone makes noise or shout while a speaker, a listener
might not hear the message. Psychological noise refers to the thoughts and feelings in our
heads that compete with the senders message for your attention. So when you visualize
about what you have to do at work today and distracted based on your imagination.
Feedback is the responds and responses to messages that indicate to the sender whether
and how a message was heard, seen, and interpreted. We can express feedback verbally
by telling the sender what we understood or thought about a message, or we may simply
indicate our understanding and reaction through nonverbal behavior, like nodding our
heads to indicate agreement, raising eyebrows to register our surprise, or cocking our
head and furrowing our eyebrows to indicate that we do not understand. When audiences
listen to a speech, most of their feedback is usually nonverbal.
Contexts
Communication research reveals that there are specific contexts in which communication
occurs. These differ by the number of participants and the balance of roles among them.
47
Verderber et. al. (2011) suggest four communication contexts such as intrapersonal,
interpersonal, small group and public communication.
Small group communication is communication that occurs between three to ten people.
There are many kinds of small groups such as a family, a group of friends, a group of
classmates working together on a class project, and a management team in the workplace.
Small group communication occurs in a public speech setting when a team is asked to
work together to research, prepare, and deliver a presentation on a particular topic.
Public communication is communication that occurs among more than ten people. In
public communication, a message is delivered to the receivers or the participants in the
form of public communication is mass communication, which is communication
produced and transmitted via media to massive audiences. Newspapers, magazines,
48
twitters, books, blogs, television programs, movies, websites, Facebook pages, tweets on
Twitter, and YouTube are all examples of mass communication. Public speaking is also
considered as a form of public communication but the intended audience is usually
physically present to witness the speech.
The general objective of your speaking skills is to develop your uniqueness and
fosters a sense of positive perception about yourself. Specific goals of speaking skills in a
speech suggested by Verderber et. al. (2011) are to be appropriate, accurate, clear, and
vivid. Being appropriate means using language that adapts to the audiences needs,
interests, knowledge, and attitudes and that avoids alienating or offending listeners.
Appropriate language demonstrates respect for all audience members. To be appropriate,
practice verbal immediacy by using we language and biasfree language, as well as
adapting to cultural diversity and avoiding offensive humor, profanity, vulgarity, and hate
speech.
Being accurate begins with a realization that words are only representations of
ideas, objects, and feelings. Meaning is a product of both denotation (dictionary meaning)
and connotation (positive, neutral, and negative feelings and evaluations that words
evoke). To ensure that your ideas are interpreted accurately, consider denotation,
connotation, and dialect.
Clear language is specific and precise. Specific language clarifies meaning.
Precise words are those that narrow down a broad idea. The larger your vocabularies, the
more choices you have to select a word you want. Ways to increase your vocabulary are
to study vocabulary-building books, to look up meanings of words you dont understand,
and to use a thesaurus to identify synonyms. Clarity can also be achieved by providing
details and examples. Vividness means full of life, vigorous, bright, and intense. Increase
the vividness of your language by using sensory language as well as rhetorical figures
and structures of speech.
49
50
by anticipating what we do in the same situation. This can be done by thinking imagining
what people are likely to say in response. For example, how you introduce yourself or
tell other people in the group about yourself if you are joining a class. Thus, you need to
rehearse or practise introducing yourself and asking questions about others.
Speaking English fluently is a goal for many learners of English. Fluency means
being able to communicate your ideas without having to stop and think too much about
what you are saying. However, many learners also have the goal of spoken accuracy.
Speaking accurately means that you speak without errors of grammar and vocabulary. If,
you have a very strong focus on accuracy on getting the grammar and vocabulary
correct you may find that you worry about making mistakes. This can make you shy
about speaking in English and, as a result, your spoken fluency might not improve. This
means that, although you know English well, you might not be able to have a
conversation. On the other hand, you may be someone who really likes to talk, and you
are willing to try out language even though you make mistakes. This can help make you
sound very fluent. However, if you make too many mistakes which you do not stop to
correct, you can find that it is difficult to make others understand your ideas.
Speaking a language well requires both fluency and accuracy. So how can you
make sure that you develop both? Identify your learning style and what kind of learner
are you? Think about situations in which you have used English and how you felt about
making mistakes. Is being correct when you speak the most important thing for you? Or
do you always take risks, trying out new language even though it might not be correct?
The first step towards improving your spoken English is recognising what is easy for you
and then working on what is difficult. Focus on one area at a time When you speak
English, do you notice any mistakes which you make quite often? Maybe you make
mistakes with tenses, or with question forms? Or do you sound slow as if you are
always searching for words and correct grammar? Next time you speak with your friends,
try to work on the problem you have noticed. If its fluency, try to focus on making sure
your friend understands what youve said, not on avoiding mistakes. If you have a
problem with tenses, try to correct yourself only when you make a tense error dont
think about other mistakes. By choosing an area to work on, you can help yourself
overcome problems.
51
52
listener that they link together? Think of phrases such as first of all, another thing
is . And how are you going to finish? Perhaps you could say in conclusion or to
finish off. Use your plan as a map through your talk, showing how things link
together.
53
more if he wants to. The listener can ask questions to summarize what the speaker has
said this shows he has been listening and, because they are in the form of a question,
they are used as an invitation for the speaker to say some more about the subject. By
being an active listener, the listener helps the speaker to make his points clearly and
makes sure that the conversation is successful.
54
imitate, this provides a good model of pronunciation which you can learn. In learning
by imitating a good model, you need to listen carefully to how he or she speaks and make
effort to follow them closely.
When we speak, we are imparting information from our mind. We create
information inside our heads and we speak in order to share the information in a form that
the other person can recognize or understand. We can write or draw pictures or diagrams
or use certain kind of presentation such as PowerPoint to make our speaking clearer.
When we speak, we never merely pass over the information but we create a shared
meaning with others. If the person whom we are trying to speak cannot understand what
we mean, then our attempts to communicate have failed. An idea is a thought expressed
in words and sentences in oral forms. Thus, the most effective speaking is to make ideas
explicit by providing evidences or enrich it with our feelings about it. Whatever strategy
we adopt, our purpose in speaking is to create and share ideas. Speaking is important for
effective conversation which also requires effective listening. Conversation will not take
place without speaking and listening. And the quality of the conversation depends on the
quality of speaking such as pronouncing the words clearly.
55
Task 4.2
Many of our conversations are unorganized or impromptu. We state our view and jump
from point to point. Sometimes we tend to get out of point or making up point or telling
our own story with no reference to what the other person is saying. It is important to have
a clear point or idea in having a conversation. The point of our conversations must have
specific organization derives from our objectives. A clear objective allows us to make
sense of the idea that we are going to speak and the result is translated in spoken
language. The point of our conversation includes describing of an object or an event;
discussing complicated physical process into an equation by simply organizes the idea by
verbally elaborating a landscape of our idea.
The ideas should have two important qualities namely message and reasoning.
Message and reasoning must be present if we want to make our ideas clear. The process
of working out the idea should consist of five key elements Louma (2004):
i. identifying the main idea;
ii. arranging our ideas logically;
iii. developing an appropriate style in the language used;
iv. remembering our ideas;
v. delivering our ideas with words, visual cues and non-verbal behavior.
Task 4.3
1. In impromptu conversation, ideas are not organized, how do we manage to get the
meaning across?
2. Why is reasoning important in speaking?
3. How do you support you idea?
56
57
your words. Body language includes eyes and voice is important in delivering your
information more effectively. Speaking involves face-to-face conversations which require
the speakers to alternately listening and speaking, and both of them have a chance to ask
for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from their conversation partner. Some
speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live
audience, where usually the audience does not interrupt the speaker. The speaker can
make judgment based on the expressions on their faces and body language to gauge
whether the audience is following his/her speech. In non-interactive situation, the
speakers do not have audience but rather record his/her speech. It can also happen when
one is talking to his/herself.
Speaking involves skills such as the ability to pronounce the words of a language
clearly enough so that people can understand by using appropriate intonation and stress
of the language clearly enough so that people can understand what is said, use the correct
forms of words. Our success as a teacher depends on your ability to hold effective and
productive conversations. Barker (2011) suggests seven proven strategies to help you
improve your conversations.
i. Clarify your objective.
ii. Structure your thinking.
iii. Manage your time.
iv. Find common ground.
v. Move beyond argument.
vi. Summarize often.
vii. Use visuals.
the idea and this is fine so long as both the speakers know what the other one is doing.
The objective should be specific enough for both the speakers to understand and it can
always be changed when both the speakers give consent.
Barker (2011) suggests two categories of objective:
i. exploring a problem;
ii. finding a solution.
When you are thinking about the specific sentence for your objective, ask what the
problem is or what is the solution? You may assume that any conversation about a
problem is aiming to find a solution particularly if the other person has started the
conversation. As a result, you may find yourself working towards a solution without
accurately defining or understanding the problem. It may be that the other person doesnt
want you to offer a solution, but rather to talk through the problem with them.
The function of a conversation is important for the speakers to clearly understand.
Then both can proceed to achieve the objective.
59
together. Linking helps you to steer the conversation comfortably. Skilled conversation
holders can steer the conversation by linking the following:
Barker (2011) suggests a four stage model of conversation which breaks down speaking
strategy into four steps:
i.
60
Barker (2011) suggests a simple four-stage model which can become more sophisticated.
In this developed model, you hold four conversations, for:
i. relationship;
ii. possibility;
iii. opportunity;
iv. action.
Barker (2011) suggests these four conversations may form part of a single, larger
conversation; they may also take place separately, at different stages of a process or
project.
In making a relationship, you need to bring a conversation to suit the objective of
the relationship. It is an important to survey the topic conversations for a serious
relationship such as in business ventures and should move beyond the introductory topics
such as What do you do? Where do you live? questions. In a serious business
relationship, a conversation should focus on the possibility to continue the exploration: it
develops first-stage thinking. It asks what you might be looking at. A conversation for
possibility is not about whether to do something, or what to do. It seeks to find new ways
of looking at the problem. There are a number of ways of doing this.
61
i.
ii.
62
Recall your original objective. Has it changed? Conversations for opportunity can
become more exciting by placing yourselves in a future where you have achieved your
objective. What does such a future look and feel like? What is happening in this future?
How can you plan your way towards it? Most people plan by starting from where they are
and extrapolate current actions towards a desired objective. By backward planning from
an imagined future, you can find new opportunities for action.
63
64
i.
we become solution-oriented;
ii.
iii.
we succumb to groupthink
iv.
v.
assumptions go unchallenged;
vi.
vii.
Managing time in the conversation makes you aware of the speed the
conversation is proceeding, and how fast you think it should be going. Here are some
65
simple tactics to help you regain control of time in your conversations. Barker (2011)
suggests 7 reasons why a conversation may go too slowly:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
66
You do not proceed until the other person has given their permission. Such permission
may be explicit: Please say what you like; I would really welcome your honest
opinion; I dont mind you talking about that. Other signs of permission might be
i. stories (about what happened, what may have happened, why it happened);
ii. explanations (of why something went wrong, why it failed);
67
i. allow you to state your objective, return to it and check that you have achieved it;
ii. help you to structure your thinking;
iii. help you to manage time more effectively;
iv. help you to seek the common ground between you;
v. help you to move beyond adversarial thinking.
Simple summaries are useful at making or points clear in a conversation. At the start,
summarise your most important point or your objective. As you want to move on from
one stage to the next, summarise where you think you have both got to and check that the
other person agrees with you. At the end of the conversation, summarise what you have
achieved and the action steps you both need to take.
68
Summarizing means to reinterpret the other persons ideas in your own language. It
involves recognizing the specific point theyve made, appreciating the position from
which they say it and understanding the beliefs that inform that position. Recognizing
what someone says doesnt imply that you agree with it. Rather, it implies that you have
taken the point into account. Appreciating the other persons feelings on the matter
doesnt mean that you feel the same way, but it does show that you respect those feelings.
And understanding the belief may not mean that you share it, but it does mean that you
consider it important. Shared problem solving becomes much easier if those three basic
summarizing tactics come into play.
Of course, summaries must be genuine. They must be supported by all the nonverbal cues that demonstrate your recognition, appreciation and understanding. And those
cues will look more genuine if you actually recognize, appreciate and at least seek to
understand.
69
As you speak, try to make eye contact with the people in the room.
70
Use your hands to gesture as you would in a conversation; your hands should be
neither clamped rigidly at your sides nor doing something distracting such as
playing with your jewelry.
If you are behind a lectern, avoid slouching, leaning on it, or gripping it tightly
throughout the presentation.
If you are using visuals, be careful not to block the audiences view of them. After
introducing a new visual, resume making eye contact with audience members;
talk to the audience, not the visual.
Try to avoid distracting vocal mannerisms, such as repeatedly saying uh, like,
or you know.
