TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

A. Behavioral objective
Behavioral objectives that are useful in the classroom must meet certain
criteria. The four essential elements of a well-written behavioral objective are
outlined below. When writing a behavioral objective, evaluate it using these
criteria.

1. Good behavioral objectives are student-oriented . A behavioral

objective, which is student-oriented, places the emphasis upon what the
student is expected to do, not upon what the teacher will do.
Sometimes teachers use instructional goals which emphasize what they
are expected to do rather than what they expect of their students. Such
teacher-oriented objectives only have the value to the extent that they
direct the teacher to do something, which ultimately leads to student
learning. A teacher attempting to help his or her students attain the goal
of solving long division problems may work out some of the problems on
the blackboard, explaining each of the steps involved. A teacher-oriented
objective associated with this behavior might read something like: "To
explain the steps of long division on the blackboard." Notice that this
might be a helpful teacher activity, but it is only one of many possible
activities that could help the students reach the goal of solving long
division.
2. Good behavioral objectives describe learning outcomes. The
important thing to keep in mind here is that we are interested in what the
students will learn to do. In other words, it is the learning outcome that is
important, not the learning activities that should lead to that outcome. To
say that students will practice long division problems, using two different
methods, is not to specify a learning outcome; it describes a process. It
specifies an activity designed to help the students reach some
outcome. As such, it is a student-oriented activity, not an outcome. Your
objective should reflect outcome language, rather than process phrases.
It may be helpful to you as a teacher to determine what kind of learning
activities you may want your students to carry out. However,
determining which learning experiences and activities are most
appropriate for your students can only be made after you have decided
what it is you want your students to accomplish. Once learning outcomes
are identified and described, then activities that are appropriate for
attaining those outcomes can be determined.

3.

Good behavioral objectives are clear and understandable. The

first prerequisite for a clear and understandable objective is
explicitness. It should contain a clearly stated verb that describes a
definite action or behavior and, in most cases, should refer to an object of
that action. People observing the products of those behaviors should
agree in their judgment about whether the behavior had occurred as
stated.

4.

Good behavioral objectives are observable. The evaluation of

learning outcomes hinges on the ability to observe those outcomes. The
key to an observable objective is an observable verb. Consequently,
when selecting behavioral objectives for use in your teaching, watch the
verbs! The verb must describe an observable action or an action that
results in an observable products.

Source: http://www.oswego.edu/~hurley/BehavioralObjectives.htm
B. Management of classroom teaching by appropriate teaching
methods and strategies
The term Teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy
and management strategies used for classroom instruction. Your choice of
teaching method depends on what fits you your educational
philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission
statement. Teaching theories primarily fall into two categories or
approaches teacher-centered and student-centered:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as
empty vessels whose primary role is to passively receive information (via
lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It
is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their
students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two
separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored
tests and assessments.
Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching
strategy that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led
demonstrations. Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the
teacher-centered approach, in that teachers and professors are the sole
supplier of knowledge and information. Direct instruction is effective in
teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and students
play an equally active role in the learning process. The teachers primary role
is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of
material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal
forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class
participation. Teaching and assessment are connected; student learning is
continuously measured during teacher instruction.

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that focuses on student
investigation and hands-on learning. In this method, the teachers primary
role is that of a facilitator, providing guidance and support for students
through the learning process. Inquiry-based learning falls under the studentcentered approach, in that students play an active and participatory role in
their own learning process.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative Learning refers to a method of teaching and classroom
management that emphasizes group work and a strong sense of community.
This model fosters students academic and social growth and includes
teaching techniques such as Think-Pair-Share and reciprocal teaching.
Cooperative learning falls under the student-centered approach because
learners are placed in responsibility of their learning and development. This
method focuses on the belief that students learn best when working with and
learning from their peers.

