Technology

and
Terminology
of
K n a p p e d Ston

M.-L. Iniza n
M. Reduron-Ballinge r
H. R o c h e

J. Tixie r

Translated b y

J , Feblot-Augustin s

CREP

Technology
and Terminolog y
of Knapped Ston e

Prhistoire d e l a Pierr e Taill e

Published by Cercle de Recherches et d'Etudes Prhistorique s
Maison de l'Archologie e t de l'Ethnologie (Bot e 3)
21, all e de l'Universit - 92023 Nanterre Cede x - France

Tome 5

In the same collection

Tome
Tome
Tome
Tome

1
2
3
4

Terminologie et Technologie (out of print)

E c o n o m i e du dbitage laminaire
Technology of Knapped Stone (out of print)
Technologie d e la Pierre Taille

Technology and Terminology of

Knapped Stone
followed by a multilingual
vocabulary (Arabic, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Portuguese,
Spanish) / Marie-Louise Inizan, Michle Reduron-Ballinger, Hlne Roche,
Jacques Tixier, translated by Jehanne Fblot-Augustins. Nanterre : C.R.E.P.,
1999 - 191 pages : 80 ill.; (Prhistoir e de la Pierre Taille;
5).
I S B N 2-903516-05-7

I S B N 2-903516-05-7
C R E P 1999

C o v e r : J. Tixier

Prhistoire d e l a Pierr e Taill e

Tome 5

Technology
and Terminolog y
of Knappe d Ston e
Followed b y a multilingua l vocabular y
Arabic, English , French , German , Greek , Italian , Portuguese, Spanis h

Marie-Louise Iniza n
Michle Reduron-Ballinge r
Hlne Roch e
Jacques Tixie r
Translated b y Jehann e Fblot-Augustin s

Nanterre : CREP

1999

Authors
Marie-Louise Inizan*, M i c h l e Reduron-Ballinger**, Hlne R o c h e * , Jacques Tixier*

Translation
Jehanne Fblot-Augustins*

* U M R Prhistoire et Technologie - C N R S
* * U M S 844 - C N R S
M a i s o n de l'Archologie et de l'Ethnologie (Bote 3)
2 1 , alle de l'Universit
9 2 0 2 3 Nanterre Cedex, France
roche @mae.u-paris10.fr

Acknowledgments
W e thank O. B a r Yosef, L. Bourguignon, J.-P. Brugal, M . Charleux, M . Dauvois, J. Jaubert,
J.-G. Marcillaud, L. Meignen, A, Morala, A.-M. and P. Ptrequin, P.-J. Texier B . Vandermeersch,
for allowing the reproduction of documents, sometimes unpublished.
W e also thank I. Johnson for translating the first half of chapter 7 and B . L e q u e u x for her help
during the preparation of this book.

Contents
List of illustrations

Foreword

11

Introduction : Technology

13

Chapter 1 : Raw materials

19

Knapped hard rocks

1. Mineralogy
2. Knapping suitability of hard rocks
2.1. An experimenter's viewpoint
2.2. Heat treatment of raw materials

19
19
21
21
23

R a w material procurement strategies

1. Provenance of raw material
2. Local availability of raw material
3. Transport to the campsite

25
26
26
26

Chapter 2 : Knapping

29

Intentional knapping

29

Knapping : shaping, flaking, retouching

30

Knapping methods and techniques

30

T h e main techniques
1. Percussion
2. Pressure

30
30
32

Knapping
1.
2.
3.
4.

32
33
34
34
34
34
36
36
36

products
Describing a flake
Characteristic flakes
Knapping waste products
Knapping accidents
4.1. Breaks
4.2. Plunging flakes
4.3. Hinged flakes
4.4. Miscellaneous

Chapter 3 : Shaping
Bifacial shaping
1. Methods
2. Techniques
3. Morphologies

43
44
44
44
45

Polyhedral and spheroidal shaping

49

Other shaping methods

Preforms

51
51

T h e cleaver : a very specific tool

55

Chapter 4 : Debitage

59
5

T h e core

Debitage products

60

Debitage m e t h o d s
1. Simple debitage
2. Predetermined debitage
2.1. The Levallois methods
2.2. The Kombewa method
2.3. Blade debitage

60
61
61
61
68
71

Percussion debitage of blades

73

Pressure debitage of blades

76

Chapter 5 : Retouching

81

Definition
Characteristics

81

81

Orientation of tools

82

Special techniques and their products

1. Microburin blow technique
2. Burin blow technique
3. Tranchet blow technique
4. Clactonian notch technique
5. Other techniques

82
82
84
85
85
85

Chapter 6 : Technology a s a means to an end

89

Reading a stone object.....

1. Observation of surface conditions
2. Type of surface conditions
2.1. Natural alterations
2.2. Mechanical devices
2.3. Humanly induced alterations
2.4. Additions
3. Framework for the reading of a knapped stone object
3.1. Observation of surface conditions
3.2. Characterization of the raw material
3.3. Identification of the blank, if recognizable
3.4. Special knapping techniques
3.5. Description of removals by means of their main characteristics
3.6. Defining the object whether it be a tool or not

89
91
91
91
92
92
93
93
93
93
93
93
94
94

Understanding a lithic assemblage

1. Conjoins and refits.....
2. Knapping experiments
3. Traces of use
4. Technical behaviour
4.1. Assessment
4.2. Interpretation

94
94
96
98
99
99
10

Chapter 7 : Graphic representation

Planning
1. What to draw
2. How to draw

101
101
101
102

Drawing
1. General principles
2. Layout conventions
3. Description of the object
3.1. Views
3.2. Sections and section views
4. Graphic design and technique
4.1. Drafting
4.2. Pencil drawing
4.3. Pen and ink drawing
5. Materials and surfaces
5.1. Raw materials
5.2. Natural surfaces
5.3. Alterations
5.4. Additions
6. Symbols
Assessing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Scale
Orientation
Descriptive views
Removals
Symbols
Style of drawings

Schematizing
1. Schematic representation of an object
2. Schematic representation of a chane opratoire

102
102
105
108
108
110
1ll
Ill
1ll
114
114
114
116
120
120
121
123
123
124
124
125
125
125
125
125
126

Chapter 8 : Terminological Lexico n

129

Bibliography

159

Multilingual Vocabular y

169

English/Arabic Arabic/English

171

English/French French/English

174

English/German German/English

177

English/Greek Greek/English

180

English/Italian Italian/English

183

English/Portuguese Portuguese/English

186

English/Spanish Spanish/English

189

List o f illustration s
Fig.
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

R a w materials
Knapping suitability tests
R a w material procurement strategies
Knapping techniques
M a i n descriptive terms for flakes
Large blade with multiple breaks
Experimental knapping accidents
Bifacial shaping of an arrowhead
Blade debitage carried out on a core with a single striking platform
Blade debitage carried out on a core with two opposite striking platforms
Bifacial and bilateral equilibrium planes of an h a n d a x e
Various examples of bifacial shaping
E x a m p l e of bifacial shaping
Bifacial-shaping flakes
Point of balance or point of gravity (point G) in polyhedral and spheroidal shapin:
Polyhedral and spheroidal shaping
Trihedral shaping
Preforms
Phonolite cleaver
M a i n descriptive terms for cores
Relatively simple debitage
Volumetric representation of t w o Levallois debitage methods
Levallois debitage of a preferential flake
Recurrent centripetal Levallois debitage
Debitage of a Levallois point
Various examples of Levallois products
Debitage of a K o m b e w a flake
Phonolite cleaver on a K o m b e w a flake
Various types of blade-cores produced by percussion
Experimental blade and bladelet debitage positions
Pressure debitage of blades (or bladelets), different types of cores
T h e Yubetsu m e t h o d
Microburin blow technique
Various examples of special techniques
Thermal d a m a g e
Refitting
Acheulean h a n d a x e
Various examples of debitage products
Pressure-flaked bladelet-core, subsequently percussion-flaked
Refitting
E x a m p l e s of orientation
V i e w s used in lithic illustration (French system)
T w o layouts of views. 1: French system. 2 : A m e r i c a n system
Different w a y s of describing the v o l u m e of an object
T h e stages involved in the drawing process
Tracing the outline and the arrises
U n c o m p l e t e d laurel leaf
Graphical treatment of various raw materials
Graphical rendering of the texture of various materials
L a r g e convex Mousterian sidescraper on a frost-fractured flake

Fig.
Fig.
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51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78

Fig. 79
Fig. 80

Proximal fragment of a C a n a a n e a n blade bearing traces of gloss and bitumen

Symbolic conventions in figurative drawings
Illustration of the main symbols used
Schematic representation of an object
Schematic representation of a chane opratoire
Angle of removals
Various examples of simple burins
Surfaces liable to be used as striking or pressure platforms for burin blows
Various examples of multiple burins
Inclination of a burin facet to the lower face of a blade
Schematic illustration of the main types of burin spalls
Various types of butts
Fluting experiment
Schematic illustration of blade debitage on a crested core
Delineation of the edge created by a series of removals
Distribution of removals along an edge
Extent of removals
Thermally treated and subsequently pressure-retouched flint blade
Localization of removals, various examples
Morphology of removals
E x a m p l e s of oblique covering parallel retouch
T h e stone-knapper's set of tools for percussion
The stone-knapper's set of tools for pressure
Various examples of plunging blades and flakes
Position of removals
E x a m p l e s of preparation
Core tablet and rejuvenation flake
Proximal fragments of pressure-flaked obsidian bladelets, showing traces of rubbing
d o w n on their upper faces
Various examples of sharpening on simple burins
"Siret" accidental break

Foreword

M a n y students and researchers have felt the need for an up-to-date guide to the j u n g l e of
prehistoric worked stone, either for professional purposes or from personal curiosity.
T h e qualities of w o r k e d stone, in addition to its imperishable nature and its use since the
d a w n of prehistoric time, certainly confer a special status on it until its replacement by m o r e
versatile materials such as metals. Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to think that stone-working
contributes to the understanding of past behaviour for prehistoric societies alone. The abundance
of easily available raw materials as well as the existence of technical expertises allowed the use
of worked stone to continue into historical time. T h e true decline in the use of worked stone
seems to coincide with the appearance of iron. However, let us not overlook gun flints and
tinderboxes, nor the threshing sledge (tribulum), still in use today in agriculture.
T h e first French edition of Prhistoire de
la pierre taille
in 1 9 8 0 contributed to a
renewal in the interpretation of lithic assemblages from a technical viewpoint. It included the
terminological lexicon published by one of the authors in 1 9 6 3 , and translated by M . N e w c o m e r
in 1 9 7 4 , which was relatively rudimentary and still oriented m o r e towards typology than
technology.
In 1992, a new edition, in E n g l i s h , gave us the opportunity to take into account recent
advances in understanding the technology of knapped stone, as m u c h from a theoretical
standpoint as in archaeological applications. Like the earlier editions, it was intended as a basic
reference b o o k for as wide a public as possible. A multiligual lexicon in eight languages w a s
appended, written by prehistorians in their o w n mother-tongues, which should ease communica
tion and subsequently enrich the field of technology.
The new 1995 French e d i t i o n , of which this latest English edition is the unabridged
translation, w a s entirely revised; amongst other additions, a chapter devoted to graphic
expression was included, being essential to communication in technological studies. The
multilingual lexicon (with Portuguese a d d e d ) is of course appended to the present edition.
1

1 Tixier, Inizan, Roche, 1980.

2 Tixier, 1963.
3 Tixier, 1974.
4 Inizan, Roche, Tixier, 1992.
5 Inizan, Reduron, Roche, Tixier, 1995.
6 Fellow prehistorians kindly took on this task : Joachim Hah n (Tubingen University) wrote the German text, Sulta n
Muhesen (Director of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) the Arabic text, Sergi o Ripol l (Madrid, National University
"a Distancia") the Spanish, Antikli a Moundre a the Greek, Daniell a Zampett i (Rome, University "La Sapienza") the
Italian, and Lui s Rapos o (Lisbon, National Museum of Archaeology) the Portuguese.

11

Introduction

Technology
The term technology is here reserved for a conceptual approach to prehistoric material
culture, based on the reasoned study of techniques, including those of h u m a n physical actions. It
is appropriate to recall that w e are indebted to M. M a u s s for this notion of technique per se,
divorced from material objects, insofar as he considered bodily actions, such as dancing for
instance, as techniques. Arguing along similar lines, A.-G. H a u d r i c o u r t writes : "While the same
object can b e studied from different viewpoints, that which consists in defining the laws of
creation and of transformation of an object is undeniably the most essential of all viewpoints. It
is clear that the essential aspect of a manufactured object resides in the fact that it is m a d e and
used by m a n ; it is also clear that if technology is to be a science, it must be the science of h u m a n
activities".
Although the present essay is concerned solely with the technology of knapped stone,
one should nevertheless bear in mind that technology encompasses the entire technical system at
play in a culture. The study of knapped stone was very soon given prominence to in prehistory
because lithics offer the earliest evidence of a well preserved technique. However, other studies
soon followed, devoted amongst others to organic material culture, and to later achievements
involving the use of fire, such as ceramics, metal, glass, etc.
The study of techniques does not lead to technology alone. Indeed, w h e n establishing
chronologies, archaeologists h a v e always been concerned about the invention of techniques, their
complexity, and their ability to identify a culture. Likewise, no typology can be fully operative
if it does not take techniques into at least partial account. W e do not therefore consider
substituting technology for typology, for they represent t w o distinct approaches developed to
meet different e n d s ; they can h o w e v e r be used concurrently, and great benefit can be derived
from the comparison of the results they yield.
Technological analysis must, in each and every circumstance, enable one to assess what
pertains to deterministic constraints, before cultural choices are assumed.
7

7 Mauss, 1947.
8 "Si l'on peut tudier le mme objet de diffrents points de vue, il est par contre sr qu'il y a un point de vue plus
essentiel que les autres, celui qui peut donner les lois d'apparition et de transformation de l'objet. Il est clair que pour
un objet fabriqu c'est le point de vue humain de sa fabrication et de son utilisation par les hommes qui est essentiel,
et que si la technologie doit tre une science, c'est en tant que science des activits humaines'". Haudricourt, 1964 :
28.

13

Why?
Technology has its place within an original stream of French anthropological research,
thanks to the pioneering w o r k of A. Leroi-Gourhan. It has since then b e c o m e an independant field
of research in prehistory. A. L e r o i - G o u r h a n , w h o was by calling an ethnologist and subsequently a prehistorian, published in 1943 L'homme et la matire, the first v o l u m e of Evolution
et techniques,
a b o o k that the successive generations of researchers discover anew with unabated
interest. His entire w o r k was dedicated to the quest for m a n k i n d through the study of technical,
social or symbolic patterns of b e h a v i o u r . H e held the Chair of Prehistoric Ethnology, created
for h i m at the Collge de France, and over a period of many years the rigour of his teaching,
within the framework of that institution as well as at the prehistoric site of Pincevent - a genuine
research laboratory from 1964 onwards - has significantly widened the scope of scientific
research in p r e h i s t o r y .
One of L e r o i - G o u r h a n ' s original contributions was the concept of chane opratoire
,
which forms the basis of the approach to technology developed in this book. In the study of a
lithic assemblage, the chane opratoire
encompasses all the successive processes, from the
procurement of raw material until it is discarded, passing through all the stages of manufacture
and use of the different components. The concept of chane opratoire
m a k e s it possible to
structure m a n ' s use of materials by placing each artefact in a technical context, and offers a
methodological framework for each level of interpretation. A n identical trend in French
ethnology contributed to the emergence of a "school of cultural t e c h n o l o g y " , which publishes
the periodical Techniques et culture. This group helped both to rehabilitate the study of material
culture, by demonstrating that any technical fact is a social or a cultural fact, and to widen the
field of study of the technical system by showing the need to take into account all possible
technical variants.
9

10

11

12

13

How?
A methodolog y
The procedures w e h a v e developed in our technological approach are applied solely to
the analysis of knapped stone assemblages, and this is quite deliberate : the novel questions
investigated by prehistorians-technologists have given rise to new lines of research that require
operative methodological tools.
1 4

15

T h e notion of technical s y s t e m : by treating stone-knapping as a s u b - s y s t e m , one

can readily see what insight can be gained into the history of a prehistoric group through the
study of its techniques. Analysing the interdependance of different sub-systems brings a n e w
level of inferences within reach : lithics endowed with such properties as cutting, boring, rasping,
scraping, etc., fulfill a n u m b e r of needs that are necessarily linked to specific activities, which
9 Leroi-Gourhan, 1943 and 1964.
10 "Sur le long chemin que doivent encore parcourir les sciences humaines avant qu'elles deviennent rellement la
philosophie et, donc, avant de pouvoir nourrir rellement la philosophie, Andr Leroi-Gourhan est certainement un
gant" ("On the long road that the human sciences have yet to cover before really becoming philosophy, and therefore
before being really able to nurture philosophy, Andr Leroi-Gourhan is certainly a giant"). Cresswell, 1989 : 26.
11 M. Julien (1992) wrote an essay that examines the present state of the subject.
12 The term "chane opratoire" is considered from a technological standpoint; without attempting a definition of the
concept, we shall try to show in what way it is operative. This French expression seems to be increasingly used by
English-speaking technologists, as shown by volume 9 : 1 of the Cambridge Archaeological Review,
which deals with
Technology in the Humanities. It will therefore be left untranslated throughout the text.
13 Around R. Cresswell.
14 "L'ensemble des techniques forme des industries et des mtiers. L'ensemble : techniques, industries et mtiers,
forme le systme technique d'une socit " ("Techniques as a whole generate industries and crafts. The set : techniques,
industries and crafts, corresponds to the technical system of a society"). Mauss, 1947 : 29.
15 Perls, 1987 : 22.

14

bring other sub-systems into play. It is by cross-examining the results of different analyses
pertaining to the activities c o m m o n actions involve, that w e give greater substance to our
interpretations ; however, w e are only just beginning to use the notion of technical system
efficiently as a m e a n s of approaching the study of behaviour.
In such a perspective, knapped stone industries can be studied through a combination of
identifiable elements such as tools, raw materials, physical actions and skills.
Tools (the term is used here in its broader sense and refers to the object of knapping
operations) are given prominence to in typological studies ; they are h o w e v e r narrowly dependant
on raw materials, h u m a n physical actions and skills.
R a w materials belong to a geological context. Their knapping is ruled by specific laws
pertaining to fracture mechanics, which vary according to the type of stone. R a w materials can
be worked directly, or they can be structurally modified beforehand, notably by heat treatment.
Physical actions are linked to psychomotor functions : the hand and the body act
according to orders transmitted by the brain, within the limits of h u m a n motor abilities.
Skills are the result of motor dexterities and cognitive capacities that operate in
combination with knowledge ; they can b e assessed in terms of competences and p e r f o r m a n c e s
(see p. 100). The transmission of skills involves a learning process, which can only take place
between individuals within the social group ; this collective k n o w l e d g e can also be communica
ted to other groups. The analysis of skills is an essential prerequisite for the appraisement of
technical facts in a given culture (ch. 6).
16

Another notion concerns projects and the m e a n s by which they are implemented.
Knapping activities are subtended by more or less elaborate projects, which can be apprehended
through the reconstitution of the associated chanes opratoires.
In knapping operations, the
project includes a conceptua l scheme , of an intellectual nature, which is itself implemented
through a series of operations termed operativ e k n a p p i n g scheme(s) . Within a single chane
opratoire, the relationships between conceptual and operative schemes, k n o w l e d g e and skills,
techniques and methods, are organized in the following way :

PROJECT

knowledge
skills
dexterity
(ch. 6)

CONCEPTUAL

OPERATIVE

SCHEME

SCHEME

r a w m a t e r i a l p r o c u r e m e n t (ch. 1)
s h a p i n g (ch. 3)
d e b i t a g e (ch. 4 )
r e t o u c h i n g (ch. 5)

methods
and
techniques
(ch. 2)

u s e a n d fonction

discard

16 Pelegrin, 1995.

15

17

In blade d e b i t a g e , for instance, the project of the prehistoric knapper is easy to

identify : his intent is to achieve elongated blanks of varied morphology. However, depending on
the culture he belongs to, the knapper will use specific conceptual and operative schemes in order
to carry out his project. T o b e able to demonstrate the existence of such schemes, one must
register in detail all the pieces of information and show forth " r e g u l a r i t i e s " , first within one
lithic assemblage and subsequently within others that are comparable. Indeed, without the
repeated observation of phenomena, of similar facts, archaeologists have no basis for comparison
and are limited to anecdotal evidence.
18

Technology is also dedicated to the study of relationships between the technical system
and socio-economic p h e n o m e n a . This is one of the most fruitful and rapidly developing m e a n s
of approaching prehistoric life-styles.
Knapped stone industries can be studied in terms of e c o n o m y . By economy, w e refer to
a differential m a n a g e m e n t of raw materials, blanks, or tools. F o r instance, if on a site yielding
several raw materials the various types of tools h a v e been m a d e indiscriminately from any of the
said raw materials, w e do not have a case of raw material e c o n o m y . Conversely, if it can b e
shown that choices were m a d e , the term e c o n o m y b e c o m e s relevant, and applies, depending on
the case, to raw materials, to debitage products or to tools. T h e quality and availability of raw
material must h o w e v e r be assessed before any assumption concerning the nature of the choices
is m a d e : before ascribing the use of microliths to a cultural choice, it is advisable to m a k e sure
whether or no the available raw material could allow the manufacture of larger tools. A n y lithic
industry can therefore b e studied, as a whole, in such techno-economic terms, provided one bears
in mind that technical variants m a y result from a cultural choice.

"Reading" ston e object s

Reading takes place on two levels.
T h e first level is that of observation, an initial reading of knapping scars. It involves
the technical reading of each artefact (whether it be an ordinary flake or a waste product or the
most elaborate tool) in order to assess its position in the chane opratoire,
and is independant
of the archaeological context. This chain, as w e previously mentioned, encompasses not only the
m o m e n t of manufacture of the artefact, but its subsequent use and discard, and in the first
instance the procurement of raw material ; in fact, it includes the entire history of the artefact up
to the m o m e n t of its analysis.
T h e second level is one of inference. This is a matter of interpreting the interdepen
dance of artefacts in the chane opratoire,
even if links are missing. Presence or absence are
significant in the context of interpretation. For instance, the absence or the low frequency of
cortical flakes in a knapping workshop suggest that the raw materials were tested or roughed out
elsewhere. Again, a blade workshop without blades is also conceivable; the presence of
characteristic products, such as cores and crested blades, is evidence enough of the activities and
of the knapping project carried out at the site. Connections must also be sought between this
second level of inference and the other technical activities stone-working involves.
T h e value of such inferences will be contingent not only upon the type of lithic remains
brought to light, but also u p o n the recognition of techniques and methods, and consequently upon
our o w n understanding of chanes opratoires.
On a site, there m a y be evidence for just one chane opratoire,
but m o r e often there are
many, corresponding with the different strategies brought into play by prehistoric people in the
course of their various activites, or in the context of postponed activities. W h a t e v e r the case, all
the phases of a chane opratoire
are not necessarily represented on a site or on the excavated
portion of a site.

17 In French, the term dbitage ("debitage" in English) refers both to the action of flaking and to the tangible results
(debitage products) of this action.
18 Gallay, 1986 : 115.

16

Terminology
The problem of a uniform descriptive vocabulary arises from the outset. A n y reading of
archaeological material would be pointless if it were not followed by exchange and communication.
Indeed, by acknowledging that words are t o o l s , w e realize h o w m u c h a precise
vocabulary can improve the effectiveness of our analyses. H o m a g e must once again be paid to
A. Leroi-Gourhan : during his seminars on habitation structures (lato sensu)
at the Collge de
France, he initiated a process of collective reflection leading to the establisment of "a provisional
vocabulary, in which the major concern was to eschew the pitfall of words and of uncontrolled
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " . The terminological lexicon presented here deals with the vocabulary of lithic
technology. M a n y of the terms are conventional, and deliberately taken from terminology in
current use. E v e n if they are not quite apt, they have b e c o m e established by usage and are
therefore convenient : stripped of their original meaning, they are already integrated into a
specialized vocabulary (for instance, terms such as burin, microburin, Levallois, etc.).
The wish to untangle confusions, reduce synonymies and suppress ambiguities has
guided our choices. W e have avoided equivocal technical terms, and have tried to stick to a single
term w h e n describing the same p h e n o m e n o n .
1 9

20

Lithic illustratio n
The same procedures have been applied to the illustration of lithics. Drawings should not
be considered as a prop for words and definitions, but as a genuine informative technological
writing, and this is what w e have attempted (ch. 7). Far from being mere reproductions of stone
artefacts, the drawings and diagrams presented here were conceived at the same time as the text
and can even substitute for it, the symbols used being equivalent to a terminology. If a clear
sentence is better than a vague generic term, an accurate technical drawing can usefully replace
a vague description.

19 "However, I think it is important that researchers recognize that their words are their tools, just as stone artifacts
they study were the tools of people". Boksenbaum, 1977 : 30.
20 "un vocabulaire d'attente, o dominait le parti d'chapper au pige des mots et de l'identification sans contrle".
Leroi-Gourhan, 1982 : 3.

17

Chapter 1

Raw material s
Knapped har d rock s
1. Mineralog y
Prehistoric people worked a large variety of raw materials, rocks mainly but also quartz,
which is a mineral.
Knapped stones are connected with the geological context in which the earliest knappers
m o v e d about. Undoubtedly, choice of locations and m o v e m e n t s across the territory were partly
conditioned by prehistoric m a n ' s choices in matters of raw material use.
Although the varieties worked seem to form a collection of disparate types, the selection
is coherent from the point of view of the mechanical properties of the rocks. They are exclusively
h o m o g e n e o u s and isotropic materials, in which the spread of fracture fronts, initiating from a
predetermined impact, is guided by the laws of distribution of constraints.
Without delving into the complexities of accurate mineralogical definitions, the four
most c o m m o n rock types used can be presented thus (fig. 1 ) :
Sedimentary rocks, which include numerous varieties of flints (fig. 1 : 1, 2 and 7),
cherts, some limestones, dolomitic rocks, sandstones, some jaspers that are genuine silicified
pelites.
Such igneous rocks as are characterized by a microlithic or vitreous texture. Barring
some fine-grained granites and diorites, they are mainly extrusive rocks, w h o s e crystallization
has been prevented or stopped by rapid cooling. They include rhyolites, trachytes, andesites,
basalts, phonolites (fig. 1 : 6), ignimbrites and obsidians (fig. 1 : 3 and 4).
M e t a m o r p h i c rocks such as quartzites (fig. 1 : 5).
A mineral (tectosilicate) of hydrothermal origin, which crystallizes at low temperatures
and comes as polymorphous varieties : hyaline quartzes (isolated crystal, fig. 1 : 8), milky
quartzes (crystal agglomerate), chalcedonies and agates (a microcrystalline concretionary form
of quartz, variously coloured or banded).

19

Fig. 1 Raw materials. 1 : banded Bergeracois flint, Dordogne. 2 : Touraine flint. 3 : blue-black
obsidian, Zinaparo* Mexico. 4 : black and red mottled obsidian, Oregon, U.S.A. 5 : burgundyred quartzite, Tagus terraces, Portugal. 6 : grey-blue phonolite, Isenya, Kenya. 7 : putty-colou
red Bergeracois flint, Dordogne, before and after heat treatment. 8 : hyaline quartz, Minas
Gerais, Brazil (Atelier photo C.N.R.S., Meudon).

20

2. Knappin g suitabilit y o f hard rock s

O n e should bear in mind that experimentation witnesses constant breakthroughs, and that
the assessment of r o c k s ' suitability for knapping progresses accordingly. Nevertheless, although
w e are perforce guided by what w e currently k n o w , our assessment of the knapping suitability
of a particular rock must absolutely be based on experimental tests.
2.1. A n experimenter' s viewpoin t
Prehistoric people worked all the raw materials at their disposal, testing, selecting and
choosing t h e m according to their knapping suitability, their abundance and their shape.
T h e following presentation of raw materials takes absolutely no account of mineralogical
or petrographical classifications; it is based solely on the knapping characteristics of different
rock types, appreciated in the course of experimental tests. The viewpoint of a single experimen
ter could well b e considered empirical. However, allowances m a d e for minor details, most
m o d e r n stone-knappers c o m e to similar conclusions, even though some of t h e m may attain a
higher degree of proficiency in certain techniques and methods.
The opinions professed here concerning a few dozen materials are therefore those of a
single experimenter, whose motivations differ from prehistoric m a n ' s . This does not purport to
be a comprehensive survey of the question, for the varieties of rocks knapped by prehistoric
workers are countless.
One of the authors (J.T.) has applied the principle of trying out every conceivable
technique on as m a n y natural materials as possible (pressure and percussion debitage and
retouching, using stone, bone, wood, antler, ivory, etc.); this led to m a n y attemps, which were
not h o w e v e r pursued over a long period of time. At the moment, w e are far from having
exhausted all the possibilities of systematic experimentation to further our understanding of
knapped tools.
W e shall not re-examine the physical qualities that cause a material to be good or bad,
such as elasticity, homogeneity or f r a g i l i t y . W h a t w e offer is a basic global appreciation,
bearing in mind however that homogeneity is the m a i n prerequisite for regular debitage (as in
standardized blade production, for instance) or long retouches.
As a matter of fact, rocks can be placed on a continuum, and range from those with which
"anything is possible" to those from which flakes can only be r e m o v e d with difficulty. In order
to clarify by simplifying, w e propose three grades of suitability for knapping.
21

Rocks that
fragile rocks, such as
Rocks that
Rocks that

are very easy to work. These fall into two main categories : vitreous and
obsidian; non-vitreous and moderately fragile rocks, such as certain flints.
are quite easy to work.
are difficult to work.

These three grades are shown in the table (fig. 2), as well as those resulting from heat
treatment; it seemed both convenient and effective to thus sum u p experiments for the
manufacure of:
-

leaf-shaped bifacial pieces by percussion with a soft h a m m e r ;

blades by direct percussion with a soft h a m m e r , or by indirect percussion;
blades by pectoral pressure with a crutch;
long parallel retouches by pressure.

These appreciations must h o w e v e r b e qualified.

