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To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. FROM CATHODE RAYS to TELEVISION
2. FROM RADIO to PHOTOCELLS: QUANTUM THEORY
3. FROM ATOMS to COMPUTERS: SEMICONDUCTORS
4. FROM CRYSTALS to SUPERCONDUCTORS
...all in the context of how Physics has contributed to modern technology
and Meanwhile,
...the study of
Cathode Rays led
directly to the
invention of the
TV set, so familiar
today.
of Crystal Structure
copyright 2005-2006
F = QvBsin
Behaviour of a
Charged Particle in
a Magnetic Field
Failure to
follow-u
up
The TV screen.
Main parts and
their role
Revision of
Electric Fields
Revision of
Black Body
Radiation
Hertzs
Discovery of
Radio Waves
Cathode Rays.
Discovery &
Properties
Planks
Quantum
Theory
From RADIO
to PHOTOCELLS:
Quantum Theory
From IDEAS
to
IMPLEMENTATION
From CRYSTALS
to
SUPERCONDUCTORS
Conductivity in
Metals.
Superconductivity
Einsteins
Contribution
Particle-W
Wave
Duality
of Light
Photoelectric
Effect
&
Applications:
solar cells
photocells
E = hf
and
c=f
From ATOMS
to COMPUTERS
Confirmation of EMR.
Measurement of c
Discovery of the
Electron...
Thompsons
Experiment
Band Theory of
Conductors,
Insulators &
Semiconductors
Revision of
Atomic Structure
&
Structures of Solid
Lattices
Doping.
n-ttype & p-ttype
Semiconductors
Differing views
on
Sciences place
in society
Valves to Transistors to
Microprocessors...
Impacts on Society
copyright 2005-2006
ANODE (+ve)
in the shape
of a Maltese
Cross
Shadow of the
cross in the
glow at the end
of the tube
This tube is
glowing and
showing light
and dark
bands, or
striations
CRT with
fluorescent
screen
Beam of
cathode rays on
screen
Electric plates
on either side
of beam
(no voltage
applied yet)
When voltage
is applied to
the plates, the
beam deflects
-ve
+ve
+
Repulsion
Attraction
F = Q.E
is more useful.
Solution:
F = Q.E
= -1.602x10-19 x 400
= -6.41x10-17N.
The negative sign simply means that the direction of the
force will be in the opposite direction to the electric field.
By definition,
the direction of
the field is the
way a positive
charge would
move in the
field
copyright 2005-2006
Positively (+ve)
charged plate
Negatively (-ve)
charged plate
Uniform Field
Between Plates
If a magnet is
brought near, the
beam deflects.
A force is acting
on the moving
charged particles.
F = QvBsin
Example Calculation:
Two parallel plates are 1.25cm apart.(convert to metres)
A voltage of 12.0V is applied across the plates.
What is the magnitude of the field between the plates?
Solution:
E=V/d
= 12.0 / 0.0125
= 960NC-1.
B
Since sin90o = 1,
o
and sin0 = 0,
Mag.
then maximum force occurs
Field
when the charge moves at right angles to the field.
Example Calculation:
In the CRT above, the cathode rays
(electrons; Qe=-1.602x10-19C)
are moving at a velocity of 2.50x106ms-1.
The magnet provides a field of 0.0235T.
Held as shown, the field lines are at an
angle of 70o to the beam.
What force acts on each electron?
Solution:
F = QvBsin
= -1.602x10-19x2.50x106x0.0235xsin70o
= -8.84 x 10-15N. (negative sign
simply refers to direction)
HSC Physics Topic 3
Magnetic
B
Field
Force,
(charged plates)
+ve
E down page
-ve
Variable voltage
Fluorescent screen to
measure deflection
(Adjustable Electromagnets)
Cathode Rays
Other experimenters had already determined the chargemass ratio for the hydrogen atom (the smallest atom). It
was apparent that the cathode ray particle was much smaller
than a hydrogen atom. The conclusion was that all atoms
must be made of smaller parts, one of which was the
cathode ray particle, soon re-named ELECTRON.
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 1
Part A Fill in the blanks.
Check answers at the back.
An electric u)............................. is created around
anything with electric charge. The direction of
the field is defined as v)........................