Speak loudly enough so that all members of the audience can hear you, and speak
clearly and distinctly. Nervousness may cause you to speak too rapidly, so watch
your pace.
Do not speak in a monotone. Instead, let the pitch of your voice rise and fall
naturally, especially when giving a scripted presentation.
Dress appropriately for your audience and the formality of the situation in which
you are speaking. The focus should be on your message, not on how you are
dressed.
Scripted presentation. Reading from a script is one way to ensure that you say
exactly what you want to say and that you take no more than the time you have
been allotted. Because you read to your audience, a scripted presentation can be
stiff and boring unless it is carefully planned and rehearsed. Scripted presentations
also need to be written so that the audience can easily follow the presentation by
just hearing it. Sentences often need to be shorter than in a document that is read.
You will also need to provide more transitions and cues than in documents that
are read. A simple guideline to remember is that if your writing is difficult for you
to read aloud, it will be difficult to listen to as well.
The most difficult task in teaching speaking faced by teachers is to balance between the
topic, accuracy and fluency. The students need to know the topic; this means teachers
need to focus on the knowledge of the word such as vocabulary and other related
concepts. Fluent speech with errors can distort meaning. Accuracy without the rule of
appropriateness can be a sign of inadequate teaching.
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Task 4.4
References
Axelrod, R. B., & Cooper, C. R. (2010). The St. Martins guide to writing. Boston:
Bedford / St. Martins
Barker, A. (2011). Improve your communication skills(2nd ed). United Kingdom: Kogan
Page.
Louma, S. (2004). Assessing speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Verderber, R., Verderber, K., & Sellnow, D. (2011). The challenge of effective speaking.
USA:Wadsworth Publishing.
73
UNIT 5
TEACHING OF SPEAKING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students will be able to
1. describe the content of The English language syllabus in primary schools
pertaining to speaking skills
2. define the content for accuracy and fluency
3. explain the stages of conducting a speaking activity
4. promote thinking in speaking activities
5. present a lesson on delivering the main idea
6. apply games in the teaching of speaking
Introduction
The reason of speaking is primarily to communicate, and just as when speaking our
mother tongue, gaining confidence is usually an uphill battle for most students. Many
students require proper guidance from teachers even in their first language. For this
reason, language knowledge and specific speaking skills should be incorporate together
in order to achieve a successful outcome even though their skills and language fluency is
less than perfect. Learning speaking in L2 is a challenge because the pupils not only must
be able to use the language but also to apply it in natural setting effectively. Teachers
need to find a suitable balance between focusing on knowledge of language or accuracy
and also skill building or fluency.
It is a challenge for all teachers in providing lessons which incorporate the
relevant amount of fluency and accuracy. Fluent speech with errors can often be better to
motivate pupils to speak but too many errors can also be frustrating for both teachers and
74
pupils. Thus, it is important for teachers to choose when to focus on accuracy and when is
the most appropriate time to focus on fluency. Teachers however, can include both
accuracy and fluency in a lesson by firstly, guide students on accuracy specifically on
mastering a language model and secondly apply the language in a more free activity for
the students to apply the language and skills.
In general, the approach of teaching must be pupil centered. This can be achieved
by introducing essential language content in stages for the pupils to learn. Teacher can
focus on discreet language item for the pupils to apply in specific setting. Thus, the
amount of language content should be limited or enough for them to learn in a lesson.
Once this is done, teachers can monitor the progress of their pupils and giving help where
necessary.
It is important for teachers to allow the pupils to speak without interfering too
much. Stopping an activity should be avoided unless it has become haywire and difficult
for teachers to control the class and learning is not taking place. Teachers however can
monitor by reminding the pupils while the activity is in progress. Teachers should note or
collect sample vocabulary and sentences for class correction after the activities or for
teacher to address in the next lesson.
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LEARNING POINTS
5.1 The English language syllabus in primary schools
The English language syllabus for primary school aims to equip pupils with skills and
provide a basic understanding of the English language so that they are able to
communicate, both orally and in writing, in and out of school. The speaking syllabus for
the primary school expects learners to be able to speak and respond clearly and
appropriately in common everyday situations using simple language;
this respect, pair and group work activities allow for all pupils to engage in speaking
activities at the same time. Pupils should also be encouraged to talk in English to other
pupils and teachers in the school.
This module will help you with some ideas on teaching speaking skills in different areas,
including:
Starting, continuing, directing, adding to and ending informal conversations
Dealing with interruptions in a conversation
Asking for clarification; apologizing
Making and responding to requests, suggestions, complaints
Sharing opinions
Giving and accepting advice, compliments and negative news
The Malaysian Primary School syllabus has specifically defined the speaking skill
outcomes expected of Year 5 pupils. Learning outcomes or behavior objectives which
are expected for the students to master begin 2.1 correct pronunciation with intonation
and stress (2.2) asking questions using Wh-q and responses (2.3) giving information
(2.4) tell
stories (2.5) talk about people (2.6) express thought and (2.7) language
77
SPECIFICATIONS
Level 1
2.1.1 Pronounce words that
have the following sounds:
a) vowel u and x in initial
position
b) diphthongs
c) double consonants
EXAMPLES/ACTIVITIES/
NOTES
d) initial blends
e) final blends
2.3
Give
relevant Level 1
information
politely
in
response to enquiries made.
2.3.1 Respond to simple
questions.
2.3.2 Give replies pertaining
to numbers.
Level 2
2.3.3 Talk about things heard,
seen or read.
2.3.4 Give replies pertaining
to numbers 41-50; and
78
Numbers in tens: 10
50.
Level 3
Teach ordinal numbers in the
2.3.5 Give replies pertaining context of dates
th
to ordinal numbers 6 th
10 .
2.4 Tell stories based on Levels 1 & 2
pictures and other stimuli, 2.4.1 Recite simple poems, e.g. She sell seashells on the
and recite poems.
tongue-twisters,
.
nonsense rhymes, and
Betty Botter bought a pat of ..
sing
songs
by
pronouncing
words
correctly.
Get pupils to complete the story.
Level 3
Use pictures to help children
2.4.2 Complete parts of a story recall.
heard before
e.g. And the sun said to the
trees,
I will give you a lot of
sunshine.
And the rain said,
2.5 Talk about the people, Level 1
places and moral values of 2.5.1 Give details about the
the stories heard, read and
people and animals of a
viewed in simple language.
story heard or read.
Level 2
2.5.2 Talk about the actions of
the people and animals
in a story heard or read.
Level 1
2.6 Express thoughts and 2.6.1 Say whether one likes or
feelings and give
does not like the story
opinions on things
heard or read.
79
Level 2
prince
In language teaching, a teacher should include two main language components namely
competence and performance. Competence is about knowledge of language which
includes the knowledge of vocabulary and sentences in addition it also includes
knowledge of language skills specifically knowledge on how perform the skills
effectively. Performance is the ability to use the language effectively in language skills
which include accuracy and fluency.
The Malaysian Year 5 syllabus specifies the learning outcomes in terms of the
speaking skill behavior expected at the end of the course. It specifies the knowledge but it
does not make any suggestions on how to perform the skills, thus is very important for
teachers to include both knowledge of language and skills in their lessons. For example,
Specification 2.5 Talk about the people; suggestions on the language is given but how to
go about talking about the people is not. So it is important for teachers to provide suitable
description of the skills for the pupils to learn.
80
Task 5.1
1) Briefly explain the speaking skills specificied in the Malaysian school syllabus?
2) Choose one speaking skill specificied in the Malaysian school syllabus and explain the
language required for the skill.
Speaking in L2 is difficult for students in EFL setting, however teachers must not show
disappointment and do not try to be light-hearted if they seem seriously inadequate.
Pupils should be encouraged to speak in full sentences and not to answer in one-word
sentences. Pupils must also be encouraged and helped in giving more information or say
something interesting about the topics being taught for example, where they come from,
interest, etc. Teachers must also encourage pupils to ask questions too and do not just talk
about themselves.
In providing, suitable input for learning speaking, teachers can plan their speaking
lessons in two stages. In the first stage, teachers should provide language knowledge to
pupils. This can be done by doing the following:
81
Set of expressions include words, phrases, clauses and sentences for the pupils to use in
selected activities where certain context is given for the pupils to use. Topics are chosen
based on the type of vocabulary the teacher want to focus and also the expressions that
can be practiced by the pupils. In addition topics provide the context for learning the
language which might be difficult for the pupils to learn meaningfully.
Secondly, teachers can provide more time for pupils to involve and continue speaking
for a longer time. Teachers need to produce and encourage general cognitive and
educational development. This is one reason why choice of topics is important, familiar
ones, but should be built on or extended and also to learn something new. For example,
when talking about animals, tell pupils one or two points that they may not know. When
talking about families, tell pupils about family young pupils are naturally curious about
their teachers. The teacher may have to use one or two words of mother tongue to bridge
their understanding, but teacher can then repeat it all again in English.
Task 5.2
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5.4
Cognitive development is important for teacher to include in their speaking lesson. This
help to inculcating positive thinking skills among the pupils from the primary schools.
There are many way teachers can promote pupils cognitive development, Slattery and
Willis (2009), suggest seven types of activities:
1.
Listing
2.
3.
Matching
4.
Comparing
5.
6.
7.
Creative work
Listing helps pupils to think about things in a similar category such listing things that can
be brought for camping. Listing is probably the simplest skill and is usually the first
method writers use to generate ideas. Listing means exactly what the name implies-listing your ideas and experiences. First set a time limit for this activity; 5-10 minutes is
more than enough. Then write down as many ideas as you can without stopping to
analyze any of them. An ordering is basically a set of rules that determine what items
come before, or after, what other items. Sorting is the process of actually arranging a
sequence of items in accordance with a given ordering. It's typically only done with
ordered collections...as it doesn't make much sense to put one item before another in a
container that has no concept of "before" or it won't let you rearrange items in the first
place. Ordering and sorting also help students to analyze things or action in certain order
of importance or on certain criteria. Matching provides pupil knowledge and skills in
grouping things which exactly like another; a counterpart. Comparing teaches pupils with
skills in considering or describing things which have similar or equal properties or
characteristics and als to examine in order to note the similarities or differences.
Predicting is to say or estimate that (a specified thing) will happen in the future or will be
83
a consequence of something and in problem solving pupils are given a problem and they
need to solve it.
These activities:
- will help develop pupils thinking skills
- help the pupils to work from the most basic use of language and more complex
uses
- can encourage sharing and co-operation
- could form a graded sequence of speaking activities and working in groups.
The following are example activities that small groups of pupils can do in order to
develop cognitive thinking and fluency in speaking:
think of the names of things they can see or remember in a picture
classify items according to category (e.g. big animals, small animals) or put
actions in a sequence
find pairs of similar things, or match pictures to words or numbers
Find what is similar and what is different in two pictures or stories and say what
will happen in a story or decide what to do if you lose your purse or find
something valuable that is not yours speak about themselves and say what they
like and dislike do projects on chosen topics, or retell stories and make up
endings.
Teachers can combine different types of speaking activities which require the use of
usual language or phrases, for example Slattery and Willis, (2009) suggest for the class to
compare the story proposed by each group or individual. The pupils can compare how
start and end a story and teachers have to show the pupils the language requires to
perform the activity because as language learners, the pupils need
- to hear clear pronunciation and intonation
- to feel successful when using English
- plenty of opportunities to communicate
- to enjoy their efforts at speaking in English
- to know they have achieved something worthwhile.
84
In addition teacher can promote activities which engage pupils with the use of language
and ensure them to speak a lot of English and repeat pupils words or phrases when
answering their questions. Teachers should,
- react to the meaning of what they are trying to say
- encourage them by showing that what they are saying is more important than your
correction
- wait until they finish speaking before you repeat and rephrase
- show your approval for all your pupils' speaking - however short it maybe
- provide activities that are fun and that have a purpose or a goal, and that have an
end-product that they can feel proud of.
Set up activities so that pupils can do them in pairs and groups. Then they will get
opportunities to use English not just to respond to questions, but also to ask questions.
They will also have the satisfaction of completing a task on their own. You can help
pupils by;
- showing them what to do first
- practising an activity first with the whole class
- arranging pupils into groups so that you can easily get around to listen and talk to
them all.
The teacher needs to guide and support the pupils as they speak by introducing teacherled activities. When pupils feel confident and happy using English, teacher can move to
group activities so that they can speak more. As pupils learn to speak they will naturally
do more individual and group work.
Task 5.3
85
The context in this interaction must be very clear and simple so that pupils can relate
appropriate responses as well as making easy for them to speak. The context is real and
the pupils are thinking of the meaning, repeating words to practise pronunciation. The
communication is;
- controlled because of the limitations of the language used, more than a language
exercise. With fluent pupils teachers can apply teacher-led question and organize activity
to do a survey of some kind, for example,
- find the average number of brothers and sisters in the class,
- find out whether there are more boys than girls in all their family.