The properties of some rocks m a y allow the application of certain techniques, while
few good results, if any, will b e achieved w h e n other techniques are applied. For instance, very
good handaxes, or even good thin leaf-shaped bifacial pieces, can b e m a d e from sanukite, a
variety of andesite from Japan. O n the other hand, the removal of flakes proves difficult, and the
extraction of blades by percussion is virtually impossible.
A very few rocks require flaking "with the grain". For instance, the fossil w o o d from
Tidikelt, in the Algerian Sahara, is m u c h m o r e easily worked if debitage follows the veins (fibres,
in fact), which are still apparent - and that is precisely what the Aterians did.
21 Crabtree, 1967.

21

bifacial
pieces
soft
hammer

blades
soft
hammer

blades
pressure

parallel
retouch
pressure

improvement
heat
treatment

Obsidian
(U.S.A., Japan, Iceland, Italy, Turkey,
Greece, Kenya, Ethiopia, Mexico,
Guatemala, Ecuador)

++

++

++

++

Ignimbrite (U.S.A.)

++

++

Quartz Crystal, Amethyst (France,

Brazil)

++

Translucent flin t
(France, England, Belgium, Denmark,
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal,
Lebanon, Qatar)

++

++

++

++

++

++

Chalcedony
(France, Algeria, U.S.A.)

++

++

++

Jasper (France, Greece, U.S.A.)

++

++

++

Lydianstone (Algeria)

++

Opali te (France)

++

++

++

++

++

++

Silicified wood (U.S.A., Algeria, Niger)

++

Basalt (France, U.S.A., Brazil, Kenya)

"Sanukite" (Andesite) (Japan)

++

Quarzite, Sandstone
(France,U.S.A., Algeria),
Silicified "arenite " (Brazil)

++

EXPERIMENTS
RAW MATERIAL S

Resinite (France)

Opaque flint
(Europe, Africa, South-West Asia, North
and South America)

Agate (Egypt, SouthAfrica)

Green "dacite" (Tenere / Niger)

++

Rhyolite (Algeria)

Siliceous limestone (France, U.S.A.)

Novaculite (U.S.A.)

++

Experiments :
++ : very good
+ : middling
- : bad
/ : untested

Heat treatment
++ :
very much improved
+:
improved
-:
not improved
/:
untested

Fig. 2 K n a p p i n g suitability tests.

 A single block of raw material may exhibit varying characteristics : the sub-cortical
zones of some flints are perfectly suitable for the application of all techniques, whereas the inner
stone is mediocre in quality.
It is actually impossible to generalize concerning the suitability of a particular kind of
rock, such as flint for instance. A n d it is also sometimes difficult to voice a definite opinion about
a regional type : the different outcrops or deposits yielding various sub-types must b e examined
(except in the case of river terraces) before any claim to accuracy can be m a d e .
A s a rule, when faced with an archaeological problem, one should never prejudge the
quality of a rock worked by prehistoric people. Each variety of rock, or even each nodule, can
be considered as a unique case. The solution must always be found through experimentation.
O n e should be careful not to be misled by materials whose knapping scars are difficult
to read : they are not necessarily difficult to work. For instance, ripples and hackles are far less
visible on a piece of coarse-grained quartzite than on a good h o m o g e n e o u s fine-grained flint.
Both materials are h o w e v e r very easily worked.
The aesthetic value of an object, as w e appreciate it with our twentieth century eyes and
brain, is yet another matter where caution is required. Is a tool beautiful or ugly, well or badly
m a d e ? Or was there simply no other possibility, owing to the constraints imposed by the nature
of the raw material and considering that the tool meets the end it was intended for ?
An experimenter's comments
A rock must above all be h o m o g e n e o u s to b e deemed suitable for knapping. As a direct
consequence of lack of homogeneity, a seemingly high-grade l u m p of raw material can prove
unworkable, except for the fashioning of very small pieces, owing to the presence of cracks or
impurities (saccharoid nodules or feldspath crystals, bubbles, etc.). Frost induced internal joints
and cracks are a particular hindrance when they are very c o m m o n in a block, especially since
they are not always immediately visible.
A rock that rings clear wherever it is struck stands a good chance of being usable, and
is in any case not frost-damaged.
As a rule, the more translucent a rock, the greater its suitability, with the exception of
rock crystal.
There is little relation between the granularity of a rock and its suitability for
knapping : some coarse-grained quartzites allow the production of leaf-shaped bifacial pieces.
A piece of raw material from which large blades can be struck off by percussion allows
the production of every shape attainable through percussion.
T h e more elastic the rock, the easier pressure debitage b e c o m e s , obsidian being a case
in point.
2.2. H e a t treatmen t o f ra w material s
Although the great majority of rocks were used in their unaltered natural condition, a
growing n u m b e r of finds show that prehistoric knappers applied heat treatment to improve the
quality of some raw materials and make knapping easier.
Long considered a Solutrean invention, which was not adopted (or so it seems) by later
U p p e r Palaeolithic cultures, heat-treating was first recognized on pressure-retouched pieces.
Experimentation has shown empirically that pressure-retouching of s o m e types of siliceous rocks
w a s clearly m a d e easier by heating : flint responds very favourably to such treatment (removals
split off more smoothly), whereas n o (or little) i m p r o v e m e n t can b e observed for quartzite, jasper,
dacite, e t c . . Evidence for heat-treating in the case of pressure debitage has in recent years been
claimed first for Neolithic c u l t u r e s , but also for such cultures of the Siberian U p p e r Palaeolithic
2 2

23

22 Inizan, Roche, Tixier, 1975-76 : this paper was the first to bridge the gap between experimentation and
archaeological observation. Later references include Griffiths et al., 1987 ; Domanski, Webb, 1992 ; Borradaile et al.,
1993.
23 Binder, 1984; Inizan, Lechevallier, 1985.

23

24

as used the said debitage t e c h n i q u e . So far, the evidence concerns the production of bladelets
a l o n e ; no blades and no blade-cores bearing witness to heat treatment have to this day been
documented.
A s with pressure debitage, w e are indebted to D . Crabtree for the recognition of this
t e c h n i q u e , which consists in heating siliceous rocks such as flint, chert and chalcedony to a
temperature lying between 250C and 350C (480F and 660F). During the Lithic Technology
Congress held at Les Eyzies in 1964, this accomplished experimenter presented and demonstra
ted different types of pressure retouches achieved on siliceous rocks previously subjected to
h e a t - t r e a t i n g . "Prehistorians-knappers" alone were enthralled by his work, and F. B o r d e s
brought the matter up again as early as 1969.
For heat treatment to b e fully effective, the elevation in temperature and even m o r e so
the subsequent cooling must be very g r a d u a l ; evidence for this has been claimed as m u c h from
contemporary examples - Khambhat, in the Gujarat ( I n d i a ) - as from experimental work. T h e
current principle, still obtaining in India and in Y e m e n for the treatment of chalcedonies, can
readily be contemplated for earlier periods. L u m p s of rough or already shaped stone are first
buried in ash, under a heap of fuel (sawdust or charcoal, dung, etc.), which is left to smoulder
for a n u m b e r of h o u r s ; the stones are taken out only after complete cooling. T h e entire operation
takes about 24 hours. In an archaeological context, it would of course be extremely difficult to
identify hearths that were used for that purpose, since siliceous rocks can be efficiently
heat-treated in multiple function hearths, such as cooking hearths. The only indisputable e x a m p l e
of the use of structures for heating flint nodules comes from a Neolithic site of central India, in
the Son v a l l e y . Heat treatment was carried out in each of the six horizons of the Khunjun site,
the cores were pressure-flaked and the resulting bladelets were used as blanks for geometrical
microliths.
In order to assess the expanse of this technique and the end(s) it was devised to meet,
one must necessarily be capable of recognizing heat-treated products. T h e r e are two essential
recognition c r i t e r i a :
25

26

2 7

28

29

- heating changes the colour of s o m e rocks, depending on the a m o u n t and the type of
metallic oxides they contain (propensity towards rubefaction) (fig. 1 : 7 ) ;
- although the outside of the rock appears unchanged except for its colour, any breakage
or removal taking place after heat treatment will expose a shiny, greasy surface, in stark contrast
to its former dull aspect (fig. 68).
M i n o r accidents, such as the fine cracks often observed on chalcedonies and carnelians,
also help to confirm the existence of deliberate heat-treating.
Although this technique, improving the nature of the stone, was not adopted and
perpetuated by all groups after its invention, we have clear examples of its persistence. T h e heat
treatment of carnelian, such as it is still practised in the traditional bead-making workshops of
K h a m b h a t in India, and in Y e m e n , testifies in all likelyhood to the unbroken transmission of a
prehistoric knowledge, since the technique has been applied to the same material for m o r e than
7 0 0 0 years in the Indo-Pakistani sub-continent. F r o m the Neolithic onwards, it has in the same
region also been applied to pressure-flaked flints and chalcedonies. In the case of carnelian,
heating fulfills both an aesthetic and a technical purpose *. not only does it improve the knapping
characteristics of the stone, but it also alters the colour.
Clearly, it behoves us now to b e systematic in our efforts to detect this technique in the
industries where pressure is used (either for debitage or for retouching). This can be done by
looking for the stigmas p r e v i o u s l y described, bearing in mind that experimentation and
ethnographic observations can further our recognition of the p h e n o m e n o n .

24
25
26
27
28
29

24

Flenniken, 1987.
Crabtree, Butler, 1964.
Smith, 1966a.
Bordes, 1969.
Posselh, 1981.
Clark and Khana, 1989.

Raw materia l procuremen t strategie s

Knapped hard rocks h a v e deliberately been presented from the point of view of the
experimenter. It is however equally important to take account of all the observations concerning
the provenance of raw materials, their availability, their abundance, their use, etc. Research into
such matters m a y result not only in the analysis of economic systems, but also in the development
of behavioural perspectives (ch. 6 ) . Indeed, the study of raw material distributions has in recent
years proved a fruitful approach for tackling the question of territories, zones of influence,
exchange and social interaction, etc.
The systematic sourcing of raw materials, through intensive surveys, is of course (even
if this seems to go without saying) the first necessary step. This approach is not n e w ; it developed
at the end of the X l X t h century, but concerned mainly polished stone, petrographically different
from knapped s t o n e ; indeed with the advent of the Neolithic, the need for hard-wearing stone
(generally of metamorphic origin), suitable for polishing and guaranteeing efficient cutting
edges, brought about a quest for new materials set in n e w geological contexts. M o r e recently,
research has focused on other exotic raw materials, such as obsidan and its distribution (see for
instance the m a n y articles concerning Mesoamerica, Greece, circum-Mediterranean regions and
the Near East, published over the last thirty years). This distinctive vitreous rock is easy to
identify in any lithic assemblage, and can therefore unambiguously b e termed exotic w h e n the
geological source is k n o w n to be far away. However, provenance studies should not be restricted
to prestigious and exceptional materials alone, and the same emphasis must from n o w on b e laid
on all the mineral raw materials observed, even if they appear to b e local. For it is important to
decipher prehistoric p e o p l e ' s attitude towards the materials they relied upon for their subsistance : stone is one of them, whatever its nature and its geological origin, and is furthermore
unique in enduring nearly unaltered through time.
Moreover, unfounded assumptions about h u m a n psychological development have too
often been m a d e : the m o r e m a n develops, the more h e m a k e s choices, selects and transports, and
the less he allows himself to b e dominated by environmental constraints. This assertion is
probably true where general trends are concerned, but should be qualified according to each
period, each region and each site, taking into consideration a growing n u m b e r of parameters,
which should throw light on raw material procurement strategies in particular.
T h e questions that must b e asked before attempting any kind of inquiry into economic
or social behaviour pertain to the natural environment and also to the requirements of the culture
under study.
3 0

T h e sourcing of raw materials and the appreciation of the m a n n e r in which past

landscapes m a y have shaped the patterning of m o v e m e n t s across the territory belong to the realm
of the earth sciences. In this respect, answers to the following questions can help to dismiss s o m e
environmental constraints, and thereby bring choices to light.
- W h a t is the geological context of o c c u r r e n c e ? Is the raw material locally rare, or
abundant?
- Is there only one sort of raw material, or are there several varieties ?
- Is the raw material easy, or on the contrary difficult, to collect or extract ?
- W h a t is its quality, in what shapes and sizes does it o c c u r ?
- Could it b e easily transported in its original s h a p e ?
On the other hand, prehistoric m a n has tasks to accomplish, requirements to meet,
different levels of technical abilities, and cultural traditions to respect, all of which can also b e
expressed in terms of preferences, or even constraints. T h e analysis of raw material procurement
strategies, following from the study of lithic industries, must enable o n e to explain specifically
cultural traits.
30 There is a wealth of literature on this subject, so that we have chosen to mention only a few of the more recent
publications, particularly well documented and referenced: Demars, 1982 and Geneste, 1991 for the Palaeolithic of
the Aquitaine Basin; Floss, 1994 for the Palaeolithic of the Rhineland; Feblot-Augustins, 1997 for the Palaeolithic of
western and central Europe as well as for earlier African industries; for the question of flint-mining in the Neolithic,
see Pelegrin and Richards (eds), 1995. The reader will find additional references in the different Flint Symposium
papers published over the last ten years.

25

T h e deceptively simple problems mentioned above evoke a multiplicity of answers, some

of them quite complex or interrelated, and give rise to a wide range of hypotheses. A cursory
theoretical examination of three major issues will be m a d e .

1. Provenance o f ra w materia l
A single region m a y yield both n u m e r o u s and varied deposits (natural geological
sections, outcrops, seams, colluvial deposits, alluvial cones, volcanic flows, fluvial terraces,
moraines, marine deposits, etc.). O n e should also bear in mind that raw material accessibility m a y
have varied through time, depending on the modifications of the geological landscape.
The accurate sourcing of raw materials m a k e s it possible to appreciate the lithic
procurement territory of each palaeoethnic group. T h e next step is the assessment of the methods
of procurement, such as surface collection, outcrop quarrying, mining and so on.

2. Loca l availabilit y o f ra w materia l

T h e presence or absence of workable hard rocks close to prehistoric sites is in itself a
highly informative element, of great complexity.
T h e absence of any such rocks is rare, but their presence (provided they were accessible
to prehistoric m a n ) gives rise to m a n y interpretations, which necessarily involve the dimensions,
and sometimes the morphology, of the tools produced.
However, the most c o m m o n alternative is the following.
Hard rocks available in a form permitting the production of any desired blank, for
instance blades, bladelets, large pieces, etc. A s a corollary, does the site correspond to an
occupation directly connected with the richness of the outcrop ? If the site proves to b e only a
workshop the answer will b e straightforward, but rather less so if the site includes living areas
as well as working areas.
Rocks available in a form suitable for specific tool morphologies, or nature of raw
material adequate only for the manufacture of a limited range of tools. Thus, it is not infrequent
that, in the same region, different raw material sources should b e exploited by successive groups.
For instance, in the Tnr, at the Adrar B o u s (Niger), cultures far apart in time occupied the
same geographic location, but the Aterians used the local dark-gray microgranular rock to a far
greater extent than the Neolithic inhabitants, w h o sought the well k n o w n "green stone" (dacite)
outcrops, although they occurred dozens of miles away from most Neolithic living sites. A
technical explanation is a possibility, since the green stone used by the Neolithics for the
manufacture of their projectile points w a s suitable for bifacial retouching.
In a general way, differences in raw material use can only be ascribed to tradition if all
other natural constraints h a v e been taken account of. Other explanations involving, for instance,
changing landscapes or the deterioration of the locally available rocks must not be dismissed.

3. Transpor t t o th e campsit e
Another line of research has long been foreseen, but has only recently developed. This
deals with the transport of raw materials to the campsite. As a first step, the constraints imposed
by the sources of supply themselves should be assessed, in terms of accessibility, ease of
extraction and transport. W h e n faced with flake-cores, first consider whether the raw material in
its natural form could be transported or not, before assuming a cultural motivation.
The following questions should then b e asked. W a s the raw material transported as
u n w o r k e d or initially roughed out blocks ? W e r e the preforms and/or cores prepared at the source
itself? W e r e the tools produced at the site or were they fashioned elsewhere and then
subsequently transported as end-products ?
Partial answers can be given to these questions by examining the artefacts with an eye
for technology : by assessing, for instance, the proportions of cortical surfaces or the relative
quantities of characteristic debitage and bifacial-knapping waste products, and above all by
refitting (ch. 6).

26

unmodified
block

A
B

c
D

0 mus

o
o
o

roughed ou t or shaped out

preformed
bifacial piece s

m
m
m

t b e presen t ma

cores

roughing ou t

cores

characteristic

unretouched

finished

and shapin g

during or

flakes

knapping

tools

out flake s

after

o
o

products

debitage

o
o

y be presen t O

eft

"quarr y site "

Fig. 3 Raw material procurement strategies.

There are many w a y s in which the transport of raw materials to campsites can b e
theoretically contemplated, of which four are here considered (fig. 3) :
A - the material is brought to the campsite in its m o r e or less original u n w o r k e d condition
(unmodified or tested by just one or two removals) ;
B - the material is brought to the campsite as prepared cores (unflaked) and/or roughouts
of bifacial pieces (unfinished) ;
C - only unretouched debitage products and/or preforms of bifacial pieces are brought to
the campsite ;
D - only the tools (whether retouched or not) and the finished bifacial pieces are brought
to the campsite.
Each of these possibilities or "strategies" can b e detected w h e n conditions allow, and can
be plausibly suspected in almost all major archaeological excavations. It is simply a matter of
noting the presence of well represented categories (fig. 3) of technically well defined pieces. T h e
possible presence of other categories is not a contradictory factor, provided their occurrence is
sporadic.
A s the various technical stages in the chane opratoire
are not always fully carried out,
it is necessary to add the following points to the categories of objects in the table :
- rough blocks : including slightly modified ;
- shaped out cores : including simply roughed out ;
- roughing out and shaping out flakes : cortical flakes (quite numerous) and, where cores
are concerned, crest-preparation flakes ; first flakes can be quite rare finds ;
- cores : at different stages of knapping ;
- flakes, pieces characteristic of a debitage technique or m e t h o d : crests, flakes resulting
from the preparation and rejuvenation of pressure or striking platforms ;
- finished tools : unretouched blanks in s o m e cases (Levallois; blanks used without
further modification), or retouched, or in the case of bifacial pieces, finished.
In each case, the c o m p l e m e n t can b e assumed to have remained near the outcrops.

27

Chapter 2

Knapping
Intentional knappin g
T h e purpose of knapping is to m a k e tools, in the broader sense of the term. Knapping
will always leave similar scars on stone artefacts, irrespective of whether they are the work of
the earliest hominids, or elaborate Bronze A g e dagger blades from D e n m a r k . E v e n if they are
almost modern, like the m a n y tinderboxes recently discovered on late Islamic sites, the scars will
not differ. The technological interpretation of any worked stone artefact will therefore be specific
to that artefact, and based on the precise observation and recognition of those scars. A stone
artefact can only b e defined as such by removal scars, both positive and negative. Resulting from
either pressure or percussion, such scars obey physical laws and are identical whether knapping
is intentional or not.
T h e diagnosis of intentional knapping is best vindicated w h e n the artefacts are discove
red in a well defined archaeological context. In the case of chance discoveries or surveys, the
m a i n criteria for recognizing intentional knapping is the organization of removals. Caution is
required w h e n flakes or even "pebble-tools" are found on a beach, for they m a y well result from
natural p h e n o m e n a ; to the contrary, the discovery of a single h a n d a x e or a single Levallois core
can prove intentional knapping : the organization of removals follows so specific a sequence that
the possibility of chance " k n a p p i n g " due to r a n d o m impacts can b e dismissed. T h e n u m b e r of
pieces found and their geological position provide additional information concerning the context
and further help to establish the possible presence of a site. However, one must bear in mind that
it is not always easy to distinguish intentional from unintentional knapping, and the question
often arises as to whether the modifications reflect intent or accident.

29

Knapping, shaping , flaking, retouchin g

W h i c h e v e r way the stone-knapper goes about his work, he must use a set of tools, and
these are presented in the appended lexicon (fig. 7 2 and fig. 73).
T h e term " k n a p p i n g " has a general meaning, and applies to any type of action aiming at
intentionally fracturing raw material. Knapping encompasses shaping, retouching and debitage
(or flaking), which are each used in a m o r e restrictive sense. These terms describe precise actions,
and are dealt with in separate chapters. T h e word knapping is used when a m o r e accurate one
cannot be applied. This happens when the use and purpose of a knapped artefact cannot be clearly
defined : for instance, is a chopper a core, an actual tool, or both ?

Knapping method s an d technique s

T h e importance of distinguishing between these t w o terms was pointed out as early as
1965 during an international s y m p o s i u m . By definition, knapping methods and techniques
concern shaping, flaking and retouching.
Method refers to any carefully thought out sequence of interrelated actions, each of
which is carried out according to one or m o r e techniques. M o r e often than not, the term method
implies an elaborate conceptual scheme leading to the manufacture of predetermined products,
whether by shaping or by flaking. Clearly, what must be identified is predetermination.
The m a i n methods currently acknowledged are defined in chapters 3, 4 and 5.
Physical actions - a deft flip of the hand, the use of a hard or soft h a m m e r , the
interposition of a punch - are all examples of techniques.
T h a n k s to major breakthroughs in
experimentation, knapping techniques are n o w well identified. T h e criteria used derive from
observations m a d e on archeological assemblages, which are then substantiated by experimenta
tion.
Special retouching techniques are treated in chapter 5.
Technical procedures
are short systematic sequences of actions involved in any kind of
preparation, such as : the abrasion of an overhang, the preparation of an edge prior to removal
by a burin blow, the facetting of a striking or pressure platform, the preparation of a spur.
31

The mai n technique s

1. Percussio n
Application of force to fracture r a w materials.
Direct percussion
Direct percussion with a stone h a m m e r (hard or soft stone) (fig. 4) and, theoretically,
its symmetrical opposite, percussion of an artefact on an anvil, are the m a i n expressions of this
technique. Various knapping techniques were invented through the ages, but the first undoubtedly
was direct percussion with a hard h a m m e r s t o n e . For hundreds of thousands of years, it was the
only technique applied, and its use endured throughout the history of stone-knapping. It can
therefore never be used as a chronological argument.
Direct percussion with a soft h a m m e r s t o n e is suitable for the shaping of bifacial preforms
and for the removal of moderately regular b l a d e s . T h e materials chosen for this type of h a m m e r
include soft sandstones or cornstones, which tend to crumble on impact. C o m p a r a b l e results
3 2

31 We draw attention to the unwarranted use of the term "technological" where "technique" or "method" are more
appropriate. A symposium organized by the Wenner-Gren foundation was held at Burg Wartenstein (Austria), during
which several prehistorians discussed those problems of terminology (e.g. Balout, 1967 and Tixier, 1967).
32 Crabtree, 1972; Madsen, 1983 ; Pelegrin, 1991a.

30

Fig. 4 K n a p p i n g techniques. 1 : direct percussion using a stone h a m m e r . 2 : direct percussion using

an antler billet. 3 : indirect percussion (antler p u n c h , w o o d e n billet). 4 : indirect percussion b y
c o u n t e r - b l o w . 5 : pressure with a short pelvic crutch. 6 : pressure in the h a n d (parallel
retouches).

31

could not b e reached with such other currently used rocks as quartzites, basalts, flints, etc., which
are harder and m o r e resistant.
Direct percussion with a soft h a m m e r (wood, antler, bone, ivory, etc.) occurs later in
time (fig. 4 : 2). Evidence for this technique dates back to 700 0 0 0 years in Africa, but it probably
appeared even earlier.
Indirect percussion
Indirect percussion, in the accepted m e a n i n g of the word, involves the application of
an intermediary tool, called punch, which can be of wood, antler, b o n e or metal (fig. 4 : 3). There
is n o indisputable evidence for this technique before the Mesolithic.
Indirect percussion by counter-blow (fig. 4 : 4) is used today in K h a m b h a t (Gujarat,
I n d i a ) to m a k e carnelian and agate beads and trinkets. T h e piece to b e k n a p p e d is held in the
hand, touching the end of a pointed iron rod stuck in the g r o u n d ; the opposite side of the stone
is then struck with a buffalo-horn-topped h a m m e r ; the flake is r e m o v e d by the counter-blow of
the pointed iron rod. It is a remarkably effective technique, and could h a v e been invented in
prehistoric times, or at least when bronze appeared.
3 3

2. Pressur e
Application of pressure to fracture raw materials (fig. 4 : 5 and 6).
Pressure is applied with the narrow end of a tool m a d e of wood, antler, b o n e or metal.
This debitage and retouching technique was invented in the U p p e r Palaeolithic. There are m a n y
different ways in which pressure can b e applied (chap. 4, p. 7 6 ; fig. 30).
Pressure with a lever
Considerable pressure (300 kg) can be exerted w h e n a lever is used. This technique has
only recently been e x p e r i m e n t e d , and is suggested to have been used for the production of the
outsize (up to 41 cm) Varna type of b l a d e s . It appears quite late in time, in the Chalcolithic and
the Bronze A g e , and is possibly connected with the use of copper.
34

3 5

Knapping product s
T h e expression "knapping p r o d u c t s " has a general meaning, which does not prejudge
their possible final use. Knapping products are thus, in a broad sense, flakes (for the m o m e n t
there is no need to be m o r e specific) produced by any knapping operation.
O n c e knapping is shown to involve the production of blanks, these are k n o w n as debitage
products. If and w h e n a knapping product can b e situated in its chane opratoire,
it should be
specified whether it is : a flake (lato sensu)
resulting from the shaping out of a core ; a flake
resulting from the shaping of a handaxe ; or a retouch flake, etc.
It is only after having studied the tools and the production of blanks that one m a y apply
the m o r e restrictive term "knapping waste p r o d u c t s " to the residue of material that is obviously
not predetermined, not retouched, and not conceived as tool blanks (even though any ordinary
flake is always a potential blank).

33 Possehl, 1981 ; Roux, Pelegrin, 1989.

34 Pelegrin, 1988 : 4 8 ; Volkof, Guiria, 1991.
35 See Pelegrin's diagnosis in : Manolakakis, 1994.

32

1. Describing a flake
Removals from any l u m p of raw material produce flakes that share a n u m b e r of
characteristics, determined by the propagation of fracture waves in hard rocks. The following
descriptions concern only such rocks as show conchoidal fractures, since they are chiefly the ones
that were knapped throughout prehistory.
W h i c h e v e r technique w a s applied to r e m o v e the flake, the identification of the latter as
such is contingent upon the reading of fracture scars (fig. 5 ) :
- on the lower (ventral) face or flaking face, or more accurately fracture face (the
opposite face being called the upper (dorsal) f a c e ) : percussion or pressure ripples, bulb, hackles,
etc.;
- on the butt (i.e. the part r e m o v e d from the striking or pressure p l a t f o r m ) : traces of
preparation, impact point, etc.
It is relative to these two main elements that an unretouched flake is conventionally
oriented, butt d o w n w a r d s . Butt and bulb can h o w e v e r be missing, in which case the flake can
only b e oriented if the other fracture scars are visible on the lower face : percussion or pressure

Fig. 5 Main descriptive terms for flakes.

33

ripples, hackles (see p . 142). Paradoxically, while a flake is identified as such by its lower face,
the left and right edges are designated in terms of the upper face following a conventional
orientation, proximal part d o w n w a r d s (fig. 5).
Blades and bladelets are only morphologically different from flakes, and for t h e m to b e
counted as such they must b e at least twice as long as they are wide.

2. Characteristi c flakes
Characteristic flakes are flakes that can without any ambiguity b e mentally situated in
the chane opratoire
(fig. 8, 9 and 10), thanks to their distinctive features. T h e y can result from
shaping (bifacial-knapping flakes), debitage (crests, core-rejuvenation flakes) or retouching
(Clactonian notch flake). T h e initial flake is universal : all knapping operations must yield a first
flake, which is also characteristic.

3. Knappin g wast e product s

This category concerns all the flakes or flake fragments that do not seem to have any
possible use and/or cannot be situated in the chane opratoire.
Characteristic waste products : although small, they belong to the category of charac
teristic flakes. Their presence can b e indicative of specific knapping activities. A retouch flake
from a small bifacial projectile point is a characteristic waste product.
Debris : applies to any shapeless fragment, when the m e a n s by which it was fractured
cannot b e identified. A distinction m u s t further b e drawn between a debris and a broken
fragment : while in the latter case the original object can be reconstituted, in the former it cannot.

4. Knappin g accident s
A knapping accident, which m a y occur during flaking, shaping or retouching, is an
unforeseen and unintentional incident generating products with a specific m o r p h o l o g y .
Archaeologically observed and experimentally produced knapping accidents are identical, thus
strengthening the credibility of the analogy-based experimental approach.
T h e y c o m e as a certain n u m b e r of "types", and are due either to flaws in the raw material
(joints, vesicles, saccharoid nodules, etc.) or to s o m e m i s m a n a g e m e n t on the k n a p p e r ' s part.
Knapping accidents have varying repercussions on the continuation of the knapping
sequence to which they belong. They can b e irreversible (fracture of a large leaf-shaped bifacial
piece, plunging Levallois point, etc.), put right (hinged blade r e m o v e d from a core with t w o
striking platforms : in that case, a single removal struck off from the opposite platform is
sufficient for debitage to proceed unimpaired), or of no consequence (bulb scars, fracture of a
burin spall w h e n the latter is a waste product, etc.).
Although unintentionally obtained, the products resulting from knapping accidents can
also b e used as blanks.
36

4.1. B r e a k s
Accidental snapping of a flake (lato sensu)
upon removal, or of any artefact in the
process of being knapped. T h e occurrence of breaks is irrespective of the technique e m p l o y e d
(percussion, pressure, etc.), and the m a i n types are listed hereafter.
Clean breaks, w h o s e surface is perpendicular to the debitage axis and the lower face
(fig. 6).
"Siret" accidental break : refers to the snapping in t w o of a flake along the debitage
axis. Such accidents were long mistaken for burins ; they leave but a partial arris on the core
(when it is at all visible), on the distal part of the removal negative (fig. 80).

36 Roche, Tixier, 1982.

34

Fig. 6 Large blade with multiple breaks (clean breaks, languette, etc.). Experimental debitage, direct
percussion using a wooden billet (J. T.), Grand-Pressigny flint, Indre-et-Loire. The fragment
outlined by a dashed line was not retrieved (Roche, Tixier, 1982 : fig. 1).