...............................................................................
Any charge within a field will experience a
w)............................ The field between 2
x)........................... .................................. plates is
uniform in both y)..................................... and
..........................................., and is determined by
the z)................................... applied to the plates
and the aa).................................. between them.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
6.
An electron (Q=-1.60x10-19C) is travelling north
at 3.00x107ms-1 in a cathode ray tube when it
enters a magnetic field of strength 4.96x10-2T.
The field is directed vertically upwards through
the CRT.
Find the magnitude and direction of the force
experienced by the electron.
7.
In a nuclear accelerator, a charged ion has been
accelerated up to a velocity of 2.90x108ms-1. As it
enters a magnetic field of strength 8.05T (field is
perpendicular to ions velocity vector) it
experiences a force of magnitude 3.75x10-9N.
What is the magnitude of the charge on the ion?
8.
A particle of the solar wind with charge of
(+)1.60x10-19C (it is in fact a proton) encounters
the Earths magnetic field at an angle of 25o to
the field lines. At this point the field has a
strength of 5.48x10-4T. The proton experiences a
force of 7.40x10-15N.
Find the velocity of the proton.
9.
In an experiment similar to Thomsons, a stream
of electrons in a CRT are each experiencing a
force of magnitude 4.06x10-15N when travelling
through a perpendicular magnetic field at a
velocity of 7.80x106ms-1.
a) What is the strength of the magnetic field?
The force on the electrons is exactly counteracted
by an electric field produced by charged plates
which are 8.00mm apart.
b) What is the strength of the electric field?
c) What is the voltage being applied across the
plates?
Sparks produced in
small gap in receiving
loop
spark
gap
High-voltage
Induction coil
Solar
Cells
Within another 20 years, radio was being used for longdistance communications using morse code. Within 100
years the world was blanketed with radio transmissions for
communication and entertainment.
HSC Physics Topic 3
E = h.f
E = energy of a quantum, in joules ( J)
h = Planks constant, which has a value of 6.63x10-34
f = frequency of the wave, in hertz (Hz)
BLACK BODY
RADIATION
CURVES
very hot
object
peak
wavelength
shorter
V = .f
c = .f
hot
object
peak
wavelength
Example Calculation:
A ray of red light has a wavelength of 6.50x10-7m.
warm
object
peak wavelength
longer
shorter
longer
Solution:
a)
c = .f
3.00x108 = 6.50x10-7x f
f = 3.00x108/6.50x10-7
= 4.62x1014Hz.
b) E = h.f
= 6.63x10-34 x 4.62x1014
= 3.06x10-19 J.
Wavelength of Radiation
copyright 2005-2006
Solar Cells
Solar Cells (or photovoltaic cells) are devices which
produce electricity directly from light energy. They are very
familiar in the popular garden lights which need no wiring
or battery replacements.
During the day, the solar cell(s) charge up a small rechargable battery.
Light is NOT
a stream of
particles
Light is NOT
a wave
Photocells
A photocell is a device which can detect and measure light.
Photocells are used in light meters (photography), electriceyes and a variety of light-measuring scientific equipment,
such as photometers.
copyright 2005-2006
A-bomb Dome,
Hiroshima, Japan
by
Kathy de la Cruz
12
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 2
2.
Compare the amount of quantum energy carried by a
photon of
i) infra-red (heat) radiation ( = 5.45x10-6m)
and
ii) UV radiation ( = 5.45x10-9m)
3.
A photon of radiation is carrying 8.75x10-14J of energy.
Calculate
a) its frequency
b) its wavelength
4.
To cause emission of an electron from the surface of a
certain metal requires the electron to gain a minimum of
2.38x10-20J of energy.
a) Find the frequency and wavelength of the photon of
EMR which carries this threshold amount of energy.
b) What happens if the electron is struck by a photon with
a longer wavelength than this?
c) What will happen if the electron was struck by a photon
of higher frequency than calculated in (a)?
5.
An electron was emitted from a metal surface after being
struck by a photon of EMR.
The electron left the surface with energy of 6.22x10-17J. It
firstly had to use 9.28x10-19J of energy to escape the
metal surface. All of this energy was gained by interaction
with a single photon.
Find the frequency and wavelength of the photon.