86
Task 5.4
Explain the reasons why the choice of topics are very important in encouraging students
to speak.
87
Teacher can use pictures as stimulus in initiating pupils to speak. The pictures do not
have to be in English, but it should have familiar pictures. Teachers can ask pupils in
English about the characters, and suggest possible answers they might make. In order to
provide meaningful speaking lessons, teacher should also plan some possible follow-ups,
too, e.g.
- Who is this person? Who knows?
- Grandmother
- Yes, it's Red Riding Hood's grandmother isn't it ... she's smiling and has lots of
grey hair.
In teaching speaking, teacher can help learners to present their ideas by asking three
fundamental questions Louma (2004):
i.
ii.
Who is my audience?
iii.
Teachers can use this procedure by asking students to talk on certain topics which they
are familiar with.
Task 5.5
Give your rule of thumb in making an effective presentation of main idea.
89
Extension ideas
After playing this game you could play a memory game. The pupils could:
- try to remember who said which things for each room
-look at the pictures again in pairs, then turn them over and name as many things as
they can
- without seeing the pictures again:
- list five things in each room
- say what colours those things in that room were
- say where they were.
90
The activities require the support of teachers while the pupils speak with lots of
rephrasing and additional language. In any activity, teachers may find that some pupils:
- speak more and others speak less
- are embarrassed speaking in front of the whole class
- feel more confident speaking in pairs or small groups.
91
Personal Information
1. Tell students to imagine they are at a party and to imagine that they meet some
one new. Ask any information they want to know about the person. Write their
ideas on the board.
2. Use their ideas to check/revise making questions. Help them to make some
questions about some of the information they wanted to know.
3. Tell students to go round the classroom and find out about the other people. Put
them in pairs and give them a handout. Tell them to look at the words and ask
their friend about any words they do not know.
4. Ask if there any words they still do not know and ask other students to explain
them before giving the meaning yourself.
5. Explain that they should work with their partner and help each other to write two
questions for each of the five subjects. They can use the words with each subject
for help or other words if they choose. They can use the words with each subject
for help, or other words they want. Explain that they can avoid any information if
they wish. Do n example or two together on the board for example
How are you?
How many brothers and sisters have you got?
6. Teacher facilitates by checking whether students are able to form correct
questions.
92
7. Ask students to talk with their partner and compare their own answer to the
questions.
8. Ask students to go around asking other students to tell them about themselves.
9. Check their results. How many similar and different answers? Are there any
surprising answers.
10. Ask students to write 10 questions and answers on a piece of paper without
writing their names on the on the papers.
11. Exchange the papers without names. In pairs students try to identify the people
from the questions and answers.
Family
1.
2.
Friends
1.
2.
Interest
1.
2.
Study
1.
2.
93
Keywords
BIRTH = city, country, birthday, nationality, old
FRIENDS oldest, best, name, girlfriend, boyfriend
INTERESTS hobby, film, book, sport, favourite
STUDY school, subject, principal, teacher, enjoy
FAMILY = brother, sister, mother, father, name
1. Tell students that they are going to talk to each other about their lives and
experiences. Put them in pairs and give out the handouts, making sure that both
partners have the same sheets: Student A with Student A, and Student B with
Student B.
2. Ask students to interview each other using the questions. Explain that they should
write a short composition about each others answers. The students should help
each other with vocabulary. Reassure students that they do not have to answer any
questions they do not want to by using phrases like I would rather not say.
3. When they have finished, ask them to exchange sheets.
4. Ask the students to change partners, Student A with Student B, and now they have
to inform their new partners about their former partner.
5. Ask what was the most interesting information they heard from their partner.
Encourage comments and questions from the class.
94
This activity allows students to listen carefully to all the questions that have been asked
by their friend and choose a suitable question to guess. It also helps students with
thinking skill such as analyzing and categorizing.
1. Call a student to the fornt of the class and ask him to write one thing that he/she
would like to have in his/her pocket.
2. Ask students to guess what is the pocket by asking questions using Tag and
Yes/No questions. Wh-q questions are not allowed
Do you use it to write?
No, it isnt.
Is it a pen?
Is it a marker?
Yes it is.
You can also ask students to guess other things such as Guess what is in my faourite
food?, football player and so forth to practice asking and answering questions.
Task 5.6
Choose one section from this unit, and decide which activity to try out in class. Write
down
- the instructions you will give in English
- the phrases you want your children to say when they are doing the activity.
Teach the activity, using as much English as possible. If possible, record the lesson.
- After the lesson, write down how it went in your notebook.
- Listen to the recording if you made one.
- Write down what you might change if you do it again.
95
Task 5.7
Based on the Syllabus Specification of Year 5, plan a lesson which exploit games as a
technique.
References
Axelrod, R. B., & Cooper, C. R. (2010). The St. Martins guide to writing. Boston:
Bedford / St. Martins
Barker, A. (2011). Improve your communication skills (2nd ed.). United Kingdom: Kogan
Page.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2003). English learning. A guide to improving your
spoken English.
Gammidge, M. (2004). Speaking Extra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran for Year 5 (2003)
Louma, S. (2004). Assessing speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Slattery, M., & Willis, J. (2009) English for primary teachers. Oxford: Oxford University
Press
Verderber, R., Verderber, K., & Sellnow, D. (2011) The challenge of effective speaking.
USA: Wadsworth Publishing.
96
UNIT 6
Teaching of Reading I
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. state the importance of reading;
2. compare and contrast the models of reading process;
3. identify the components of second language reading;
4. explain the role of schema theory in reading instruction.
Introduction
Learning to read is essential in any educational setting. The ability to read is basic in any
forms of communications and is a means to learning. In other words, reading is the key to
gaining knowledge and opens doors to a world of opportunities. Few people would
question the importance of reading in our globalised world connected through ever
advancing technologies.
Teachers inevitably play an important role in helping students develop this
essential skill of reading. To do so, teachers need to be clear about what reading involves
and how to guide their students on the path to being proficient and effective readers. Such
students will also see the importance of acquiring reading ability for performing
everyday tasks effectively and the value of reading as a source of information,
enjoyment, and recreation (Roe, Smith & Burns, 2005, p. 1).
In this unit, a brief theoretical foundation is laid on what reading is and what are
the processes involved when one reads. It is hoped that such basic theoretical
understanding will provide teachers the professional knowledge that will lead to effective
reading instruction.
97
LEARNING POINTS
6. 1. What is reading?
Understanding what reading is and knowing what readers do when they read is important
in helping teachers to be effective in their reading instruction. However, despite the fact
that many people are able to read in this modern era it is not an easy task defining
reading. Moreover, one would agree that even though proficient reading is usually a
silent activity it is certainly not a passive activity but one that involves active interaction
between the reader and the text, and hence with the author of the text too. Different
researchers will provide different explanations and given below are just four definitions.
Reading is a process in which information from the text and the knowledge
possessed by the reader act together to produce meaning (Anderson, Hiebert,
Scott, Wilkinson, 1985, p. 8)
Reading is a complex, dynamic process that involves the bringing of meaning to,
and the getting of meaning from the printed page (Rubin, 1993, p. 5)
reading as the active process of constructing meaning from written text in
relation to the experiences and knowledge of the reader (Heilman, Blair, &
Ripley, 1998, p. 4).
Reading is about understanding written texts a complex activity that involves
both perception and thought (Pang, Muaka, Bernhardt, & Kamil, 2003, p. 6)
The definitions above have some similar basic elements. One element is that reading involves,
obviously, both the reader and the text. Of course, it can also be inferred that it will also include
the author of the text and by extension, an interaction between the reader and the author
mediated by the text. Another important element is that understanding or getting of meaning and
constructing meaning would necessarily involve a certain reading process. Pang et al. (2003, p.
6) noted that reading consists of two related processes: word recognition and comprehension.
This reading process has been well researched, documented and debated. The next section will
look briefly at the reading process.
98
Task 6.1
Search for at least five other definitions of reading (cite the author and the
source) and do the following:
a) identify similarities and differences in the definitions
b) write your own definition of reading
99
textual units. In what Hudson (1998, p.46) called the most prototypic model of the
uncompromising bottom-up approach is Goughs (1972) model.
Goughs model posits that the reading process is linear, with letters being
recognised first by a visual system. These letters are then transferred to a sound or
phonemic system for recognition. Words that are recognised are processed in the working
memory for underlying meaning and finally understood as sentences and ultimately texts
(Purcell-Gates, 1997). Hence, the text input is transformed from lower-level sensory
information into ever higherlevel encoding sequentially with the information flow being
totally bottom-up (Rumelhart, 1994). This view can be illustrated in Figure 6.1 below.
Comprehension of Text
Reading Full Text
Reading Paragraphs
Reading Sentences
Reading Words
Reading Letters
Figure 6.1 Bottom-up Models (Source: Barchers, 1998)
In such a view, letter and word recognition hold the key to successful (or
unsuccessful) comprehension of a text. Thus, a lot of emphasis is placed on the readers
ability to recognise words rapidly or other issues pertaining to the rapid processing of text
and word identification (Hudson, 1998). As such, it can be seen that bottom-up
approaches hold essentially linguistic views of comprehension where meaning is
conceived to be in the text and not in the reader who is seen to play a passive role in the
process.
100
101
102
Task 6.2
Consider the three models of reading process and discuss the following:
a) which model is best suited for your students?
b) what are the factors that will influence your choice of model to use in the
class?
103
Conceptual abilities
Background knowledge
Process strategies
Figure 3. 4: Coadys (1979) Model of the ESL Reader (cited in Carrell, 1984, p. 322)
104
6. 4 Schema theory
Rumelhart (1980, p. 35) explained that schema theory is basically a theory about
knowledge and pertains to how knowledge is represented and about how that
representation facilitates the use of the knowledge in particular ways. Schema theory, as
applied to reading comprehension, holds that a text does not have any meaning in and of
itself. Instead, a text gives direction to readers concerning how they should retrieve and
construct
meaning
from
their
own
previously
acquired
knowledge.
Hence,
comprehending a text is an interactive process between the text and the reader, namely
his previously acquired knowledge structures (schema). This process of relating incoming
information (text) with the existing schema in a reader involves two basic modes of
information processing, called bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Bottomup processing which is also called data-driven processing is evoked by the incoming
data; the features of the data enter the system through the best fitting, bottom-level
schemata (and) as these bottom-level schemata converge into higher level, more general
schemata, these too become activated (Carrell, 1984, p. 333). Top-down processing
which is also called conceptually-driven processing occurs as the system makes general
predictions based on higher level, general schemata and then searches the input for
information to fit into these partially satisfied, higher order schemata (ibid, pg. 333).
105
Based on the role of schemata in reading comprehension, Carrell (1984) and Carrell and
Eisterhold (1987) presented suggestions of implications and applications to the ESL
reading classroom. These suggestions come under various headings like pre-reading
activities, vocabulary instruction, comprehension instruction, material selection and
understanding miscomprehension. On the whole, it can be said that the major pedagogical
implication that can be drawn from schema theory is that students (both L1 and L2) need
to have sufficient prior knowledge of a topic in helping them understand what they read.
Although in schema theory the interactive nature of the reading process is
considered, the emphasis in the theory is on the top-down processing in reading. This
emphasis, together with other top-down models of reading in second language contexts,
has led to strong reactions by researchers who hold the view that bottom-up approaches
are equally important. They have called researchers and teachers to reconsider the
importance of lower-level processes (e.g. word and syntactic processing) essential for a
bottom-up approach in the ESL reading classroom. ESL readers, particularly the
beginners and the less proficient ones, are often stuck on words simply because they do
not yet know many words and are not efficient in bottom-up processing (Grabe, 1991).
This situation suggests a language problem rather than a reading problem. Alderson
(1984), in addressing the question of whether L2 reading is a language problem or a
reading problem, did a critical review of the literature and came to a tentative conclusion
that it appears to be both a language problem and a reading problem, but with firmer
evidence that it is a language problem, for low levels of L2 competence than a reading
problem (p. 24). One of the reactions to this perceived over-emphasis on top-down
processing can be seen in Eskeys (1988) work. As in any interactive model, Eskey
presents an interaction of bottom-up and top-down processing. Nevertheless, he stresses
the need for holding in the bottom. Besides that, Eskey cautions teachers not to lose
sight of the fact that language is a major problem in second language reading, and that
even educated guessing at meaning is no substitute for accurate decoding (Eskey, 1988,
p. 97).
106
Task 6.3
a) Look for and download an article on Schema Theory and how it applies to
reading instruction.
b) Identify the main points whereby Schema Theory is considered in reading
instruction.
c) Discuss the application of Schema Theory in reading lessons.