35

 Languette
breaks occurring on the lower or upper face; they can be simple ou
double, in which latter case they sometimes generate characteristic waste products (fig. 7 : 2, 3
and 4).
Nacelle
breaks, initiated by bulb s c a r s , which arch suddenly towards the upper face,
removing part of the t w o edges, and then intersect quite as suddenly the lower face. T h e small
waste product corresponding to the nacelle has a very specific shape (fig. 7 : 5 ) . Such accidents
are more c o m m o n when pressure rather than percussion is applied.
31

38

4.2. Plungin g flake s

They result from a p h e n o m e n o n causing the fracture plane, w h o s e proximal part is
normal, to plunge suddenly away from the exterior surface and r e m o v e a whole section of the
blank, be it a core, a debitage product or a tool (fig. 7 : 5 and fig. 74).
4.3. H i n g e d flakes
Hinged flakes are the opposite of plunging flakes, although they probably share the same
physical causes (variation in the propagation speed of the fracture front). A hinged flake is a
removal w h o s e fracture plane, normal in its proximal part, arches suddenly and intersects
prematurely the upper face of the blank, resulting in a rounded distal end ( h i n g e - f r a c t u r e ) or
an abrupt clean break (step-fracture). T h e blank is therefore shorter than what was expected
(fig. 7 : 1 ; fig. 14 : 3).
Hinged pieces and their removal negatives are very characteristic. It is the most c o m m o n
accident that befalls beginners when they try their hand at knapping.
39

4.4. Miscellaneou s
Incipient fractures should be included in knapping accidents, as well as incipient bulbs
and still adhering flakes or blades.
Lipped flakes.
During the knapping of bifacial pieces or blades, and especially w h e n direct percussion
with a soft h a m m e r is applied, the flake or the blade m a y happen to r e m o v e a larger amount of
material than expected in the butt area. T h e result is a proximal part showing a very broad butt,
an extremely diffuse bulb with a concave profile and a postbulbar constriction. The removal
negative, bearing some similarity to a Clactonian notch, disfigures the edge of the bifacial piece
or the striking platform of the core. T h e specific nature of this accident lies in the fact that the
fracture initiates far behind the impact point of the h a m m e r . If they are not closely examined,
such flakes can well be mistaken for plunging flakes. The occurrence of such an accident is
irrespective of the raw material used.
"Parasitical" flakes
Such flakes are either complementary (in the case of bulb scars, for instance, fig. 5) or
supplementary ("splinter" chipped off from the overhang of the striking platform, upon removal
of a flake by percussion; the waste product is elongated, with a triangular cross-section, and
shows neither butt nor bulb).
" S p o n t a n e o u s " removals
These occur within a fraction of a second after the removal of a flake, when the latter
cannot fall free because the core rests on the k n a p p e r ' s hand, foot or thigh, and are not easy to
distinguish from the intentional removals resulting from retouching. They generally concern the
distal end of the blank (short removals), but can also produce notches (or even denticulates) on
the lateral e d g e s .
It is absolutely necessary to have a comprehensive k n o w l e d g e of knapping accidents in
order to :
4 0

37
38
39
40

36

Bordes, 1970.
Therefore, "dorsal nacelles"
Crabtree, 1972 : 25.
Newcomer, 1976.

cannot exist.

Fig. 7 Experimental knapping accidents. 1 : hinged flake (aborted blade), direct percussion using an
antler billet, Bergeracois flint, Dordogne. 2 : blade with a simple lower face languette, indirect
percussion "under the foot", Goussainville flint, Oise. 3 : blade with a long upper face
languette, indirect percussion, Idaho obsidian, U.S.A. 4 : "parasitical" flake between two
opposite languettes. 5 : plunging bladelet with a lower face nacelle break, pressure debitage
using a pectoral crutch, obsidian (Roche, Tixier, 1982 : fig. 3, 1).

37

- distinguish intentional from unintentional knapping, which is crucial;

- better understand technical physical actions and their chronology, as well as the
operative schemes brought into p l a y ; a burin that has been disfigured by a plunging spall need
not be entirely discarded : the distal end of the negative of the spall can be used as a surface on
which another burin blow will be applied to produce, for instance, a new dihedral burin;
- better appreciate techniques through a comparison with modern e x p e r i m e n t s ;
- assess the k n a p p e r s ' degree of c o m p e t e n c e ;
- apprehend a tradition with greater confidence when accidents are linked to specific
techniques.
T h e observation of knapping accidents by prehistoric people probably caused t h e m to
master the p h e n o m e n o n , thus converting it into something i n t e n t i o n a l : anyone trying to m a k e a
backed edge on a blade will sooner or later break it, accidentally producing a microburin or a
" K r u k o w s k i " microburin. This technique was systematized long before the time of geometrical
microliths, in the early U p p e r Palaeolithic of North Africa : m o r e than 2 0 0 0 0 years ago, it was
applied in the Iberomaurusian to m a k e L a Mouillah p o i n t s .
Another example of the systematic use of accidents concerns the plunging Levallois
flakes necessary to the manufacture of Tabelbala type c l e a v e r s : this ultimate technical action
in the knapping sequence is a particularly original feature in the production of those Acheulean
artefacts from the western Sahara and South Africa. Here, it would be disastrous not to achieve
a plunging flake!
41

42

41 Tixier, 1963 : 106.

42 Tixier, 1956.

38

Three knappin g sequence s

8 Bifacial shaping of an arrowhead with tang and wings, starting from a flake. 1 : unretouched
flake. 2 : roughing out by percussion to thin the proximal end (bifacial removals) and reduce
the curve of the distal end (inverse removals). 3 : achieving the preform by percussion. 4 :
finishing by pressure. 5 : carving out the tang.

39

Fig. 9 Blade debitage carried out on a core with a single striking platform. 0 : unmodified block. 1 :
summary shaping out, creation of a striking platform. 2 : removal of a first blade, entirely
cortical. 3, 4 : successive removals of blades of plein debitage, with rejuvenation of the striking
platform.

40

Fig. 10 Blade debitage carried out on a core with two opposite striking platforms. 0 : unmodified
block. 1 : shaping out the core by means of an initial frontal crest (A) and two postero-lateral
crests (B and C). 2 : creation of two opposite striking platforms. 3 : removal of two opposite
crested blades. 4 : blade debitage with platform rejuvenation (piein debitage).

41

Chapter 3

Shaping
W e use the term shaping to indicate a sequence of knapping operations carried out for
the purpose of manufacturing a single artefact by sculpting the raw material in accordance with
the desired form. This particular knapping m o d e , which can be fitted into any of the phases of a
chane opratoire,
aims at creating a specific morphology, whether it be an arrowhead (whose
function can be presumed), a handaxe (the use of which remains u n k n o w n ) , or the preform of a
stone axe that will subsequently be polished.
Although shaping applies mainly to bifacial pieces, it can concern other artefacts of
varied morphology, such as polyhedrons and spheroids, trihedrons, chisels, stone axes with
square cross-sections, etc. Shaping also applies to the manufacture of preforms. However, w h e n
an operation akin to shaping is shown to belong really to a chane opratoire
concerned with
debitage, one speaks of a core being shaped out because the underlying concept is different. A
case in point is the Japanese Yubetsu method for the production of bladelets (p. 79).
W i t h shaping, it is not always possible to say what was actually intented : the fashioning
of a single tool or the production of blanks. Most chanes opratoires
concerned with shaping
produce quite a number of flakes that can be used as blanks for flake tools. It is also often
impossible to ascribe utilitarian properties to the artefacts resulting from shaping.
Shaping is a m o d e of knapping that is very widespread, in both time and space, and has
been applied to almost all the types of raw material suitable for knapping, from coarse-grained
quartzite to obsidian.
Finally, shaping encompasses a certain number of methods, each of which shows m a n y
variations. T h e following developments concern only some of the major methods : bifacial
shaping, polyhedral and spheroidal shaping, trihedral and quadrangular shaping. Preforms, by
definition an intermediate stage in a chane opratoire
and not associated with any particular
morphology, are dealt with in a separate section, as well as cleavers, a very special type of tool.

43

Bifacial shapin g
Bifacial shaping appeared in eastern Africa at the end of the O l d o w a n period, m o r e than
one and a half million years ago, and has virtually always been used ever since. The h a n d a x e is
an all-important feature of the L o w e r Palaeolithic. Although not omnipresent, it is - sometimes
along with the cleaver - the best represented tool in Acheulean industries. It remains conspi
cuously present during the M i d d l e Palaeolithic. In later periods, bifacial shaping appears or
disappears depending on the culture. In the French U p p e r Palaeolithic, for instance, it reaches its
apogee with the Solutrean, but is not taken up later by the Magdalenians. O n the other hand, in
other cultural contexts, such as Asia, bifacial shaping features in the technical background during
the entire U p p e r Palaeolithic. As from the end of the Mesolithic and until metal appears, it
b e c o m e s virtually universal owing to the development of projectile points.

1. Method s
Although the m e t h o d s used for bifacial shaping vary considerably according to the
different periods, the basic concept stays m u c h the same. Differences appear only within the
operative schemes, the techniques and the way in which they are applied. The bifacial concept is
described here from a general point of view.
W h i c h e v e r way the original blank was obtained (it can, for instance b e a large flake
struck off from a core), bifacial shaping can b e divided into t w o phases, roughing out and
finishing.
R o u g h i n g out consists in the simultaneous fashioning of two m o r e or less convex
surfaces on either side of a bifacial equilibrium plane
(fig. 11 : A ) . This term is used in
preference to plane of symmetry because the two surfaces - which define a contour, marked out
by a ridge - are definitely not always symmetrical, and this applies in particular to handaxes.
43

Finishing consists in giving the contour a regular shape, according to a second bilateral
equilibrium plane
(fig. 11 : B), perpendicular to the bifacial equilibrium plane. Finishing bears
some similarity to retouching, especially where small pieces m a d e from flakes are concerned. It
is this step that gives the artefact its final morphology, by delineating the edges, carving out a
tang, or arrowhead wings, etc.
Any blank can b e shaped into a bifacial piece : a cobble, a block, a slab, a chunk of stone,
and of course a flake (fig. 8). The closer the morphology of the blank is to the intended final
shape, the less w o r k is required to rough it out. In the case of a bifacial piece m a d e from a thick
block, it is necessary to do s o m e preliminary flaking before roughing out can b e undertaken : this
entails flaking away the cortex and coming closer to the desired morphology. O n the other hand,
one or two generations of removals only are needed to shape a bifacial piece m a d e from a flake.
S o m e Acheuleans have systematically struck off large, short and wide slightly djet flakes, to
use as blanks for their handaxes : in that case, shaping is incorporated into a longer chane
opratoire,
which includes an initial flaking sequence that shows predetermination in the
obtaining of b l a n k s .
4 4

2. Technique s
Prehistoric people applied the main stone-knapping techniques to bifacial flaking as they
successively invented or adopted them : direct percussion with a hard or soft h a m m e r , indirect
percussion, pressure, pecking, and then polishing.
A s early as the middle Pleistocene, different techniques w e r e brought into play for the
fashioning of a single bifacial artefact : direct percussion with a stone h a m m e r to first r e m o v e
the blank and then rough it out, direct percussion with a soft h a m m e r to give the piece its final
shape. These t w o operations generate characteristic flakes (fig. 14). T h e shift from one technique

43 Texier, 1989; Roche, Texier, 1991.

44 Texier, Roche, 1995b.

44

to another in the course of roughing out and finishing is not systematic, but it does occur quite
frequently. Unquestionable evidence for this practice dates back to 7 0 0 0 0 0 years in eastern
Africa, and it probably existed even earlier. In some long chanes opratoires
including preforms
and belonging to m o r e recent periods, it is not u n c o m m o n to see three, or even four different
techniques used for the manufacture of a single artefact (see below).

Fig. 11 Bifacial (A) and bilateral (B) equilibrium planes of an handaxe.

3. Morphologie s
The morphologies of bifacially shaped objects can be very variable (figs. 12, 13, 37). T h e
above mentioned distribution of v o l u m e during roughing out can tend towards symmetry on
either side of the bifacial equilibrium plane, or remain asymmetrical. Likewise, the frontal view
can b e perfectly symmetrical bilaterally, or show an intended (or fortuitous) asymmetry.
S o m e shapes remained morphotechnically stable over very long periods, like the
Acheulean handaxe. Use-wear analysis is yet unable to identify the functional reasons for the
success of the handaxe. However, it seems that its development w a s closely linked to the
acquisition of the idea of symmetry (well mastered during the early Acheulean, one million years
ago), even if far from always perfect, and also to the ability to flake large blanks.
Other bifacial morphologies, on the other hand, result from specific conceptions with a
limited existence in both time and space, like the M i d d l e and U p p e r Solutrean laurel-leaves,
w h o s e function, once again, can only be surmised. That of projectile points can be more readily
appreciated : their morphology is extremely varied, each shape corresponding to ballistic and
hafting requirements.
Of all the knapping m o d e s , bifacial shaping is undoubtedly the one that most exquisitely
combines efficiency with fancy and imaginative power, as well as with technical performance :
witness the dacite disks from the T n r , for instance, the north-American O h o k a m p o i n t s ,
and of course the well k n o w n M a y a excntricos
.
The variety of shapes resulting from bifacial shaping has given rise to a large number of
classifications, most of which are morphological and of limited interest. It is essential that other
4 5

46

41

45 Joubert, Vaufrey, 1941-1946.

46 Crabtree, 1973.
47 Boletn de Anthropologia Americana,

1982.

45

Fig. 12 Various examples of bifacial shaping. 1 : "laurel-leaf', Solutrean, Les Jeans-Blancs, Dordogne. 2 : shouldered point, Solutrean, Le Placard, Charente. 3 : bifacial foliate piece, Neolithic,
Shagra, Qatar. 4 : bifacial piece, Neolithic, Al-Abr, Yemen. 5 : arrowhead with tang and
square wings, Neolithic, Shagra, Qatar.
1 and 2 (Smith, 1966b : fig. 50, 1 and fig. 67, 6), 3 and 5 (Inizan, 1988 : fig. 49, 6 and fig. 51, 5).

46

Fig. 13 Example of bifacial shaping : Acheulean handaxe, phonolite, Isenya, Kenya.

47

Fig. 14 Bifacial-shaping flakes, phonolite, Isenya, Kenya. 1 ; plunging flake. 2 : finishing flake, soft
hammer. 3 : flake displaying a hinged removal negative.

48

aspects be from n o w on taken into consideration, namely technological data and the relationship
that prevails within a single assemblage between flaking and shaping sequences. Only thus will
w e further our understanding of prehistoric p e o p l e ' s m a n a g e m e n t of their raw materials and gain
greater insight into the conceptual and operative schemes brought into play.

Polyhedral an d spheroida l shapin g

Polyhedral shaping is not carried out in relation to secant planes, but in relation to a
virtual point of balance around which the volume of the piece is more or less equally
d i s t r i b u t e d (fig. 15).
The method consists in striking off non-contiguous flakes from opposite directions, the
intersection of the removals forming an angle of more than 90 (in theory the m a x i m u m value
between the striking platform and the flaked surface). This ensures that the thickness of the
artefact will be preserved and at the same time creates the ridges that are so typical of the true
polyhedron (fig. 16 : 1). The wider the angles, the closer the polyhedral form c o m e s to being a
sphere.
48

Fig. 15 Point of b a l a n c e or point of gravity (point G) in polyhedral and spheroidal shaping.

It is possible to obtain a spheroid (fig. 1 6 : 2 ) from a polyhedral form, in which case the
ridges are partially crushed by pecking. However, spheroids can also be obtained through partial
fashioning of naturally rounded forms.
The same methods are applied to bolas (fig. 1 6 : 3 ) , but pecking concerns all the facets
of the artefact in order to obtain a perfect sphere.
Thus, polyhedrons, spheroids and bolas can represent different segments of a single
chane opratoire.
Technically, polyhedral and spheroidal shaping is carried out by direct percussion with
a hard h a m m e r . The transformation of a polyhedron into a spheroid, or even more so, that of a
spheroid into a bola, is achieved through pecking, with a shift in techniques : first direct
percussion and then pecking, both techniques involving the use of a stone hammer. In such cases,
the spheroid can be considered as a preform (see below). Contrary to what has often been stated,
a polyhedron is not the result of chance knapping or of the m i s m a n a g e m e n t of a flake-core ; its
manufacture is dependant upon a method requiring that shaping be well mastered, and this
method is not easy to replicate experimentally. And while a h a m m e r s t o n e can b e c o m e perfectly
rounded through long and well controlled use, there can be no doubt about the intentional shaping
of prehistoric (and historic) bolas.
48 Texier, Roche, 1995a.

49

Fig. 16 Polyhedral and spheroidal shaping. 1 : polyhedron (phonolite). 2 : spheroid (phonolite). 3 :

bola (quartz), Acheulean, Isenya, Kenya.

50

Polyhedral and spheroidal shaping appears very early on, in the O l d o w a n period, and
endures throughout prehistoric times. It is h o w e v e r far less c o m m o n than bifacial shaping, its
conceptual opposite.

Other shapin g method s

Shaping can yield other products of varied morphology, triangular, square, rhomboidal,
etc., in cross-section, which are dependant upon different methods for their manufacture. T w o of
these methods are described hereafter.
Trihedral shaping
The terms trihedron, pick or trihedral pick designate artefacts that are both elongate and
robust, with one or both tip ends rough-hewn to form a crude triangular point, or else a narrow
chisel (fig. 17).
Picks can b e m a d e on any kind of blank. Actually, a large n u m b e r of knapping schemes
are available to shape the point, depending on whether one or possibly two surfaces (natural
surface or fracture face) are preserved - they can then be used as striking platforms - or whether
all three faces are knapped. T h e base need not be systematically m o d i f i e d .
The technique used is direct percussion with a hard hammer.
The trihedral pick, w h o s e function eludes us, is not a very c o m m o n artefact. It appears
at the very beginning of the Acheulean, but develops mainly in the Sangoan (African Lower/Mid
dle Palaeolithic transition); it is also documented in the Upper Palaeolithic - but in a "lighter"
version - and can be found in some Mesolithic cultures.
49

"Quadragular" shaping
This method is not widespread. It is undoubtedly best exemplified by the preforms of the
so-called "square cross-section" stone axes (the cross-section actually is rectangular) of the
Danish Final Neolithic (fig. 1 8 : 1 ) (see following section), or by those of south-east Asian stone
axes.
Quadrangular shaping is mainly connected with preforms, with the exception of the
Danish Bronze dagger hafts, which are not further modified. The method requires to b e very well
mastered technically, in particular where large-sized pieces are concerned. A clumsy removal
during the roughing out stage can - in a deferred but irretrievable way - jeopardize the ultimate
shaping stages or the polishing stage.

Preforms
A preform is the result of the particularly careful preparation of a roughout, preliminary
to the finishing phase during which one or more techniques are brought into play (fig. 47).
Finishing scarcely modifies the shape of the preform, and the main finishing techniques used are
percussion, pressure, polishing, and pecking. Heat-treating may occur at one point in the chane
opratoire, and the way in which the techniques are ordered is eminently variable (for instance
heat treatment followed by pressure, polishing followed by pressure, pecking followed by
polishing, etc.).
Four examples of chanes opratoires
that include preforms are developed below : two
archaeological examples, the comprehension of which has been largely dependant upon experi
mentation, and two ethnographical examples taken from very different contexts, a testimony of
the enduring practice of stone-knapping and of its socio-economic and symbolic role.

49 Brzillon, 1968; Leroy-Prost, Dauvois, Leroy, 1981.

51

Fig. 17 Trihedral shaping : trihedral pick (quartzite), Acheulean, Casablanca, Morocco (Dauvois, 1976 : fig. 17).

Fig. 18 Preforms. 1 : experimental "square cross-section" stone axe preform, flint, Denmark. 2 : stone
axe preform, basalt, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. 3 : bead preform, carnelian, Khambhat, India.
1 (Madsen, 1984 : fig. 4, A), 2 (Petrequin and Petrequin, 1993 : fig. 202).

53

 "Square cross-section" stone axes of the Danish Final Neolithic

T h e preforms of axes with a square cross-section (fig. 18 : 1) are prepared in the
following w a y : after some preliminary flaking of the block (chosen in relation to the
anticipated size of the final product), the roughing out of the quadrangular shape is carried out
by direct percussion with hammerstones w h o s e weight will vary according to the different stages
of the work. T h e shape of the roughout must b e as close as possible to the ultimately desired
morphology, because subsequent "corrections" are fraught with difficulties. T h e next step is the
trimming of the preform, carried out by indirect percussion with a punch. Giving a regular shape
to the ridges of the preform, which must b e perfectly rectilinear, is done by applying light blows
with a soft h a m m e r , or by using indirect percussion or pressure. T h e preform is then ready for
polishing, the latter being carried out by hand for small axes, or on a large polishing stone with
a specific device for axes m o r e than 20 c m l o n g . T h e whole process thus entails at least three
different techniques.
5 0

5 1

Egyptian predynastic knives

Another example, d r a w n from protohistoric times, is the complex chane opratoire
of
the Egyptian predynastic knives of the Gerzean period (about 3200 years B C ) , which involves
the following steps : preliminary flaking of a block or slab of flint ; roughing out and careful
preparation of the preform (using direct percussion with a soft h a m m e r for the latter two
operations at least) ; polishing of the entire preform, which can be as long as 30 c m ; preparation
of the edges ; application of pressure (probably with a copper instrument) to retouch o n e of the
faces - the other remains polished - thereby producing long parallel S-shaped removals (ripple
flakes), w h o s e aesthetic function cannot be denied ; fine denticulation of the working end.
5 2

Polished axes from Irian Jaya (Indonesia)

A remarkable ethnographic e x a m p l e of chanes opratoires
concerned with the fashion
ing of polished axes and adzes has been recorded in Papua N e w G u i n e a (fig. 1 8 : 2 ) . In the
west-central valleys of Irian Jaya, there exist groups w h o still manufacture axe, adze or chisel
"blades", applying four techniques w h o s e ordering varies according to the raw materials and the
technical abilities of each group : flaking (using direct percussion with a hard or soft h a m merstone, or percussion on an anvil), pecking, polishing and sawing.
Following the collective procurement of the raw material, a process that can involve
selective collecting, quarrying (digging of funnels or pits) or thermal shock (fire induced
fragmentation), the main techniques (or combinations of techniques) used are : elaborate flaking
and minimal polishing ; minimal flaking and intensive polishing ; minimal flaking or s u m m a r y
sawing and pecking, and intensive polishing ; pecking only ; sawing only ; polishing only.
O n c e finished, the blades are variously hafted with w o o d e n handles to m a k e axes or
adzes. Used for hewing d o w n trees and splitting wood, these tools also play an important role in
the exchange system and possess a highly symbolic value.
5 3

Knapping of carnelian beads in India

T h e knapping of carnelian beads and trinkets is still practised today in Khambhat, in the
Gujarat (India), and is very interesting from an ethnoarchaeological standpoint, in relation to
archaeological data dating back to the third millenium of the Indus civilisation. Indeed, it has
been possible to compare the contemporary workshops directly with some archeological
workshops recovered from Chanhu D a r o and L o t h a l .
T h e present day production line is the f o l l o w i n g . Vertical pits sometimes 1 5 m deep
are dug into the fossil terraces of the N a r m a d a (more than 100 k m away from Khambhat), from
which carnelian cobbles are quarried and then selected according to their size. They are
heat-treated in order to improve the knapping characteristics of the stone, and can be subjected
to the same treatment a n u m b e r of times at any and all stages of the chane opratoire
to alter
the red of the carnelians. Knapping involves t w o steps, roughing out and m a k i n g the preform
54

55

50
51
52
53
54
55

54

Hansen, Madsen, 1983.

Madsen, 1984.
Midant-Reynes, Tixier, 1981; Kelterborn, 1987.
Ptrequin, Ptrequin, 1993.
Mae Kay, 1943; Rao, 1973.
Roux, Pelegrin, 1989.

(fig. 18 : 3), using indirect percussion by counter-blow (p. 32). The preform has the main
geometrical characteristics of the future bead, which can be square, circular, egg-shaped,
cylindrical, etc., in cross-section, and its fashioning requires the use of a different iron rod (more
pointed) and of a lighter mallet. It is then abraded, polished, pierced, and finally lustred. The
rotary power needed for boring is still obtained with a bow-drill, which is already documented
in the Neolithic.

The cleave r : a very specifi c too l

The cleaver owes its specificity to two main characteristics.
It can be obtained either by debitage alone, or by debitage followed by shaping. W e
h a v e therefore d e e m e d it apposite to discuss this tool at the end of the chapter dealing with
shaping, just before that dealing with debitage.
Its cutting edge, the cleaver bit, must necessarily be unretouched. Bifacial pieces with
a sharp bit achieved by shaping or by lateral tranchet blow technique actually are handaxes with
a tranverse (or terminal) cutting edge (biface a biseau tranversal ou terminal),
and not cleavers
at all.
The cleaver is almost exclusively confined to the Acheulean. It is only very occasionally
documented in the Middle Palaeolithic.
"It is clear that the manufacture of a cleaver is governed by a leading principle, that of
obtaining a terminal cutting edge... This cutting edge, which is always intact, i.e. devoid of any
intentional retouch, is the result of... the intersection of two planes : that of the fracture face and
one of the planes of the upper face, which is the very definition of a flake tool... The removal of
the flake whereby the cutting edge of the future tool is prepared is, from a cognitive viewpoint,
a fundamental operation in the manufacture of a c l e a v e r " .
Notwithstanding this very accurate description, published in the mid-fifties and complemented by a morphotechnical classification, cleavers are still heavily misinterpreted. Very
c o m m o n in some Acheulean industries, they are m o r e often than not held to be handaxes and
classified as such, in spite of the fact that their manufacture is dependant upon the debitage of a
large flake (the blank of the cleaver-to-be). The blank is therefore strongly predetermined,
whereas the part played by shaping is eminently variable.
O w i n g to its particular m o d e of manufacture, one of the cleaver's morphological
characteristics often is asymmetry, both bifacial and bilateral.
Some cleavers proceed from debitage alone, thus implying a high degree of predetermination in the production of the blank. This applies to cleavers m a d e on flakes achieved by
Levallois (p. 68 and ff.), K o m b e w a (p. 61 and fig. 28) or Tabelbala (p. 38 and p. 69) methods,
but can also occur w h e n the blanks are ordinary flakes. The edges m a y sometimes be m a d e more
regular by retouching.
O n the other types of cleavers, with the exception of the proto-cleaver w h o s e upper face
is entirely cortical, the cleaver bit is the result of "the deliberately induced intersection of two
surfaces : the lower face of the blank and the negative of a previous predetermining r e m o v a l " .
Once the blank is obtained, any degree of modification is possible, ranging from the s u m m a r y
paring d o w n of the base of the blank (to thin or r e m o v e the bulb-and-butt part) and/or the
trimming of the edges (to achieve greater regularity), to the entire bifacial shaping of the piece with, of course, the exception of the cleaver bit, which always remains unmodified.
56

57

56 "Le principe dominant qui a dirig la fabrication d'un hacher eau est, on le sait, l'obtention d'un tranchant
terminal... Ce tranchant, qui est toujours naturel, c'est--dire exempt de retouches intentionnelles, est obtenu... par la
rencontre de deux plans : plan de la face d'clatement, et un des plans de la face suprieure, ce qui impose
immuablement un outil sur clat... L'enlvement d'un clat reprsentant la prparation du tranchant du futur outil est,
psychiquement, l'acte essentiel dans l'obtention du hachereau". Tixier, 1956 : 914-923.
57 "...[rsulte de] l'intersection volontairement provoque de deux surfaces : la face infrieure de l'clat support
[qui] vient recouper le ngatif laiss par le dtachement pralable d'un clat prdterminant".
Texier, 1989 : 4.

55

56
Fig. 19 Phonolite cleaver, Acheulean, Isenya, Kenya.

As a rule, the part played by shaping is inversely proportional to the degree of

predetermination of the blank. W h a t " m a k e s " a cleaver is the predetermination and not the
shaping, w h o s e (optional) function is, in this particular case, to add balance and regularity to the
artefact.
The complexity of a stone tool is not necessarily dependant upon a long chane
opratoire, and this is well exemplified by the cleaver. T h e tool looks deceptively simple, but
actually proceeds from a very elaborate and efficient conceptual scheme.

57

Chapter 4

Debitage
Debitage is an operation that consists in fracturing a raw material in order to produce
blanks. This conventional definition is appropriate only for products obtained intentionally by
applying percussion and/or pressure. The term debitage is never used for breaks, even when the
latter are intentional.
Debitage divides the raw material into two categories of complementary objects : the
core and the debitage products.
Debitage often encompasses the following m a i n phases : a phase concerned with the
shaping out of the v o l u m e to be flaked, and the preparation of the striking or pressure
platform(s); an initial phase of debitage; an optimal phase called "plein debitage",
which can be
followed by a final phase. Further shaping out and preparation can occur throughout the entire
debitage sequence. A certain number of flakes show distinctive features testifying to such
operations and can thus be mentally situated in the chane opratoire.

The cor e
Whatever the raw material used, whatever the techniques and methods applied, and
whatever the nature of the core-to-be (block, slab, flake, etc.), a core primarily displays negatives
of the flakes that have been removed.
It can therefore be identified by recognizing (fig. 20) :
- the surface(s), whether prepared or not, on which force (percussion or pressure) has
been applied : these are the striking or pressure platforms;
- the surfaces formed by the negatives of the flakes r e m o v e d : these are the debitage
surfaces;
- the surfaces flaked at an earlier stage, if present.
F r o m a technological viewpoint, cores are debitage waste products. They reach us at the
final stage of the debitage sequence and illustrate only the last m o m e n t of that sequence. Their

59

study should not be dissociated from that of unretouched products and tool blanks, if available.
It must lead to the reconstruction of the production sequence(s) and of the operative scheme(s)
brought into play.
Finally, one should not forget that flakes - if chosen for this purpose - can also serve as
cores. W h e n this is the case, they can only be identified as such if part of their lower (positive)
faces can still be recognized.

STRIKING PLATFOR M

Fig. 20 Main descriptive terms for cores.