13
Electrons are
relatively easy
to remove
from some
atoms...
this leads to
electrical
conductivity,
Photoelectric
Effect, etc
Atomic Nucleus
Electrical Conductivity
When millions and billions of atoms form a lattice
structure (most strong solids are like this) they do so by
forming chemical bonds with each other in a regular array.
ATOMS in a SOLID ARRAY
Forbidden
energy gap.
Electrons
cannot exist
there.
Migrating
electron
Chemical
Bonds
Electrons in
quantised
energy bands
In a conductor, electrons
can jump from one atom
to the next
Some bands
overlap
Nucleus
14
In Insulators,
In Semiconductors,
the bands are
there is a small gap
separated by a
between the bands.
wide forbidden
energy gap.
Conduction
Band
Conduction
Band
Valence
Band
Forbidden
Energy gap
Valence Band
hole
Conduction
Band
Valence Band
Doping a Semiconductor
Each
chemical
bond is
formed by
atoms
extra valence
electron
sharing 2
electrons.
Atom with
3 valence
electrons
used to
Dope the
These
electrons
are in the
valence
energy
band
extra hole in
the lattice
lattice.
Atom with 5 valence electrons
used to Dope the lattice.
15
copyright 2005-2006
n-Type Semiconductors
are doped with atoms with 5 valence electrons, such as
arsenic or antimony. This adds extra valence electrons to
the lattice. Electrical current is carried mainly by this flow
of negative charges (hence n-type).
p-Type Semiconductors
are doped with atoms with 3 valence electrons, such as
aluminium or gallium. This adds extra holes to the lattice.
Electrical current is carried mainly by this flow of positive
holes (hence p-type).
2 cm
Characteristics:
relatively large & expensive
10 cm
16
copyright 2005-2006
Assessment of
Impacts of the Transistor on Society
Silicon v Germanium
To make semiconductor material with the desired
conductivity properties, it is necessary to firstly prepare
extremely pure samples, then add minute amounts of the
doping chemical, and finally grow crystals of the
semiconductor from the molten material in a furnace.
Silicon Chip
Photo
pipp
17
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 3
Fill in the blanks. Check your answers at the
back.
a)........................... orbit around the nucleus of
atoms at various b)............................... levels.
Basically, a substance will be an electrical
conductor if c)................................ can move from
d)............................................................ freely. If
electrons cannot do this at all, the substance is an
e)..................................................
18
Unlike silicon, salt and other crystals, metal atoms are not
chemically bonded to each other by the sharing or
exchanging of electrons.
The discovery of high frequency EMR in the form of Xrays opened up a new line of investigation. Sir William
Bragg and his son Lawrence, beamed X-rays through
crystals and studied the diffraction patterns which were
formed as the crystal lattice scattered the X-rays.
Photographic film
sensitive to x-rays
+
+
Crystal
x-ray
beam
Si
Each
chemical
bond is
formed by
atoms
sharing 2
electrons
with each
neighbour
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
+
+
Si
Si
Resistance in Metals
Crystal Structures
Si
Si
Superconductivity!
19
Cooper Pair
of electrons forms
+
Small
Levitating magnet
Approaching
electron
Disk of
Superconducting
Ceramic
Liquid
Nitrogen
dish
Explanation:
As the magnet is brought near, its magnetic field induces
currents in the ceramic. Since there is NO electrical
resistance, the currents flow freely, non-stop and generate
a magnetic field that repels the approaching magnet.
Superconductors will never allow an external
magnetic field to penetrate them.
HSC Physics Topic 3
20
copyright 2005-2006
Advantages
Superconductor technology offers
Possible Future Applications
high efficiency in any electrical
situation, because there is no energy
loss due to resistance.
the ability to generate extremely
strong magnetic fields from
superconducting electromagnets.
faster operation of computers, since
superconducting switching devices
could be 10 times faster than a
semiconductor transistor
Limitations
Superconducting metals must be
chilled with liquid helium. This is
impractical and expensive.
New, superconducting ceramics can
be chilled with liquid nitrogen, which is
cheaper and much more practical, BUT
these ceramics:
are fragile and brittle and difficult
to make into wires.
can be chemically unstable and
have a limited life span.