C. Management of clinical
methods and strategies

teaching

by

appropriate

teaching

A popular model for teaching improvement has been the sevencategory framework of analysis developed by the Stanford Faculty
Development Centre. This comprehensive framework is outlined in the
article by Skeff (1988). In addition, this seven-category framework has
been validated by work at the University of Indiana which resulted in a 26
item questionnaire that can be used to evaluate teaching (Litzelman et al.
1998). Although it provides a categorical framework for evaluation and
analysis of teaching, the power of the model is most effectively
demonstrated in hands-on seminars in which faculty are enabled to both
understand and apply this method of analysis to their teaching. This
model described all clinical teaching as fitting into seven key categories,
lists key components under each category and further describes specific
teaching behaviours under each key component.
The categories are as follows:
(1)

Promoting
a
positive
learning
climate:
The learning climate is defined as the tone or atmosphere of the
teaching setting including whether it is stimulating, and whether learners
can comfortably identify and address their limitations. It sets the stage for
effective teaching and learning.
(2) Control of session:
This refers to the manner in which the teaching interaction is focused
and paced, as influenced by the teachers leadership style. It reflects the
group dynamics, which affect the efficiency and focus of each teaching
interaction.
(3) Communication of goals:
This includes establishment as well as explicit expression of teachers
and learners expectations for the learners. Setting goals provides a
structure for the teaching process, guides teachers in planning the
teaching and provide a basis for assessment.
(4) Promoting understanding and retention:
Understanding is the ability to correctly analyse, synthesize and apply
whereas retention is the process of remembering facts or concepts. This
category deals with approaches teachers can use to explain content being
taught and have learner meaningfully interact with the content, enabling
them to understand and retain it.
(5) Evaluation:
It is the process by which the teacher assesses the learners
knowledge, skills and attitudes, based on educational goals previously
established. It allows the teacher to know where the learner is and helps
them plan future teaching as well as assess effectiveness of teaching.
Evaluation can be formative to assess ongoing learners progress towards

educational goals or summative for final assessment to judge learners

achievement of goals.
(6) Feedback:
Feedback is the process by which the teacher provides learners with
information about their performance for potential improvement. It
provides an educational loop through which the teacher can guide
learners to use the evaluation of their performance to reassess attainment
of goals.
(7) Promoting self-directed learning:
Teachers achieve this by facilitating learning initiated by learners
needs, goals and interests. It stresses the importance of acquiring skills to
equip the learner to continue learning beyond the time of formal education.
Source: http://www.bumc.bu.edu/facdev-medicine/files/2010/06/AMEE-guidepaper.pdf
D. Purposes of clinical laboratories
Clinical skills laboratories are educational facilities that have the
potential benefit for undergraduate and postgraduate medical students
and medical staff. They provide a safe and protected environment in which
the learner can practice clinical skills before using them in real clinical
settings. These skills laboratories help to ensure that all students acquire
the necessary techniques and are properly assessed before practicing on
real patients. In addition, they support the acquisition, maintenance and
enhancement of the clinical skills of students in the healthcare profession.
The term clinical skills involves history-taking, physical examination,
clinical investigations, using diagnostic reasoning, procedural perfection,
effective communication, team work and professionalism.

Most CSLs have core clinical skills that can be taught and learned.
These include history taking with communication skills, physical examination
and some technical and practical procedures. In general, the exact nature of
the skill taught is usually determined by the local logistical and educational
requirements. With advances in technology and the changes in teaching
methodology, the list of skills that can be taught and learned in the CSLs has
grown longer. Because of the variety of these skills, it is important to define
them and determine the level of competence required at each institution. For

that reason, many CSLs involve curriculum development committees,

undergraduate and postgraduate faculty members in the planning process.
Clinical skills laboratories can be used for teamwork and multiprofessional education. It provides the students with the access to learning
opportunities in a safe and protected environment. Bridging the gap between
the classroom and the clinical setting decreases students anxiety.
The use of simulators enables students to practice and make mistakes
without the risk to the patients or themselves. Unlike patients, simulators
have predictable behavior; experiences are reproducible and allow
standardized experience. They are either embarrassed or stressed, have no
time restrictions and so can be used as required. They can be programmed
to simulate selected findings, conditions, or complications and they can be
used for training on the management of difficult situations. It has been
shown that the single most important determinant of skills and knowledge
retention is repeated practice, which is more feasible in CSLs. Studies have
shown that students who graduated from innovative medical schools used
more skills during clerkships than students who had followed traditional
programs. Clinical skills laboratories encourage self-learning since both the
medico-legal and ethical issues are not a concern and the use of manikins
obviate institutional, individual, and cultural barriers. Students can practice
genital, vaginal, rectal and breast examinations without embarrassment. This
gives them the practice they need and are, therefore, able to approach
patients with greater confidence. Direct feedback on performance can be
provided with the use of audio-visual aids, peer review and teachers
assessment with opportunities for reflection, evaluation and enhancement or
modifications for further action on the part of the learners. The innovative
medical institutions require fewer teaching staff who are not required to be
full-time teachers. This provides greater flexibility and opportunity for
research and staff development. The use of simulators reduces the time
spent by students and faculty looking for enough suitable patients for
teaching or learning.
The CSLs provide the ideal environment for the assessment of skills
acquisition. It has been shown that candidates successful at written
examinations have variable practice experiences. In fact, skills cannot be
assessed properly by written examinations and should not be tested in
isolation. Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE), which can be