Debitage product s
By definition, these are products removed by pressure or percussion during debitage.
They c o m e under the general heading of "flakes", whether they be preparation flakes, blanks
intended for future tools (used as such or subsequently modified), or characteristic waste products
(fig. 9 and 10).
Debitage products can be classified according to the part they play in the chane
opratoire : shaping out flakes, preparation flakes, tool blanks and finally waste products.
It is owing to the characteristics of some flakes and cores that prehistorians are able to
reconstruct the debitage scheme intended for the manufacture of blanks.

Debitage method s
Like any technical action in stone-working, debitage is incorporated into a chane
opratoire,
for which an operative knapping scheme subtended by a project can always be
recognized ; this holds true whatever the period and the methods involved. The ever increasing
range of knapping techniques invented and reinvented throughout prehistory is well documented ;
yet, major differences in the modes of conception and execution exist, which are not necessarily
chronologically defined. T o account for such differences, the contrast must be underlined
between complex debitage operations (predetermined debitage) and simple debitage, requiring
only a basic conceptual scheme and minimal skills.

60

1. Simpl e debitag e
Flakes are produced without their removal being preceded by any special preparation of
the core. Taking into consideration the morphology of the core, the craftsman will repeatedly
choose where to strike in order to r e m o v e a flake that can be directly used or subsequently
modified into a tool, carrying out the debitage as it comes (fig. 21). In theory, direct percussion
is the only technique used for this type of debitage.
Cores will therefore not have a preferential striking platform, and will generally tend
towards globular shapes if debitage is advanced enough. Flakes will have variable outlines and
thicknesses, and shapes will not be stereotyped.
The lack of any preparation, of any shaping out of the core-to-be, obviously entails the
almost complete absence of characteristic flakes (there will of course always be a first flake).
This is the simplest debitage m o d e conceivable, and it is therefore characteristic of no
particular period or geographical r e g i o n ; with a bit of practice, it can b e carried out by anyone
w h o is not hopelessly clumsy.
"Discoidal" debitage is a little m o r e elaborate, insofar as the method of producing flakes
from disc-cores evinces a certain degree of predetermination. The frequency of such cores during
the M i d d l e Palaeolithic has led to their being called " M o u s t e r i a n " ; the term is inappropriate, for
such a debitage m o d e existed long before the Mousterian and continued on long after; nor was
it at all negligible during the Neolithic. T h e cores generally have a circular outline and an
asymmetrical biconvex section : the less convex of the two faces is that formed by the removal
negatives of the flakes, the other face often being cortical in the middle, with a margin formed
by the preparation negatives of the striking platforms or by an area of cortex. T h e guiding
principle is the removal of flakes by centripetally directed percussions. The debitage surface of
the core shows several removal negatives with marked negative bulbs.
The raw material used must be quite thick for the method to be successfully carried o u t ;
nevertheless, the flakes will not have a standardized morphology.

2. Predetermine d debitag e
It aims at deliberately producing flakes of clearly set forms, thanks to an appropriate
shaping out of the core. T h e notion that is central to this type of debitage is the production of
pre-planned pieces, often standardized, whether single or multiple.
Within this general frame, each method is defined by the specific schemes (both
conceptual and operative) brought into play, a particular volumetric conception of the core, and
the resulting products.
W e are only beginning to grasp h o w important the informations supplied by the different
debitage methods can prove for our understanding of the m a n a g e m e n t of raw materials or that of
debitage products. B e that as it may, what w e definitely gain some insight into, through the study
of the different methods found in lithic industries, is prehistoric p e o p l e ' s technical behaviour.
The methods discussed below are a m o n g the most widespread, the most characteristic or the best
documented.
2.1. T h e Levalloi s m e t h o d s
The type of debitage k n o w n as "Levallois", which, according to a definition suggested
by Frangois Bordes in 1 9 6 1 , consists in the manufacture of a "flake of a form predetermined
by special preparation of the core prior to the removal of that flake", covers a time span of half
a million years, as well as every inhabited continent except the Americas. Although the finds
recovered as early as 1867 from the e p o n y m o u s site of Levallois h a v e m a d e this Parisian suburb
famous in prehistory, some credit should also go to Victor C o m m o n t w h o first reconstructed this
particular type of debitage in 1909.
Levallois debitage has long been poorly understood, and was sometimes considered as
just a special way of preparing the striking platform. Moreover, the term "predetermined flake"
5 8

58 "clat de forme prdtermine par

1961 : 14.

une prparation spciale

du nuclus avant enlvement de cet claf.

Bordes,

61

Fig. 21 Relatively simple debitage. 1 : theoretical core, no specific morphology, multidirectional

percussion. 2 : flake-core, Oldowan, Nyabosusi, Ouganda.

62

was currently equated with "Levallois flake" and vice-versa, with complete disregard for the fact
that the concept of predetermination is involved in every knapping operation, in which the final
product has been mentally planned beforehand. While the idea of predetermination is indisputa
ble in blade debitage, it must nevertheless be acknowledged that Levallois debitage is the first
well organized, very widespread debitage method to develop before the advent of Homo sapiens.
However, although Levallois debitage belongs essentially to the L o w e r and Middle Palaeolithic,
it cannot be used as a chronological marker, for it is also met with during the Upper Palaeolithic,
and even in very recent i n d u s t r i e s . Over the last twenty years, the discovery of m a n y Levallois
debitage industries, mainly in Europe and the Middle East, has shown there is an ever increasing
discrepancy between B o r d e s ' definition and the m o r e recently recorded Levallois products. It
therefore b e c a m e m o r e and m o r e difficult for prehistorians to grasp, and to agree upon, the very
definition of Levallois debitage.
Faced with this problem, E. B o e d a attempted a technological approach to Levallois
debitage, based on experimental data and on the analysis of archaeological series from the M i d d l e
Palaeolithic in northern France, in order to clarify the origin and subsequent developments of this
debitage method. His assessment of the purpose of so complex a debitage, as well as his
investigations into the various knapping strategies carried out, enabled h i m not only to specify
B o r d e s ' definition, but above all to widen its scope.
The old definition insisted upon the centripetal preparation of the Levallois surface and
the special preparation of the striking platform.
59

6 0

The centripetal preparation does indeed ensure that the debitage surface has a convex
morphology, thereby permitting the removal of a large "Levallois" flake. However, centripetal
removals are not a constant feature in Levallois debitage.
Great emphasis was also placed on the preparation of the striking platform (irrespec
tive of that of the debitage surface) to achieve an ideal flake.
This part of the definition was too narrow insofar as it dealt with only one debitage
method, that which was concerned with the production of a single flake (although the
manufacture of several flakes ensuing from the same type of preparation was occasionally
mentioned). It also suggested that Levallois debitage was "wasteful", using up large amounts of
raw material.
Levallois products were as often as not described in terms of morphology, such as the
"turtle-back" core or the "chapeau de gendarme"
butt, although these morphologies result from
a series of connected technical actions, which were not explained. T h e "turtle" is evidence that
the core was shaped out by m e a n s of two asymmetrical convexities, and the "chapeau de
gendarme" is a technical facetting procedure for preparing a preferential striking platform, in
order to carry out the removal of a Levallois flake.
As a consequence, the existing typological classification of the Levallois method was
based on the form of the final products obtained : flake, point, and blade Levallois methods.
Mindful of the original conception of this type of debitage, the study of which included
cores and predetermined products rather than the latter alone, E. Boeda, after J. T i x i e r ,
suggested that the following terms be singled out and defined : concept, technique and m e t h o d .
H e thereby brought to light the varied character of the Levallois " m e t h o d s " .
61

6 2

The Levallois concept

Whatever the morphotechnical characteristics of the wished-for products, Levallois
debitage is dependant upon a particular volumetric conception of the core and the way it is
worked.
The core is shaped out by m e a n s of two asymmetrical convex surfaces, which define
a plane of intersection (fig. 22 : 1). The convexity of the two surfaces is a deciding factor in the
production of Levallois flakes.
59
60
61
62

Cauvin, 1971.
Boeda, 1994.
Tixier, 1967 : 807 and 817.
Boeda, 1988.

63

Fig. 22 Volumetric representation of two Levallois debitage methods. 1 : prepared core. 2a : debitage of a preferential flake. 2b, 3b, 4b : recurrent bipolar debitage (after
Boeda, 1994: fig. 1).

One of the surfaces is the debitage surface from which the Levallois products are
r e m o v e d ; the other b e c o m e s the striking platform, which can b e used with or without further
preparation. T h e t w o surfaces are not interchangeable during a production sequence of Levallois
flakes.
It is therefore quite clear that, starting with the shaping out of the core, the preparation
flakes play a major role : indeed, the quality of the Levallois products is closely dependant upon
the preciseness of the sequence of such previous removals.
Levallois products split off along a fracture plane that is parallel or sub-parallel to the
plane of intersection defined by the t w o convex surfaces described above. In figure 22, this
fracture plane is symbolized by a dashed line. "The discontinuity between the Levallois
preparation surface and the preparation surfaces of the striking platforms entails that neither of
the t w o surfaces can increase in size at the expense of the other. Thus, the capacity of a Levallois
core for predetermined flakes is restricted to the v o l u m e contained between the Levallois
preparation surface and the plane of intersection of the two s u r f a c e s " (fig. 22, hatched
surfaces).
63

The technique
Levallois debitage is exclusively carried out using direct percussion with a stone hammer,
even though percussion with a soft h a m m e r is perfectly well controlled at the same period and
used concurrently for the manufacture of other pieces.
The methods
The term method applies to the carefully thought out sequence of actions that leads to
the manufacture of Levallois flakes. The production m o d e s implemented according to the above
defined Levallois concept are the materialization of the various methods observed.
T w o main methods have been recognized, showing some variations in their operative
schemes.
Levallois debitage of a preferential flake (fig. 22 : 2a, fig. 23 and fig. 26 : 1)
The aim is the manufacture of a single flake from each prepared debitage surface. T h e
butt of the flake is small relative to the total surface that is in principle planned for it, and the
flake spans most of the debitage surface. Figure 23a shows the creation of the two convex
surfaces by means of centripetal removals, 23b showing the preparation of the striking platform
(also carried out by m e a n s of centripetal removals) and the final shaping out of the debitage
surface. In 23c, the Levallois flake removal operation is shown. If the volume of the core allows
the manufacture of another flake, the entire process must be gone through once again before the
second flake is removed. W h e n within a single assemblage the products obtained correspond to
a single flake for each prepared suface, the method is referred to as "lineal".
Multiple-flake Levallois debitage (fig. 22 : 2b, 3b, 4b and fig. 24)
The Levallois surface is in that case intended to yield a series of Levallois flakes. E a c h
removal is a function of the preceeding removal, and conditions the following removal. This type
of debitage is called the recurrent Levallois method.
Figures 24a and 24b show the creation of the two convex surfaces, 24c showing the final
shaping out of the debitage surface. Figures 24d and 24e show the removal of several Levallois
flakes (in this case centripetal).
In the recurrent Levallois method, the multiple flakes will have different morphologies
according to the orientation of their removals, and the position(s) and size(s) of the striking
platform(s).

63 "La discontinuit entre la surface [de prparation] Levallois et la surface de prparation des plans de frappe a
pour consquence qu'aucune de ces deux surfaces ne peut s'agrandir aux dpens de Vautre. Ainsi la capacit d'clats
pdtermins d'un nuclus Levallois se rduit au volume compris entre la surface de prparation Levallois et le plan
d'intersection des deux surfaces'". Boda, 1988 : 14.

65

Fig. 23 Levallois debitage of a preferential

66

flake.

Fig. 24 Recurrent centripetal Levallois debitage.

67

1. Recurrent unipolar

Levallois

method

T h e flakes have a single direction of removal, and tend to be elongated. The striking
platform is small. If the directions of the removals converge slightly, the flakes will be triangular
in shape. Levallois points often proceed from this type of knapping scheme, and more rarely from
bipolar preparation. Such a method is documented in the Sudano-Egyptian r e g i o n and in the
N e a r E a s t for instance (fig. 26 : 2).
6 4

6 5

2. Recurrent bipolar

Levallois method

(fig. 22 : 4b)

Flakes that originate from two opposed preferential striking platforms can be observed,
the direction of removal being visible on the upper faces of the flakes. Levallois blades are
traditionally achieved by m e a n s of such a method : it can be noted that in Levallois blade
debitage, the ridges created by the intersection of the two convex surfaces do not serve as a
crested blade (see under : blade debitage).
3. Recurrent centripetal

Levallois

method

(fig. 24)

The margin of the entire surface selected as the striking platform can be used, but
confusion must be avoided with discoidal debitage : the specifically Levallois character of the
m e t h o d lies in the debitage surface being exploited in such a way as to ensure that it remains
always in the same debitage plane.
4. Levallois point
M o r e than in any other Levallois method, the predetermination of the morphology and
exact delineation of a Levallois point depends upon the pattern of arrises displayed by the core
(fig. 25). A s any fracture w a v e tends to follow these arrises (formed by the secant planes of
removal negatives of Levallois preparation), a flake r e m o v e d along a rectilinear arris will
necessarily have a triangular delineation and a pointed distal end. Used to produce Levallois
points, this is the principle of the "guiding arris", w h o s e preparation thus theoretically requires
at least two removals. In practise, there is very often a "basal triangle" formed by a negative bulb.
This concave surface, related to the preparation of a preferential striking platform, provides a
wide butt (of the "chapeau de gendarme"
type), and sides that converge nicely to a point.
Figure 26-2 illustrates one the m a n y recorded variants, resulting from the chosen
sequence of preparation removals and their orientation.
Levallois points can occur fortuitously during debitage, whether the latter be Levallois
(during the preparation of the striking platform) or not. In this event, basal triangles are usually
lacking.
To define the methods and procedures of debitage, flakes are useful sources of
information, but it is the cores that provide the most reliable information on knapping schemes
and methods, on condition that they h a v e not been re-used.
Covering a time span of 5 0 0 0 0 0 years, the different Levallois methods testify to the early
development of intelligence in mankind. They not only m a k e it possible to characterize cultures,
but also further our insight into prehistoric p e o p l e ' s technical behaviour.
2.2. T h e K o m b e w a m e t h o d
Less well k n o w n than the Levallois methods, the K o m b e w a method is mainly d o c u m e n
ted in Africa, where it antecedes the Levallois m e t h o d . It combines simplicity with originality.
T h e basic principles of the m e t h o d can be summarized thus : from a regularly convex
surface, it is possible to r e m o v e a very regular circular, semi-circular or oval flake. Such a surface
can be created by means of a percussion that intentionally achieves a pronounced, wide and
6 6

64 Marks, 1968 : 315-323.

65 Meignen, 1995.
66 Owen, 1938; Balout, Biberson, Tixier, 1967; Dauvois, 1981.

68

Fig. 25 Debitage of a Levallois point.

regularly convex bulb. It is therefore by using the convexity of the lower face of this first flake
that the shape and thickness of a second flake (or several successive flakes) can be predetermined
(fig. 27).
After the debitage of the flake w h o s e lower face will serve as a debitage surface, and
before the removal of the K o m b e w a flake, a striking platform can b e prepared, but this is an
optional step. T h e two impacts that removed first the core-flake, and then the K o m b e w a flake,
can oriented in any direction relative to one another.
The manufacture of cleavers is one of the main purposes of the big K o m b e w a flakes of
the African Acheulean (fig. 28). A few rare examples show that the K o m b e w a method, in
combination with the Levallois method for the shape of the flake, was used to manufacture
cleavers of the Tabelbala type (an intentionally plunging Levallois f l a k e ) . In that case the upper
face is mostly formed by the convexity of a large percussion bulb instead of being prepared by
predetermining removals.
T h e expression " K o m b e w a m e t h o d " (based on the expression "Levallois method") is
relevant whenever there is evidence for the clear intention to predetermine, and therefore
produce, K o m b e w a flakes. This is for instance the case for some French Mousterian p i e c e s , for
the mata'a
tanged obsidian pieces from Easter Island (fig. 49 : 3), for some gun flints from
Britain or from the Vaucluse in France, and for the flints used in Spain for threshing sledges.
67

6 8

67 Tixier, 1956; Alimen, 1978.

68 Bordes, 1961 and 1975 ; Geneste , 1985.

69

23

Fig. 26 Various examples of Levallois products. 1 : preferential-flake Levallois core, sandstone, Ai'n
Chebli, Morocco. 2 : Levallois point, flint, Kebara, Israel (Meignen, 1995). 3 : Levallois flake,
flint, recurrent centripetal debitage; bearing macro and microscopic wear traces resulting from
butchering activities, La Combette, Vaucluse.

70

3a

3b
Fig. 27 Debitage of a Kombewa flake.

However, the tranformation of a flake into a bifacial piece, or even a core, can bring
about the " c h a n c e " removal of a flake from the bulb. This is then referred to as a " K o m b e w a
waste product".
Finally, some fair-sized "flakes", which originate from the splintering of a large bulb,
can be open to misinterpretation; however, they have no butt, and can thus be identified as bulbar
splinters, a variety of "parasitical" flakes.
2.3. Blad e debitag e
Blade debitage is a pre-planned debitage, organized in such a way as to repeatedly
produce blades or bladelets from a single c o r e (fig. 9 and 10).
Of standardized form o w i n g to their (almost) parallel arrises, blades and bladelets are
flakes whose length is at least equal to twice their width, according to a widely adopted
convention. They can be r e m o v e d by any type of technique (direct percussion, using a h a m m e r
of stone, wood, antler or m e t a l ; indirect percussion; pressure).
The m e r e presence of a few "laminar" products is not sufficient to vindicate the diagnosis
of blade debitage; for the diagnosis to be borne out, the presence of characteristic scars and
systematic blade blank production is necessary.
L o n g assimilated with U p p e r Palaeolithic blade debitage by percussion, the so-called
"classical" blade debitage has a very different volumetric conception from Levallois blade
debitage : the products are stereotyped and the entire v o l u m e of the core can b e used, with a wide
choice of debitage volumes and striking platforms.
6 9

69 Economie du debitage laminaire,

1984.

71

72

Fig. 28 Phonolite cleaver on a Kombewa flake, Acheulean, Isenya, Kenya.

While the distinction between blades, and bladelets and micro-bladelets is a matter of
size, it has been shown that in m a n y prehistoric regions there was a technical choice of either
large debitage products (blades) or small ones (bladelets and micro-bladelets), the choice being
irrespective of the dimensions of the available raw materials, A statistical analysis of the sizes of
blade products can distinguish the relevant dimensions for these categories and help to state more
clearly the choices m a d e by the prehistoric groups concerned. Conventions can then be
established, which are valid for one or m o r e cultures within a prehistoric region. This has been
attempted for the Epipalaeolithic of the M a g h r e b by one of the c o n t r i b u t o r s . Regretfully, and
in spite of his cautionary recommendations, some authors h a v e assumed that the figures put forth
could be generally applied in any other context.
The manufacture of blade products at will can rarely b e achieved using a piece of raw
material in its natural condition. Blade debitage is generally linked to the shaping out of the core,
and to the preparation of striking or pressure platforms, and most particularly to the preparation,
almost always by bifacial removals, of one or m o r e "ridges", called crests. However, owing to
the presence of a sufficiently convex area of cortex, some morphologies of raw material are
directly suitable for blade debitage ; this is the case, for instance, in some Aurignacian chanes
opratoires.
The crest makes the debitage of the first blade easier, enabling it to split off along the
crude dihedral formed by the two series of removals (fig. 64 : 1 and 2). This first crested blade
will therefore always be triangular in cross-section (fig. 64 : 2b). Nevertheless, if the raw material
is appropriate, as are some slabs, no such preparation will be necessary. The first blade will then
be referred to as naturally crested,
or if only one versant is preparaed the crest will b e called a
crest with one prepared versant
(fig. 64 : 6b).
W h e n struck off, the crest will leave t w o arrises, along which debitage can be continued.
The subsequent blades m a y still show removal negatives from the shaping out of the crest
(fig. 64 : 3b and 4b). This crest can b e m a d e as long, or as curved, or as precise as is desired,
depending on what is required. If a part of the core no longer allows satisfactory debitage, the
core can b e shaped out a second time, often with a new crest created by removals stemming from
a previous blade removal negative.
A core can be preformed with one, two, or three crests; even four crests are not
i n c o n c e i v a b l e . While all the crests (when there are several) play a part in the shaping out of
the volume of the core, only one is used to start the production of blades. Such crests are therefore
an essential stage in blade debitage. T h e m o r e care given to the preparation of the crest (or
crests), the m o r e regular the shape of the blades (beginning with the earlier stages of the
debitage).
The crested blade is thus a characteristic flake.
70

71

The striking or

pressure platform

Blade debitage is carried out from one or m o r e striking or pressure platforms, which can
be cortical, plain, or prepared. The abrasion of an overhang (a preparation procedure) can be
applied to any type of striking or pressure platform, and should never b e confused with traces of
use.

Percussion debitag e o f blade s

The removal of blades is achieved by direct or indirect percussion, using a hard or soft
hammer.
In the percussion m e t h o d of blade debitage, as practised in m a n y U p p e r Palaeolithic
industries, the v o l u m e of the core is prepared in such a w a y as to permit its complete reduction.
T h e m a x i m u m length of the blades will b e a function of the initial volume of the lump of raw
material, and will diminish until the core is spent, the state of reduction depending on the size of
the intended products.
70 Tixier, 1963.
71 Crabtree, 1968.

73

In the repeated production of blades or bladelets, certain laws (rediscovered

experimentation) were imposed on the prehistoric knappers. Such laws tend towards :

by

- ensuring an adequate morphology of the edge of the striking platform for groups of
t w o or three blades, or single blades, by m e a n s of various technical procedures, which are often
the signature of cultural traditions ;
- maintaining for each blade r e m o v e d both an adequate core morphology (transversal
and longitudinal convexities - "cintrage" and "carnage")
and relatively parallel arrises, to allow
further debitage.
T h e mastery of blade debitage is dependant upon the control of the distal ends (which
must not be hinged, or debitage will very quickly grind to a halt) and the longitudinal curvature
("carnage"),
in accordance with the type of product that is wished for.
If a slight distal curve on the blank is sought - to retouch an endscraper for instance - ,
or if this is of no consequence, the end of the core opposite the striking platform can bear a
second striking platform. This "opposite" striking platform is only used for putting imperfections
right - these are very often hinge negatives - by corrective removals. T h e distinction should
therefore be recognized between this second subsidiary striking platform and the true blade
debitage striking platform.
If m o r e rectilinear blades are sought, two opposite striking platforms are created, both
intended for blade debitage. T h e y are then used alternately for short production series, so that the
distal ends overlap in such a way as to create debitage surfaces with very little convexity, as in
U p p e r Perigordian cores (fig. 29 : 2) or in the naviform cores of the Near East.
O n e should also bear in mind that a systematic sequence of blades cannot be produced
unless the transversal convexity (perpendicular to the arrises) is sufficient. Blade debitage is
impossible once the debitage surface has b e c o m e too flat. In a similar way, it is necessary that
the convexity of the distal ends of the arrises (the longitudinal curvature) be maintained ; this can
be achieved either through debitage itself, or by m e a n s of removals in the area opposite the main
striking platform. In the long run, this imposes the need to r e m o v e blades from the parts of the
debitage surface adjoining the sides (whether cortical or prepared) of the core.
Direct percussion with

a hard hammer

Obviously, this is the oldest technique, k n o w n in the context of the M i d d l e Palaeolithic,

about 1 0 0 0 0 0 years a g o ; the striking platforms were prepared. T h e technique later appears
sporadically, in the European Azilian, for instance, usually with plain striking platforms. It is also
documented in far m o r e recent industries : hard h a m m e r s were used for m a k i n g long obsidian
blades (30 cm) in northern M e x i c o and in Ethiopia. T h e marks are the same as those displayed
by flakes : a relatively large butt (even if the projection crowning the negative bulbs has been
removed), a point of impact, a bulb and bulb scars nearly always quite pronounced.
O n e should also consider the varying degrees of hardness of the hammerstones, for the
scars they leave on the products can n o w be r e c o g n i z e d . Debitage using a soft h a m m e r s t o n e is
a technique that appears to h a v e developed towards the end of the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe ;
it has also been used, so it seems, in the naviform debitage of the Levant.
72

Direct percussion with

a soft hammer

This technique, which is the prevailing one in the U p p e r Palaeolithic, results in small
butts, a flaking angle of m o r e than 90, and a diffuse bulb (the same holds true for flakes). Direct
percussion with a soft h a m m e r often goes together with the abrasion of the overhang, whatever
the technical procedure used to obtain the latter : preparation of a small projection on the debitage
surface, negative bulb(s) on the striking platform proceeding from localized resharpenings, or
spurs. The importance of such procedures depends on the nature of the intended products,
especially if very large blades are in demand.
In the present state of experimental knowledge, the largest prehistoric flint blades
obtained by percussion are over 50 c m long, whereas those obtained by pressure barely reach
20 cm. For late periods, however, the use of a lever can b e considered in the case of outsize
blades, particularly if they are very regular (p. 32).
72 Crabtree, 1972 ; Madsen, 1983 ; Pelegrin, 1991a.

74

Fig. 29 Various types of blade-cores p r o d u c e d by percussion. 1 : p y r a m i d a l core, A u r i g n a c i a n ,

Bergeracois flint, C o r b i a c - V i g n o b l e 2, D o r d o g n e . 2 : prismatic core, Perigordian, Bergeracois
flint, Aillas, D o r d o g n e . 3 : core with t w o orthogonal platforms and two debitage surfaces.

75

Indirect percussion
Strangely enough, there is no indisputable evidence for blade debitage using a p u n c h
before the Mesolithie. T h e distinctive features of such blade products are halfway between those
of debitage by direct percussion and by pressure-flaking, and are sometimes difficult to
distinguish from either of the two. Indirect percussion is well adapted to a plain striking platform,
only slightly inclined on the debitage surfaces. T h e flaking angle is almost 90, and is one of the
criteria by which this technique can be distinguished, in a long debitage series, from direct
percussion with a soft h a m m e r .
W e h a v e chosen to illustrate just three examples.
Debitage starting from a single striking platform, on a pyramidal core (fig. 29 : 1).
W i t h this kind of pattern, the blade products tend to curve.
Debitage starting from two opposite striking platforms on a cylindrical or prismatic
core (fig. 29 : 2). Debitage can be performed either by alternating the striking platforms for each
removal, or by removing a series of products from first one platform and then the other. T h e
products obtained in this m a n n e r will b e rectilinear.
Crossed d e b i t a g e : the t w o debitage surfaces are parallel, but the directions of
percussion are orthogonal (fig. 29 : 3).
Blade debitage can be carried out from one or more striking platforms, which can be
cortical, plain, or prepared. In the latter case, preparation will involve either a short series of t w o
or three blades, or a single blade as is c o m m o n in the Magdalenian (especially the U p p e r
Magdalenian), where a projection is created on the edge of the striking platform. Part of this
projection is r e m o v e d along with the blade, which will then have a butt with a spur (fig. 62 : 8).

Pressure debitag e o f blade s

Pressure debitage applies only to the manufacture of blades and bladelets. Identified
relatively l a t e , this technique has, in the last few years, b e c o m e more and more widely
documented, in space and in time. The most impressive area of distribution covers the Middle
and Far East. Until very recently, it seemed that pressure debitage of blades followed percussion
debitage of blades, and appeared only 1 2 0 0 0 years ago, in Japan. At present, its invention can be
traced to a Sibero-Sino-Mongolian region of Asia, about 2 5 0 0 0 years a g o . Invented by
hunter-gatherers, this type of debitage moreover proves to b e a valuable technical marker, thus
providing added information about the peopling of North A m e r i c a .
Heat treatment, already k n o w n to m a k e pressure-retouching easier, is also often
associated with pressure debitage, at least on flints and chalcedonies.
In the case of bladelet manufacture, the pressure causing the fracture w a v e can be applied
directly with a short hand-crutch (fig. 30 : 1), or with a longer shoulder-crutch, whose "passive"
end is held firm under the arm or presses against the shoulder (fig. 30 : 2). For longer blades, the
pressure is applied with a pectoral (fig. 30 : 4) or abdominal crutch (fig. 30 : 3a and 5). T h e point
that applies the pressure can b e of ivory or antler, which were superseded by metals w h e n these
appeared. As the size of the products increases, it b e c o m e s m o r e and more necessary to stabilize
the core (fig. 30 : 3b).
Pressure debitage therefore requires m o r e equipment than percussion debitage : a device
to immobilize the core, a composite tool to apply pressure. Furthermore, the frequent occurrence
of heat treatment testifies to complex and well mastered skills. However, in spite of the
improvement heat treatment can bring about, pressure debitage requires raw material that is both
fine-grained and h o m o g e n e o u s . Obsidian is certainly the best suited material for this type of
debitage.
O w i n g to the fine nuances of m o v e m e n t and force that can b e applied, and to the
accuracy with which the pressure point can be positioned, pressure debitage leads to m a x i m u m
7 3

7 4

75

73 For the background history, see Tixier, 1984 ; 57-70.

74 Inizan, 1991.
75 Inizan, Lechevallier, Plumet, 1992.

76

Fig. 30 Experimental blade and bladelet debitage positions. 1 : using a grooved device and applying
pressure with a small hand-held tool. 2 : using a shoulder-crutch. 3a : using an abdominal
crutch. 3b : immobilizing the core (detail). 4 : using a pectoral crutch. 5 : using an abdominal
crutch, with the core held firm between the feet.
(1, 2, 3 : J. Pelegrin; 4 : J. Tixier; 5 : J.E. Clark).

77

A
Fig. 31 Pressure debitage of blades (or bladelets), different types of cores. 1 : p y r a m i d a l core. 2 :
bullet core. 3 : flat core. 4 : flat core with t w o successive debitage surfaces.

precision and m a x i m u m standardization, thanks to parallel arrises. It is also a m u c h m o r e

profitable technique than percussion debitage; it actually allows an "ideal" blade debitage,
removing two arrises from the core while creating two more.
M o r e than any other debitage technique, pressure-flaking gave rise to feats of imagina
tion, reflected in the various ways of shaping out different sized cores, in the rubbing d o w n of
pressure platforms when obsidian is used, and in the polishing of some parts of the core during
debitage to smooth out i r r e g u l a r i t i e s (fig. 78).
B e c a u s e pressure-flaking is a technique that allows the core to be worked until it is spent
(as the large n u m b e r of documented bullet cores shows), plunging is a c o m m o n accident. It is
therefore unthinkable and illogical to pressure-flake from two opposite pressure platforms.
76

Recognition criteria

77

On the core
Very rectilinear and regularly parallel arrises help to distinguish a pressure-flaked core
from a percussion-flaked core, while the morphology itself can b e variable (fig. 31).
76 Inizan, Tixier, 1983.
77 J. Tixier's first assessment of the recognition criteria of this technique was based on the Upper Capsian lithic
industry of the Ain Dokkara (Tixier, 1976a).