21
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 4
Fill in the blanks.
Check your answers at the back.
The explanation of superconductivity is
v)...................... Theory, which states:
an approaching electron causes a slight
w)............................ of the ion lattice.
this concentrates the density of
x)............................ charge, which attracts more
electrons.
2
electrons
can
form
a
y)..................................................... which results
in both of them z)............................................... the
lattice without energy loss, due to
aa)....................................... energy effects.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
22
From RADIO
to PHOTOCELLS:
Quantum Theory
From IDEAS
to
IMPLEMENTATION
From CRYSTALS
to
SUPERCONDUCTORS
From ATOMS
to COMPUTERS
23
copyright 2005-2006
5.
If you were to alter the voltage to the anode in the
electron gun part of a TV picture tube, this would alter:
A. the position of the image on the screen.
B. the speed of the cathode ray beam.
C. the brightness & colours of the fluorescent image.
D. the size of the image.
Practice Questions
6.
Which of the following best describes the outcome of
Hertzs famous experiments of 1887?
A. His discoveries led to the Quantum Theory of light.
B. He showed that light gives interference patterns.
C. He confirmed that light is an electromagnetic wave.
D. He determined a more accurate value for the speed of
light.
Part A
Multiple Choice
1.
The Maltese Cross cathode ray
tube proves that cathode rays:
A. travel from anode to cathode.
B. travel in straight lines.
C. are particles with mass.
D. are electrically charged.
7.
According to Quantum Theory, if you compared the
energy of 2 photons of light and found that one had more
energy than the other, then the one with more energy must
have:
A. more mass.
B. longer wavelength.
C. higher frequency.
D. a higher velocity.
2.
A cathode ray beam is passing through
an electric field directed as shown in
the diagram.
E field
This is part of an experiment in
which the beam will simultaneously cathode rays
pass through a magnetic field.
The arrangement and strengths of the 2 fields is such that
the effects will cancel out so the beam travels through
without deflection.
8.
The Photoelectric Effect involves:
A. emission of electrons that have absorbed a quantum of
energy from a photon.
B. emission of a photon of light that has absorbed the
excess energy from a falling electron.
C. using photographic film to get an image of x-ray
interference patterns.
D. using an electrical induction coil to cause sparks in a
separate receiving coil or antenna.
D.
+
C.
-
9.
According to Einstein, light often behaves like a wave, but
sometimes acts like a particle. A phenomenon in which the
particle nature of a photon is noticeable, is:
A. interference of photons scattered by crystals.
B. refraction of light by a glass lens.
C. photoelectric effect occurring in a solar cell.
D. polarization of light by sunglasses.
B.
10.
According to Band Structure Theory of electrical
conductivity, the valence band and the conduction
band in a semiconductor:
A. overlap each other.
B. are sparated by a very wide forbidden energy gap.
C. are inverted in reverse order to normal.
D. are separated by a narrow energy gap.
4.
Thomsons famous cathode ray experiment was able to
get a value for:
A. the charge to mass ratio, of cathode rays.
B. the mass of the electron.
C. the strength of crossed electric and magnetic fields.
D. the electric charge of an electron.
HSC Physics Topic 3
24
17.
In a superconductor above its transition temperature:
A. lattice vibrations break up the Cooper Pairs as fast as
they can form.
B. lattice distortions attract electrons to form Cooper Pairs.
C. the Meissner Effect can levitate a magnet.
D. the holes in a doped lattice allow electrons to tunnel.
11.
Which line of information below, best describes a p-type
semiconductor?
Valence of atoms
Current mainly
used to dope lattice
carried by
A.
5
electrons
B.
3
holes
C.
5
holes
D.
3
electrons
12.
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a
transistor, compared to a thermionic valve?
A. consumes less power.
B. needs time to warm up.
C. operates faster.
D. smaller and more reliable.
18. (5 marks)
Explain why the apparent behaviour of cathode rays caused
debate as to whether they were charged particles or
electromagnetic waves.
19. (6 marks)
Two parallel charged plates +
are 6.00cm apart, in vacuum, +
and have a potential
+
difference of 30.0V between +
them.