Task 6.4
This unit discuss some basic theoretical notions on reading. It is intended as a theoretical
foundation for the next unit where pedagogical considerations and practice are the focus.
107
References
Alderson, .C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language
problem? In C. Alderson & A. Urquhart (Eds.). Reading in a foreign language
(pp. 1-24). London: Longman.
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a
nation of readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washinton, D.C:
National Institute of Education.
Barchers, S. I. (1998). Teaching reading: from process to practice. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Barnett, M. (1989). More than meets the eyes: Foreign language learner reading.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice Hall
Block, E. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers.
TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 319-343
Bransford, J., Stein, B., & Shelton, T. (1984). Learning from the perspective of the
comprehender. In C. Alderson & A. Urquhart (Eds.). Reading in a foreign
language (pp. 28-44). New York, NY: Longman.
Carrell, P. L. (1984). Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications and
applications. Modern Language Journal, 68(4), 332-343. DOI: 10.1111/j.15404781.1984.tb02509.x
Carrell, P. L., &. Eisterhold, J. C. (1987). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. In
M. Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.) Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings
(pp.218-232). Boston. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Clarke, M. A. & Silberstein, S. (1987). Toward a realization of psycholinguistic
principles in the ESL reading classroom. In M. Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.)
Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings (pp.233-247). Boston, MA: Heinle
& Heinle Publishers.
Coady, J. (1979). A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader. In R. Mackay, B.
Barkman, & R. R. Jordan (Eds.), Reading in a second language (pp. 5-12).
Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Eskey, D. (1988). Holding in the bottom: An interactive approach to the language
problems of second language readers. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, & D. Eskey
(Eds.). Interactive approaches to second language reading (pp. 93-100). New
York: Cambridge University Press.
108
109
110
UNIT 7
Teaching of Reading II
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. explain the importance of word recognition, vocabulary development and
comprehension in reading
2. explain the implications of schema theory to reading instruction
3. provide appropriate activities that will help improve reading.
4. plan reading lessons that incorporates pre-reading, during-reading and postreading activities.
Introduction
The previous unit, Reading, introduced some theoretical aspects on reading with the
intention of laying a theoretical foundation for the practical aspects of teaching reading
which is the focus of this unit. It is, of course, impossible to cover every pedagogical
considerations and suggestions in a short unit like this. Hence, this unit will focus only on
a few selected aspects in teaching reading and particularly in the primary school. It
should also be noted that other equally important areas of teaching reading such as
emergent literacy and new literacies are not included. You are advised to consult the
many books on the teaching of reading that are available and that provide a more
comprehensive treatment on the subject (see some references in the reference list).
111
Learning Points
The foci, then, of this unit are three aspects essential in teaching of reading in the primary
schools. These aspects are a) word recognition, b) vocabulary development, and c)
comprehension.
7. 1 Word recognition
It is quite clear that the ability to decode or recognize words is a prerequisite to reading
comprehension. Words that are a reader do not recognize would appear to be meaningless
symbols and more frequently than not leads to inability to understand what is read or
what is written. Researchers speak of sight vocabulary which are words that
recognized instantly (Heilman et al., 1998, p. 148). It follows that higher amount of
sight vocabulary will lead to better comprehension. Moreover, a reader would be able to
enjoy reading and think about what is being read when efficient word recognition occurs.
Graves et al (2001) argue that although efficient word recognition does not
ensure good comprehension: A reader may lack the prior knowledge, conceptual
knowledge, interest, analytical skill, wit, and other factors required to understand a
particular text good comprehension, however, is rarely achieved without efficient word
recognition (p. 148). Thus, developing word recognition skills and building up sight
vocabulary would necessarily be one of the first steps in learning to read. Conversely,
beginning readers in particular who are weak in word recognition skills would frequently
find reading difficult and frustrating.
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Sample activity 7. 1
Word Recognition Strategies Using Nursery Rhymes
(Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/wordrecognition-strategies-using-21.html?tab=4#tabs
A) Student Objectives
Students will
Recite nursery rhymes or familiar children's songs
Identify words with identical endings
Brainstorm words that rhyme
Categorize words according to word families
B) Instructional Plan
Session 1
1. In a small group, display the chart paper featuring the words of Humpty Dumpty.
2. Recite the words as a group and allow for discussion.
3. Draw students' attention to the first two lines of the nursery rhyme and read them
aloud.
4. Ask students if they can identify two words (other than Humpty and Dumpty) that
have similar ending sounds. Lead them to identify the words wall and fall and
underline those words on the chart paper.
5. Ask students to repeat the words as you point to them. Demonstrate how to sound
out the words by blending the letter sounds together. Invite them to brainstorm
how the two words are similar.
6. Point out that the two words end with the same three letters -all.
7. Ask students if they can think of other words that end with the letters -all. Write
each of the words on a separate index cards. Words might include ball, call, fall,
hall, mall, tall, and wall.
8. Display the word cards, and invite students to read the cards as a group. Be sure to
draw attention to the fact that each word sounds the same except for the beginning
letter.
9. Place the index cards in a pocket chart and encourage students to read and interact
with the words on the cards in future lessons or during free time.
Sessions 2 and 3
1. Repeat this lesson using Peter, Peter Pumpkin Eater. For this rhyme, feature the
words shell and well. In the same manner as the first activity, invite students to
brainstorm words ending in the letters -ell.
2. Using Jack and Jill, feature the words Jill and hill and words ending in -ill.
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Sample activity 7. 2
Teaching Sight Words:
(Source: UNESCO, 2004, Module: Teaching reading in the primary school)
1. Teacher reads a printed sentence to the children from a story containing the sight
word.
2. The children read after the teacher.
3. The teacher reads the sentence aloud, but leaves out the word to be supplied by the
children.
4. The children read the sentence, without the teacher.
5. The children write the sentence.
6. The children write a new sentence, containing the sight word.
7. The teacher develops or selects the text containing repeated use of the sight word for
children to read.
Task 7.1
7. 2 Vocabulary development
Vacca et al. (2009) suggest that vocabulary represents the breadth and depth of all the
words we know the words we use, recognize, and respond to in meaningful acts of
communication. Breadth involves the size and scope of our vocabulary: depth concerns
the level of understanding that we have (p. 281).
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Aptitude Hypothesis
Knowledge Hypothesis
Instrumental Hypothesis
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Sample activity 7. 3
PAVE (Prediction, Association, Verification, Evaluation)
Source: http://www.tncurriculumcenter.org/resource/2755/go
Students are encouraged to predict the meaning of an unknown based on the context and
use a dictionary to check the correctness of the prediction. Students are also asked to
create a personal visual clue to help them remember the definition.
1. The teacher assigns a passage to be read by the students along with vocabulary
words or phrases. As they encounter each of their vocabulary words, students
complete a PAVE map.
2. The student writes the sentence in which the word appears.
3. The student writes the word again in isolation.
4. The student predicts the meaning of the word.
5. The student writes a sentence using the word to show an initial understanding of
the words meaning.
6. The student looks up the word in the dictionary and writes its definition.
7. The student compares the dictionarys definition with the sentence she or he wrote
and, if necessary, writes a new sentence.
8. The student draws a visual representation of the word to help her/him remember
its meaning.
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Task 7.2
1. Based on Vacca et al.s (2009) three hypotheses with regards to the relationship
between vocabulary and comprehension, as given in Table X.X, do the following:
a) Decide which hypothesis you think shows the strongest relationship. Justify your
decision.
b) Suggest one pedagogical implication for each hypothesis and share them in the
class.
2. Go to the following websites which provide suggestions for vocabulary development.
West Virginia Department of Education http://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/vocabulary.html
Oregon K-12 Literacy Framework Professional Development
http://oregonliteracypd.uoregon.edu/topic/vocabulary-development
Select one strategy or suggestion, and share it with the whole class.
7. 3 Comprehension
The goal of every reader is understanding what he or she is reading. To achieve this goal,
efficient word recognition and a certain level of vocabulary are needed. However, it
should be noted that recognizing words and vocabulary by themselves do not ensure
comprehension as one may be able to read and understand many words in a sentence (or
text) and yet not understanding what it means. In other words, constructing the meaning
of the text does not depend on just text-based activities (bottom-up) but also reader-based
activities such as activating background knowledge (top-down) working together in an
interactive manner (interactive model). Roe et al. (2005) pointed out that readers
approach a text with much background knowledge concerning their world, and they use
this knowledge along with the text to construct the meanings represented by the printed
material that meet their purposes for reading.
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predicting
previews
anticipation guides
semantic mapping
writing before reading
creative drama
guiding questions
cloze procedure
metacognitive strategies
questions
visual representation
readers theater
retelling
application
discussion
K-W-L teaching model
semantic webbing and story mapping
story grammar activities
reading-writing connection
strategy prompts
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Sample Activity 7. 4
Concept Map
(Source: http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/concept30699.html)
(Note: Printout of the concept map is in Appendix 1)
Using the concept map printout
Understanding relationships is an essential part of synthesis and comprehension. This
concept web can be used for any topic or content area. Students can show relationships
between vocabulary words, characters in a story, science concepts, or events in history.
Arrows can be added as needed and related words or ideas can be boxed together.
Students can generate the words themselves, or you can provide them with the words and
ask them to place the words appropriately in the concept map. Try using your weekly
vocabulary or spelling words. Concept maps are a great activity for students to work with
partners or in small groups. Students can present their maps to the class and explain the
how and why they placed each word and the relationships between them.
More ideas to try
Use a concept map at the beginning of a new unit to assess students prior knowledge.
Give students a list of vocabulary words or concepts from the unit and ask them to place
them on the concept map. At the end of the unit, repeat the activity and compare the two
maps.
Use a concept map as a writing graphic organizer. Once the concept map is complete,
have students box off related groups and have them turn each box into a paragraph.
Use a concept map to show ideas and relationships about a character in a novel.
Students can draw a picture of the character in the middle and then complete the
concept map. Students can compare and contrast their concept maps with other students
and discuss their different ideas about the same character.
Use a concept map throughout a unit and have students place each vocabulary word or
concept as they go. For example, when working on a science or math unit, as each new
vocabulary word is introduced, ask student to take out their concept maps and place the
word in the appropriate spot. Discuss why students chose that particular place.
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Task 7.3
In groups,
a) plan a reading lesson that shows clearly the use of (at least) a pre-reading activity, a
during-reading activity and a post-reading activity.
b) demonstrate the lesson with the necessary reading text and audio-visual aids (AVA).
References
Graves, M.F., Juel, C., & Graves, B.B. (2001). Teaching reading in the 21 st century (2nd
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Heilman, A. W., Blair, T. R., & Rupley, W. H. (1998). Principles and practices of
teaching reading (9th ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall.
Roe, B. D., Smith, S. H., & Burns, P. C. (2005). Teaching reading in todays elementary
schools (9th. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
UNESCO. (2004). Module: Teaching reading in the primary school. UNESCO.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001351/135162eo.pdf
Vacca, J. A. L., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C.
A. (2009). Reading and learning to read (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
121
UNIT 8
Teaching of Writing I
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
1. understand the development of the teaching of writing in ESL classroom
2. use different approaches to the teaching of writing in an ESL classroom
3. develop skills for teaching effective writing through controlled and guided
activities
4. promote interactive techniques of teaching effective writing across the curriculum
5. promote creative writing skills among students
Introduction
Writing skill is one of the most effective tools of communication. It helps to develop
critical thinking and it involves the ability to write effectively and creatively. Writing is
more permanent than speaking and requires more careful organization. Unlike speaking,
writing is not spontaneous because it involves a process which includes brainstorming,
planning, drafting and editing before we can see the final product. Writing can be formal
and informal. The teaching of writing involves a long process. Teachers have to take
students through a long journey that involves many steps that need a lot of patience.
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Learning Points
8. 1 The Development of the Teaching of Writing
8.1.1 Composition in the First Language Classroom
Development of English Language Composition Studies
The development of the teaching of writing in ESL is strongly linked to the field
of English language composition studies. Although this field has been enriched by
various approaches through the years, several have made strong and lasting
impressions.
8.1.2 Features of the traditional approach
The traditional approach to teaching writing, popular some decades ago, has some
distinct features:
It focuses on the writing process and not the finished written product.
Teachers intervene during the writing process.
It teaches strategies for invention and discovery. Teachers help students discover
purpose for writing and to generate content.
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also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of
information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new
texts, as in expository or argumentative writing.
He further says that Both the Flower and Hayes(1981), and the Bereiter and
Scardamalia (1987) writing process models have served as the theoretical basis for using
the process approach in both L1 and L2 writing instruction. By incorporating pre-writing
activities such as collaborative brainstorming, choice of personally meaningful topics,
strategy instruction in the stages of composing, drafting, revising, and editing, multiple
drafts and peer-group editing, the instruction takes into consideration what writers do as
they write. Attention to the writing process stresses more of a workshop approach to
instruction, which fosters classroom interaction, and engages students in analyzing and
commenting on a variety of texts.