78

3a 4

a5

Fig. 32 The Yubetsu method. 1 : shaped out core. 2 : removal of a crested blade and successive "ski
spalls", to prepare the pressure platform. 3, 4, 5 : bladelet debitage.

T o b e worthy of such a n a m e , a pressure-flaked core should always b e undisputably

fluted in places.
Pressure platforms can be cortical, plain or prepared. In the case of vitreous rocks like
obsidian, the pressure platform is very often partially or completely rubbed down, to avoid
slipping during debitage. T h e action often extends to the overhang of the core, or even to part of
the debitage surface (fig. 78). Rubbing d o w n of the pressure platform and overhang is only rarely
documented for flint cores.
The two basic forms of cores are the pyramid and the parallelepiped.
Pyramidal cores : either h a v e a circular pressure platform and ogival shape (fig. 3 1 : 1 ) ,
end result of a core that has been shaped out like a " m i t r e " ; or are virtually cylindrical bullet
cores with a very m u c h smaller pressure platform by the time debitage is finished (fig. 3 1 : 2 ) .
Parallelepipedal cores, which are described as "flat", have a single debitage surface, or
t w o successive ones, as recorded in the Greek Bronze A g e (fig. 3 1 : 3 and 4).
On blades and bladelets of
-

"plein debitage "

parallel edges and arrises, which tend to be rectilinear;

constant thickness, mesial section included;
no obvious ripples on the lower face;
a butt always narrower than the m a x i m u m width of the blades, which is very rapidly

reached.

The Yubets u metho d

T h e n a m e " Y u b e t s u " is not intended to have any connotations regarding the geographical
area in which the method appeared, but simply refers to the fact that it w a s first recognized as a
method of pressure debitage in J a p a n . Indeed, it is n o w ackowledged that this original debitage
7 8

78 Akazawa et aL, 1980.

79

m e t h o d was invented in a Sibero-Mongolian area during the Upper Palaeolithic. While there is
but a single conception underlying this type of bladelet debitage, m a n y variants have been
identified, which stand for cultural markers, as in Japan for instance.
T h e m a i n stages of the operative scheme are the following.
T h e raw material is shaped out by m e a n s of bifacial percussion removals, resulting in
a m o r e or less regular, often asymmetrical, leaf-shaped bifacial piece (fig. 32 : 1).
T h e least convex ridge of this "biface" is then removed, usually by successive
removals called "ski spalls". In cross-section, the first removal (akin to a crested blade) is
triangular, and the following removals are trapezoidal (fig. 32 : 2). Such removals are charac
teristic enough for the debitage scheme to b e reconstructed, even in the absence of refits.
T h e negatives of these characteristic blades are used as a pressure platform to r e m o v e
the bladelets (fig. 32 : 3 and 4).
T h e first bladelet displays negatives of the bifacial removals from the other ridge of
the biface; this is a first crest, as defined in blade debitage.
T h e narrow cross-section of the biface offers but a small debitage surface, which is
w h y the core has such a specific shape, k n o w n as a "wedge-shaped core" (fig. 32 : 5).
A s debitage is carried out along the width of the biface, and as the debitage surface is no
larger than the cross-section of the core, the blade products are of relatively constant length, but
small in size.

80

Chapter 5

33

Retouching
Definition
T h e term "retouch" describes removals obtained by percussion or pressure, with the
intention of making, finishing or sharpening tools. The terms retouch and retouched will
therefore by definition be applied to any object that is presumed to be a tool.
Retouching modifies a blank, whether natural or intentionally obtained by knapping. A
retouch will have the negative morphological characteristics of a removal, a term that remains
general enough not to presuppose the purpose involved in the action. Removals can be single or
repeated, depending on the techniques.
R e m o v a l s can derive from actions prior to the finishing of the tool (preparation), or from
a later action, such as use or mechanical damage. It is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the
latter from manufacturing retouches. Caution and elementary logic should therefore be the rule :
retouches or traces of use should only be referred to as such w h e n there is clear evidence or proof.
T h e same applies to "spontaneous removals".

Characteristics
"Characteristics" refers to a coherent set of terms used to describe a retouch or a line of
retouches. There are seven such terms : delineation, extent,
angle, localization, morphology,
position
and distribution.
Each of these characteristics is further defined by a series of
descriptors.
The list of descriptors should cover all removals. In different combinations, they allow
the classification of tools. W e d o not claim the list to b e exhaustive, as it depends on the available
m e a n s of examination. It should also be noted that some combinations of descriptors pertaining
to different characteristics are incompatible, for instance invasive (extent), and abrupt (angle).

81

These seven characteristics, as well as the possible combinations of descriptors (see

p. 87), are necessary to accurately describe a tool, but their appreciation remains very personal.
All the terms are defined in the lexicon.

Orientation o f tool s
T h e retouch that characterizes s o m e tools plays an important part in their orientation, but
once again no logical or fixed rules have yet been established.
T h e position of the piece while being drawn or examined varies according to the different
authors, as do descriptions of tools, which begin either with the retouch or the blank, sometimes
even alternating the two.
Nevertheless, for the reproduction of a tool to be m o r e conveniently interpreted and
understood, it is necessary to adopt a certain number of symbols, and to define them clearly w h e n
they are not in current use (ch. 7, fig. 53).

Special technique s an d thei r product s

S o m e special debitage techniques and m e t h o d s , such as the manufacture of crested
blades (fig. 68) and the rejuvenation of striking or pressure platforms (fig. 77), leave charac
teristic and easily recognizable waste products. In a similar way, some retouching techniques
(lato sensu) leave such characteristic negative marks, and corresponding waste products, that they
deserve a special, separate place in stone-working technology.
S o m e retouch flakes have specific morphologies, w h i c h are in themselves sufficient to
characterize the technique used. For instance, it is quite easy to recognize flakes resulting from
" Q u i n a " retouch : they are fan-shaped, with a hinged distal end (fig. 34 : 5 and 6).
A number of special techniques were used in tool making, and they sometimes m a r k the
ultimate stage of manufacture. They are also sometimes difficult to distinguish from knapping
accidents. N o t e the case of intentional fractures caused by flexion or any other process : the
fractured element can be used directly, or transformed by retouch.
O u r aim is not to establish an exhaustive explanatory list of such techniques, but to
highlight their importance by illustrating a few examples. As waste products are still thought of
as the "poor relatives" of lithic assemblages, it is certain that a good number of special techniques
are still undiscovered...
This is not the case for the famous microburin, k n o w n since 1 8 7 5 , and about which
thousands of pages have been written.
7 9

1. Microburin blo w techniqu e

This special technique is very widespread in the Old World, but has not yet been
documented in the N e w World. Although it was used for making various types of tools (see
below), it is primarily associated with the manufacture of geometrical microliths : mainly
triangles and trapezes, but also crescents. A n y prehistorian confronted with such shapes should
therefore keep an even sharper lookout for microburins a m o n g the knapping products.
The purpose of the microburin blow (a technique that was perhaps born from the
repetition of a c o m m o n knapping accident occurring during the manufacture of artefacts with
backed edges), is to achieve a technical morphology k n o w n as a "piquant-triedre"
.
A flake, blade or bladelet is placed on an anvil with an open dihedral angle (e.g. a flake
with a triangular cross-section lying on its lower face, a block of stone, a w o o d e n board), its
upper face in contact with the ridge of the dihedral angle so that the axis of the blade or bladelet
m

79 Chierici, 1875.
80 Gobert, 1955.

82

percussion o r pressio n point s

Fig. 33 Microburin blow technique. Production scheme of a microburin (4a) and a "piquant-tridr"
(4b) by percussion or pressure on one edge of a blade resting on an anvil (1, 2, 3). Using this
technique to obtain a backed blade with a distal (5) or proximal (6) "piquant-tridre" ',
a
trapeze, a crescent or a triangle (7, 8, 9). 10 : production of a triangle and a trapeze on the
same blade ; from top to bottom : distal microburin, triangle, double microburin, trapeze,
proximal microburin (Tixier et al., 1976b : fig. 16).

is diagonal to the ridge. The near end of the tool is held in the hand, while the further end juts
out over the ridge to the desired extent and falls off after fracture (fig. 33 : 1 to 3).
With a small hammer, chosen relatively flat, small blows are repeatedly applied almost
perpendicularly to the nearer edge of the blade or bladelet, level with the ridge of the anvil. A
notch is thus created, which is deepened until spontaneous fracture occurs, slightly beyond the
point of contact of the blade or bladelet with the anvil; not the slightest modulation in the blows
or the path of the h a m m e r is required during this operation. The fracture, which roughly follows
the ridge of the anvil, is therefore oblique to the axis of the blade or bladelet. W h e n the
microburin blow is successful, the fracture is also oblique to the faces of the blade or bladelet. It
can be seen on the upper face of the part that remains in the hand, which is a blade or bladelet
with a "piquant-triedre"
(fig. 33 : 4b) (the purpose of the operation), as well as on the lower face
of the part that falls off, namely the microburin (fig. 33 : 4a). Such a result can also be acheived
by applying pressure with a tool of wood, b o n e or antler.

83

If the microburin blow has r e m o v e d the bulb-and-butt part, the microburin is termed
p r o x i m a l ; the removal of the opposite end results in a distal microburin (fig. 33 : 5).
On its upper face, a microburin displays part of a notch with direct retouches, while the
lower face shows a fracture facet extending from the hollow of the notch to the opposite edge.
A proximal microburin therefore often has a slightly asymmetrical, escutcheon-like morphology
(fig. 33 : 6).
The most important part of a microburin is the fracture facet, on which any diagnosis
must b e based. Besides being oblique both to the axis and the faces of the blade or bladelet, it
must display all the characteristics of a fracture face : small to very small bulb, sometimes quite
flat, c o m m o n occurrence of hackles fanning out from the bulb, hardly noticeable fracture ripples.
T h e facet is often twisted, and very slightly hinged w h e r e it meets the upper face of the blade or
bladelet. T h e use of a stereoscopic microscope m a y be necessary to appreciate this tiny
convexity, m o r e prominent in its central part, to which corresponds, on the "piquant-triedre",
a
ridge that separates the fracture facet from the upper face. Running o n e ' s nail across the ridge is
a useful trick : if the nail catches against the ridge, this will generally confirm the presence of a
"piquant-triedre"
(the nail does not catch against normal debitage arrises).
Another characteristic of the fracture facet of the microburin is the frequent presence of
fine direct retouches, or even of a shallow notch, located near the vertex of the angle formed by
the fracture facet and what is left of the notch. Such "retouches" have often been used as an
argument by those w h o insisted that the microburin was not a waste product, and w h o thus tried
to prove it was used as a tool. Knapping experiments have shown that spontaneous removals
could b e generated by the very blow that produces the microburin. Reacting to the blow of the
hammer, the microburin sometimes acts as a lever within a fraction of a second after fracture;
the part formed by the fracture facet and the upper face presses d o w n on the ridge of the anvil,
and this is sufficient to produce a small continuous retouch, u p to 1 c m long. A microburin can
thus fall off already "retouched" by what really are spontaneous removals.
Several types of blunders can occur : pronounced hinging, inverted angle of the fracture
facet, fracture perpendicular to the axis and the two faces of the blank, etc.

2. Buri n blo w techniqu e

This follows the same principles as debitage : using as a striking or pressure platform
one of the surfaces (natural or prepared) of a blank, a usually elongated fragment, called "burin
spall" (fig. 61), is r e m o v e d by pressure or percussion along an edge or a line of preparation. By
such means, one or more burin facets
are produced. A burin blow can be applied by direct
percussion of the h a m m e r , or by striking the burin-to-be against a h a m m e r held stationary in the
hand, or even by pressure. Frequently, several burin facets can be produced on a single blank by
m e a n s of the burin blow, and as any position is possible, combinations of surfaces are
innumerable (see lexicon). Since a single burin blow can produce several spalls, sharpening by
one or more burin blows can only be proved by m e a n s of refits and/or the presence of traces of
use - except perhaps in the case of complete repair (for instance, a truncated burin with a new
burin blow applied on the other edge, fig. 79 : 5). Although systematically recorded, the
characteristics waste products of burins - spalls and sharpening spalls
- are rarely included in
the technological analysis of a lithic assemblage.
Stylistic variations are virtually infinite, and in the west European Upper Palaeolithic
some very special types of burins (e.g. : "carinated", "Noailles",
"parrot's beak"), being
short-lived, are characteristic of certain periods.
The burin waste products - spalls and sharpening spalls - can be retouched, and thus
b e c o m e tools. For instance, such spalls can be excellent blanks for the production of drill-bits.
The use of this technique does not necessarily imply the manufacture of a tool. Indeed,
if it can be shown that the production of blanks is intended, the burin is referred to as a core. At
the Neolithic site of Lagreich ( M a l i ) , all the burins are cores for the production of spalls, which
w e r e used for pecking holes in carnelian beads. It is quite plausible to consider that burins could
b e used both as tools and as cores. The idea that burins must be equated with tools, and spalls
81

81 Gaussen, Gaussen, 1965.

84

with waste, is now outdated; burins and their spalls form a pair, w h o s e use and purposes can vary
according to the different cultures. However, the principle remains, demonstrated yet again, that
a technique furthers an intention towards various ends.

3. Tranehe t blo w techniqu e

On one of the edges of a triangular and elongated axe-shaped bifacial (or bifacially
retouched) piece, a blow is applied close to the edge that acts as the cutting edge. This causes a
removal negative at an acute angle to the face that w a s struck, thus creating a sharp cutting edge
perpendicular to the axis of the piece (fig. 34 : 1). In s o m e cases, this is a resharpening technique.
A n identical technique applied near the point on Acheulean handaxes, either on one face
or alternating on both, has been named the "lateral tranehet b l o w " (fig. 34 : 2). This technique,
which is a lot more c o m m o n than one might have thought ( 1 0 % of the handaxes in the S o m m e
valley, F r a n c e ) always results in a roughly symmetrical final s h a p e ; it therefore represents the
ultimate intention, whether resharpening is involved or not. The resulting waste products h a v e a
characteristic morphology.
8 2

4. Clactonia n notc h techniqu e

It is too often forgotten that the simple action of striking a flake quite far from the edge,
on either of the faces, creates a notch that consists of a single removal negative, k n o w n as a
Clactonian notch. T h e resulting characteristic waste products are indicative of the technique
(fig. 34 : 4). A m o n g s t other possibilities, this technique can be used to reshape the transversal
convexity ("cintrage")
of the front of a carinated endscraper (fig. 34 : 7).

5. Othe r technique s
The "channel-flaking" of some projectile points (fig. 63) or their basal thinning, are
two examples of special techniques, with characteristic waste products, specific to the Americas.
"Obsidian side-blow blade-flaking" (fig. 34 : 3), a special technique of repeated
Clactonian truncation, is the fracture of a pressure-flaked obsidian blade perpendicularly to its
debitage axis, by a blow usually applied in the middle of its upper face. In the present state of
knowledge, such a technique is the signature of cultural traditions with a limited existence in both
time and space (pre-pottery Neolithic of northern M e s o p o t a m i a ) .

82 Z u a t e y Zuber, 1972.

85

Fig. 34 Various examples of speeial techniques. 1 : tranchet blow, l a : resulting characteristic waste
product. 2 : lateral tranchet blow on an Acheulean handaxe. 3 : successive Clactonian
truncations ("obsidian side-blow blade-flaking") on a pressure-flaked obsidian blade, and
resulting waste products (Braidwood, 1961 : fig. 1). 4 : Clactonian notch technique and waste
product. 5 : Quina retouch and resulting waste product. 6 : convex Quina sidescraper with
scaled and stepped retouches. 7 : "carinated endscraper" type core, and conjoining Clactonian
notch waste product (with a "Siret" accident); the notch reduces the width of the "front", thus
allowing further debitage; Aurignacian, Bergeracois flint, Corbiac-Vignoble 2, Dordogne.

86

The seve n characteristic s an d associate d descriptor s

POSITION

DELINEATION

ANGLE

direct
inverse
alternate
alternating
crossed
bifacial

rectilinear
concave
convex
notched
denticulated
shoulder
cran
tongue
tang
long narrow tang
irregular
regular

abrupt
crossed-abrupt
semi-abrupt
low

LOCALIZATION
distal
mesial
proximal
right
left
basal

DISTRIBUTION

MORPHOLOGY
scaled
stepped
sub-parallel
parallel

EXTENT
short
long
invasive
covering

continuous
discontinuous
partial

87

Chapter 6

Technology a s a mean s
to an en d
For an industry to b e recognized and dealt with as such, the distinction between what is
natural, what is accidental and what is intentional must in the first instance be clearly m a d e . This
of course does not imply that one should reject the first two in order to concentrate on the
intentional. A stone artefact cannot be dissociated from its geological and archaeological context.
All the events it bears the m a r k of (including those subsequent to its discard) are important for
fitting both artefact and events into the network of data that w e are trying to interpret. T h e
significance of an artefact will be the greater for its showing mingled traces of geological and
h u m a n actions; m o r e than any other, a tool with multiple patinas will have an interesting history.
On some archaeological sites, the systematic re-use of tools from earlier levels to m a k e
new ones provokes thought not only as to the importance of certain blanks, but also as to whether
a tool belongs to one archaeological level or another.

Reading a stone objec t

For the following reasons, it is necessary to go through the process of reading a stone
object before attempting to study the lithic assemblage it belongs to. F r o m the perspective of
technological study, a stone object, be it a tool or a waste product, is part of a technical operation,
all elements of which are interdpendant. Moreover, in such a perspective, the reading of an
object brings into play the raw material used, as well as the technical actions and the knowledge,
which together work towards the conception of the tool, in the broader sense of the term (tool,
weapon, tool component...). It is therefore essential to have an in-depth understanding of the
basic document, in the present case each lithic object of an assemblage, in order to enrich
subsequent inferences.

89

The term "object" is deliberately used, and applies to each and every element of a lithic
a s s e m b l a g e ; it also refers to any lump of rock that is assumed to have been handled or used by
prehistoric people.
Various processes are involved in the study of a knapped object. For instance, in chapter
1, questions were broached that touched on the quality, abundance and form of raw materials,
which condition the manufacture of the final tools. A s detailed in the present chapter, the
assessment of the type of blank (cobble, block, slab, flake, etc.) is actually sometimes included
in the very process of studying the surface conditions of an object. Moreover, besides natural
phenomena, knapping itself is liable to m a s k altogether the nature of the blank : such is the case
with all entirely retouched bifacial pieces, from the handaxe to the arrowhead, as well as with
cores that no longer possess a natural surface.
A n d last but not least, any attempt to decipher the knapper's intentions
successive steps in the reading of a stone artefact.
Initial perception,
which lead to a biography

involves three

with a built-in hypothesis, is supplemented by a series of observations,

of the object.

Perception, in which sight plays a major role, and almost simultaneous overall identifi
cation, result in a global and sometimes syncretic recognition. The overall indentification is all
the more rapid if the observer has long experience and practise in the dialogue between
prehistorian and knapped stone. It consists in an almost unconscious registering of countless
visual images and tactile sensations, perceived in a fraction of a second : the outline, relief and
colour, the play of light on the facets, the perception of the volume of the object, and the
immediate registering of technological traits
and their sequence.
The next step consists in checking the initial hypothesis. This entails deciphering the
different marks according to their chonological order, in order to discover the successive
intentions, whether successfully carried out ot not.
A knapped stone is always a three dimensional object, which cannot be completely
understood if it has not been examined from every angle, if it has not been comprehensively read.
Such reading cannot be performed haphazardly in its observations and deductions; a set of rules
orders their succession, and there can be only one such set for each category of object (bifacial
piece, core, flake, etc.).
Take for instance a flake-tool.
Paradoxically enough, or so it seems, reading must begin with the recognition and study
of the lower face and the bulb-and-butt part. If the latter is no longer present, the orientation of
the flake can, in the last resort, be determined by taking into account the hackles (fig. 5), which
are the only totally trustworthy clues. It is the "birth" of the blank that must be brought to light.
Indeed, the reading of the prior technical events - debitage and traces of preparation on the core
before the removal of the blank - can only be done in relation to the lower face.
Only then does reading involve the identification of retouching, of the events subsequent
to the debitage of the b l a n k ; in this respect, the modification of the lower face (the fracture face)
is the only indisputable proof that the piece has been "re-touched". In complex cases, it is
necessary to puzzle out the series of retouches, breaks, notches, burin blows, etc., according to
their chronological sequence.
The last step corresponds to the mental reconstruction of the different events, of the
different actions of the prehistoric knapper (or knappers in the case of pieces with a double
patina) : on the core itself, during debitage, and after the removal of the blank. This chronological
reconstruction, which takes into account the meaning of all the visible marks and the assumptions
that some of t h e m give rise to, will c o m e into being through deduction, becoming the "history
of the tool".
It is a matter of convention that the tool subsequently receives a particular designation,
either pseudo-functional (burin), morphological (laurel-leaf), geometrical (trapeze), geographical
(Levallois), or anthroponymic (Krukowski), and that a number is attached to it for purposes of
inventory or quantitative study. However, the examination of
the piece, the recognition of its
technological significance,
cannot
be a matter of choice. It is immutable and
remains the
fundamental process.
It is therefore possible to speak of an objective reading, the process being
identical for all observers.

90

1. Observatio n o f surfac e condition s

Any reading of an object must begin with the careful examination of the surface
condition(s), bearing in mind t h a t :
- by the word "cortex" w e understand a natural surface;
- by the word "patina" w e understand an alteration of an intentionally worked (or used)
surface;
- by the word "neocortex" w e understand a surface of original cortex that has been
altered by natural causes, such as fluvial transport. The presence of neocortex is therefore
indicative of a secondary deposit of raw material.
Once the specimens showing only cortical surfaces have been set aside, technological
analysis entails examining the entire appearance of a tool as it has c o m e down to us. The indelible
marks of its history must be deciphered according to their chronology.
Take the case of a core whose removal negatives have fresh arrises and ridges, others
being blunted and striated as if by fluvial transport. Such a core carries several informations : it
was first used as an "active" core, then rolled around, subsequently picked up (away from the
point where it was found) and then flaked again before being discarded for good. There are even
documented examples of tools having undergone three series of retouches, each showing a
different patina.
Further sorting out m a y b e necessary, in order to set aside "pseudo-tools". A m o n g s t
others, these are most frequently pseudo-bifaces or "pebble-tools" fractured b y frost or by a w i d e
variation in temperature and humidity (the latter being c o m m o n in desert settings); also, cobbles
" k n a p p e d " by surf or glacial compression, and the (sometimes prehistoric) pieces crushed by
cryoturbation or by mechanical devices ("denticulates", "scrapers", "raclettes", "borers", etc.).
For any assemblage studied, it is therefore absolutely necessary to k n o w the exact
physical context of the site of origin :
- surface site;
- buried site;
- thickness and lithology of the archaeological layer;
- angle of d i p ;
- origin of the sediments (volcanic, metamorphic, sedimentary - aeolian or fluvial,
glacial);
- cliff-base, talus slope, etc.
It should be kept in mind that, even in a living zone, trampling is far from negligible; it
can b e c o m e quite intense around springs w h e r e large animals have c o m e to drink.
In all instances the accumulation of observations is essential.

2. Type s o f surfac e condition s

T h e following examples are intended simply as an indicative list.
2.1. Natura l alteration s
Cortex
is an integral part of the raw material in its natural condition, before being
knapped. Its presence or absence on flakes provides information about the m a n a g e m e n t and
origin of the raw material.
Patina,
due to physical and chemical interactions, consists of a modification of the
surface, which does not notably change its morphology. T h e degree of modification is eminently
variable : it entails a change in colour - with or without modification of the granularity of the
texture - either solely on the surface (film) or more deeply, sometimes throughout the body of
the piece, which can then b e c o m e considerably lighter. T h e causes are so numerous and varied
(even within a single layer), and their study so complex that no chronological classification based
on patina has yet been successfully developed, even w h e n only one site is involved.
Wind gloss is less glassy than that due to the swirling of sand in artesian springs. Both
weathering p h e n o m e n a can wear d o w n an artefact to the point where its morphology is
substantially modified, so that all traces of knapping m a y be obliterated.

91

 Thermal damage
mainly covers : frost fractures, which can range from simple cracks
to frost pits, or even to total fracture; variations in temperature combined with those of ambient
humidity, giving more or less the same results (fig. 3 5 ) ; unintentional heat-altering, which
produces "pot lid" fractures, crazed surfaces sometimes mimicking retouch on an edge, or clean
fractures, accompanied by change of colour and lustre w h e n the temperature exceeds 250C.
Such traces m a y be the only clues to accidental conflagrations or to ancient hearths.
2.2. Mechanica l device s
R a n g i n g from the plough to the bulldozer, present h u m a n activities cover ever larger
surfaces, and affect ever deeper layers of the soil; lithic objects disfigured by mechanical contact
with metal and often simulating retouch are therefore m o r e and m o r e c o m m o n . Fortunately, such
pieces are rarely free of specks or streaks of rust, and can also generally be detected owing to
their multiple patinas.
2.3. H u m a n l y induce d alteration s
W h e t h e r intentional or unintentional, heating can bring about the same visible altera
tions. There again, interpretation must rely on the chronological order of the facts : the systematic
occurrence or high frequency of pieces altered by heating prior to retouching is strongly
suggestive of heat treatment. However, there are documented examples of artefacts picked up (in
the same way as tools with a double patina) after having been accidentally heat-altered because
they happened to lie next to or under a hearth. Such artefacts can then h a v e been used as cores
or tool blanks.
Intentional heat-treating of siliceous rocks in order to improve pressure debitage or
retouch can at present only be inferred from the greasy lustre visible only on the part retouched
after thermal treatment (fig. 68).
S o m e alterations correspond to technical procedures : for instance, the blunting of the
edge of a striking platform (see p. 131), the pecking or polishing of a pressure platform or of the
debitage surface of a core, or even of the edge of a handaxe in the course of being shaped. The
edge of a bifacial piece can also be deliberately blunted to prevent it from cutting, as is c o m m o n
in North America.
Other alterations can be classified together with traces of use, such as the glosses and
polishes formed as a result of utilization, or the blunting of some Upper Palaeolithic burins.
2.4. Addition s
O n e must keep in mind that wood, resin, bitumen, leather and pigments, while not always
visible, can be detected and analysed by means of microsampling (fig. 51). O n the other hand,
such elements m a y have resisted long enough for a double patina to develop, as in the case of
some hafted implements.
O n e should therefore proceed with caution when washing the pieces and applying
varnish in the course of marking.
To conclude, there are unlimited possible combinations of such modifications, alterations
and additions. T h e importance and complexity of surface conditions, often impossible to unravel
during field-work, require minute observation during the laboratory phase, as well as extreme
caution in dealing with archaeological material during and immediately after excavation.
Blunders can irretrievably jeopardize certain observations and characterizations, particularly
those concerning additions.

92

3. Framewor k fo r th e readin g o f a knappe d ston e objec t

3.1. Observatio n o f surfac e condition s
3.2. Characterizatio n o f th e ra w materia l
3.3. Identificatio n o f th e blank , i f recognizabl e
Unknapped blank
- type (slab, cobble, etc.)
- orientation (according to a morphological axis, to technical characteristics, etc.)
Knapped blank
- orientation according to the debitage axis (lower face, upper face, butt, left and right
edges, etc.)
- appreciation of technical morphologies (including knapping accidents)
which tell us about knapping techniques and methods
- by examining the proximal end : pressure and percussion techniques
- by examining the upper face : not predetermined, predetermined by means of
the Levallois method, the K o m b e w a method, etc.
- by examining the distal end : plunging on a core, on a burin, etc.
- by examining breaks : accidental or intentional, occurring during debitage, etc.
which testify to preparation
- by examining the upper face : Levallois surface, crest, etc.
- by examining the lower face : different butt types, overhang abrasion, etc.
3.4. Specia l k n a p p i n g technique s
3.5. Descriptio n o f removal s b y m e a n s o f thei r m a i n characteristic s

position
localization
distribution
delineation
extent
angle
morphology
etc.

3.6. Definin g th e object , w h e t h e r i t b e a too l o r no t

93

Fig. 35 Thermal damage : natural pits mimicking removal negatives, siliceous rock, Qatar desert
(Photo J.-L. Princelle).

Understanding a lithie assemblag e

T h e intrinsic informative value of an archaeological site, the quality of excavation and
recording methods, the amount of lithic material and the type of site (short-term location,
seasonal or permanent campsite, w o r k s h o p , etc.), will all have a bearing on possible interpreta
tions. However, the mastery of technological interpretation, due to the development of new
analytical methods and techniques, has considerably enriched the study of prehistoric societies.
Innovative research strategies give substance to hypotheses long considered as purely specula
tive : conjoining and refitting, experimentation
and microwear analysis
have witnessed major
breakthroughs over the last ten years. T h e study of the cognitive and psychomotor aspects
of
technical behaviour
is a recent development, but its potential for research into the technical skills
of extinct societies has already been demonstrated. These methods, which h a v e now b e c o m e
fields of specialization, are briefly presented hereafter.

1. Conjoin s an d refit s (figs . 3 6 an d 40 )

Beginning nearly a century ago, conjoining - rather than refitting - has been c o m m o n
practice a m o n g prehistorians, generally in order to confirm the contemporaneity of a stratigraphic
sequence, or simply out of c u r i o s i t y .
At P i n c e v e n t , the systematic refitting of finds, by which the understanding of the
occupation units was furthered, has shown the wealth of information that such a method can
provide. At present, it contributes m o r e to palaeoethnic k n o w l e d g e than to research into knapping
83

84

83 The Big Puzzle, 1980; Cahen, 1987.

84 Leroi-Gourhan, Brezillon, 1972.

94

95

Fig. 36 Refitting. Centripetal Levallois debitage : at least five Levallois flakes were produced, one of which was retouched into a scraper. Mousterian, flint,
Berigoule, Vaucluse (Brugal et a/., 1994).