An electron (Qe = -1.60x10-19C) is located between the
plates.
a) Find the magnitude of the electric field between the
plates.
b) Calculate the force that will act on the electron due to
this field.
c) At what rate will the electron accelerate?
(electron mass = 9.11x10-31kg)
13.
The original transistors were made from Germanium, but
the technology later switched to use Silicon, because:
A. Silicon crystals are easier to grow.
B. Germanium supplies were running out.
C. Silicon is more abundant and cheaper.
D. Germanium crystals couldnt be miniaturized as well.
The following diagram describes a famous experiment
carried out by Sir William & Lawrence Bragg.
The diagram refers to Q 14 & Q15.
Photographic film
20. (8 marks)
An alpha particle
(Q = + 3.20x10-19C) is
about to enter a magnetic
field of strength 5.22T at
a velocity of
2.95x103ms-1.
a) Find the magnitude and (initial) direction of the force
due to the magnetic field it will experience.
b) A pair of charged plates (not shown in the diagram)
are arranged so that the force due to the magnetic field
will be exactly cancelled out by the force due to the
electric field.
Sketch where the plates need to be to do this, and indicate
the type of charge on each plate.
c) If these electric plates are 10.0cm apart, what voltage
must be applied to exactly cancel the magnetic deflection?
Crystal
14.
The radiation used by the Braggs was:
A. x-rays
B. radio waves
C. ultra-violet
D. visible light
15.
The pattern captured on the photographic film was due to
the phenomenon of:
A. refraction.
B. photoelectric effect.
C. polarization.
D. interference.
21. (6 marks)
A TV picture tube is made up of several main
components. Outline the role of the
a) electrodes of the electron gun.
b) deflection plates or coils.
c) fluorescent screen.
22. (4 marks)
As part of your studies you have carried out an
investigation to demonstrate the production and
reception of radio waves.
Describe briefly how you did this.
16.
Superconductor technology is currently limited by:
A. lack of suitable applications to apply it to.
B. superconducting chemicals being fragile and brittle.
C. the operating temperatures being too low to achieve.
D. semiconductors do the same job more efficiently.
HSC Physics Topic 3
25
23. (6 marks)
Two different photons of light have wavelengths of
5.00x10-7m (photon P) and 2.40x10-8m (photon Q).
Qualitatively (no calculation required) compare P & Qs:
a) speed
b) frequency
c) energy
Explain your answers in each case.
28. (5 marks)
Compare and contrast a p-type semiconductor and an
n-type semiconductor.
24. (4 marks)
For an electron to escape from the surface of a particular
metal, it needs to absorb a minimum of 6.75x10-19J of
energy. Calculate the
a) frequency
b) wavelength
of a photon with just enough energy to cause this.
30. (4 marks)
Assess the impact of the invention of the transistor on
society, with particular reference to their use in microchips.
25. (3 marks)
Identify the contribution made by Einstein to Quantum
Theory.
32. (3 marks)
Discuss the BCS Theory of superconductivity.
29. (4 marks)
Describe the differences between a solid state and
thermionic device in terms of structure and discuss why
solid state devices replaced thermionic devices.
31. (3 marks)
Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine
crystal structure.
33. (3 marks)
Outline the possible benefits from applying
superconductor technology to computers, generators and
electrical transmission systems.
26. (4 marks)
a) What is the photoelectric effect?
b) Summarize how this effect is used in a solar cell.
27. (5 marks)
In relation to the Band Structure Theory of conductivity,
a) what is meant by the valence band of an atom?
b) what is meant by the conduction band of an atom?
c) explain the difference between
conductors
insulators
semiconductors
26
Answer Section
Worksheet 1
Part A
a) cathode
b) discharge
c) vacuum
d) voltage
e) glows, streamers and striations
f) gas pressure
g) negative
h) Crookes
i) Maltese
j) fluorescent
k) kinetic
l) momentum
m) electric
n) waves or particles
o) straight lines
p) fluorescence
q) photographic film
r) kinetic energy & momentum
s) mass
t) negative
u) field
v) the direction a positive test charge would move
w) force
x) parallel, charged
y) strength & direction
z) voltage
aa) distance
ab) moving
ac) magnetic
ad) magnet
ae) deflect
af) Right-Hand Palm
ag) Thomson
ah) electric & magnetic
ai) charge to mass
aj) particles
ak) atoms
al) electron
am) TV
an) electron
ao) electrons
ap) cathode
aq) anodes
ar) deflection
as) steer/direct
at) fluorescent
au) glow
av) electrons
Worksheet 2
Part A
a) radio
b) induction
c) sparks
d) wire loop antenna
e) reflection & diffracted
f) velocity
g) light
h) Photoelectric
i) Black Body
j) Max Plank
k) Quantum
l) quantised
m) atom
n) quantum
o) frequency
p) light energy
q) electron
r) emitted
s) Quantum
t) photons
u) quantum
v) all
w) none
x) part of its energy.