carried out at the clinical skills learning facilities, is becoming a standard

method of skills evaluation.
Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3410147/#ref29
E. Models of clinical teaching
Personal or Personalist Models:

Nondirective teaching: Focuses on self-awareness, understanding,

autonomy, and self-concept

Developing Positive Self-Concepts

Relaxation and stress reduction: Exploring personal goals for

relaxation, or using self-initiated relaxation techniques to calm
anxieties in social settings. There are many models that use this theme
as a basis.

Selection, Detection, Connection Model - A self-directed teaching

model for highly intrinsically motivated high school students.

Social Learning Models:

Classroom Meeting: Strengthens responsibility towards self and

others. This model has rules and structure and specified intentions.

Cooperative or Collaborative Learning: Collective arrangement

and division of tasks, sharing results and ideas. There are a number of
authors claiming this model significantly Johnson and Johnson, and
also Robert Slavin. There are also cooperative models that have more
specific purposes like the Jigsaw Model.

Graffiti Model: Graffiti is a cooperative learning structure in which

students are asked to give written responses to questions posed by a
teacher

Group Investigation: Focuses on interpersonal group skills as

students engage in acquiring information

Jigsaw Model: Originally, the jigsaw concept was developed in the

1960s to facilitate racial integration. As an educational model it falls
into the Social Family of methods.

Jurisprudential: Uses the jurisprudential frame of reference to solve

social issues

Laboratory Method: Group/interpersonal skills, personal awareness,

and flexibility skills are stressed in this model

Role Playing: role play students assume roles and become the source
of their inquiry.

Sociodrama Students assume roles, acting out issues in order to

facilitate awareness and understanding about concepts or important
issues

Social Inquiry: Problem solving using social issues

Information Processing Models: (this is the fastest growing family of

models)

Advance Organizer Model: Increases the efficiency of informationprocessing capacities. There are several kinds so there is a lot of
possibilities and varieties expository, narrative, skimming, or graphic.

Cognitive Growth Development: Mainly focuses on general

intellectual development

Cognitive Views of Learning: Focuses on the processes within the

learners. Strategies are developed to encode and retrieve information
(Kauchak & Eggen, 1998)

Critical Thinking: Deals with a series of dialogs and exercises

designed to get students to think at higher levels and at levels that
engage critical appraisal or critical thinking.

Inductive Thinking Model/Inquiry Training Model: Focuses on the

development of inductive mental processes and academic reasoning.

Concept Attainment: Focuses on developing inductive reasoning &

conceptual knowledge

Inquiry Training: Engages students in causal reasoning, and aids

then in developing hypotheses

Learning Styles Model: These plans are devised and written

reflecting concepts developed by one of the learning style theorists or
followers (such as Kathleen Butler or Bernice McCarthy, Dunn and
Dunn, etc.)

Memorization: Improves memory capabilities through a variety of

methods and tricks.

Multiple Intelligences: MI plans utilize, or are based on, those

intelligences described in the work of Howard Gardner

Multi-modal Learning Model: These plans reflect varied modalities

used to encode and retrieve learning. There are generally two basic
variations VAK (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and VARK (visual,
aural, reading, kinesthetic).

Picture Word Inductive or PWIM Developed by Models of

teaching author Emily Calhoun this model is geared to help children in
developing sight and written vocabulary drawing on commonly familiar
words.