85

8 6

techniques and methods, which can be inferred from knapping p r o d u c t s . At M e e r I I , in the

absence of preserved living floors, it is owing to the n u m e r o u s refits that the spatial organization
of the campsite was finally understood. Refitting, n o w almost systematically practised, is
essential to the deciphering of surface sites in p a r t i c u l a r .
Thanks to this method, J. Tixier was able to demonstrate the unity of a large Neolithic
surface settlement in a desert setting, at Bordj Mellala (Algeria), which at first sight could have
been considered as a juxtaposition of distinct sites. B y plotting objects on a plan, carrying out
refits of ostrich eggs and lithics, and subsequently analysing the spatial patterning of the refits,
he showed that the "sites" actually represented different activity areas within a single occupa
tion .
Recently, this method allowed socio-economic inferences to be m a d e concerning two
Magdalenian occupation units at Etiolles in the Paris B a s i n , after confirmation that they were
indeed contemporary. A step was thus taken, which m a k e s it possible, through the unravelling of
intentions, to propose a type of social organization in an U p p e r Palaeolithic culture.
87

8 8

8 9

Refits are also necessary to answer such questions as :

- is there a relationship between particular cores and particular types of tools ?
- were tools (or tool blanks) k n a p p e d in advance, or as needed ?
The other contributions of this method are mainly verifications :
- what debitage or retouching operations were carried out on the actual site ?
- what is the relationship between the categories of debitage products associated with
the different stages of the knapping process (roughing out, shaping out, initial / optimal / final
phase of debitage), and the types of t o o l s ? In other words, what - in terms of the differential
m a n a g e m e n t of debitage products - is the aim of each o p e r a t i o n ? Because the morphology of the
blanks has often been severely modified by retouch, it is not easy to answer the question without
resorting to conjoining and refitting;
- w a s the transformation, resharpening and re-use of broken pieces a c o m m o n p h e n o m e
n o n ? W a s this done randomly or systematically? Depending on the amount of raw material
available, was it used sparingly or n o t ? Such riddles can be solved by conjoining several tools,
or tools and their characteristic waste products, by matching fragments of a single blank, by
fitting a blank on another blank or on a c o r e ;
- h o w m a n y blocks w e r e needed to produce the tools, and which items were brought to
the campsite as finished e n d - p r o d u c t s ? It can turn out (and this is only discovered through
refitting) that two types of rocks, which appear to differ in colour, grain or patina, actually c o m e
from the same block.
Conjoining and refitting are time-consuming procedures, which require an in-depth
k n o w l e d g e of knapping t e c h n i q u e s ; the meticulous observation involved also guarantees a m o r e
accurate reading of lithics.
T h e m a n y results acheived through systematic refitting over the last few years h a v e
highlighted the relevance and potential of the method, which must be applied within the context
of well defined research strategies and to appropriate archaeological sites.

2. Knappin g experiment s
T h e experimental knapping of hard rocks should not b e undertaken for the purpose of
"reproducing" aesthetically pleasing prehistoric objects for exhibition or sale. W e are not dealing
here with "replication" but with a scientific approach, and our concern is not copying but
understanding.
Experimental knapping is an analogic process, which has the advantage of showing an
affinity with test experiments. Indeed, it seemed possible a few years ago to repeat an experiment
as often as n e c e s s a r y , while changing a single parameter, such as the position, the motion, the
90

85
86
87
88
89
90

96

Cahen et aU 1980.
Van Noten et al, 1978.
Audouze, Cahen, 1982.
Tixier et aU 1976b.
Pigeot, 1987; Olive, 1988.
Tixier, Inizan, Roche, 1980.

h a m m e r , the stability of the core or blank, etc., thereby fulfilling the conditions for a statistical
exploitation of the results. W e thus imagined that plausibility could be reached by accumulating
the assumptions by which a possibility can be validated. In actual fact, parameters have proved
so numerous and so "fluctuating" that the statistical exploitation of experiments has almost been
given up.
Experimentation should always b e carried out in the light of archaeological information.
It can only bring us nearer to the prehistoric knapper without actually reaching him, because the
motivations are different. Nevertheless, although it is impossible to assess the exact relationship
between prehistoric people and their artefacts, even where Homo sapiens fossilis
is concerned, it
is incontrovertible that prehistory can never again disregard experimental knapping, the main
objectives of which are presented hereafter.
The destruction of

myths

For instance, Acheulean m a n stubbornly fashioning his tools or weapons for hours on
end. A s a matter of fact, it only takes about a quarter of an hour to shape a handaxe using a soft
h a m m e r , and only a few seconds to retouch a scraper.
The testing of raw materials
W h e n raw materials have been sourced, it is important to test t h e m (or have them tested)
in order to answer a few preliminary questions. This is essential to the study of a lithic
assemblage, insofar as a material should never be deemed "suitable" or "unsuitable" for knapping
before it has been worked.
In the case of a given type of rock (fig. 2 ) :
- could the prehistoric knappers have produced more or better quality artefacts ?
- could they have manufactured m u c h larger or m u c h smaller tools (considering the
dimensions and quality of the rock) ?
- what were the limits of the possible techniques and methods ?
- what were the physical properties of the r o c k ?
Such questions will only be mildly relevant in the case of sites yielding large quantities
of fine tools manufactured on high-grade local raw material, but m u c h m o r e so when the
assemblages seem rather crude. Before passing j u d g m e n t on the skill or "archaism" of the
prehistoric knappers, it is essential to test the materials in order to appreciate their genuine
suitability for knapping in relation to the various techniques applied. Thus, the extraction of
blades proves difficult on some quartzites (such as the silicified arenites of Brazil), and it is not
easy to avoid breaking thin blades during debitage. There is no way that even an experienced
stone-knapper could tell this at first sight. S o m e Japanese sanukites also illustrate this point.
These rocks are very easy to knap, but absolutely not suitable for systematic blade debitage. The
development of an original method for the production of certain elongated tools necessarily
ensued. The Japanese Upper Palaeolithic Setouchi knives with backed e d g e s were thus often
manufactured from flakes that were intentionally m o r e broad than long. These were removed,
one above the other, from a convex lower flake-surface (the first therefore being a K o m b e w a
flake, see p . 68).
9 1

The rediscovery of

bygone methods and

techniques

An accurate assessment of techniques is vital, especially where innovations are concer

ned.
T h e reliability of an assessment depends on experimental tests, and if it finally proves
impossible to identify the technique used, one can at least define some limits (which m a y
subsequently b e c h a l l e n g e d ) : it is already possible to distinguish the application of pressure from
the use of a punch by highlighting significant characteristics.
Reliability will also depend on the amount of archaeological material : a larger sample
will allow a wider range of observations to be made. A n y credible assessment must nevertheless
91 Akazawa

a/., 1980.

97

b e the work of an experienced specialist. Knapping skills cannot be acquired in the space of a
few months, the learning process is very slow, and as in m a n y disciplines it takes several years
to b e c o m e an expert. Our knowledge is yet far from being comprehensive :
- w e are still unable to reproduce the very long Magdalenian flint blades (up to 60 cm)
of the Ile-de-France, or the obsidian blades recovered from Aztec tombs ;
- the debitage of blades by direct percussion with a h a m m e r s t o n e is only now beginning
to be seriously t e s t e d (p. 7 4 ) ;
- there are yet very few publications mentioning the use of the lever and all its variants
(p. 32).
Moreover, it is clear that breakthroughs occur when several experimenters focus on the
same precise problem : w e now k n o w h o w to channel-flake a F o l s o m point using direct
percussion, indirect percussion and p r e s s u r e .
By combining the experimental approach with the study of the chanes opratoires
of a
lithic assemblage, w e are able to reconstruct very precisely the knapping schemes of prehistoric
craftsmen, thereby defining the various methods used.
92

9 3

94

The transmission of

knowledge

Beginners will progress rapidly if taught the fundamentals of lithic technology by an

experimenter.
Another aim of experimentation is to reveal intentions. This includes :
- distinguishing what is accidental from what is intentional ;
- distinguishing what is easy from what is difficult ; an Acheulean handaxe is easier to
manufacture than a Levallois point ;
- distinguishing traces of preparation from traces of use. Efficient debitage using a
w o o d e n or bone h a m m e r involves an abrasion of the edge of a c o r e ' s striking or pressure
platform in order to suppress the overhang formed by the negative bulbs of previous removals,
especially in the case of blade debitage. This abrasion (friction with a pebble) always leaves
traces and sometimes causes extreme blunting ;
- distinguishing preparation removals from retouches. A prepared burin spall, w h o s e
lower face is intact, unmodified by retouch, is a characteristic waste product, whereas a backed
bladelet, w h o s e lower face has necessarily been modified by retouch, is a tool.
- highlighting the fact that the shaping out of the core, its immobilization, and all the
preparations involved by pressure debitage require far m o r e sophisticated skills than the debitage
itself.
Experimentation, whether practised by prehistorians or carried out within the context of
ethnoarcheological research programs, has great potential : it can help us to assess the technical
skills of prehistoric people, to gauge their performances and j u d g e their degree of competence.

3. Trace s o f us e
The systematic and rational study of detectable use-wear over the whole surface of stone
tools has already proven itself, and goes far beyond research into the function of such tools. There
are now m a n y specialists in this branch of research, the foundations of which were laid in the
U S S R by S.A. S e m e n o v in 1930. S e m e n o v ' s work, which was translated into English in 1 9 6 4 ,
showed that it w a s possible to determine tool function in prehistory, a matter that had until then
remained in the realm of speculation. " T h e credit will go to S e m e n o v for having m a d e systematic
observations and for having developed the necessary techniques of study. His work, Prehistoric
Technology, will long remain a reference b o o k " .
9 5

9 6

92
93
94
95
96

98

Pelegrin, 1991a.
Volkof, Guiria, 1991.
Crabtree, 1966.
Semenov, 1964.
Bordes, 1967 : 37.

Only the major milestones in the constitution of this new discipline need to be
mentioned : the first symposium on the subject was held in Vancouver in 1 9 7 7 , followed in
1980 by K e e l e y ' s s y n t h e s i s , the first comprehensive piece of w o r k since S e m e n o v ' s .
Research within the discipline concerns all prehistoric periods, even though convincing
results pertaining to the m o r e ancient ones are at present difficult to o b t a i n .
The study of wear traces requires an understanding of the rock types used to m a k e tools,
as well as of the contact substances. This knowledge is acquired through the sustained practise
of experimentation. It is by systematically alternating archaeological observation and experimen
tal study that one succeeds in understanding the different stages of tool manufacture and use
(hafting, use pattern, sharpening, etc.). The technical approach varies according to the archaeo
logical question and may involve different optical instruments, such as stereoscopic microscopes,
metallographic microscopes, or scanning electron microscopes.
In their current form, microwear studies pertain to different research designs.
Either they try to answer a number of questions, such as :
- what material was processed with the tool ?
- what was the duration of the work ?
- what type of m o v e m e n t was performed ?
- was the tool hafted ?
The aim is thus essentially to explain h o w a tool was used, or to compare the results with
typological data.
Alternatively, such studies focus on the origin, the cause, of wear traces, thus proving
efficient for defining the very concept of what a tool is. Indeed, by allowing the reconstruction
of composite tools, microwear studies have cast light on the problem of hafting.
The study of wear traces also contributes to the detection of natural alterations.
However, one should bear in mind that a result valid for a single site cannot be
considered universally valid without verification.
M i c r o w e a r studies are n o w incorporated into all palaeoethnically oriented research, since
it is often the only way to confirm hypotheses about domestic, economic, or artistic activities.
The agricultural r e a l m
certainly contributed the most to enrich possible interpretations, thanks
to the combined studies of wear traces, knapping techniques (pertaining to the choice of blanks),
paleobotany and archeozoology.
9 7

98

99

1 0 0

4. Technica l behaviou r
Technological analysis is proving a most fruitful approach for deciphering lithic
assemblages in terms of technical activities to begin with, and then in terms of technical
behaviour through the assessment of motor dexterities and cognitive capacities.
4.1. A s s e s s m e n t
The assessment of motor dexterities and cognitive capacities is a fundamental process,
because any interpretation depends upon it for its significance and credibility. It can always be
undertaken, whatever cultures and h u m a n types are concerned, because it is based on lithic
production, as it is possible to assess prehistoric p e o p l e ' s subsistance strategies by examining the
faunal remains from archaeological sites. It depends h o w e v e r both on the quality of the
excavations and on that of the recovered material, and also to a great extent on the type of site :
there will be little to say about a short-term hunting c a m p containing only a small assemblage,
but far more about a knapping workshop where several chanes opratoires
m a y be repre
sented . This type of work can nevertheless be carried out on old m u s e u m collections, provided
the information concerning the context of finds is sufficient.
1 0 1

97 Lithic Use-wear Analysis, 1979.

98 Keeley, 1980.
99 Beyries 1993.
100 Anderson, 1992.
101 Karlin, Ploux, 1994.

99

As w e expounded in the introduction, the transformation of a block of stone for the

purpose of obtaining one or m o r e m o r e tools requires both a project and the ability to implement
it. According to J. P e l e g r i n , a stone-knapper's reasoning involves thinking out a sequence of
cognitive and sensomotor operations, and the different stages in the implementation of the project
can be outlined thus : perception of the task to carry out, followed by the choice of the "ideal"
solution amongst all the k n o w n possibilities (the mental representation of the artefact). At this
stage, the conceptual scheme
is worked out, and the operations necessary to its completion are
devised. T h e knapper then follows an operative knapping scheme
(the sequence of technical
operations), applying all his skill (competence born of experience, of sustained practice) and
knowledge
to complete his project with a varying degree of dexterity. A
poorly executed
operative scheme can be saved by technical tricks derived from the k n a p p e r ' s skills; conversely,
a clumsy slip of the hand can be corrected by a good conceptual knowledge of possible recovery
procedures. It is through the unravelling of operative knapping schemes that inferences can be
m a d e concerning the degree of skill, the quality of the performance and the intelligence of the
knapper.
The analysis of chanes opratoires
in terms of psychomotor processes shows that it is
possible to go beyong the identification of technical actions, possible to highlight, for each stage
of the chane opratoire,
the choices, constraints and preferences of the knapper, the reasons for
his success or failure, possible to see through what operations each project is implemented. This
necessarily requires an appraisal based on criteria established by an experiementer and, if
possible, on refits.
102

4.2. Interpretatio n
N e w lines of research for the interpretation of prehistoric knappers' competences have
developed with the advent of a "cognitive archaeology".
However, interpretations of technical behaviour are only conceivable for past Homo
sapiens sapiens,
because h e is assumed to have had the same cognitive and motor abilities as
modern man. It would be dangerous to extend this assumption to "pre-sapiens" species, w h o s e
competences can only be assessed through the study of lithic m a t e r i a l . Nevertheless,
primatology and ethology have recently focused on the technical patterns of behaviour of
non-human primates (chimpanzees in p a r t i c u l a r ) , and the results have contributed to a renewal
in the studies c o n c e r n e d with this particular b r a n c h of prehistory. T h e need for such analogybased approaches increases as interest shifts to earlier periods.
Archaeology as a whole, and prehistory in particular, has been very receptive to the
cognitive s c i e n c e s ; this comes as no surprise, since archaeology is based on the study of
material culture, on the analysis of artefacts, which are the products of h u m a n intelligence. The
discipline can only be enriched by attempts to lay bare, to understand, the psychological and
motor mechanisms that subtend these productions.
H o w was the technical k n o w l e d g e relative to stone-knapping transmitted ? W h a t learning
processes were i n v o l v e d ? Is it possible to detect personal s p e c i f i c i t i e s ? Such are some of
the questions that a cognitive approach - of which the concept of chane opratoire
is an integral
part - now enables us to consider. Prehistory has gained a vast research area, yet little explored
and sometimes speculative, but so far no regularities can be derived from results that remain very
context-bound. S o m e themes are particularly promising. For instance, the investigation into
learning processes, through an appraisal of the difficulty with which skills can be mastered, leads
directly to the analysis of such major p h e n o m e n a as specialization, innovation and borrowing,
three notions that illustrate the social importance of techniques.
103

104

1 0 5

1 0 6

107

102 Pelegrin, 1991b, 1995.

103 Roche, Texier, 1996.
104 Joulian, 1994.
105 There is a wealth of littrature on this subject. Major references can be found in Gibson, Ingold (eds), 1993 and
Renfrew, Zubrow (eds), 1994.
106 Roux, 1991 ; Karlin, Julien, 1994; Roux, Bril, Dietrich, 1995.
107 Ploux, 1989.

100

Chapter 7

0I

~"~2 3

Graphic representatio n
Scientific illustration is a hybrid between art and science, which follows an iconographie
tradition derived from the Golden A g e of the Natural Sciences.
Far from being simply a picture, the aim of artefact illustration is to use two-dimensional
images to provide an intelligible description of a three-dimensional object. B y combining direct
graphical representation with symbolic conventions w e obtain an excellent m e a n s of c o m m u n i
cation - a universal language, which not only enriches textual description but m a y be the only
source of information for foreign language publications.
Graphical representation of prehistoric industries, as used in this volume, models
technological rules in order to show both the morphology of each object (tool, waste product,
etc.) and its place in the chane opratoire.
It must use graphical m e t h o d s to present the sequence
of chronological actions, which can be read from the characteristic marks remaining on the
object. Developments in reading technological steps has led to new graphical methods : multiple
views, new symbols, schematic representation, etc.
Finally, drawing and photography are distinct methods of expression, appropriate to
specific objectives. They provide complementary m e t h o d s of representation, which can be used
to enrich the illustration of a publication.

Planning
1. Wha t t o dra w
It is rarely possible to draw every artefact from a site. Since quantity is no guarantee of
quality, this handicap can b e turned to advantage. T h e items to b e drawn must b e selected
following the n u m b e r of illustrations that can be included in the p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e aim is to
present as m u c h information as possible with a m i n i m u m number of illustrations. Prehistorian
and illustrator must therefore w o r k together to m a k e the choice of objects that will best represent
the results of the study. Choosing the "best" objects does not provide a representative view of
the collection.
108

108 Prodhomme, 1987.

101

2. Ho w t o dra w
Computers provide a new drawing tool to add to n u m e r o u s existing tools (charcoal
crayon, soft lead pencil, ink, watercolour...). H o w useful is this new tool for illustrations of
prehistoric material ?
Although still little used, computer-aided design offers a wide range of capabilities :
high-end illustration software will generate any variety of solid or broken l i n e ; scanned images
can be modified d o w n to the pixel level; laser printers can generate images of impeccable
quality; computer-aided illustration allows anyone to produce graphics without the need to
master normal techniques. However, computers remain a drawing tool like any other : even
though they allow anyone to produce a picture, they can never substitute for the technological
reading of an object, which is the indispensable basis for an effective drawing.
In this v o l u m e w e therefore describe a traditional graphic technique, using pencil and
Indian i n k .
1 0 9

Drawing
1. Genera l principle s
They are organized according to the layout of the book.
Shaping (fig. 37)
W h e n drawing a shaped object, the drawing must show the sequence of flaking actions
required to generate the three-dimensional shape of the object. Bifacial objects should normally
b e drawn from both sides, while multifacial, polyhedric, spheroidal, etc. objects should normally
be shown using multiple views. Hackles and negative bulbs should be carefully recorded on these
views. For bifacial pieces, the profile should show the symmetry or dissymmetry of the object.
Judiciously chosen sections can be used to show the three-dimensional shape achieved by the
knapper. Schematic diagrams can b e used to show the shaping methods used.
Flaking (fig. 39)
Although cores provide the most information, their illustration is often limited to a single
view of the debitage surfaces. It is essential to show the shaping out of the v o l u m e of the core
and the preparations for flak e or blade removal, through :
- views of the debitage surfaces ;
- views of the shaping out surfaces ;
- views of the striking platforms and any preparation.
Schematic representations can be used to illustrate progressive steps in the exploitation
of a core.
D r a w i n g s of debitage products should show the morphology of the object together with
removals that preceded its detachment (fig. 38). F r o m the drawing, one should b e able to partly
identify the core from which the object was derived. T h e butt must be figured, because it often
shows distinctive features, which allow the discrimination of different flaking techniques. B u l b
scars, ripples and the morphology of the bulb are often good indicators of flaking techniques, and
should always b e illustrated.
T h e diacritic diagram is used to synthesize the sequence of technical steps (see p . 126).
Retouching
R e m o v a l s can be accidental, deliberately m a d e by the knapper, or can result from use.
They should be illustrated precisely, clearly recording morphological differences without making
assumptions about their origin. Supplementing descriptive views, sections can be drawn through
retouched areas to show modifications to edge angle or specific morphology as in the case, for
instance, of Quina retouch (fig. 34 : 5).

109 Coineau, 1978.

102

103
Fig. 37 Acheulean handaxe, welded tuff, Isenya, Kenya.

Fig. 38 V a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of debitage products. 1 : trachyte flake, p r e - O l d o w a n , W e s t T u r k a n a ,

K e n y a . 2 : flint bladelet, Caspian, L e Relilai', Algeria. 3 : flint elongated flake, M o u s t e r i a n ,
Berigoule, V a u c l u s e . 4 : p h o n o l i t e flake, A c h e u l e a n , Isenya, K e n y a .

104

Fig. 39 Pressure-flaked bladelet-core, subsequently percussion-flaked, Capsian, Ai'n Dokkara, Algeria

(Tixier, 1976a: fig. 2, 2).

Refits (figs. 36 and 40)

Refit diagrams are difficult to interpret and orthogonal views must b e abandoned, as the
reader will h a v e trouble bringing together several complex views in a three-dimensional space.
It is therefore best to limit the number of views by choosing a general view, which gives as m u c h
information as possible. Starting from this general view one can pull out a couple of detail views,
which provide a better interpretation of the knapping sequence. N u m b e r e d arrows can be used to
show the order of flake removals. The three-dimensional shape of the refitted object is shown as
a unit rather than through drawing each component individually.

2. Layou t convention s
Any description of an object, whatever it be, is based on its orientation (fig. 41). W h e t h e r
the edge is a left edge or a right edge depends on which way round the artefact is placed. A s
research has progressed, a c o m m o n graphical language has developed, specifying conventions
for the orientation of artefacts, which are not necessarily always logical. Consistent rules must
be used throughout a publication, and the rules should be stated.
There are five situations to be considered.
Cores
Flake cores are oriented according to the debitage axis of the last flake r e m o v e d (fig. 21).
If the last removal cannot be identified; the core is oriented according to its morphology.
Blade cores, whether flaked by percussion or by pressure, are oriented with the striking
platform upwards. W h e n there are several striking platforms, the last-used platform is oriented
upwards (fig. 29 : 2).
Unretouched or retouched debitage products
These include flakes (lato sensu) and tools on an unretouched flake (e.g. Levallois point).
They are oriented according to their debitage axis, proximal end d o w n w a r d s , and upper
face towards the viewer. T h e debitage axis is the straight line that defines the progression of the
fracture front across the lower face as the flake is detached. It starts from the impact point and
divides the bulb into two equal parts (fig. 41 : 1).
Tools such as scrapers, piercers, burins, etc., whatever the type of blank used.
These artefacts are oriented with the supposed active part upwards (scraper edge, piercer
point, burin tip, etc.). If this orientation does not correspond with the debitage axis of the object,
the latter is indicated by a symbol on the upper face view (fig. 58 : 9).
Shaped tools (bifacial pieces, preforms, trihedrons, polyhedrons, etc.).
These artefatcs are oriented according to their morphological axis (fig. 41 : 2, figs. 12
and 13), even if the original blank is a flake. The morphological axis is the axis of greatest
symmetry, in the sense of its greatest length (fig. 4 1 : 1 ) .

105

Fig. 40 Refitting. Flakes belonging to the shaping out phase and to the initial phase of blade debitage. The core is missing. Ahmarian,flint,Abu Noshra II, Egypt (Phillips,
1991 : fig. 7).

Fig. 41 E x a m p l e s of orientation. 1 : according to the debitage axis (D) of a flake ( M being the
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis). 2 : according to the m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis of a h a n d a x e . 3 : according to
the m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis of a sidescraper m a d e on a slab. 4 : according to the debitage axis of
a c o n v e r g e n t s i d e s c r a p e r ; w h e n this is different from the m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis, the tool is
k n o w n as a djete sidescraper. 5 : according to the e d g e and the k n a p p e d surface of a chopper.

107

Fig. 4 2 V i e w s used in lithic illustration (French system).

Polyhedrons and spheroids are oriented according to the debitage axis of the last flake
removed. If this can not be determined, they can b e oriented as the illustrator thinks best
(fig. 16 : 1 and 2).
Tools on a natural blank
These include tools on slabs (fig. 41 : 3), on pebbles (fig. 41 : 5), on blocks, on frost
flakes (fig. 50). They are most c o m m o n l y oriented according to their morphological axis.

3. Descriptio n o f th e objec t
3.1. View s
The system used was developed by anthropologists for drawing h u m a n skulls. In this
system, the views are desig nated as follows :
- norma
- norma
- norma
- norma

frontalis
for the front v i e w ;
occipitalis
for the rear v i e w ;
lateralis {sinistra
and dextra) for the left and right lateral v i e w s ;
verticalis
and norma basilaris
for the top and bottom views.

This system allows the description of a three-dimensional object by a series of

two-dimensional images. These images give separate views of each side of the object,
supplemented by sections or section views if required.
The conventional method of deriving the different views of an object uses orthogonal
projection onto each of the faces of an enclosing block. Each successive view is obtained by
rotating the object 90 from the principal view.
Six views are therefore sufficient to fully describe the surface of any three-dimensional
object (fig. 42), but this n u m b e r is rarely needed to represent a lithic artefact. It is sufficient to
select appropriate views for the adequate comprehension of the object.

108

Fig. 43 Two layouts of views. 1: French system. 2 : American system.

The views used in lithic illustration carry n a m e s derived from the vocabulary of both
lithic technology and drawing.
View A : this is the principal view. With rare exceptions it is not adequate to fully
describe an object, although it is often the only one provided. It is k n o w n as front view, surface
A and upper face view for debitage products.
View B : view of the object from the right. It is rendered on the left and k n o w n as right
view, side view, profile view or right profile. It shows the thickness, convexity and volumetric
balance of the object, the rectilinear, curved or twisted nature of the profile and the longitudinal
symmetry or dissymmetry.
View C : view of the object from the left. It is rendred on the right and k n o w n as left
view, side view, profile view or left profile. This view performs the same role as view B. Choice
of one over the other depends on the features one wishes to show.
View D : view of the opposite surface from view A, k n o w n as back view, surface B ,
and lower face view for debitage products. It is normally not drawn for unretouched products,
but the object is always oriented according to the debitage axis.
View E : view from the distal or apical extremity, k n o w n as end view. This view is
useful for representing distal truncations, endscraper fronts, percussion or pressure platforms, etc.
View F : view from the proximal or basal extremity, also k n o w n as end view. This
view is useful for representing butts, striking platform preparations, and, for instance, in drawing
Levallois cores.
O w i n g to the orthogonal relationship between views :
-

the
the
the
the

lengths of views A,
outlines of views A
outlines of views B
outlines of views E

B , C and D are identical;

and D are identical;
and C are identical;
and F are identical.

For the finished pencil drawing, the outline of certain views can therefore be traced and
carried over.
The layout of views described above is k n o w n as the "French system" (fig. 43 : 1) in
contrast with the "American system" (fig. 4 3 : 2). T h e latter is also base d on orthogonal views,
but the left profile is rendered on the left and the right profile on the right. W e use the French
system, but both systems m a y be encountered in published material.
It is important to associate the various views of an artefact with link lines for greater
cohesion and readability. This is done with a short, wide horizontal dash (-) placed between t w o
views towards the mid section. This symbol avoids confusion when several similar artefacts are
presented in a single illustration. A dot is sometimes used in place of this symbol.

109

ab

Fig. 44 Different w a y s of describing the v o l u m e of an object, a : profile view, b : section view, c :

section (longitudinal).

3.2. Section s a n d sectio n view s

The system of views outlined above allows the description of any object. However,
descriptive views do not provide adequate precision in rendering complex morphologies or fine
detail of treatment. Carefully chosen sections and section views can provide the necessary
additional i n f o r m a t i o n .
A section is the representation of the surface created by a plane sectioning an object
(fig. 44c). T h e exact location of the section on the artefact is shown by t w o long broad dashes.
The section is m o v e d sideways and rendered on the right, although it is sometimes placed above
or below the sectioned descriptive view for convenience of publication. Sections are hatched with
parallel lines at 45 or 60 from the horizontal.
A section view represent the parts of the object situated both at and behind the sectioning
plane (fig. 44b). Section views are more problematic to draw than sections and are less used.
They are very useful for showing the morphology of the v o l u m e and the position of different
parts of the object in relation to its axis.
Sections and section views can be drawn in any plane provided they are explicitely
located. In general they are drawn vertically or horizontally in relation to the axes of the artefact.
Oblique sections are harder to interpret, the eye being used to vertical and horizontal planes of
reference (vertical axis of the h u m a n boby, horizontal axis of the horizon).
110

Drawing sections

and

section views

For large and robust objects it is possible to use calipers - the outline is built by
combining the t w o half-outlines derived from each surface. For smaller or m o r e delicate objects,
sections and section views can be constructed from other views already drawn and from
measurements taken directly from the object.