Teachers teaching in an ESL classroom should realise that there are two important
factors that influence the final product of their students writing. Myles (2002) says that
writing teachers should be aware of how the instrumental motivation of their L2 students
will influence the effectiveness of their lessons. These learners may be less motivated to
write stories or poetry, because they perceive that these tasks are not related to their
needs. Even writing a standard research essay may seem like a waste of time for those
who will need to write project reports and memos. If learners perceive writing tasks to be
useless, they may approach them in a careless manner. Consequently, it is likely that they
will be inattentive to errors, monitoring, and rhetorical concerns. However, if students are
highly motivated, then any type of writing task, expressive or otherwise, are welcomed.
Social factors also influence the quality of contact that learners will experience.
Indeed, we cannot assume that "more contact" with the target language will result in more
acquisition of the L2. Certainly, instructors recommend that students studying English for
academic purposes should read academic texts, attend academic lectures, and even work
with students who are native speakers in order to become more acquainted with the
discourse. However, if they do not engage in the texts, understand the talks, or actively
contribute to the study sessions, these activities will have little effect on student progress.
Interaction is the key. A common complaint among ESL students at university is that they
have difficulty meeting native speakers and getting to know them. Students are often
124
disappointed that they do not have as much interaction with native speakers as they had
expected. In addition, they often associate with other students from their L1 and speak
their native language. Unfortunately, this pattern can slow down L2 development in all
skill areas. The instructor is often responsible for providing incentives or opportunities
for interactions with native speakers. Generally speaking, if L2 learners are motivated to
integrate into the L2, they will develop a higher level of proficiency and positive
attitudes, which can have a positive effect on their writing.
In the ESL classroom, the teaching of writing also underwent some major changes
parallel to those that occurred in the first language classroom. The issues surrounding
writing instruction in the ESL classroom, however, has been more diverse and to an
extent, more complicated.
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Product Approach
b.
Stage one: Students study model texts and then the features of the genre are highlighted.
For example, if studying a formal letter, students attention may be drawn to the
importance of paragraphing and the language used to make formal requests. If a student
reads a story, the focus may be on the techniques used to make the story interesting, and
students focus on where and how the writer employs these techniques.
Stage two: This stage consists of controlled practice of the highlighted features, usually
in isolation. So if students are studying a formal letter, they may be asked to practise the
126
language used to make formal requests, for example, practising the I would be grateful if
you would... structure.
Stage three: This is the most important stage where the ideas are organized. Those who
favour this approach believe that the organization of ideas is more important than the
ideas themselves and as important as the control of language.
Stage four: This is the end product of the learning process. Students choose from the
choice of comparable writing tasks. To show what they can be as fluent and competent
users of the language, students individually use the skills, structures and vocabulary they
have been taught to produce the product.
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According to Steele (2004), The Process Approach Model comprises of eight stages:
Stage two (Planning/Structuring): Students exchange ideas into note form and judge
quality and usefulness of the ideas.
Stage three (Mind mapping): Students organize ideas into a mind map, spidergram, or
linear form. This stage helps to make the hierarchical relationship of ideas which helps
students with the structure of their texts.
Stage four (Writing the first draft): Students write the first draft. This is done in the class
frequently in pairs or groups.
Stage five (Peer feedback): Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of
others work. By responding as readers students develop awareness of the fact that a
writer is producing something to be read by someone else and thus they can improve their
own drafts.
Stage six (Editing): Drafts are returned and improvements are made based upon peer
feedback.
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Technique 1: Brainstorming
Technique 2: Listing
Technique 3: Free-writing
Technique 4: Clustering
129
130
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8.6.2 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique used to generate ideas or topics to write about. Brainstorming or
thinking out loud is done in an informal way at any time during the writing process. The
important point about brainstorming is that it is a kind of free association.
Students should now have ideas on how to proceed with the writing assignment.
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133
134
writing practice alone (Robb, Ross, &Shortreed, 1986). Practice alone may improve
fluency, but if errors are not pointed out and corrected, they can become ingrained or
fossilized in student writing, as mentioned earlier. L1 research may advocate for focusing
on conception and organization, and not on mechanical errors, except for a "note
reminding the student that the final copy needs to be edited" (White, 1994, p. 109).
However, survey reports in L2 have indicated that students both attend to and appreciate
their teachers' pointing out of grammar problems (Brice, 1995; Cohen, 1987; Ferris,
1995, 1997; Leki, 1991; Radecki& Swales, 1988). In support of this claim, Fathman and
Whalley (1990), from their research on feedback and revision in an ESL context,
concluded that grammar and content feedback, whether given separately or together,
positively affect rewriting. However, grammatical feedback had more effect on error
correction than content feedback had on the improvement of content. Grammatical and
rhetorical feedback should be attentive to the writers' level of proficiency and degree of
readiness (Ferris, 1995, Hedgcock&Lefkowitz, 1996; Lee, 1997; Leki, 1991). Overly
detailed responses may overwhelm L2 writers and discourage substantive revision,
whereas minimal feedback may result in only surface modifications to the text.
Furthermore, learners may be uncertain about what to do with various suggestions and
how to incorporate them into their own revision processes. More research on the
effectiveness of responses on revision should be examined.
Task 8.1
Taking into consideration of your students language competency, select a few drafts of
your students essay and give constructive feedback whereby the students can improve
their essays.
135
References
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brice, C. (1995). ESL writers' reactions to teacher commentary: A case study. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No.ED 394 312).
Cohen, A. (1987). Student processing of feedback on their compositions. In A. Wendon
and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 57-69). UK:
Prentice Hall International.
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second language proficiency. Language
Learning, 39(1), 81-135.
Ferris, D. (1995). Student reactions to teacher response in multiple-draft composition
classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 33-53.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and
juggling constraints. In L. Gregg & E. Steinberg (Eds.),Cognitive processes in
writing (pp. 31-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981).A cognitive process theory of writing. College
Composition and Communication, 32(4), 365-387.
Gabrielatos, C. (2002). EFL writing: product and process. Retrieved August 5, 2013 from
<http:// www.gabrielatos.com/Writing.pdf>Originally published in three parts
in ELT News 133, 134 & 135 (March, April & May 2000). The version used
(February 2002) is available through ERIC. Cite as, ERIC, ED476839.
Kroll, B. (Ed.). (1990). Second language writing: research insights for the classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Leki, I. (1991). The preferences of ESL students for error correction in college-level
writing classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24(3), 203-218.
Raimes, A. (1991). Out of the woods: Traditions in the teaching of writing. TESOL
Quarterly, 25(3), 407-430.
Radecki, P. M., & Swales, J. M. (1988).ESL student reaction to written comments on
their written work. System, 16(3), 355-365.
136
Robb, T., Ross, S., & Shortreed, I. (1986).Salience of feedback on error and its effect on
EFL writing quality. TESOL Quarterly, 20(1), 83-93.
Steele, V. (2004).Product and process writing. Retrieved on August 12, 2013 from
http://www.englishonline.org.cn/en/teachers/workshops/teachingwriting/teaching-tips/product-process.
137
UNIT 9
Teaching of Writing II
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit teachers should be able to:
1. create writing activities that are suitable to their students competence level.
2. use students personal experiences in guided/controlled activities to develop their
writing skills.
3. stimulate their students interests in creative writing.
Introduction
This unit contains a few selected writing activities which can be used to help students
with their writing fluency. The reading texts will serve as models of English of English
writing as well as source of exploration and discussion. This unit also provides guidelines
for journal writing as well as some suggestions of topics for journal entries. These ideas
on journal writing are adopted from Reactions by Lebaur and Scarcella (1993).
138
Learning Points
9.1 Journal Writing (Guidelines)
a. Tell students to write at least one page a day.
b. Students should not write a list of events. Instead, students should write down
their thoughts and reactions to a particular event that struck them or about
something they heard, saw or read.
c. Tell students to not be overly concerned about grammar or sentence problems as
the journal writing us for them. Their journal entries will not be marked for
grammar mistakes by the teacher.
d. Half of the journal entries could be on topics or ideas selected by the students.
Others could be responses to questions or topics given in class. Given below are a
few suggested questions in journal writing.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
How has the teachers corrections helped you to improve your writing?
(iv)
(v)
139
Reading Text:
I fell in love with the minister's son the winter I turned fourteen. He was not Chinese, but
as white as Mary in the manger. For Christmas I prayed for this blond-haired boy, Robert,
and a slim new American nose.
When I found out that my parents had invited the minister's family over for
Christmas Eve dinner, I cried. What would Robert think of our shabby Chinese
Christmas? What would he think of our noisy Chinese relatives who lacked proper
American manners? What terrible disappointment would he feel upon seeing not a
roasted turkey and sweet potatoes but Chinese food?
On Christmas Eve I saw that my mother had outdone herself in creating a strange
menu. She was pulling black veins out of the backs of fleshy prawns. The kitchen was
littered with appalling mounds of raw food: A slimy rock cod with bulging eyes that
pleaded not to be thrown into a pan of hot oil. Tofu, which looked like stacked wedges of
rubbery white sponges. A bowl soaking dried fungus back to life. A plate of squid, their
backs crisscrossed with knife markings so they resembled bicycle tires.
And then they arrived the minister's family and all my relatives in a clamor of
doorbells and rumpled Christmas packages. Robert grunted hello, and I pretended he was
not worthy of existence.
Dinner threw me deeper into despair. My relatives licked the ends of their
140
chopsticks and reached across the table, dipping them into the dozen or so plates of food.
Robert and his family waited patiently for platters to be passed to them. My relatives
murmured with pleasure when my mother brought out the whole steamed fish. Robert
grimaced. Then my father poked his chopsticks just below the fish eye and plucked out
the soft meat. "Amy, your favorite," he said, offering me the tender fish cheek. I wanted
to disappear.
At the end of the meal my father leaned back and belched loudly, thanking my
mother for her fine cooking. "It's a polite Chinese custom to show you are satisfied,"
explained my father to our astonished guests. Robert was looking down at his plate with a
reddened face. The minister managed to muster up a quiet burp. I was stunned into
silence for the rest of the night.
After everyone had gone, my mother said to me, "You want to be the same as
American girls on the outside." She handed me an early gift. It was a miniskirt in beige
tweed. "But inside you must always be Chinese. You must be proud you are different.
Your only shame is to have shame."
And even though I didn't agree with her then, I knew that she understood how
much I had suffered during the evening's dinner. It wasn't until many years later long
after I had gotten over my crush on Robert that I was able to fully appreciate her lesson
and the true purpose behind our particular menu. For Christmas Eve that year, she had
chosen all my favorite foods.
Fish Cheeks by Amy Tan (1987)
Journal Writing : Answer the following questions:a.
b.
c.
d.
141
142
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
b) After writing about their name, tell the students to introduce themselves to someone in
the class who does not know about their name story. Students should read what they have
written and then listen to their classmates story.
c) After listening to a few name stories, students can begin writing about any of the
stories they have heard.
144
145
9.7 Collaboration
Collaboration through peer sharing, feedback and editing is an integral part of any
Process-Based approach to writing. Through collaborative writing activities, students can
learn from each others strengths. Weaker students can also free the teacher, enabling him
or her to monitor the groups, giving them feedback and help with the process of writing
as needed.
146
I cant go nowhere
d) To infinitive
1. Sheila loved to sang songs
2. He went away to bought the ring last Monday
3. He wants to tastes my cakes
147
Writing sample: In pairs or groups, edit the following composition. Use the
previous exercises to help you as you correct the grammar mistakes.
b.
Pick a few points and explain why you agree or disagree with the points.
c.
Give your own examples to support or contradict the point of view given.
Sample answer: I disagree that schools are bad places for children. I think there is a
reason why students must obey school rules. Primary schools must be places for children
to learn how to obey rules and laws of society as well as learning how to respect others.
They must learn how to live in the society around them. In order to do that, children must
control themselves. There may be better ways to socialize children but at this point, we
have only one way that works. Traditional schooling is the way.
148
References
Gay, P. (1995). Developing writers: A dialogic approach (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Hedge, T. (1988). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lebauer, R. S., Scarcella, R. C., & Stern, S. (1993) Reactions : Multicultural readingbased writing modules Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall,
Pennington M C. (1996). Writing the natural way on computer. Computer Assisted
Language Learning 9(2-3), 125-142
Raimes, A. (1991). Out of the woods: Traditions in the teaching of writing. TESOL
Quarterly, 25(3), 407-430.