Scientific Inquiry Model: Instructor teaches students the research

system of a subject or discipline. Problem solving may be utilized in
this model

Synectics: Creative problem solving (Gordon, W. J. J. [1961] and also

George M. Prince)

Tabas Inductive Reasoning Model: Advanced thinking can be

taught through a series of steps designed to be an active transition
between an individual and data.

Behavioral Models:

Desentization: Replacing anxieties with relaxation

Direct Teaching: Expert or intermediary offers information this

method in probably the oldest method among the teacher-centered
models. Also it is more than likely the most universally experienced
form of teaching for most of us.

Direct Training: Develops distinctive predetermined patterns of

behavior. Like direct teaching an expert shows a novice how to do
something. This is readily used in trade schools and in situations where
there are gradations of apprenticeship toward a desired skill or goal.

Behaviorism: Emphasized the importance of observable, external

events on learning and the role of reinforces in influencing those
events (Kauchak & Eggen, 1998)

Hunter Model, also Mastery Learning: highly structured

approach to teaching whereby plans are devised using the classic,
repetitive lesson model developed by the late Madeline Hunter

Self-control: Uses a series of rewards and internal dialogs to correct

or improve social behavior

Simulation: Students deal with hypothetical or social situations and

various processes to help their decision-making skills. Progression to
an end goal or specified understanding or outcome is plotted.

Source: http://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/models-teaching/

F. Traditional preceptorship
What is the major role of the preceptor? The preceptor becomes the
designer of the students learning environment, and acts as the facilitator of
student-active learning by empowering the learners and enabling them to
contribute more to the educational encounter. Because of the time pressures
typically experienced by preceptors in the office setting, there is a tendency
to communicate to the learner that facts and efficiency are target behaviors.
Therefore, the learner becomes more comfortable in summarizing and
reporting, rather than verbalizing thoughts and questions. The preceptor role
becomes crucial in fostering the proper educational environment to promote
thinking and reasoning from the learner.
Source: https://www.apgo.org/binary/Preceptor%20Brochure%207.pdf
G. Preparation and strategies in clinical teaching

As we review specific teaching strategies, think about which ones you

currently use and with which level of learner.

Modeling. With Modeling, the preceptor demonstrates the skills with

patients as the student observes. Less experienced students begin to see the
transition of classroom knowledge into the clinical setting. Although this is a
strategy used with early students, using Modeling with more advanced
students can also be beneficial. Advanced students can develop more
integration of complex problems and issues, use critical thinking, and active
listening. While this is a relatively passive strategy, it can be very powerful
for all levels of learning. Modeling allows the preceptor and the student to
act as a team through discussion of the case, development of a differential
diagnosis, and making appropriate recommendations.
Case Presentation. Using the strategy of Case Presentation (Burns et
al., 2006) allows for the student to obtain crucial information, apply it to the
test battery, generate reasonable assumptions about the problem and
develop a plan of action. It also allows the preceptor to assess the student's
level of critical thinking and the ability to transfer previous experiences into
new clinical situations. Case presentations are effective with every level of
learner. The level of the sophistication of the presentation increases as the
student gains more knowledge and experience. Also, the preceptor's

expectation of the information presented will vary according to the level of

the learner.
Collaborative Learning - Simulations. Collaborative Learning
through Simulation (Gibbons et al., 2002) can be very effective, particularly
with early students. The preceptor develops a case or selects a case, and the
student works with the preceptor to discuss a possible case history,
evaluation strategy, possible diagnoses, and recommendations. The student
and the preceptor share in the decision making. This strategy can be used
with all levels of learners, with straight forward cases for early learners, and
more complicated cases for advanced learners. The preceptor may be more
involved with the early learner in this strategy and take a step back with
more advanced learners. For early learners, this is a positive, confidencebuilding exercise.
Sink or Swim approach. In Gray and Smith's 2000 article on the
qualities of an effective mentor from the student nurses' perspectives, the
Sink or Swim approach was criticized by students as suggestive of a poor
mentor. However, in this strategy, ultimately the preceptor is responsible for
the student's actions and is always available for consultation. This strategy
might not be very effective with a beginning student, but would likely work
well with a transitional student who needs some nudging to move their skills
along, and certainly with a more advanced student. With an early student,
the level of anxiety would probably be quite high if the student is given great
independence with very little experience.
Manipulated Structure approach. In contrast, the Manipulated
Structure Approach (Gray & Smith, 2000) would be more appropriate for an
early student. Here cases or procedures are carefully selected by the
preceptor for the student's skill level in an effort to improve basic skills, to
give the student early success, and to boost their confidence.
Reflection. Another teaching strategy is Reflection (Arseneau, 1995;
DaRosa, 1997; Smith, 1997). As was noted earlier, reflection on one's
performance is critical for learning. In a fast-paced environment, there is not
much time given to reflection. We often expect students to make sense of
everything quickly. Depending upon the level of student, they may need
more time to reflect on the clinical details to understand how it all fits. They
need to take the information, think about it, integrate it, and apply it to the
appropriate patient or scenario. Even very advanced students complain
about the lack of time to "make sense of things." Taking time to catch one's
breath is important. In giving the student time to reflect it is imperative for