110 Laurent, 1970.

110

4. Graphi c desig n an d techniqu e

Three inseparable and necessary stages are involved in any drawing process :
- drafting;
- pencil d r a w i n g ;
- pen and ink drawing.
4.1. Draftin g
A draft is primarily a method of observation, which enables the illustrator to assess the
n u m b e r of views required for describing the object (fig. 45 : 1). It is a free hand drawing where
proportions should be respected as m u c h as possible. The directions of removals (negatives and
positives) visible on the surface of the object are indicated by arrows. W h e n the bulbs and
negative bulbs are present, a dot is added to the arrow.
4.2. Penci l d r a w i n g
This involves three stages (fig. 45 : 2).
- drawing the outlines;
- drawing the arrises;
- shading.
Drawing the

outlines

(fig. 46 : 1 and 2)

The final result is highly dependant upon the care and accuracy with which the outlines
are drawn.
The technique used to construct the outlines applies to all views, front, profile or end
view. The object is positioned horizontally on the sheet of drawing paper, the face to be drawn
towards the viewer. The orthogonal projection of the outline of the object on paper is achieved
with the help of a dihedron (a folded index card) applied along the outer borders of the artefact.
W h e n the dihedron comes across an arris, this is indicated by a short dash. T h e n u m b e r of
projected points must be sufficient for the outline to be accurately recorded, only then does one
link the dots up. It is thereby possible to obtain an accurate delineation, which will be perfected
by the addition of millimetric micro-details pertaining to the delineation of the artefact.
Tracing the outline with a single bold sweep of the pencil applied along the edges of the
object is strongly advised against. The delineation will b e both deformed and enlarged owing to
the thickness of the pencil, res ulting in smoothed out angles and shallow concavities. Moreover,
the projection can never be orthogonal, thus jeopardizing the subsequent steps.
Drawing the

arrises

(fig. 46 : 3 and 4)

They are drawn according to their orthogonal projection, i.e. in conformity with a
perfectly vertical observation of the view to be drawn. Proceeding from the m o r e simple to the
m o r e complex m a k e s for a m o r e accurate drawing.
T h e main arrises, which outline the negatives of the larger removals, should be drawn
first, while the arrises associated with retouch should c o m e last, ending with the smallest.
Transfer errors cannot b e avoided, but if the progression is gradual, at least errors do not
pile up.
The representation of the arrises is carried out visually and based on the drawing of the
outline. For large artefacts, greater accuracy m a y b e achieved by transferring a few conspicuous
points (the intersection of two arrises, the boundaries of the cortical surface, etc.) with the help
of a compass and two dihedrons.
Shading
Only shade and not projected shadow should b e figured, i.e. shade on the artefact itself.

Ill

F i g . 4 5 T h e stages involved in the d r a w i n g p r o c e s s . 1. : drafting, choice of v i e w s , directions of

r e m o v a l s . 2 : pencil d r a w i n g , tracing the outlines and arrises. 3 : p e n and ink d r a w i n g with
direction lines.

112

Fig. 46 Tracing the outline and the arrises. 1 : orthogonal projection of points along the outline of the
artefact. 2 : drawing the outline. 3 : drawing the arrises.
Taking measurements of the artefact. 4 : transferring measurements of the arrises on paper, a :
using a compass to transfer a point, b : transfer of conspicuous points, c : drawing the main
arrises, d : drawing the retouches.

Shading is a means of expressing v o l u m e and is done with a pencil, in light hatching or

grey flat tint.
The convention is that of a north-west light source, i.e. parallel rays at a 45 angle
directed across the artefact from top left-hand to b o t t o m right-hand. This can b e obtained b y
adequately positioning a high intensity adjustable lamp over the face of the object to be drawn.
T o shade an object it is necessary to find the separative line between light and shade. T o
do so, you should look at the object with one eye half open and the other completely closed. You
will n o longer be able to distinguish details and will only perceive solid masses. W h e r e is the
lightest patch, where is the darkest ? W h a t is the gradation of intermediate tone values between
light and d a r k ?
The tone values of chiaroscuro include four categories :
- values of light, or parts directly hit by light. If the surface is smooth, the light will be
reflected and will radiate. T h e zones of shade always slightly spread over the adjacent zones of
light. In order to obtain the desired relief it is therefore best to increase the size of the zones of
light, so that they are rendered larger than they actually appear.

113

- values of half-light, or parts still directly lit, but with less intensity;
- values of shade, or parts that light does not touch directly;
- values of reflection, or parts left in shadow but nevertheless indirectly brushed by a
small amount of light.
Pen and ink drawing should respect these values.
4.3. P e n an d in k drawin g
This is the final stage in the illustration of an artefact (fig. 45 : 3). Downstrokes of
consistent thickness are used for the outlines and arrises. S o m e illustrators use a varying
thickness of line for the arrises (broader in zones of shade) to create an impression of relief.
However, this technique is advised against because the broadened line tends to be less precise
and the general outlines will lack accuracy.
Borrowing from engraving techniques, the first lithic illustrators devised a graphical
m e t h o d that w a s adapted to prehistoric industries and rendered the three-dimensional aspect of
the object, the nature of the material and the sequence of knapping events. Engravers use hatching
to express v o l u m e ; their parallel lines are rectilinear and of consistent thickness. T h e tone values
of grey are rendered by m o r e or less complex cross-hatching forming a lattice pattern. W h e r e
lithic technology is concerned, hatching fulfills a double purpose. The lines, similar to hachures,
are used as a m e a n s of expressing relief and of showing in a highly stylized w a y h o w the object
w a s m a d e . For this reason they are k n o w n as direction lines.
Imitating ripples, the direction lines
represent the shock wave in the stone, which caused the removal of the flake. They originate at
the impact point, from w h i c h they spread out concentrically. Fully rounded w h e n they are close
to the impact point, the direction lines straighten out as the distance from the impact point
increases, without ever becoming rectilinear. This process highlights the negative bulbs and
shows on a single drawing the entire chronological sequence of flake removals.
T h e direction lines are drawn using downstrokes and upstrokes. T h e line tapers to a
p o i n t : the head of the line is thickish while the tail is very fine. This can only be achieved with
a split-ni b pen. The pressure of the hand bears on the nib, widening or narrowing the split to
adjust the thickness of the line. The direction lines should all be parallel.
Based on the relief rendered on the finished pencil drawing, the values of shade and light
are expressed by varying several parameters (fig. 47), the length of the direction lines, their
thickness and their frequency :
- in zones of light the lines are few in number, fine and short; they cover about a third
of the surface of each removal negative;
- in zones of half-light the lines are fairly numerous, thick and of middling length; they
cover about half the surface of each removal n e g a t i v e ;
- in zones of shade the lines are very n u m e r o u s , very thick and l o n g ; they cover about
two-thirds of the surface of each removal negative;
- in zones of reflection the lines are abruptly interrupted to express a zone of light within
a zone of shade.

5. Material s an d surface s
5.1. R a w material s
T h e fundamentals of lithic illustration were established on the basis of flint artefacts.
T h e conventional method of representing flint in a stylized way uses downstroke and
upstroke direction lines. W h a t about other flaked stones, which do not have the same texture as
flint? They should be differenciated (fig. 48). H o w e v e r "while it is highly advisable to portray
the grain of the stone, this should never b e done at the expense of an accurate technological
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " . The same principle of direction lines is followed, but the character of the lines
and the background of the drawing are m a d e to vary according to the textures of the different
materials. Several different treatments are proposed hereafter.
111

111 "... il est bien entendu que, s'il est hautement souhaitable que le grain de la roche soit exprim avec soin, jamais
la ralit technologique ne doit en souffrir". Dauvois, 1976 : 52.

114

Fig. 47 Uncompleted laurel leaf. Solutrean, flint, Pech de la Boissiere, Dordogne (Smith 1966b :
fig. 39).

115

Self-adhesive shading films are used for the b a c k g r o u n d ; they may be combined to form
m o r e complex patterns. These screens are then scraped and roughened with a razor blade or a
scalpel.
Sedimentary rocks
- f l i n t : downstroke and upstroke direction lines (fig. 48 : 1);
- jasper : downstroke and upstroke direction lines, the length of which should vary but
little within each removal negative, in order to portray the great regularity of the material
(fig. 4 8 : 2 ) ;
- limestone : successive parallel series of regular downstroke and upstroke direction
lines (fig. 48 : 10);
- sandstone : stippled direction lines on a shading film (fig. 4 8 : 4).
Igneous rocks
- rhyolites, phonolites : upstroke discontinuous direction lines on a stippled or dashed
shading film according to the grain of the stone (fig. 48 : 5 ) ;
- b a s a l t : upstroke and dowstroke direction lines on a stippled shading film (fig. 4 8 : 6 ) ;
- obsidian : white upstroke and downstroke direction lines m a d e with a razor blade on a
blacked-in background (fig. 48 : 7). Obsidian can also be portrayed in the same w a y as flint, with
a black dot positioned beside the drawing to specify the raw material (fig. 7 : 3 and 5).
Metamorphic rocks
- quartzites : according to the grain, progressively fading stippled direction lines or
downstroke and upstroke discontinuous direction lines, with or without shading film (fig. 48 : 3
and 8).
Mineral varieties
- quartz:
(fig. 48 : 9).

successive parallel series of j a g g e d downstroke and upstroke direction lines

5.2. Natura l surface s

Cortex
According to their texture, cortical surfaces are shown by stippling or small vermiculation. Shading off is obtained by adjusting the density of stippling or vermiculation to the varying
values of light and shade. The boundaries of cortical areas are indicated by a solid line.
Sub-cortical areas are shown by the same method as cortical areas, but without indication of their
boundaries (figs. 4 0 and 47).
Natural surfaces
Flat natural surfaces are represented by series of short rectilinear discontinuous d o w n s trokes forming m o r e or less closely set parallel lines.
Encrustings
Their representation should be figurative, although slightly simplified.
Fossils, geodes,

cracks

All such elements are an intrinsic part of the material and should be portrayed in a
figurative way, without any unnecessary details. They indicate the nature or the origin of the
illustrated rock.

116

Fig. 48 Graphical treatment of various raw materials. 1 : flint. 2 : jasper. 3 : fine-grained quartzite. 4 :
sandstone. 5 : rhyolite. 6 : basalt. 7 : obsidian. 8 : coarse-grained quartzite. 9 : quartz. 10 :
limestone.

117

Fig. 49 Graphical rendering of the texture of various materials. 1 : quartzite, shading film and split-nib
pen strokes, handaxe, Yemen. 2 : quartz, split-nib pen strokes, core, Isenya, Kenya. 3 :
obsidian, razor blade strokes and ink flat tint, tanged flake, mata'a,
Easter Island. 4 :
phonolite, shading film and split-nib pen strokes, handaxe, Isenya, Kenya.

118

119

Fig. 50 Large convex Mousterian sidescraper on a frost-fractured flake, flint, La Combette, Vaucluse (Brugal et ai, 1994).

5.3. Alteration s
Frost pits,

(i

pot lid" fractures and

their complements

W h a t e v e r its origin, thermal d a m a g e is shown by concentric direction lines (fig. 50).

Crazing
Frost damage or heat-altering (intentional or unintentional) causes, crazing to develop on
the surface of the object; the network of fine cracks is depicted by a lattice of short broken lines.
Patina and heat treatment
C h a n g e s in the texture, colour or sheen of some patinated or heat-treated artefacts m a y
occur (fig. 1 : 7). This difference between original and altered state is figured by drawing two
illustrations of the same view. The first drawing shows the original aspect of the artefact, the
second portrays only the altered zones. O n each of the two drawings the zones that are not
emphasized are finely hatched.
W h e n artefacts bear multiple patinas, the same view is repeatedly drawn to show each
of the successive patinas.
5.4. Addition s
A s studies on additions (ochre, bitumen, etc.) are relatively recent, no conventional
m e t h o d of portrayal has yet been devised. They are drawn in a figurative w a y or indicated by
fine grade shading film (fig. 51). Ochre-bearing artefacts are best rendered by the use of colour.

Fig. 51 Proximal fragment of a Canaanean blade bearing traces of gloss (stippled shading film and
dotted line) and bitumen (small areas of black flat tint), flint, Kutan, Iraq (Anderson, Inizan,
1994 : fig. 3).

120

6. Symbol s
Although multiple views allow the comprehensive representation of a three-dimensional
object, symbolic conventions are added to the figurative drawing in order to help the reading
along. These symbols highlight the technological information indispensable to the comprehen
sion of the w a y the artefact was manufactured and used. In some cases, one of the descriptive
views can be skipped if symbols are used. For instance, the lower unretouched face of an
endscraper need not b e drawn provided the direction of the debitage axis - w h e n it differs from
the morphological axis - is indicated by a symbol.
S o m e symbols have b e c o m e established by usage and those most currently used are
listed below. While the symbols pertaining to knapping are accepted, there are no specific
conventions for symbolizing traces of use. M i c r o w e a r studies have only recently developed, and
this m a y explain the lack of homogeneity in the conventions devised to symbolize function.
Illustrators, microwear analysts and photographers also should co-operate to establish consistent
rules, for this is a means of communication essential to microwear studies.
Debitage products
Debitage is symbolized by a crossed arrow with or without a dot (fig. 53).
The arrow indicates the orientation of debitage. It corresponds with the debitage axis.
T h e crossed arrow symbolizes the orientation and the direction of debitage. T h e dot indicates the
presence of a butt.
W h e n objects are oriented according to their morphological axis, this symbol allows the
representation of the butt-and-bulb part and of the debitage axis. It is positioned outside the
drawing of the upper or lower face view. W h e n it accompanies the upper face view, this symbol
substitutes for the drawing of the lower face view when the latter face is unretouched (fig. 58 :
9). W h e n the artefact displays a double bulb, the symbol is a double crossed arrow. T h e double
dot indicates the presence of a butt.
W h i l e the dot denotes the presence of a butt, the symbol does not e x e m p t the illustrator
from drawing the end view, which shows the exact morphology of the butt. T h e symbol is indeed
but a token of presence, it is necessary but not always sufficient.
The following symbols are strongly advised against
in association with debitage :

Presence of a butt.
It can be mistaken for the link between two views or for the mention "obsidian".
It is indicative neither of the orientation nor of the direction of debitage.

Orientation and direction of debitage, and presence of a butt.

When the butt is lacking the symbol is irrelevant.

Orientation and direction of debitage.

There is nothing to indicate whether the butt is present or not. The head of the arrow
alone without the shaft does not accuratly show direction.

Orientation and direction of debitage, and presence of a butt.

These two symbols are already used for burin blows.

W e advocate the symbols shown in figure 52.

Breaks (figs. 51 and 53)
The term is used indiscriminately for both intentional and accidental ruptures.

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Orientation an d directio n o f debitag e

1 : without a but t
2 : w i th a but t

Orientation an d directio n o f debitag e an d

p r e s e n c e o f a d o u b l e bul b
1 : without a but t
2 : with a but t
Break
1 : m o d e rn retouc h (o r break )
2 : archaeological retouc h

"Siret" acciden t
1 : without a but t
2 : w i th a but t

Burin b l o w
1 : without a negativ e bul b
2 : with a n e g a t i v e bul b

P r e v i o u s buri n b l o w
1 : without a negativ e bul b
2 : with a negativ e bul b

W e a r trace s (blunting , abrasion )

Gloss

Obsidian artefac t

Fig. 52 S y m b o l i c c o n v e n t i o n s in figurative d r a w i n g s .

Clean breaks are indicated by two short parallel dashes on either side of the broken zone.
Barring exceptions, breaks do not require being represented on any particular view. However,
w h e n the break can be observed on the upper or lower face view it is shaded and hatched with
direction lines like the rest of the drawing.
S o m e objects display modern breaks or retouches, which should be left blank. A n y blank
area is considered to be of m o d e r n origin; it is therefore very important that the entire surface of
the drawing should be inked (using dots, dashes, direction lines).
Knapping accidents
Flakes that display a "Siret" accidental break are oriented like any other flake, with a
symbol accompanying the proximal p a r t : a double crossed arrow pulled out of line. A dot
denotes the presence of a half-butt (fig. 34 : 7).
Languette breaks are indicated by two short, wide dashes on either side of the fracture,
and by the side view of its missing complement.
The same conventions apply to nacelle breaks (figs. 7 : 3, 4, 5).
Special techniques
Microburin blow technique
(fig. 33)
The "piquant-triedre"
is shown on the upper face view and is supplemented by the
outline drawing of the missing part, i.e. the microburin. This device allows an u n a m b i g u o u s
rendering of the technique itself, which is otherwise difficult to portray.
Burin blow technique
(figs. 57, 58, 59, 79)
The removal negatives associated with this technique are emphasized by arrows. These
are oriented and directed according to the burin blow negatives they indicate. N u m b e r s specify
the order of removal, when the latter can be determined.
The last burin blow is symbolized by a solid arrow. W h e n the negative bulb is present a
dot is added to the arrow.
The negatives of previous burin blows are symbolized by broken arrows (short dashes).
Macroscopic wear traces (figs. 51 and 53)
Blunting is the outcome of any action that has altered a cutting edge by making it less
sharp. Abrasion refers to the wear of an edge through friction.
These t w o types of wear are symbolized by a dotted line outside the drawing. The length
and position of the dotted line indicates the altered zones. The intensity of wear is empirically
shown by varying the size of the dots.
Gloss (fig. 51)
This refers to the shiny aspect of a surface brought about by friction. Gloss is symbolized
by applying a fine grade stippled shading film to all the surfaces where it can be observed, both
on the upper and lower faces. Sometimes, a line of small regular circles or dots accompanies the
shading film symbol. It is positioned outside the drawing, along the gloss-bearing zone on the
upper or lower face.

Assessing
The quality of a published illustration should be assessed to ensure that it can b e correctly
interpreted. Indeed, an aesthetically pleasing drawing is not necessarily an informative one. There
are six indispensable criteria to be considered for the adequate assessment of a graphical
representation.

1. Scal e
Illustrations must always include a bar scale specifying the standard of measurement. For
the sake of consistency and legibility, all the drawings for one article should have the same scale.
If drawings displayed on the same plate do not have the same reduction factor because of layout
constraints, a bar scale must be related to each of them.
Bar scales are often subsituted for by verbal scales (e.g. FS for Full Scale) or by
representative fractions in the caption. This is strongly advised against because the true
proportions will not be retained when the drawing is reduced. S o m e illustrations have been

123

previous buri n blo w

burin blo w
with negativ e bul b

limit o f partia l vie w

recent
accidental retouc h
conjoining

section
links betwee n tw o
views o f th e same objec t
cortex

blunted aspec t
gloss
break

direction o f debitag e
without but t

Fig. 53 Illustration of the m a i n symbols used.

enlarged or reduced a n u m b e r of times according to the successive publications they appear in,
so that the scale indication has b e c o m e quite meaningless.

2. Orientatio n
H a v e the layout conventions been respected ?

124

Fig. 54 Schematic representation of an object: descriptive drawing of a flake and diacritic diagram of
the same flake, Acheulean, phonolite, Isenya (Kenya).

3. Descriptiv e view s
Does the layout of views correspond to the "French system" or to the "American
s y s t e m " ? In either case, are the views consistent with the system u s e d ? W h e n only one view is
represented, it is often view A (the principal view).
W h e n m o r e than one view is represented, are the lengths of views A (front view), D
(back view), B and C (right and left views) identical? If they are dissimilar, it is to be suspected
that orthogonal projection was not used and that the drawings therefore lack accuracy.

4. Removal s
Is the order of flake removal perfectly clear? O n e should examine the direction lines. D o
they highlight the negative bulbs ? If they do not, is this technologically possible ? If they do, are
the negative bulbs consistent with the other removals ?
One should also examine the removals. Are the hackles p o r t r a y e d ? Can one understand
h o w the removals relate to one another on the different faces of the artefact? Is it possible to
produce a diacritic diagram from the drawings ?

5. Symbol s
Are they explicit? Is their choice j u d i c i o u s ?

6. Styl e o f drawin g
W h a t do the outlines look like ? A r e they slackly drawn ? D o they show a few angles or
none at all ? Is the delineation accurate (small convexities and concavities) or approximative ? In
the latter case, the outlines have probably been drawn with a single circular sweep of the pencil.
T h e initial lack of accuracy m a k e s for a faulty final drawing.
Is the relief adequately r e n d e r e d ? T h e thickness of the objects is gauged from the side
views or the sections, and then compared with the relief of the principal view. D o the drawings
lack relief? Has relief been o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d ? It is possible by such m e a n s to assess the degree
of care and realism with which the morphology of the objects has been portrayed.

125

Schematizing
1. Schemati c representatio n o f a n objec t
The diacritic diagram, devised by M . Dauvois (1976), is a schematic drawing of the
object. Its purpose is to show with e c o n o m y of graphical m e a n s the final sequence of actions in
the manufacture of the artefact (fig. 54).
It consists in a full scale outline drawing, which leaves out both direction lines and relief,
and involves only one view, generally view A or view D . T h e usual techniques of orthogonal
projection are applied. T h e direction, the orientation and the chronology of removals are

Fig. 55 Schematic representation of a chane opratoire. 1 to 5 : detachment of wide thick flakes by

means of the exploitation of a block of raw material according to alternatively secant and
subparallel debitage planes. 6 : spent core.

126

indicated by n u m b e r e d arrows. T h e presence of bulbs or negative bulbs is denoted by a dot on

the end of the arrows.

2. Schemati c representatio n o f a chane opratoire

The diacritic diagram portrays only one stage of the chane opratoire,
whereas the
schematic representation of a chane opratoire
aims at restoring the entire sequence of technical
actions on a single illustration. It is concerned with the object as project, whereas the diacritic
diagram is concerned with the object as result.
One should always begin with a scale-free view in perspective of the object and trace
back the previous phases to the initial virtual blank. T h e choice of the view depends on the
amount of information it will yield, most often the front view in perspective is selected. Planar
sections and section views give the exact v o l u m e of the object. Computer-aided design is perfect
for this type of diagram, which can be conducted in two di fferent ways.
Figurative diagram (fig. 22)
Perspectives are treated as they would in an ordinary drawing, including direction lines,
relief, symbols, etc. Shading screens are used to emphasize the most informative planes.
Abstract diagram (fig. 55)
Perspectives are treated in outline drawing, as in a diacritic diagram, figuring only
outlines, arrises and numbered arrows. T h e removals are treated as planes, portraying neither
concavities nor convexities. A hatched pattern is used for the removal negatives of each phase,
a stippled pattern highlights the striking platforms.

127

Chapter 8

Terminological lexico n
face a l o n g o n e e d g e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y f r o m
the o p p o s i t e face a l o n g t h e o t h e r .

1 1 4

ABRASION. A general term, which descri

b e s t h e action of w e a r i n g a w a y b y friction;
it is u s e d h e r e w h e n this a c t i o n is carried
out t o r e m o v e o v e r h a n g s
from cores (to
facilitate b l a d e r e m o v a l , in particular).
S u c h a b r a s i o n c a n m a i n l y b e seen a n d felt
o n t h e angle de chasse of d e b i t a g e p r o
d u c t s , a n d is also s o m e t i m e s p e r c e p t i b l e
o n c o r e s . It s h o u l d n o t b e confused w i t h a n
intentional p o l i s h , o r with b l u n t i n g c a u s e d
b y u s e ; it is a t e c h n i c a l p r e p a r a t i o n , w h i c h
therefore d o e s n o t affect t h e l o w e r face.
1 1 2

ALTERNATING.

An

adjective

of p o s i t i o n

(fig. 7 5 : 4 ) . It d e s c r i b e s
removals
alternately s t e m m i n g first from o n e face
and then t h e other, o n t h e s a m e e d g e of a
tool .
1 1 5

ANGLE DE

CHASSE.

An

expression

1 1 3

A B R U P T . A t e r m referring t o t h e a n g l e o f
r e t o u c h o r r e m o v a l (fig. 5 6 : 1).
A D D I T I O N . B y addition w e u n d e r s t a n d a n y
k i n d of d e t e c t a b l e m a t t e r that h a s b e e n
subjoined t o a tool, w h e t h e r intentionally or
not. A d d i t i o n s a r e e x c e l l e n t i n d i c a t o r s of
hafting. T h e y c a n b e of m i n e r a l ( b i t u m e n
(fig. 5 1 ) , o c h r e , etc.) o r v e g e t a l origin
( w o o d , g u m , etc.).

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y referring t o t h e a n g l e
b e t w e e n a b u t t a n d a n u p p e r fac e (fig. 5 ) ,
and also t o its m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e s h a r p n e s s
of this a n g l e , a n d a b o v e all t h e m o r p h o l o g y
a n d state of t h e surface of this part of t h e
flake
(prepared,
unprepared,
blunted,
cortical, etc.) will p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d m e t h o d s of
debitage.
A N G L E O F RETOUCH . The angle formed by

7 5 : 3 ) . R e t o u c h r e m o v a l s a r e referred to as
alternate w h e n they a r e r e m o v e d f r o m a

r e m o v a l s relative t o t h e face from w h i c h

they s t e m . T h e s e c a n b e (fig. 5 6 ) :
- a b r u p t : approximately 9 0 ;
- s e m i - a b r u p t : approximately 4 5 ;
- l o w : very a c u t e , r o u g h l y 10.
T h e s e three t e r m s a r e w i d e l y u s e d , b u t
s i n c e a n g l e s c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e d all
sorts of classification s y s t e m s a r e p o s s i b l e .

112 Words in bold type refer to other terms in the

lexicon.
113 Tixier, 1972.

114 Bordes, 1961 : 29.

115 The terms "alternating" and "alternate" have be
come established by usage, but it must be admitted that
they can be mistaken one for the other.

A L T E R N A T E . A n a d j e c t i v e of p o s i t i o n (fig.

129

ANVIL. A b l o c k of relatively h a r d stone

p l a c e d o n t h e g r o u n d or steadied b y o t h e r
m e a n s , a n d u s e d as a solid b a s e for :
- striking a core in order to flake it, striking
a c h u n k of r a w m a t e r i a l in o r d e r to s h a p e it,
a p p l y i n g a b u r i n b l o w to a burin, e t c . ;
- r e t o u c h i n g a flake (a b l a d e , a b l a d e l e t )
with a hand-held hammer.
A n v i l r e t o u c h : see c r o s s e d .
1 1 6

ATYPICAL. T h i s very controversial t e r m

often c o n c e a l s an inability to r e c o g n i z e an
object. H o w c a n a b u r i n b e a t y p i c a l ? It
either is, or is not, a burin. " A t y p i c a l "
c a t e g o r i e s c o u l d b e i n v e n t e d for e a c h t y p e
of object, b u t a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d
b e far preferable, or the u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e
adjectives : i l l - m a d e , irregular, unfinished,
etc.

B
BACK. A g e n e r a l m o r p h o l o g i c a l t e r m
d e s c r i b i n g a surface that e x t e n d s a l o n g t h e
l e n g t h of a b l a n k , a n d is m o r e or less
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the t w o faces. This surface
can b e : cortical , u n r e t o u c h e d , p r e p a r e d ,
or f o r m e d b y a b r u p t r e t o u c h e s . W e
restrict t h e u s e of this w o r d to this sole
meaning.
BACKED. A n e d g e is said to b e b a c k e d
w h e n the c o n t i n u o u s r e g u l a r r e t o u c h a p
plied to it is abrupt e n o u g h not to create a
n e w cutting e d g e . A n e d g e c a n therefore b e
b a c k e d b y a b r u p t (fig. 5 6 : 1) or s e m i a b r u p t r e t o u c h (fig. 5 6 : 3), m o d i f i y i n g an
unretouched edge, a cortica l edge, etc.
34

<

>

Pig 5 5 Angle of removals. 1 : abrupt. 2 :

crossed abrupt. 3 : semi-abrupt. 4 :
low.

APEX (of a p y r a m i d a l c o r e ) . T h e p o i n t e d
e n d of a fluted p y r a m i d a l c o r e (fig. 7 4 : 2),
referring therefore only to cores flaked b y
p r e s s u r e . It is s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d to a v o i d
p l u n g i n g , t h u s b e c o m i n g a characteristic
waste product.
ARRIS. A t e r m u s e d in t h e c o n t e x t of tech
n o l o g i c a l m o r p h o l o g y : refers to t h e line
f o r m e d b y the m e e t i n g of t w o r e m o v a l
n e g a t i v e s , or of o n e n e g a t i v e w i t h the cor
tex (fig. 6, 9 ) . A v o i d the confusion w i t h
ridge.

116 An anvil can be held in the hand. We owe the

expression "passive hammerstone" (percuteur dormant)
to F. Bordes (1961 : 13).

130

BASE. T h e b a s e is the e x t r e m i t y o p p o s e d to
t h e p r e s u m e d active part of a tool. T h e
w o r d " b a s e " or " b a s a l " s h o u l d n e v e r b e
substituted for the e x p r e s s i o n " p r o x i m a l
e x t r e m i t y " , w h e n it refers to a d e b i t a g e
p r o d u c t . A b a s e c a n b e n o n - p r o x i m a l : in
the c a s e of sharp, b a c k e d b l a d e l e t s , t h e tip
is often part of the b u l b a r area. T h e b a s e is
therefore distal (fig. 6 9 : 5). This t e r m (and
n o t t h e w o r d " b u t t " ) , s h o u l d also b e u s e d
for b i f a c i a l p i e c e s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r
original b l a n k .
BIFACIAL. A n adjective of p o s i t i o n . B y
definition, bifacial r e m o v a l s c o n c e r n t h e
t w o faces of an object. B o t h series of
r e m o v a l s m u s t , in all c a s e s , b e l o c a t e d o n
t h e s a m e part of an object, and s t e m from
t h e s a m e e d g e (fig. 7 5 : 5).
BLADE, BLADELET . It h a s l o n g b e e n a g r e e d
that if " t h e l e n g t h of a flake is at least e q u a l
to t w i c e its w i d t h , it is therefore a b l a d e .
[...] E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g a u t h o r s , a m o n g
o t h e r s , m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n true
b l a d e s a n d b l a d e - l i k e flakes, a true b l a d e
s h o w i n g t r a c e s of p r e v i o u s p a r a l l e l

Fig. 57 V a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of simple burins. Axis burins.