Reid, J. M. (1988). The process of composition. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
149
UNIT 10
Teaching of Grammar
Learning outcomes
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. define grammar
2. explain teaching approach
3. describe learner language learning setting
4. explain Constraints of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
5. describe the quality of input
6. explain Communicative Approach in Malaysian Classrooms
7. Focus-on-form instruction
Introduction
The term grammar may be defined in many ways. Grammar is the knowledge of
language. Whenever a person speaks or writes, he or she applies grammar which has its
own set of unwritten rules that determine how it is spoken or written (McWhorter, 1998).
It is concerned primarily with correctness and with the formation of words, phrases,
clauses that make up sentences. Weaver (1996) suggests that teachers define grammar in
the following ways: syntax, rhetoric, prescriptive rules, usage, structure, and parts of
speech. Grammar is nothing more than a system for describing the patterns of regularity
that are inherent in language (Williams, 1999, p. 232).This grammar deals with language
rules and is most often associated with accuracy. Grammar is important because it is the
convention that makes it possible for us to talk about language. Linguists refer to
grammar as the rules that govern the structure of language (McWhorter, 1998; Williams,
2003), but many people think of grammar simply as a combination of proper usage,
mechanics, and syntax.
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Learning Points
Task 10.1
There are many issues in the teaching of grammar in language teaching in Malaysia; (1)
teaching approaches (1) the different of language setting, (2) the quality of input (3) (4)
process of inter-language (5) teaching technique For and Against Grammar Teaching
Task 10.2
Can students learn grammar without being taught?
but extends to a determination of what would comprise the most effective and efficient
instructional plan given the normal constraints of acquiring a second language in the
classroom (Doughty and Williams, 1998a).
One of the main issues in the development of second language competence is to
determine the amount of relevant contents on the target language, since it is impossible
for teachers to teach all the grammar rules of the language. Thus a good language
programs requires a positive grammar instruction that help students to develop native-like
accuracy in using the language. Formal instruction in SLA research has been understood
as grammar instruction (Ellis, 2002). Research investigating the question of whether
formal instruction results in better L2 learning has examined the effects of formal
instruction on production accuracy, sequence of acquisition, and its durability. Instruction
directed at the grammar structures is easily associated with rules presented in isolation.
The extent to which that grammar rules are isolated from examples is determined by the
nature of formal instruction, and it is on a continuum with explicit and implicit
instruction at the polar ends. In an implicit treatment, learners are to induce the rules from
the given random language samples. On the other hand, with explicit grammar
instruction, learners are explained the grammar rules which are deductively applied in the
subsequent practice (Ellis, 2002). Explicit grammar instruction is to draw learners
attention to target linguistic structures by clearly and systematically explaining, for
example, how to form a past tense. With a high degree of explicitness, the focus of
teacher candidates is directed to forms, which they learned and used at some point in
time, to enhance their awareness of the linguistic features. Doughty and Williams (1998)
suggested that learning rules deductively through explicit instruction could reduce time
spent discovering the patterns. In addition, explicit grammar instruction could lower the
possibilities that L2 learners make wrong hypotheses about the L2 grammar, which is
likely to happen when learners generate rules on their own based on the language samples
they picked up randomly.
Formal instruction can take the form of an implicit treatment or an explicit
treatment. According to Dekeyser (1995), formal instruction is explicit if explanation of
grammatical rules comprises part of the instructional treatment (deduction) or if learners
are directed to attend to particular forms and try to generate the rules themselves
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153
Among the
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Task 10.3
155
The Malaysian students come from a mixed language background and are being
exposed to the English language in different ways. Different settings permit different
opportunities for language input and use in areas where Malays is the dominant group,
Bahasa Malaysia will usually be the main language used in communication. In the urban
setting, English is used more widely among students since they have the privilege of
interacting with English speakers in the environment apart from their teachers. The use of
English outside the classroom enables the students to practice and improve their
language, especially through conversational interaction. Urban setting therefore is similar
to learning English as an L2 (ESL) where it provides learners with the opportunities for
naturalistic exposure and conversation with fluent English speakers in the classroom as
well as in the community. The rural setting on the hand is similar to learning an L2 in a
foreign language setting (EFL) which limits students exposure to the input provided only
by the teachers and the opportunities for natural use of the language such as conversation
is constrained only with teachers through classroom and textbook experiences. With
different quality of exposure to the target-language (TL), urban students normally have
richer language input as compared to rural students and these differences might affect the
rate of learning English as a second language.
As we are aware that our students come from a different setting and therefore they
learn differently. What is suitable to a group of students may not be to the other. In
selecting a suitable approach in providing positive input and to increase the exposure to
target languages in the development of second language competence and the
impossibility of teaching all the grammar rules in one language. The issues of what is the
positive input to EFL L2 learners in learning grammar may not be the same as those of
ESL learners. The study of Allen, Swain, Harley, and Cummins, 1990) shows that the
development of
communicating and the findings show that Canadian English-French bilinguals was not
as developed as the natives in their speaking and writing skills. The bilinguals, who had
been immersed in their L2 at school for most of their academic careers, had the most
favorable opportunities for functioning in the L2. However, this best possible context for
L2 learning did not appear to lead to high levels of grammatical competence which
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157
Task 10.4
158
If grammatical items are addressed randomly, then it will actually reduce the rate
of learning and also it can contribute to fossilization. For example, English has five word
forms such as base, simple, present, past, present participle and past participle. Then
concepts related to these forms can be easy and also complex. For example, the concept
of past (ed and t) should precede the concept of present (base and third person s), or
present participle should precede past participle which includes the structure of activepassive formation. Therefore it is important for teachers to sequence simple items (that
are acquired early) as the prerequisite to learning complex concepts.
Even though some of the English grammatical items are easy to define and
describe, they pose problems for ESL learners at all levels for these items seem to cause a
lot of difficulties for the students to use them correctly and repeatedly they make the
same errors in their speaking and writing. For example, research on L2 morpheme
acquisition (Celcia-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999) has shown that the third person
singular present tense s inflection (e.g. He plays football every day) causes persistent
problems for learners even at more advanced stages of proficiency. Experienced teachers
know that some of these grammatical items are very difficult to acquire. Even though
students have learned the items from year one and teachers do teach them regularly, they
keep on repeating the same mistakes (Celcia-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). These
errors are rampant, if not diehard features in the speech and essays written by secondary
ESL/EFL school students. Even though by the time they enter university and have
completed at least 11 to 13 years of English language classes, yet, many are still unable to
carry on a simple conversation or write sentences free from basic grammatical errors in
the English language (Lim, 1994; Idris, 1997; Harison, 2002) problems of learning these
morphemes can be caused by many factors such as the concept of morphemes which have
many grammatical functions and meaning depending on how they are used in contexts
(Haspelmath, 2002).
The quality of L2 instruction in schools depends on the quality of input provided
by teachers based on suitable teaching techniques used in the classrooms (Ellis, 2006).
Learning L2 in explicit teaching classrooms requires critical comprehensible input,
whether it is from the natural speech or explicit teaching (Norris & Ortega, 2000). A
learner must have perceptual ability that will determine how much the learner will
159
receive from the input. The different quality of input significantly provides different pace
of acquisition among the learners. The input reveals how well learners have prepared
themselves to recognize morpheme forms from a continuous speech stream or explicit
classroom teaching. They do not receive the speech stream as a discrete sequence of
individual sounds. The input and the perceptual ability together are the basis for any
learners to acquire a morpheme for understanding and producing larger linguistic units
such as words, phrases or sentences. Without adequate input, a learner will not be able to
develop morphological knowledge or lexicon, let alone a language. Hence, without
proper perception of input, a learner cannot receive adequate input, and therefore cannot
acquire any language properly (Norris & Ortega, 2000).
Effective teachers provide better input to the students in terms of good language
models, easy presentation and suitable learning experiences (Larsen-Freeman, 1990,
Burden & Byrd, 2003; Ornstein & Lasley, 2004). Even though all teachers have to use
the syllabus provided by the Ministry of Education, the interpretation of the syllabus is
crucial in determining a successful learning programme such as using suitable learning
materials and teaching approaches. There is no way a student in a foreign language
acquisition (FLA) environment can get good language input if the teacher does not
provide it. Quality input obviously depends on the quality of teaching and the ability of
the teachers teaching the subject and whether they can motivate learners to learn
effectively. One of the most used teaching methods in Malaysian schools is the
communicative method or approach. However, there is a conflict between the official
syllabus, the textbook syllabus and the examination syllabus putting teachers in a
dilemma over what to teach (Pillay & North, 1997). The official syllabus and the
textbooks stress topics or themes; whereas, teachers focus on examinations by teaching to
the tests rather than developing the language skills. It is therefore unclear whether
teachers develop the skills of segmenting the language units explicitly or implicitly based
on the communicative approach in teaching grammar or specifically vocabulary.
Although immediate beneficial effects of formal instruction on language
proficiency can be observed across studies (Doughty & Williams, 1998b; Fotos, 1993;
Robinson, 1997), the question of whether the improved performance from instruction can
endure consistently over time often remains unknown. Doughty and Varelas (1998)
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study, which will be examined in the Focus on form, found that the experimental group
showed improvement in the accurate use of past time reference in the written labs in their
immediate posttest. However, the gains of accuracy in the immediate posttest were not
observed to be robust in the 2-month delayed oral posttest.
Lightbown (1991) suggested, developmental linguistic features, such as
questions, constitute stable language interlanguage. Once they are learned, they are
more likely to endure than variational features, such as adverbs. Moreover, Ellis (2002)
suggested that durability may relate to the relevance that a learner perceives between
grammatical properties and their communicative importance. That is, the perceived
communicative importance of particular linguistic features can motivate the learner to try
to retain the gains over a period of time. Learners on the other hand must actively try to
retain by practicing what was once learned or taught, even the best pedagogical learning
environment (consisting of best teachers, materials, techniques, and the maximum
exposure to the L2) cannot help the knowledge stay with the learner. Retention takes
diligence and consistent practice. This should be the responsibility of the learner, rather
than a function of teaching approaches.
Input is very important in L2 learning (Yayun Anny Sun, 2008) and many studies
have been conducted to examine how input is processed, the various facilitative attributes
of input, and the effectiveness of pedagogies that directly manipulate input. Gass (1997)
believes that L2 learning simply cannot take place without input of some sort. Her
statement is very true and has been accepted by teachers at all levels of learning L2.
Many issues relating to input have been actively debated by researchers and Yayun
(2008) categorizes them into four categories such as:
(1) how input is processed during SLA and how it is incorporated into a learners
developing interlanguage (IL) systems (Carroll, 1999, 2000; Chaudron, 1985; Gass,
1997; Krashen, 1982; Sharwood Smith, 1986, 1993; VanPatten, 1996, 2002); (2) the
amount of input that is necessary to enable acquisition (Ellis, 2002; Krashen, 1982;
White, 1989); (3) the various attributes of input and how they may facilitate or hinder
acquisition (e.g., frequency, saliency, and transparency); and (4) instructional methods
that may enhance input to promote acquisition (e.g.,various types of input enhancement,
recasts, and processing instruction). These issues can be put into perspective by
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162
Smiths model (1986) focuses and elaborated on the acquisitional aspect of input
processing, which is closer to Chaudrons (1985) notion of final intake. Smiths model
consists a five-stage acquisitional procedure, firstly, learners start by making comparisons
between their semantic representations and the total meaning representations which is
derived from competence and extra-linguistic and world knowledge. In the second stage,
learners adjust their semantic representations as they compare the two sets of
representations. Third, learners generate a surface structure from the adjusted semantic
representation, using rules in their current grammar. Fourth, learners compare the original
surface structure with the new surface structure and note any discrepancy. Finally,
learners restructure their current competence system so that the adjusted semantic
representation may be derived from the surface structures encountered in the future.
Without first comprehending the messages, learners would not be able to proceed with
the first step of comparing semantic representations.
Gasss (1997) framework of SLA includes a similar sequence as Chaudrons
(1985) andSharwood Smiths (1986) models with stages of apperceived input,
comprehended input, intake, integration, and output. Gasss apperceived input is a result
of attention which initiates a certain level of recognition and selection though negotiated
interaction. Failure in communicative interaction pushes learners to negotiate for
meaning. Through the act of clarification and elaboration for comprehension, learners
then receive additional and usable input, and their attention may be drawn to specific
problematic features in the L2. Consequently, interaction increases the chance for
learners to make mental comparisons between their IL and the L2. Through negotiated
interaction, the input is enhanced in three ways. First, it is made more comprehensible,
which is a prerequisite of IL development. Second, problematic forms that impede
comprehension are highlighted and forced to be processed to achieve successful
communication. Third, through negotiation, learners receive both positive and negative
feedback that are juxtaposed immediately to the problematic form, and the close
proximity facilitates hypothesis-testing and revision (Doughty, 2001). In light of its
threefold effects on acquisition, the interaction component of Gasss model really should
be regarded as a facilitator of learning, not a mechanism for learning.