y) reflection, refraction and diffraction (plus others)
z) particle
aa) predictions
ab) Photoelectric
ac) experiment
ad) Quantum
ae) Black Body
af) Photoelectric
Part B
Electric Fields & Forces
1.
a)
E = V/d = 50.0/0.0400 = 1250 = 1.25x103NC-1.
b) F = Q.E = 3.20x10-19x1.25x103 = 4.00x10-16N.
c) i) Field is directed from +ve plate to -ve plate.
ii) Force is also directed towards -ve plate.
2.
a) F = Q.E, so E = F/Q = -7.82x10-15/-1.60x10-19
= 48.9x104 NC-1.
b) E = V/d, so V = E.d = 48.9x104 x 0.00250 = 122V.
3.
a) E = V/d = 200/0.0500 = 4.00x103NC-1.
b) F = Q.E, so Q = F/E = 2.29x10-12/4.00x103
= 5.73x10-16C.
c) No. electrons = charge on speck/ Qe
= 5.73x10-16/1.60x10-19 = 3.58x103 electrons.
d) Attracted to -ve plate, therefore speck must have +ve charge,
therefore must have lost electrons.
4.
First find field, from force on electron:
E = F/Q
= -5.88x10-17/-1.60x10-19
= 368NC-1.
Now use E = V/d, d = V/E = 40.0/368 = 0.109m. (10.9cm)
5.
Find E: E = V/d = 100/0.00500 = 20,000NC-1
Next use: F = Q.E = 9.75x10-10x20,000 = 1.95x10-5N.
27
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 2
Part B (continued)
3.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 8.75x10-14/6.63x10-34
= 1.32x1020 Hz.
b) c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/1.23x1020
= 2.44x10-12m.
(this is extremely high energy, high frequency, short wavelength
EMR in the range of hard x-ray or gamma radiation)
4.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 2.38x10-20/6.63x10-34
= 3.59x1013 Hz.
c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/3.59x1013
= 8.36x10-6 m.
b) A longer wavelength photon would have lower frequency, and
therefore less energy. Since this would be below the threshold
energy for emission of an electron, no emission would occur.
c) A higher frequency photon will transfer all its energy to an
electron. The threshold energy is used to escape the metal
surface, while any excess becomes the kinetic energy of the
electron.
5.
Total energy of the photon = 6.22x10-17 + 9.28x10-19
= 6.31x10-17J.
Frequency, f = E/h = 6.31x10-17/6.63x10-34
= 9.52x1016Hz.
Wavelength, = c/f = 3.00x108/9.52x1016
= 3.15x10-9m.
Practice Questions
Part A Multiple Choice
1. B
5. B
9. C
2. D
6. C
10. D
3. D
7. C
11. B
4. A
8. A
12. B
a) Electrons
b) energy
c) electrons
d) atom to atom
e) insulator
f) conductivity
g) conductive
h) switched
i) electronics
j) computers
k) Band Structure
l) valence
m) conduction
n) current
o) energy gaps
p) quantum
q & r) conduction & valence s) overlap
t) currents/electricity
u) insulator
v) forbidden energy gap
w) conduction
x) narrow
y) conduct
z) cross
aa) to conduct
ab) minute / very small
ac) doping
ad) electrons
ae) holes
af) semiconductor
ag) extra electrons
ah) n-type
ai) doped
aj) 3
ak) holes
al) p-type
am) thermionic
an) cathode ray
ao) transistor
ap) much smaller
aq) cheaper
ar) less
as) waste heat
at) faster
au) warm up
av) reliable
aw) Germanium
ax) Silicon
ay) abundant/ common
az) cheaper
ba) chips
bb) microchips / microprocessors
17. A
c) Force on particle
must be equal to (a)
F = 4.93x10-15N.