them to be able to generalize information and to develop the crucial critical

thinking skills necessary for more independent practice.
Self-directed Learning. In Self-directed Learning, the students
develop their own goals, their own questions, and likely develop their own
plan on how to accomplish these goals and questions. This strategy is likely
most effective with transitional and competent proficient learners, those who
have had more experience and better developed skills. Those students have
a better understanding and judgment of their learning needs. Early students
generally need more guidance with their learning. Often when you ask a
beginning student what they want to learn, the list is endless, and not always
relevant to the most important skill for their point in time of learning.
Self-assessment. Self-assessment is a skill that we begin teaching
with early students. While initially, the self-reflection may not be very
objective, over time the student learns to assess their strengths and
weaknesses in their performance, and to develop their own strategies on
how to improve upon them. Late learners do this on a daily and consistent
basis, assessing each skill to refine their performance with little prompting
from their preceptor.
Direct Questioning. Direct Questioning is an excellent technique to
develop critical thinking skills, as long as the questioning is not perceived as
a grilling. Questions, such as, "What do you think? What are some
possibilities? Why do you think that? Give me an example. How could you
handle that differently?" enable the student to share his/her observations
and line of thinking. The preceptor can assist the student with formulating
information based upon the answers to apply to other cases. This line of
questioning also gives the preceptor a guideline about the student's ability to
integrate information, formulate concepts, and to look at big picture issues.
Think Aloud method. The Think Aloud method, (Lee & Ryan-Wenger,
1997) as a tool of direct questioning, can be very effective. Both the
preceptor and the student can provide rationale for specific questions and
techniques that were used or will be used to demonstrate how conclusions
were reached. The student basically describes their thought process or
technique. This is a good method for developing critical thinking skills and
can be used with all levels of learners. It is very effective with early learners
as it forces the student to verbalize his/her thoughts and to support the
decisions that have been made. The preceptor then has clear understanding
of the student's ability to transfer knowledge to the clinical case, and their
decision making process.

One-Minute method. The One-Minute method is a technique

frequently used in medicine, particularly when time is short, thus the name.
This technique has been written about by many authors and validated. In the
One-Minute Preceptor Method (Neher, Gordon, Meyer, & Stevens, 1992), the
student assesses the patient and then describes to the preceptor what is
going on in a very brief time. The preceptor then challenges the student to
provide supporting information to defend his/her assessment. The student is
able to draw upon all resources and to critically assess the case. The
preceptor then provides immediate feedback about what was correct and
provides generalized information in which the student can apply to later
cases. Here is how the one-minute method works with some learning goals.
In this case, the student makes the decision regarding the case and the
preceptor says, "What do you think?" Then the preceptor continues to probe
for supporting findings and the critical thinking aspects by asking the student
a question similar to, "What led you to that conclusion?" You then inform the
student what the student was able to do well, followed by you as the
preceptor correcting any errors or mistakes that the student did make.
Assigned Directed Readings. Assigning Directed Readings is
especially good for early learners given the limited experience with certain
kinds of patients, pathologies, and techniques. I like to use this with students
both beginning and advanced. For example, you may see a patient with a
rare pathology and ask the student to read a particular article, or research
the subject and write a short synopsis. This gives an opportunity for the
student to teach you, also. Generally later learners will do this on their own
without prompting from the preceptor.
Coaching. With Coaching, the preceptor guides the student verbally
through a test or procedure. The intent here is to keep the student safe and
efficient with a technique they have not yet mastered. This is a strategy that
we use frequently in our clinic as the students follow the clinicians' schedules
and therefore may see a test or technique for which they have not yet had
coursework.
Journaling. It is a way to stay informed about what the students are
doing at their site, and also as a way for them to express their thoughts
about the week. Early in the year, the reflections are generally a run-down of
the week. Later, their reflections become more of a collaborative thought
process of what they have generalized over time and more about the big
picture of their clinical work overall.
Feedback. Feedback is critical to the learning process. If no feedback
is given, many students automatically think they he/she has not performed