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The models by Chaudron (1985), Sharwood Smith (1986), and Gass (1997), touch
on the importance of comprehensible input. Learners must be able to decode enough of
the input to formulate a conceptual representation from their initial competence IL. If IL
and the input have been understood, learners would generally feel no need to attend to
forms, and acquisition of missing structures would not occur. In other words, since IL
does not have the required language items/structures to make meaningful utterances,
learners attention is challenged to come up with the specific structure. Then cognitive
comparison between IL representation and external representation would take place,
which would eventually lead to acquisition (Gass, 1997; VanPatten, 1990; White, 1987).
The discussion of the models above aimed to explore how input is processed and
incorporated in SLA. It also demonstrated that the seemingly common terminologies
(input vs. intake; comprehensible vs. incomprehensible input) in the models have been
conceived by different researchers to encapsulate different components and highlight
various aspects of the process as a whole. It has also been found that all four models
agree that cognitive/structural comparison is the key to development, regardless of the
specific location of operation, though it remains largely beyond conscious control or
instructional manipulation. Alternatively, attention may come in as a mediating factor at
the perceptual level. There is a substantial body of research available now regarding the
actual effect of attention (e.g., Carr & Curran, 1994; Nissen & Bullemer, 1987; Schmidt,
1990, 2001; Tomlin & Villa, 1991).
Task 10.5
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165
166
167
input which supports natural acquisition processes. In order to ensure quality teaching,
English teacher are held accountable in demonstrating correct spoken language.
However, teahing spoken accuracy is not usually emphasized in the classrooms.
Moreover, in review of major teaching methods used in the Malaysian language
classrooms shows that Malaysian teachers introduced grammar rules in isolation,
overemphasis on meanings, and lack of experience using target language. Ibrahim et.al.
(2002)
In Malaysia, CLT was adopted in the early 1970s. CLT is based on the notion that
learners as communicators are naturally endowed with the ability to learn languages and
the target language system in many predictable and unpredictable acts of communication
which arises both in classroom interaction and in real-world situations. Learners develop
language competency from the lessons in the classroom as well as subsequent use of the
language outside the classrooms (Yalden, 1987). This approach is normally associated
with the Canadian immersion programmes which aim at the achievement of both
academic and L2 learning through an integration of language teaching and content
teaching. It generally has great success in many areas of the students' language
development (e.g. listening comprehension, fluency, functional abilities, confidence in
using the L2) However, these learners have also been found to have problems in some
aspects of the target language (TL) grammar, especially in morpho-syntactic areas, even
after many years in these programmes (Harley & Swain 1984; Swain 1985; Harley 1986,
1992). Swain (1985) argues that one of the important reasons for this is that these learners
engage in too little language production, which prevents them from going beyond a
functional level of L2 proficiency. Many teachers adapt the immersion programme
without being aware or without even considering the nature of the learners background.
For example, the immersion programme in Canadian classrooms actually consisted of
French speaking students as well as English speaking students. This situation provides a
good environment for French speaking students to use English with their English
speaking friends and is able to benefit from it. However, the situation in Malaysia is not
the same. Even though students of different races are put together in the national school,
most of them hardly speak English. The situation does not permit Malay students to use
168
and improve English as the French students do in the Canadian immersion programme
with their English speaking classmates.
The other important consideration which is normally neglected by teachers is the
students different linguistic backgrounds. Some teachers fail to address the different
needs of students in their classrooms. For example, there are native speakers whose home
language is English, and are bilinguals who learn the language spontaneously from their
parents who use the English language at home or in their neighborhoods. However, the
majority of students learn English in a foreign language setting especially those who live
in rural areas whereby the contact with the English language is very minimal (Mohd Sofi,
2003). These students are normally deprived of quality input and obviously they will
need different types of input to help them learn L2 effectively.
Task 10.6
contextualized input in the TL. This makes L2 learning difficult because there is no
integration between semantic, syntactic, and morphological specifications about a word
to provide concrete information to the lexical entry of that word. In explicit learning in
the classrooms, morphemes are acquired primarily by memorizing or learners remember
the L2 morpheme through their L1 translation. An established semantic system or prior
knowledge may discourage meaning extraction and L2 learners may tend to rely on this
system which may cause fossilization or reach a stage where learners unconsciously stop
perfecting their L2 or are unable to fix ingrained errors due to the false rules becoming
permanent (Selinker, 1974). This constraint prevent many L2 learners from achieving
complete L2 language development because they memorize grammatical items or choose
to use L1 translation which may prevent understanding and acquiring meaning as well as
other properties of the word.
Task 10.7
phrases and sentences needed to get the meaning across (Doughty & Williams, 1998b).
Focus-on-form instruction is typically carried out in two steps. First, pedagogical
activities can be designed to require learners to be primarily engaged in communicative
tasks while also incidentally focusing their attention on particular grammatical
characteristics. Second, L2 teachers can choose to explicitly or implicitly provide
corrective feedback on learners grammatical mistakes during the course of
communication (Ellis, 2002). Explaining reasons for mistakes and how to construct the
correct structures are examples of explicit corrective feedback.
The aim of focus-on-form instruction is to reinforce attention to linguistic properties
to an essentially communicative task rather than to depart from an already
communicative objective; therefore, focus-on-form is potentially effective (Doughty &
Varela, 1998). Based on this notion, Doughty and Varela conducted research to
determine whether and how learners attention can be drawn to formal features without
distracting them from their original communicative intent. The result showed that focuson-form learners improved in both accuracy and total frequency of using past time
reference, particularly in the oral reporting of the science labs. The suggestion that can be
made from the result was that task-natural, incidental focus on form is beneficial to
students. The feasibility of the approach and pointed out some pedagogical implication as
follow.
i.
ii.
iii.
Not every participant felt comfortable about being corrected more than one or
two times within one exchange.
iv.
v.
The result of Doughty and Varela study is encouraging in that the focus-on-form
approach can help L2 learners spoken accuracy. More importantly, it can be
implemented in classrooms, not just experimentally possible. Focus-on-form enables
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learners to consciously learn the rules which describe simple structures. This enables
teachers to carry out a pedagogical presentation of complex rules which can help learners
to make to a large-scale overgeneralization. However, explicit instruction without
provision of sufficient examples is ineffective.
In order to help learners understand a specific grammatical structure or property,
teachers and textbook writers often feel the need to resort to various techniques to direct
the learners attention to the aspect of the target language (Sharwood Smith, 1993).
Probably the most straightforward way among these techniques is to provide examples
and explicitly address the relevant structural properties. The focus-on-form activities are
referred as consciousness-raising (Sharwood Smith, 1980). Since consciousness-raising
implies that the learners mental state is altered by the input (Sharwood Smith, 1993),
Ellis (2002) distinguished it from practice. In consciousness-raising activities, learners
are not required to demonstrate their understanding of the target structures through
producing or using the target structures but instead through formulating some kind of
cognitive representation of how the structures work (Ellis, 2002). That is, the learners are
not engaged in repetitive practice, in which learners are typically required to produce the
target forms correctly in isolation or in context and constantly receive corrective
feedback. In other words, whereas practice is intended to develop learners implicit
knowledge of the grammar rules, consciousness raising is aimed only at explicit
knowledge. Thus, formal instruction can function as a pedagogical device to raise learner
consciousness of specific grammatical properties, which then can be noticed by learners
in subsequent meaning focused input (Ellis, 1990; Schmidt, 1990).
The degree of noticing was operationally defined as the amount of the target
forms that were successfully recognized and underlined by the participants when the
forms were embedded in the texts. At no time during the noticing exercises did the
experimenter comment on the presence of the target forms, which were the adverb
placement, indirect object placement, and relative clause usage. Rather, the experimenter
simply required the participants to underline special English words. The special English
words were defined and explained to the participants as anything that they considered
special or noteworthy.
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Task 10.8
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UNIT 11
Integration of Language Skills in a Lesson
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. use the materials provided to carry out interesting activities for children;
2. improvise on the materials provided to suit children in their classes;
3. come up with more activities using the ones in this topic as samples
Introduction
This topic contains ideas, games and lesson notes for teachers with young learners in
mind. All four skills are covered for young learner development. Young children are
wonderful processors of new information and can learn to read, write, listen and speak
quickly if well motivated. They must enjoy the process and be in a positive, fun, successoriented learning environment. Children have energy and want to make noise. Songs will
channel these natural inclinations positively. Therefore, a lot of songs have been included
in preparing the lessons.
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Learning Points
11.1 Beginning reading and writing: introducing letters
A selection of tips and activities to help introduce letters to young learners.
Before introducing letters, consider how children learn their mother tongue.
11.1.1 The sound system of English
Begin by teaching children to recognize, understand and produce the spoken word
through games, songs and stories. Allow them to hear plenty of English from you, so try
to maximize your English and minimize Mother Tongue in the classroom (you can also
use videos, tapes, songs etc) so they become accustomed to the sounds of English.
Encourage them to speak English by repeating you, joining in chants and songs and
responding to simple questions. This foundation is vital to make meaningful links to the
sound system of English. Learning sounds and letters without understanding any words is
a purely mechanical and potentially off-putting experience for them. Young children will
quickly learn English words if you introduce them with a picture that clearly shows the
meaning or you can point to the object in the classroom e.g. chair, door, window.
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia
11.1.2 Introducing letters
It is possible to introduce letters after only a few hours of English classes as long as the
children have already been introduced to English vocabulary they understand the
meaning of words and are able to recognize the word when it is spoken. Doing a little
regularly and incorporating reading and writing into every lesson is a good idea. It gives
the lesson variety and students are not overloaded.
Some suggestions for introducing letters.
a.
A TPR (Total Physical Response) action game. Call out action words like swim,
jump and hop while doing the actions and get the children to copy the actions
175
moving around the classroom as they are listening to the words. This type of
activity ensures that children are learning/practising the words meaningfully and
by being physically involved they are enjoying the game which makes the words
more memorable. Getting children to move around in the lesson helps them to use
up the energy they have or energise and focus them if they are sluggish or
distracted.
b.
Revise new language from previous lesson e.g. children have to point at
appropriate objects in the room as you call out the names. Children do pick up
new words quickly, but they also forget quickly, so its a good idea to keep
revising and recycling vocabulary. When they are able to remember the words,
they will feel a sense of success and be motivated to learn more.
c.
d.
Practise the new letters along with others they have already learnt.
e.
Introduce a new song or chant and practise. Or introduce new vocabulary and
practise.
It is possible to have a lot of input in every lesson. Dont underestimate what children can
learn and give them plenty of opportunities to pick up new language.
a.
Story: This is a great way to practise and/or introduce language meaningfully. See
previous webpage on using stories with juniors for more ideas.
b.
A quiet game/task based on the story - drawing and colouring in. Allow for quiet
activities to allow children to process the language, have a rest, and for you to
monitor them and have one-to-one dialogues with them about what they are
doing. For example if they are drawing a picture which includes target vocabulary
of animals, you can say thats a lovely blue tiger or what a funny dog etc:
allowing them to hear the target language in a personalised context.
176
177
178
d. Letter sculptures
Give out plasticine (soft modelling clay) to all the children (half-cooked spaghetti works
too, but is messier). Ask the children to make certain letters (or words). They have to
concentrate on the shape of the letter and its proportions.
The children can choose their own letter and make a big one out of plasticine or card,
then stick it on a large piece of card. Give out magazines and newspapers and let the
children look and find either words or pictures of things that begin with the same letter.
They cut these out and create a collage with their big letter. Decorate the classroom with
these posters.
Source: www.deepenglish.com/LearnEnglish
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Races for fun you could challenge the children working in pairs or threes (to encourage
cooperation and peer teaching) to make as many words as possible in a specified time.
As each child has their own letters, they can play with them at home or if they finish an
activity early and see how many words they can make. Later they can move into building
short sentences.
Worksheet 11.1
You can produce easy worksheets like this:
What animal?
c_t
d_g
a_t
Children fill in the gaps. If you can add a picture of the word too: it will make it all the
more meaningful.
Worksheet 11.2
atc =
gdo =
npe =
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Children unjumble the letters to make the word. You could also do this on the board with
children coming up and doing the activity one at a time.
Source:www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
Word searches
These are good for children to recognise words within a jumble of other words. It makes
them concentrate and see words on the page. Children have to circle or colour the ten
key words in the grid.
Worksheet 11.3
Animals
Children have to find the ten animal words in the box. You can either give them the ten
words at the bottom to help them look. Or attach the pictures of the animals to the
wordsearch.
BIRD, CAT, COW, DOG, ELEPHANT, FISH, LION, MOUSE, SNAKE, TIGER
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Crosswords
Children look at the picture, have to remember the English word and then have to write
the word spelling correctly to fit it into the crossword. This worksheet is also a good
record of vocabulary for them to keep and refer to.