-v
ve
Worksheet 4
13. C
14. A
15. D
16. B
Worksheet 3
a) x-rays
c) interference
e) crystal lattice
g) electrons
i) conductor
l) Superconductivity
n) 4oK (-269oC)
p) 125oK (approx -150C)
r) magnetic
t) field
v) BCS
x) positive
z) pass through
ab) efficiency
ad) resistance heating
af) switch
ah) semiconductor/ transistor
aj) liquid helium
al) ceramic
an) wires
ap) Maglev
b) diffracted
d) photographic
f) ions
h) conduction
j) resistance
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copyright 2005-2006
22.
(many possible answers) A spider web of wire was connected
to an induction coil. When switched on, the fluctuating, high
voltage from the coil caused the wire to act as a tranmitting
antenna, giving off radio frequency waves.
This was proven by placing a modern radio receiver on the other
side of the room. It picked up loud bursts of static noise
whenever the coil was on.
23.
a) both travel at the same velocity (= 3x108ms-1 in vacuum)
because ALL EMR waves travel at this speed of light.
b) Photon Q has a shorter wavelength, and therefore must have
higher frequency.
c) Photon Q carries more energy, because quantum energy is
proportional to frequency.
24.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 6.75x10-19/6.63x10-34
= 1.02x1015 Hz.
b) c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/1.02x1015
= 2.94x10-7m.
25.
Quantum Theory was proposed by Max Plank as a mathematical
convenience to explain the shape of the Black Body Radiation
curves. However, it was Einstein who used quantum theory to
cause a major change in the direction of Physics. His photon
idea changed classical Physics, and caused physicists to look at
the things quite differently.
Differences
In n-type semiconductors, the lattice has been doped with
atoms with 5 valence electrons. This places extra valence
electrons in the lattice and increases the sensitivity of the
substance to carrying currents by the flow of negative electrons.
In p-type semiconductors, the lattice has been doped with
atoms with only 3 valence electrons. This leaves extra holes in
the lattice and increases the sensitivity of the substance to
carrying currents by the flow of positive holes.
29.
A Thermionic valve is a cathode ray tube: a glass tube containing
metal electrodes in a vacuum. Typically the valve is 10-20cm in
size. A solid state transistor is a sandwich of n-type and p-type
semiconductor material (i.e. doped silicon crystals). A transistor
can range in size from 1-2 cm, down to microscopic layers etched
into the crystal in a microchip.
Transistors can do exactly the same job as valves, but
are much smaller and cheaper.
use much less electricity, and produce hardly any waste heat.
are faster, more reliable, and do not need time to warm up.
For all these reasons, the transistor replaced the valve in
electronics.
30.
The invention of the transistor has had an enormous impact on
society by making possible the development of electronics,
especially computers, operated by cheap, efficient and miniature
microchips. This has allowed the development of:
business and financial systems for cheap, efficient operation of
a global economy.
instant access to information, communication and entertainment
via the internet, TV, DVD technology, mobile phones, etc.
31.
Sir William & Lawrence Bragg beamed x-rays through crystals.
The atomic or ionic lattice in the crystal diffracted the x-rays,
which then formed interference patterns. These were captured as
geometric patterns on photographic film. Analysis of the
geometry of the x-ray diffraction pattern allowed them to
calculate the spacing and geometry of the lattice.
32.
BCS theory states that:
an electron (in the conduction band of a conductor) causes a
slight distortion of the ionic lattice.
This increases the density of +ve charge in this area, which
attracts more electrons.
Normally this causes electron collisions and heating in a
conductor, resulting in electrical resistance.
In a superconductor below its transition temperature, the
electrons can form cooper pairs which use quantum effects to
tunnel through the lattice with zero resistance.
33. Possible benefits:
faster computers, because superconducting switches are 10
times faster than transistors.
more efficient generation of electricity from superconducting
coils producing more powerful magnetic fields in generators.
Elimination of restistance heating losses in transmission lines
could save energy, and reduce costs and environmental impacts.
29
copyright 2005-2006