well. Without feedback, it is truly difficult for a student to make constructive

change with his/her work. Allowing the student to provide their own selfassessment first is important for the student to learn objective selfassessment (Burns et al., 2006). Feedback needs to be descriptive and
specific. Stating "You are doing fine," is not helpful feedback. Reinforce what
is positive, discuss any errors or mistakes, and demonstrate to the student
where they can improve. Students appreciate feedback that is delivered in a
respectful and positive manner just like we like to hear feedback.
Source: http://www.audiologyonline.com/articles/strategies-for-clinical-

teaching-6944
H. Evaluating learners progress
INFORMAL TECHNIQUES
Written Reflections. Sometimes referred to as "Minute Papers" or
"Muddiest Points," these popular assessment techniques have students
reflect immediately following a learning opportunity (e.g., at the end of a
class or after completing an out-of-class activity) to answer one or two basic
questions like:
What was the most important thing you learned today?
What was the most confusing topic today?
What important question remains unanswered?
Polls/Surveys. Data on student opinions, attitudes, behaviors or confidence
in understanding can be gathered either during class (e.g., with a classroom
response system) or outside of class. This can illustrate student engagement
with the material as well as prior knowledge, misconceptions, and
comprehension.
Checks for Understanding. Pausing every few minutes to see whether
students are following along with the lesson not only identifies gaps in
comprehension, but helps break up lectures (e.g, with Clicker questions) or
online lessons (e.g., with embedded quiz questions) into more digestible
bites.
Wrappers. "Wrapping" activities, using a set of reflective questions, can
help students develop skills to monitor their own learning and adapt as
necessary.
FORMAL TECHNIQUES
In-class Activities. Having students work in pairs or small groups to solve
problems creates space for powerful peer-to-peer learning and rich class

discussion. Instructors and TAs can roam the classroom as students work,
helping those who get stuck and guiding those who are headed in the wrong
direction.
Quizzes. Gauge students prior knowledge, assess progress midway
through a unit, create friendly in-class competition, review before the test -quizzes can be great tools that don't have to count heavily toward students'
grades. Using quizzes to begin units is also a fun way to assess what your
students already know, clear up misconceptions, and drive home the point of
how much they will learn.
Online Learning Modules. Canvas and other Learning Management
Systems allow students to solve problems or answer questions along the
way. This can provide you with analytics on student responses and class
performance so you can tailor your instruction to their particular learning
needs.
Class Deliverables. In-class activities are designed so students, usually in
groups, are required to submit a product of their work for a grade. Among
the variety of techniques that can be used, the most effective will balance
individual and group accountability and require students to think about
authentic complex issues. Team-Based Learning uses four criteria in the
design of collaborative application exercises.
Summative (High-Stakes) Assessments:
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are
high-stakes assessments (i.e., they have high point values) that occur at the
end of an instructional unit or course and measure the extent to which
students have achieved the desired learning outcomes.
Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of
course units. The best tests include several types of questions short
answer, multiple-choice, true-false, and short essay to allow students to
fully demonstrate what they know.
Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to
go deeper with the material to put the knowledge theyve acquired to use or
create something new from it. This level of application is an extremely
important and often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of
projects also give students who do not test well a chance to shine.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful
way for students to see the progress theyve made. More than just a
collection of students' work from the semester, good portfolios also include
reflections on their learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or

techniques used with each piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced
also brings a sense of completion to the learning process.
Source: http://ctl.utexas.edu/teaching/assess-learning/methods-overview