Worksheet 11.4
REMEMBER: Start early. Make it fun. Make it holistic. Encourage life-long skills.
Source:www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
182
183
hnm
aodg
Children have to recognise which is the same letter and simply circle it or maybe colour
over it. The letters are actually very similar in shape, so its important that children can
differentiate between them.
e) Copying
There are many good books that allow children to practise writing letters and words.
They simply copy by following the arrows that show them which way their pen/pencil
must move. After having done the air, body, plasticine activities it is good to move onto
paper and allow the children lots of practice with holding a pencil and making the shapes.
It is not easy to begin with and they need lots of practice to control their hand and follow
the shape of the letter. In my experience children enjoy the task and concentrate hard on
producing their letters.
Source: www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
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185
- If they are pre-writers, they can tell you and each other what is on their pizza. If they
are able to, they write the words of the ingredients next to them on the pizza. The
pizzas can be displayed on the classroom walls.
b. I went to market
For older students with a bigger bank of vocabulary and for all vocabulary, alphabet
awareness and fun.
- Get students into a circle.
- Start by saying: I went to market and I bought an apple.
- The student to your right must repeat what you said and add another thing beginning
with B.
- Keep going until the last student has to remember 26 things bought in market!
c. Hangman
A quick and effective way of getting students to revise spelling of previously introduced
words. A great warmer at the start of a lesson.
- Think of a word students learnt last lesson e.g. mountain
- Draw eight dashes on the board one for each letter of the word _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
- One at a time students guess which letters may be in the word. If they are correct
the letter is added to the word:
N = _ _ _ n _ _ _ n
If they guess incorrectly, the teacher draws one part of a hangmans noose on the board
186
Students can guess the whole word at any time. But the teacher wins if the whole
hangman is drawn before the word is guessed.
d. Bingo
To practise word recognition
Collate a list of 20+ words the students know well they can recognize them in their
written and spoken form and know the meanings. Either write the words on the board or
hand out a list of the words to the students. Students must choose any 9 of the words and
write them onto a piece of paper that looks like this:
tiger
blue
pen
pizza
ten
orange
chair
book
girl
Teacher chooses words form the list at random and reads them aloud. If the student has
the word on his paper he crosses it out. As soon as a student has crossed out three words
in a line up, down or diagonally he shouts Bingo! And is the winner.
Source: www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
11.5.3 Beginning vocabulary: presenting new vocabulary
A selection of activities to help young learners practise vocabulary. This section focuses
on the presentation stage.
At the presentation stage it is vital that the meaning of new words is clear. I am a great
advocate of avoiding mother tongue in the English classroom. Translation is unnecessary
187
and indirect and also creates a dependence in students that is later hard to cure. To
present concrete vocabulary: a staged approach
e.g. Fruit
a. bring in a bag of different fruit six to eight items at a time is plenty
b. pick up one fruit and say the word clearly a number of times, encourage the
students to repeat the word
c. go through all the words in this way
d. return regularly to a word they have already been introduced to and check they
have remembered it e.g. pick up a banana and say an apple? or is this an
apple?, students should be able to say yes or no appropriately before you
move on to check the vocabulary further
e. to further check that students have connected the new word to the meaning ask
students individually show me the banana etc. they will get actively involved in
recognizing the target word and indicating the object which it describes.
NB: With vocabulary like animals pictures can be used. With verbs actions can be used
walk, sit, swim, hop etc and students encouraged to respond to the words with the
appropriate actions this is a great game.
Once children have been introduced to the alphabet and have started reading and writing
words, after the introduction of the meaning and sound of new words, introduce the
written form. Make flashcards with words on them, read them aloud with the students and
get them to match the words to the objects or pictures.
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Worksheet 11.4
b_ _ k
c_a_r
p__c_l
When children repeat the words they have to do so conveying these emotions. Try it with
the word chocolate. Children enjoy doing this and they do the activity meaningfully.
Chants and songs are a good way to get students repeating vocabulary and by adding
actions focus on meaning is not lost.
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Get students moving their arms wide apart when they say big and close together when
they say little to indicate meaning. Students can also make up their own verses with other
animals, which they decide are big or little or even other objects like house and cup.
Source: www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
The other good thing about songs and chants is that the words are part of connected
speech at a reasonably fast speed, so that weak forms and sound linking occur naturally.
E.g. knees and toes if said at the speed of the song have a natural link of the s in knees
and the a in and, also the a in and becomes a schwa and not a long sound. Another fun
way of getting childrens tongues around English sounds are tongue twisters:
Yellow lorry, yellow lorry
Sally sells sea shells on the sea shore
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- Songs contain chunks of language that children can remember and use
- Because songs must be sung at a reasonably fast speed they encourage natural
phonological features like linking and weak forms
- Children will be actively involved in their learning, even at a very young age, rather
than passive
- Children have energy and want to make noise. Songs will channel these natural
inclinations positively
- Parents will enjoy hearing their children singing in English
- Singing is a happy and stress-free activity that will add to a positive classroom
learning environment
* What songs should we choose for the classroom?
Choose songs that:
- Contain simple, easily understood lyrics
- Link with a topic or vocabulary that you are studying in class
- Are repetitive
- Children can easily do actions to (to help emphasize meaning)
* Children: songs: lesson plan A for pre-readers (under eight year olds)
This is a lesson plan based on the popular children's song Head and Shoulders which is
aimed at pre-readers under six years' old.
Introduce and practise the vocabulary
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- Say head clearly pointing to yours and get children to repeat, do same for all
words. Repeat a number of times.
- Dont point now, but say word clearly and encourage children to point to
appropriate part of the body
- Check meaning: Point to head and say shoulders and ask yes or no? Do same for
other parts, sometimes being correct and sometimes not.
- Point to part of the body and encourage children to say the word.
- Go through the song slowly with the movements, first modeling for children to see
what they need to do and then encouraging children to join in. Pick up the speed of
the song as children become more confident.
- Play a game based on the key vocabulary like this it includes basic colour
vocabulary that children should already know. Ensure children have coloured pens
or pencils. Model the activity, so children know what they have to do say the
mouth is blue and hold up the picture and colour the mouth blue. Play the game by
giving similar instructions. Give the children plenty of time to find the right picture,
the right colour and do the colouring. If the children are confident, encourage them
to give you or their classmates similar instructions.
- Sing the song again at the end of the lesson.
- Begin the next lesson with a check of the vocabulary and sing the song again.
Children will enjoy singing a song they already know, but do not assume they will
all remember the song and the vocabulary. Young children learn quickly and forget
quickly if they dont practise.
Source: Owens, R. E. (2012). Language Development, An Introduction. (8th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Allyn & Bacon.
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Task 11.1
Show pictures of the parts of the body with the words clearly written beneath. Say the
words while pointing to the words. Give out pictures of the parts of the body and separate
pieces of paper with the words on which children must match. This can be done in groups
of two or three. If the group is bigger some children may not actually participate and be
left out
Task 11.2
Ask the children to draw a person (themselves or maybe you!) and to label the body with
the words they have learnt. They may know some other parts of the body that they can
add you may have to help with spelling.
Task 11.3
Divide the class into teams ideally nine members in each team. Choose a confident and
outgoing child from each team to stand or sit at the front of the class and be THE BODY.
Other members of the team each get a sticker with a word of a part of the body written on
it. Each team stands behind a line away from the front of the class. One at a time a team
member has to run to the front and put the sticker on the appropriate part of THE BODY.
It is a race and the first team to correctly label their BODY are the winners. If the
children know other parts of the body, you can also use these words it can get very
funny if they know the word bottom.
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Task 11.4
Another good way to practise the vocabulary is to do a picture dictation. E.g. teacher
says: this is a monster. He has two heads and four eyes etc. Children have to draw the
monster according to the teachers description. Ensure you use only vocabulary the
children have come across before this can include numbers, colours, sizes and shapes
e.g. The monster has four, small, blue, triangular ears.
Task 11.5
Children with a larger vocabulary for parts of the body can be encouraged to write a new
verse for the song using other pats of the body and then perform them to each other using
the correct actions
References
Owens, R. E. (2012). Language Development, An Introduction. (8th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Allyn & Bacon.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia
www.deepenglish.com/LearnEnglish
www.onestopenglish.com/skills/news-lessons
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UNIT 12
Macro Teaching
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit teachers should be able to:
plan and teach a specified topic with the help of a lesson plan
Introduction
Teaching is a way of transferring knowledge from the teacher to the targeted group of
students be it a small or a larger group. For a small group of students a teacher uses micro
teaching while Macro teaching is used when a teacher teaches a larger group of students.
Macro teaching style is utilized in the large lecture halls often seen on college campuses.
This teaching style often involves a larger amount of material because this teaching style
does not utilize repetitive skill practice. There is almost no one-to-one interaction with
this teaching style. However, Macro teaching involves the utilization of the kinetic, audio
and visual learning styles.
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Learning Points
12.1 Micro Teaching
Micro teaching is to teach within a small group, giving each individual within the group a
chance to practice a concept or skill. The small group size allows for more one-on-one
interaction time between the students and the teacher. Often the students within a micro
teaching environment are required to give presentations or perform tasks in front of the
group. After each student presents or performs a task, he is given feedback on his
performance from both the instructor and his peers.
Micro Teaching
Command
Style.
Immediate
response to a stimulus. Performance
is accurate and immediate. The
teacher makes all the decision; the
learner responds by adhering to all
the decisions.
The same task is designed and
assigned to all learners.
Teacher selects general subject
matter area, learner select the topic,
identifies the questions, collect data,
discover answers and organizes the
information.
Learner initiates her/his learning
experience.
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Knowing the style and applying them in a deliberate manner maximizes the effectiveness
of teaching and learning.
Similarities
I.
Both styles are performance based, which means that the students' work is judged against
criteria.
II.
The criteria are detailed in lesson plans, guidelines for papers or presentations,
and tests that measure retained knowledge that the student can apply to show a
working knowledge.
Differences
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This phase invites the teacher to refine his/her teaching of a given style, overcome
the initial frustration of learning new behaviors, willingness to behave in new ways,
willingness to trust the learners ability to shift behaviors, ability to receive feedback
from peer in order to ease the learning of a new style and becoming proficient in selfanalysis. Macro Teaching involves:-
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199
200
Stages
Teaching
Aids
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202
Production
Stage
(45 minutes)
Rationale: To
encourage
students
to
speak
confidently
and
ask The suspect will be chosen randomly by me and sometimes
question
by your friends. Prepare yourself to ask and answer the
politely.
question later on.
3. Students prepare their questions.
4. Teacher monitors the progress and check students
question to ensure that it is appropriate.
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Closure
(5 minutes)
Extended
Activity
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Specifications:
Level 1: i. Finding out the meaning of unfamiliar words by using contextual clues
and/ or the dictionary.
ii. Retelling the story or content of the poem in ones own words.
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STAGES
TEACHING
AIDS
Set induction
1. The teacher draws a spiral on a board.
Whiteboard
2. The students need to imagine the spiral is marker
representing for what.
3. Example: mosquito coil, illusion optic, snake,
fire hose, candy
Explanation
Practice
Production
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Reflections
My second day of class, I tried to project my voice to be more loudly, so that the
students can hear my voice. Although it was not my best, I managed to capture the
students attention in the class. Basically, the students were silent when I did my
explanation, although at some points, they tried to talk. I found that the students love to
engage in activities (using my electronic dictionary) as they got excited to use it.
However, when it was a story telling time (the synopsis), I found that the students easily
lose their focus. I believe, to tackle these students easily, I need to do a lot of interesting
activities, so that they can get more excitement in each session of the lesson. This class,
do not like the teacher to talk all the time. They love to engage in classroom activities.
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Set induction
TEACHING
AIDS
Whiteboard
marker
Explanation
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209
Reflection
The class started at 4.00 pm, but the students were late to class because they were
having their break. I had to wait for about 10 minutes before I decided to start the lesson.
For todays class, I managed to project my voice properly and the whole class could hear
my voice. My teaching was more systematic as I planned my lesson plan properly. I
realised that the students give more attention in the class. They give good respond when I
asked them questions. During the activity session, the students were very excited to
participate. For the next lesson, I will do a lot of activities for them. I realised that the
students love the activities in the class.
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References
MuskaMosston (1990). Spectrum of teaching styles. Retrieved August 22, 2013, from
http://www.spectrumofteachingstyles.org/pdfs/literature/Mosston1990_The_3_Rs
.pdf
Nicole Ubinger. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/info_8479909_differencesmicro-macro-teaching.html
WestBengal Board of Primary Education. (2013). Proceedings of the workshop held on
february 13th & 14th, 2013 in the west. Retrieved September 1, 2013, from
http://wbxpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Workshop.pdf
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