1 : dihedral. 2 : on truncation. "Dejetes"
burins. 3 : dihedral. 4 : on lateral retouch. Transverse burins
on notch. 5 : o n a blade. 6 : o n a
flake. Angle burins.
7 : o n truncation. 8 : on transversal break. 9 : on transversal burin facet.

r e m o v a l s o n its u p p e r face, a n d also h a v i n g

m o r e or less parallel e d g e s . A l t h o u g h t h e
distinction is perfectly valid i n theory, it is
often difficult to m a k e in p r a c t i c e , a n d will
therefore b e d i s r e g a r d e d " . It is only u s e d
w h e n classifying b r o k e n p i e c e s .
A b l a d e l e t is a s m a l l b l a d e . W i t h i n e a c h
industrial c o m p l e x , a b l a d e / b l a d e l e t limit
c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d quantified. T h i s h a s
b e e n a t t e m p t e d b y o n e of t h e c o n t r i b u t o ries, b u t only for t h e E p i p a l a e o l i t h i c of t h e
Maghreb .
1 1 1

1 1 8

B L A N K . A n y e l e m e n t f r o m w h i c h an object

is k n a p p e d , s h a p e d , flaked o r r e t o u c h e d . It
c a n b e a n o d u l e , a slab, a c o b b l e , a d e b i t a g e
product, etc.
B L U N T I N G . T h e alteration of an e d g e , r e n -

d e r i n g it less sharp. " T h e adjective b l u n t is

v a g u e , a n d d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n y informa117 Bordes, 1961 : 6. ".../"5 / un ] clat est allong, de
telle manire que sa longueur soit deux fois, ou plus,
suprieure sa largeur, on a affaire une lame. [...]
Certains auteurs, principalement de
langue anglaise,
distinguent entre lames vraies et clats laminaires. La
lame vraie porterait sur sa face suprieure la trace
d'enlvements antrieurs parallles et aurait galement
des bords plus ou moins parallles. Cette distinction,
en thorie parfaitement valable, est souvent difficile
faire dans la pratique et nous ne la retiendrons pas".
118 Tixier, 1963 : 36-39, and see p. 7 1 .

tion a b o u t t h e c a u s e s that p r o d u c e d
surface condition. This g e n e r a l t e r m
plies w h e n n o particular detail c a n b e
t e c t e d b y superficial o b s e r v a t i o n o n
new surface" .

this
apdethe

1 1 9

BREAK. A general term, which makes n o

a s s u m p t i o n s as t o t h e c a u s e s of b r e a k a g e ,
w h e t h e r intentional o r n o t ( s e e f r a c t u r e ).
B U L B . A m o r e or less p r o n o u n c e d c o n c h o i -

dal relief, w h i c h d e v e l o p s o n t h e l o w e r face

of a flake, r a d i a t i n g from t h e p o i n t w h e r e
p e r c u s s i o n or p r e s s u r e is applied. It c a n b e
p r e c e d e d b y a c o n e , b u t only i n t h e c a s e of
H e r t z i a n fractures. T h e b u l b results from
the p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e f r a c t u r e front ,
w h e n t h e flake is d e t a c h e d . It c a n b e d o u b l e
or e v e n triple, a n d c a n s h o w b u l b s c a r s
(fig. 5 ) .
BULB SCARS .

This kind

of m a r k

can

be

o b s e r v e d o n a b u l b or o n a n e g a t i v e b u l b . It
corresponds
to the formation
of a
secondary
or parasitical flake, w h i c h is
1 2 0

119 Dauvois, 1976 : 211. "L<? qualificatif mouss est

vague et ne renseignera gure sur les causes qui ont
produit cet tat de surface. On peut utliser ce terme
quand un examen superficiel ne dcle pas de dtail
particulier de la nouvelle surface".
120 Dauvois, 1976 : 181.

131

p r o d u c e d at t h e very m o m e n t t h e flake
b r e a k s off (fig. 6 ) .
BURIN BLO W TECHNIQUE . T h i s is a p a r t i c u

lar r e t o u c h t e c h n i q u e (p. 8 4 ) . T h e t e r m
"burin b l o w " was probably coined by H.
B r e u i l , a n d w a s defined b y M . B o u r lon
as that w h i c h " d e s c r i b e s t h e action
of m a k i n g b u r i n facets". A face t (fig. 60) is
obtained through the removal, by pressure
or p e r c u s s i o n , of a b u r i n spal l (fig. 6 1 )
from a flake, b l a d e , or b l a d e l e t , w h i c h m a y
or n o t h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y p r e p a r e d to this
e n d . T h e t ip of a b u r i n is therefore f o r m e d
b y t h e m e e t i n g of at least o n e b u r i n facet
w i t h a n y surface liable to b e u s e d as a
striking (or p r e s s u r e ) p l a t f o r m for t h e b u r i n
b l o w (fig. 5 8 ) , such as :
1 2 1

1 2 2

- flat surfaces or u n r e t o u c h e d e d g e s (dihe

dral b u r i n s ) : cortex, u n r e t o u c h e d surfaces,
breaks...
- surfaces o b t a i n e d b y r e t o u c h i n g : t r u n c a
tion, r e t o u c h e d e d g e , b a c k , notch...
- surfaces o b t a i n e d b y special t e c h n i q u e s :
intentional fracture, C l a c t o n i a n n o t c h , piquant-triedre,
other b u r i n facets, in w h i c h
latter case t h e first of t h e t w o facets (at
least) of t h e s e (dihedral) b u r i n s c a n b e
m a d e b y starting either from an u n r e t o u
c h e d e d g e or from a t r u n c a t i o n ; t h e s e c o n d
burin blow removes the truncation and
yields a p r e p a r e d spall (a m o r e reliable
method, perhaps). A burin on a retouched
e d g e m a y therefore r e p r e s e n t b u t a n early
stage in t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , b e f o r e
further m o d i f i c a t i o n s . A n y classification is
p o s s i b l e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e criteria g i v e n
p r e c e d e n c e to : t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s of surfa
ces, the p o s i t i o n s relative to t h e m o r p h o l o
gical axis of t h e blank, to its d e b i t a g e axis,
etc. (fig. 5 9 ) .

(fig. 6 0 : 2) or sharply angled, a l m o s t paral

lel to t h e l o w e r face (fig. 6 0 : 3 ) ; t h e b u r i n
is t h e n said to b e plan.
BURIN SPALL . Part of a b l a n k that h a s b e e n
detached by the buri n blo w technique .
U n r e t o u c h e d , it p r e s e n t s all t h e c h a r a c terisitics of a flake, in t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e of
the t e r m (fig. 6 1 ) . C o n v e n t i o n a l l y , t h e s e
objects h a v e l o n g b e e n called " b u r i n b l o w
b l a d e l e t s " . H o w e v e r , in 1 9 5 4 , E . - G .
Gobert
rightly p o i n t e d o u t that they a r e
not always bladelets. "They do not possess
the t w o cutting e d g e s of b l a d e l e t s " . W h e n
referring to t h e f r a g m e n t s struck off from
burins during their manufacture or
s h a r p e n i n g , t h e e x p r e s s i o n "burin spall", or
s i m p l y " s p a l l " , is therefore m o r e a p p r o
priate.
1 2 3

BURIN FACET . T h i s refers to t h e n e g a t i v e

surface c r e a t e d b y t h e r e m o v a l of a b u r i n
spall. A single facet c a n result from several
p r e v i o u s spalls, a single b u r i n b l o w c a n
r e m o v e several spalls a n d f o r m o n e or m o r e
facets.
T h e a n g l e of a facet c a n v a r y in relation t o
the faces of t h e blank. R a r e l y situated o n
the u p p e r face, it c a n b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
the l o w e r face (fig. 6 0 : 1), lightly a n g l e d

T h e t e r m s h a r p e n i n g spall ( s e e b e l o w ) is
restricted to t h e spalls created b y t h e
s h a r p e n i n g p r o c e s s ; that is, to t h o s e
fragments struck off f r o m t h e s a m e e d g e ,
after t h e first b u r i n spall.
- P r i m a r y spall s : t h e spall p r o d u c e d b y
the first b u r i n b l o w u s u a l l y h a s a triangular
c r o s s - s e c t i o n if it r e m o v e s an u n m o d i f i e d
p o r t i o n of t h e e d g e .
W h e n t h e e d g e of t h e b l a n k h a s u n d e r g o n e
p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n is t r a p e z o i
dal. B y r e g u l a r i z i n g t h e e d g e , this m e t h o d
allows the r e m o v a l to split off m o r e s m o o t h
ly. In this c a s e , t h e r e m o v a l s a s s o c i a t e d
with the preparation can obviously never
c o n c e r n t h e l o w e r face of t h e spall, w h i c h
is then referred to as b e i n g " p r e p a r e d " .
Special attention s h o u l d b e p a i d t o t h e s e
objects, as they c a n b e m i s t a k e n for b a c k e d
b l a d e l e t s t h r o u g h failing to c h e c k that t h e
l o w e r face is absolutely u n r e t o u c h e d (fig.
61 : 8, 9 ) .
- S h a r p e n i n g spall s : a s h a r p e n i n g spall
c a n b e identified b y t h e p r e s e n c e of at least
o n e earlier b u r i n facet o n its u p p e r face. If
the order of b u r i n b l o w s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
from t h e spalls ( w h i c h is n o t a l w a y s t h e
c a s e ) , then t h e s e c o n d spall is t h e first
s h a r p e n i n g spall, t h e third spall is t h e
s e c o n d s h a r p e n i n g spall, a n d so o n
(fig. 6 1 : 2, 3).
- P l u n g i n g spall s : t h e p l u n g i n g of spalls
is a frequent accident. It o c c u r s w h e n t h e

121 Breuil, 1909.

122 Bourlon, 1911 . "dsigne l'action de fabriquer les
pans d'un burin".

123 Gobert, 1954 : 447, note 2 and fig. 2. "Elles n'ont

pas les deux tranchants des lamelles ".

132

12

10

Fig. 58 - Surfaces liable to be used as striking or pressure platforms for burin blows : a cortical surface
(1), an unretouched debitage surface (2), an unretouched cutting edge (3), a retouched surface
(4), a transversal break (5), a burin facet (6), a "piquant-triedre" (7), a Clactonian notch (8),
a butt (9), a notch (10), the tip of a bifacial arrowhead (11), etc.

Fig. 59 Various examples of multiple burins. Double burins.

1 : on truncation. 2 : alternate on
truncations. 3 : axis dihedral. 4 : on notches. 5 : dihedral djete and on truncation. 6 : dihedral
djete and on Clactonian notch. 7 : dihedral djete and angle dihedral. 8 : dihedral djete and
on transversal burin facet. Triple burins. 9 : dihedral djete and double on break. 10 : double
on truncation and simple on break. Quadruple burins. 11 : on truncations. Burins 5, 6 and 10
belong to the multiple mixed type.

133

Fig. 60 Inclination of a burin facet to the lower face of a blade. 1 : perpendicular. 2 : slightly angled.
3 : sharply angled.

spall, instead of e n d i n g a l o n g the e d g e to

w h i c h the b u r i n b l o w h a s b e e n applied,
a r c h e s in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n a n d r e
m o v e s the entire e n d section of the tool
(fig. 6 1 : 4 , 5). S e e p l u n g i n g .
- H i n g e d s p a l l s : the o p p o s i t e a c c i d e n t a l
effect o c c u r s w h e n the spall is s h o r t e n e d b y
an o u t w a r d a r c h i n g of the fracture p l a n e ,
w h i c h l e a v e s a characteristic h o o k o n the
b u r i n (fig. 6 1 : 6 ) . S e e h i n g e d .
- T w i s t e d spall s : these are caused by h e l i c o i d a l fractures, w h i c h m a y accidentally
o c c u r w h e n t h e b u r i n b l o w is a p p l i e d (fig.
61 : 7 ) .
Careful scrutiny of the spalls provides v a l u
able information on the production, sharp
ening and transformation methods and
t e c h n i q u e s of b u r i n s b r o u g h t into p l a y in
the various lithic a s s e m b l a g e s .
B U R I N T I P . T h a t part of the burin from
w h i c h the r e m o v a l ( s ) m a d e b y t h e b u r i n
b l o w ( s ) s t e m . It consists of at least t h r e e
surfaces (fig. 5 7 ) .
B U T T . T h e butt of a flake (in the b r o a d e r
sense) is t h e part of a striking or p r e s s u r e
p l a t f o r m d e t a c h e d d u r i n g r e m o v a l . T h e na
ture and m o r p h o l o g y of a butt therefore
d e p e n d s o n that of the striking or p r e s s u r e
p l a t f o r m ( w h e t h e r p r e p a r e d or not), a n d o n
t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i e d (fig. 6 2 ) .
1) If t h e butt b e a r s n o t r a c e s of p r e p a r a t i o n ,
it is natural, cortical, a n d of varied m o r p h o
logy.
2) W h e n it b e a r s traces of p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e
butt c a n b e i n d i c a t i v e of k n a p p i n g t e c h n i
q u e s and m e t h o d s . In this event, butts c a n
be:

134

- flat, s h o w i n g a single k n a p p e d s u r f a c e ;
- d i h e d r a l , s h o w i n g the n e g a t i v e s of t w o
p r e v i o u s r e m o v a l s , s e p a r a t e d b y an a r r i s ;
- f a c e t t e d , s h o w i n g several p r e p a r a t i o n
n e g a t i v e s (facets), and therefore of varied
m o r p h o l o g y (rectilinear, c o n v e x , c o n c a v e ,
etc.).
A butt c a n c o n s i s t of a tiny surface. In this
c a s e , the t e r m s l i n e a r or p u n c t i f o r m are
applied.
In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e g e n e r a l t e r m s b y w h i c h
butts are defined, there are c o n v e n t i o n a l
e x p r e s s i o n s that a p p l y to special t y p e s of
butt, a n d c o r r e s p o n d to t e c h n i c a l pro
cedures. For instance :
- the "chapeau de gendarme"
: the p r o
file of this v e r y distinctive butt s h o u l d b e
l o o k e d at f a c e - o n ; w h i l e this t y p e of butt is
c o m m o n in L e v a l l o i s d e b i t a g e (for a g o o d ,
preferential i m p a c t p o i n t ) , it o c c u r s d u r i n g
e v e r y period, irrespective of the m e t h o d s
applied;
- the w i n g e d butt, w h i c h s h o u l d b e l o o k e d
at e n d - o n ; this t y p e of butt, w h i c h results
from the r e m o v a l of t w o exactly s u p e r p o
sed flakes, o c c u r s t h r o u g h o u t p r e h i s t o r y ,
b u t this m e t h o d of d e b i t a g e is only s y s t e m
atic in specific regions and periods (Egyptian
Neolithic, Near Eastern Early Bronze
Age);
- the s p u r butt, w h i c h s h o u l d b e l o o k e d at
f r o m u n d e r n e a t h ; this m o r p h o l o g y is char
acteristic of U p p e r P a l a e o l i t h i c b l a d e d e b i
t a g e (particularly M a g d a l e n i a n ) .
A l s o i n d i c a t i v e of t e c h n i q u e s and m e t h o d s ,
the a n g l e s b e t w e e n the butt and the u p p e r
124

124 Bordes, 1947.

Fig. 61 Schematic illustration of the main types of burin spalls. 1 : first spall. 2, 3 : sharpening spalls
(second spalls). 4 : plunging spall (angle burin on distal truncation). 5 : plunging spall (angle
burin on a proximally truncated arched backed blade). 6 : hinged spall. 7 : twisted spall. 8, 9 :
first spall and sharpening spall removing part of the edge prepared before the burin blow.

135

Fig. 62 Various types of butts. 1 : cortical. 2 : plain. 3 : dihedral. 4 : facetted. 5 : "en chapeau de
gendarme". 6 : winged. 7 : pecked. 8 : spur ("en peron"). 9 : linear. 10 : punctiform.

a n d l o w e r faces of t h e flake a r e defined b y

the angle de chasse a n d t h e flaking a n g l e .
W h e n t h e latter is very o b t u s e , t h e butt is
said t o b e c a n t e d .

CHAPEAU DE

GENDARME.

An

expression

a p p l i e d specifically t o a f o r m of facetted
b u t t (fig. 6 2 : 5 ) .
CINTRAGE.
Litterally " c e n t e r i n g " in architecture. T h e t e r m refers t o t h e t r a n s v e r s a l
c o n v e x i t i y of t h e d e b i t a g e surfaces of a
b l a d e core ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r i d g e s ) .
1 2 8

C A N T E D . A descriptive term applied specifically to t h e butt, w h e n it f o r m s a distinctly

o b t u s e a n g l e w i t h t h e l o w e r face.
CARNE (CARNAGE).

Litterally

"hull"

( " c a r e e n a g e " ) , from t h e v o c a b u - l a r y of n a val architecture. T h e t e r m refers to t h e

l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n v e x i t y of t h e d e b i t a g e surfaces of a b l a d e core, w h i c h is best r e p r e s e n t e d o n c o r e s with a single striking
p l a t f o r m (fig. 2 9 : 1 a n d fig. 6 4 : 5 ) .
1 2 5

CHANNEL-FLAKED.

The expression

de-

scribes a bifacial p i e c e from w h i c h a n

e l o n g a t e d flake h a s b e e n r e m o v e d a l o n g t h e
l o n g i t u d i n a l axis, in order to thin o n e o r
b o t h faces, w i t h o u t r e a c h i n g t h e e d g e s .
C h a n n e l - f l a k i n g (or fluting) c a n b e carried
out b y direct o r indirect
percussion
(fig. 6 3 ) , or b y pressure-flaking. T h i s
m e t h o d is n o t k n o w n in t h e O l d W o r l d .
1 2 6

1 2 7

125 Term suggested by D. Cahen (1984).

126 Crabtree, 1966.
127 Smith, 1963.

136

C L A C T O N I A N . 1. D e n o t e s a n o t c h o b t a i n e d
b y a single b l o w (fig. 3 4 : 4 ) , i r r e s p e c t i v e
of t h e blank, t h e culture, or t h e g e o g r a p h i c
location.
2. A l s o refers t o a t y p e of d e b i t a g e .
1 2 9

CONCHOID.
bulb.

A rarely

used

s y n o n y m of

C O N E . This d e n o t e s t h e m o r p h o l o g y s o m e t i m e s linking t h e b u tt t o t h e b u l b. T h e t e r m
is v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e c a s e of a n
incipient c o n e , a fissure that d e v e l o p s in
t h e f o r m of a r i g h t - a n g l e d c o n e from t h e
surface of a p i e c e of r a w m a t e r i a l , w h e n t h e
p e r c u s s i o n (with a h a r d o r soft h a m m e r ) is
not followed b y a removal.
1 3

CONJOINING. Conjoining involves matching p i e c e s or f r a g m e n t s after h a v i n g

128 Cahen, 1984.

129 Turq, 1988.
130 Breuil, 1932.

Fig. 63 Fluting experiment. Bifacial projectile point roughed out by G. Titmus (percussion), prefor
med by D.E. Crabtree (pressure), fluted by J. Tixier (indirect percussion), and its characteristic
channel-flake broken during removal, Texas flint, U.S.A. (Photo J. Tixier).

identified their positive a n d negative

k n a p p i n g surfaces ( d e b i t a g e , r e t o u c h ) , o r
their fracture surfaces, a n d then fitting t h e m
t o g e t h e r a n d verifying that they are in fact
complementary.

geology. For prehistorians, patin a has a

different m e a n i n g , a n d so h a s t h e t e r m
" n e o c o r t e x " ( p . 9 1 ) , w h i c h is n o t y e t in
general use.

CONTINUOUS.

not a goal in itself. It is part of t h e o p e r a t i o n

of p r e l i m i n a r y f l a k i n g w h e n t h e r a w m a
terial is in its original u n w o r k e d state.

Technologically

speaking,

1 3 1

the o p p o s i t e of d i s c o n t i n u o u s . W h e n t h e
latter t e r m is n o t applied, t h e continuity of
r e m o v a l s c a n b e taken for granted, as t h e
expression "continuous retouch" has been
g i v e n a specific m e a n i n g relative t o t y p o l o g y

132.

C O R E . A b l o c k of r a w m a t e r i a l from w h i c h
flakes, b l a d e s , o r b l a d e l e t s h a v e b e e n
struck, in order t o p r o d u c e b l a n k s for tools.
C O R E - L I K E . A t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e certain
tools (especially scrapers o r b u r i n s ) , w h i c h
exhibit a core-like s h a p e o w i n g t o m u l t i p l e
removals; n o assumption
is t h e r e b y
i m p l i e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e
artefact.
C O R T E X . A n alteration of t h e outer part of
a b l o c k of r a w m a t e r i a l , t e r m e d " p a t i n a " in

131 But the opposite of denticulated for Laplace

(1964).
132 Sonneville-Bordes, Perrot, 1956 ; Tixier, 1963.

C O R T E X R E M O V A L . R e m o v i n g t h e c o r t e x is

C O R T I C A L . D e n o t e s t h e p r e s e n c e of c o r t e x .
D e p e n d i n g o n its e x t e n t a n d o n its
distribution, t h e a s s o c i a t e d t e r m s a r e :
cortical r e s e r v e d z o n e , cortical z o n e ,
cortical b a s e o r cortical butt, entirely
cortical face, e t c .
C O V E R I N G . A t e r m referring t o t h e e x t e n t
of r e m o v a l s (fig. 6 7 : 4 ) .
C R E S T . A t e r m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s h a p i ng
o u t of a c o r e , in b l a d e or b l a d e l e t d e b i t a g e .
T h i s s h a p i n g o u t is a c h i e v e d b y (usually
bifacial) r e m o v a l s , w h i c h c r e a t e a r i d g e
c o n s i s t i n g of t w o series of n e g a t i v e b u l b s
(fig. 6 4 : 1). T h i s r i d g e will g u i d e t h e d e b i
t a g e of t h e first b l a d e , t h e c r e s t e d b l a d e .
T h i s b l a d e will necessarily h a v e a triangu
lar cross-section, t h e r e m o v e d crest line
m a k i n g u p t h e t w o sides of t h e b l a d e ' s
u p p e r face (fig. 6 4 : 2 ) .

137

If t h e m o r p h o l o g y of t h e r a w m a t e r i a l is
s u c h that n o p r e p a r a t i o n is n e c e s s a r y , t h e
t e r m "natural c r e s t " is u s e d . T h e p r e p a r a
tion of the crest m a y r e q u i r e r e m o v a l s from
a single v e r s a n t only of t h e p l a n n e d crest if
the s h a p e of t h e r a w m a t e r i a l is a p p r o p r i a t e ,
or if a n e g a t i v e b l a d e r e m o v a l is u s e d as a
striking p l a t f o r m for t h e p r e p a r a t i o n r e m o
vals (fig. 6 4 : 5 ) . This m a y o c c u r w h e n t h e
c o r e is s h a p e d o u t again during d e b i t a g e ,
a n d yields a crested b l a d e w i t h o n e flat
v e r s a n t (fig. 6 4 : 6a, 6 b ) .
A crest c a n also b e a s i m p l e b y - p r o d u c t of
the s h a p i n g o u t of a c o r e , w i t h o u t b e i n g
i n t e n d e d t o g u i d e a crested b l a d e :
- this is t h e c a s e for L e v a l l o i s b l a d e c o r e s ,
or for "livres de beurre"
cores from t h e
Grand-Pressigny;
- especially in U p p e r P a l a e o l i t h i c i n d u s
tries, only o n e of t h e crests associated w i t h
the shaping o u t of a c o r e m a y b e i n t e n d e d
to g u i d e t h e first b l a d e , w h i l e t h e o p p o s i t e
crest(s) a r e only t h e r e to b a l a n c e t h e m o r
p h o l o g y of t h e core, t o p r o v i d e a firmer
grip, or p o s s i b l y to h e l p i m m o b i l i z e t h e
core.
C R E S T E D B L A D E . See crest .

D
DEBITAGE. A term conventionally used to
d e n o t e t h e intentional k n a p p i n g of b l o c k s
of r a w m a t e r i a l , in order t o obtain p r o d u c t s
that will either b e s u b s e q u e n t l y s h a p e d or
r e t o u c h e d , or directly u s e d w i t h o u t further
modification. Refers also t o t h e t a n g i b l e
results ( d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s ) of this action.
D E B I T A G E AXIS . A straight line that e m b o

dies t h e direction in w h i c h t h e f r a c t u r e
f r o n t d e v e l o p s d u r i n g t h e r e m o v a l of a
flake (fig. 4 1 ) . It p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e i m p a c t
p o i n t , a n d d i v i d e s t h e b u lb into t w o e q u a l
parts .
1 3 5

D E B I T A G E P R O D U C T S . A term referring

to

all r e m o v a l s resulting from t h e k n a p p i n g of

a c o r e , i.e. t o all flakes in t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e
of t h e t e r m : t h o s e resulting from p r e p a r a
tion, potential tool b l a n k s , a n d all w a s t e
p r o d u c t s . A p r o d u c t n o t modified b y r e
t o u c h is t e r m e d u n r e t o u c h e d .
D E B R I S . N o other t e r m s h o u l d b e u s e d t o
d e n o t e shapeless f r a g m e n t s w h o s e m o d e of
fracture c a n n o t b e identified, a n d w h i c h
c a n n o t b e a s s i g n e d to a n y c a t e g o r y of o b
jects .
1 3 6

C R O S S E D . 1. T h e first m e a n i n g c o m b i n e s
the notion of p o s i t i on (since r e m o v a l s s t e m
from b o t h faces, fig. 7 5 : 6) w i t h t h e n o t i o n
of a n g l e (since t h e r e m o v a l s are m o r e or
less at right a n g l e s to e a c h of t h e faces,
fig. 5 6 : 2 ) . O n e w a y of a c h i e v i n g this is b y
anvil r e t o u c h
.
2. T h e w o r d is u s e d in a s e c o n d s e n s e t o
d e n o t e t h e o r t h o g o n a l directions of b l a d e or
b l a d e l e t r e m o v a l s from cores w i t h t w o ,
t h r e e , or four striking platforms (fig. 2 9 :
3).
1 3 3

C R U T C H . A k n a p p i n g tool for t h e p r e s s u r e f l a k i n g of b l a d e s (fig. 7 3 : 1, 3 ) . It c a n

also b e u s e d for p r e s s u r e - r e t o u c h i n g ,
(fig. 3 0 : 2 ) .
134

DELINEATION.

term

describing

the

outline of a n e d g e c r e a t e d b y a line of
r e m o v a l s . T h i s e d g e c a n b e (fig. 6 5 ) :
rectilinear (and n o t "straight")
concave
convex
regular
irregular
In various c o m b i n a t i o n s , t h e s e five g e n e r a l
s h a p e s c a n g i v e rise t o specific delinea
tions, such as (fig. 6 5 ) :
notch
denticulated
s h o u l d e r , cran
nose
tongue
tang
long narro w tan g
etc.
D E N T I C U L A T E D . A n a d j e c t i v e of d e l i n e a -

tion, indicating a s u c c e s s i o n of irregular

adjacent n o t c h e s (fig. 6 5 : 5 ) .

133 Tixier, 1963.

134 Crabtree, 1968.

138

135 Bordes, 1961 : 6 ; Dauvois, 1976 : 24.

136 Bordes, 1947.

Fig. 64 Schematic illustration of blade debitage on a crested core. 1 : core shaped out by means of a
crest with two prepared versants. 2a : first removal. 2b : the corresponding crested blade. 3a,
4a : second and third removals. 3b, 4b : the corresponding blades showing part of the
preparation of the crest. 5 : preparation of a crest with one prepared versant during debitage.
6a, 6b : removal and corresponding crested blade.

139

78

11 1

2 13

41

Fig. 65 Delineation of the edge created by a series of removals. 1 : rectilinear. 2 : convex. 3 : concave.
4 : notched. 5 : denticulated. 6 : serrated. 7 ; cran. 8 : shoulder. 9 : nose. 10 : tongue. 11, 12 :
tang. 13 : long narrow tang. 14 : irregular. 15 : regular.

D I A C R I T I C D I A G R A M . A full scale outline

d r a w i n g figuring outlines a n d arrises, b u t
l e a v i n g out direction l i n e s ; it s h o w s the
b o u n d a r i e s , the d e b i t a g e a x e s (often s u r m i
sed),
and the c h r o n o l o g y of r e m o v a l s
(fig. 54) (see p . 126).

e x p r e s s i n g v o l u m e and r e n d e r i n g the d i r e c
tions of d e b i t a g e a n d r e t o u c h .
D I S C O N T I N U O U S . A n adjective qualifying
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e m o v a l s a l o n g an e d g e
(see c o n t i n u o u s ) (fig. 6 6 : 1).

DIHEDRAL. A general morphological term.

S e e u n d e r b u r i n and b u t t for the p a r t i c u l a r
m e a n i n g t a k e n o n w h e n applied to t h e s e
words.
D I R E C T . 1. A n adjective of p o s i t i o n a p
p l y i n g to r e t o u c h r e m o v a l s originating
from the l o w e r face. It therefore only c o n
c e r n s d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s (flakes, b l a d e s ,
bladelets) (fig. 7 5 : 1).
2. D i r e c t p e r c u s s i o n : see p e r c u s s i o n .
D I R E C T I O N L I N E . R e f e r s to a p e n

and

ink

d r a w i n g t e c h n i q u e : e a c h of the parallel
d o w n s t r o k e a n d u p s t r o k e lines u s e d for

140

12

Fig. 66 Distribution of removals along an

edge. 1 : discontinuous. 2 : total on
the distal edge. 3 : partial on the right
edge.

D I S T A L . A n adjective of l o c a l i z a t i o n
(fig. 6 9 : 1, 3) qualifying t h e e n d of t h e
b l a n k that is o p p o s i t e to t h e p r o x i m a l e n d .
A p p l i e s only to d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s (flake,
b l a d e , bladelet).
D I S T R I B U T I O N . T h e t e r m refers to t h e dis
tribution of r e t o u c h r e m o v a l s a l o n g a n e d g e
(fig. 6 6 ) . A series of r e m o v a l s is said to b e
p a r t i a l w h e n it d o e s n o t o c c u p y t h e entire
length of an e d g e ; t h e t e r m " t o t a l " is thus
self-defining. A series of r e m o v a l s is d i s c o n t i n u o u s if t h e r e are o n e or m o r e inter
r u p t i o n s a l o n g a single e d g e .

E
E D G E . T h e outline of an object. T h e w o r d
c a n b e applied to r e t o u c h e d a n d u n r e t o u c h e d d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s ( e d g e s of b l a d e s ,
flakes, etc.), as w e l l as to tools m a d e from
n a t u r a l b l a n k s . In t h e c a s e of a d e b i t a g e
p r o d u c t (fig. 5 ) , t h e e d g e s d o n o t i n c l u d e
the butt, w h i c h is itself a surface a n d is
therefore b o u n d e d b y e d g e s . T h e striking or
p r e s s u r e p l a t f o r m of a c o r e is also d e l i m i t e d
b y its e d g e s . I n t h e c a s e of a bifacial tool,
t h e w o r d r i d g e is used.
E N D S C R A P E R F R O N T . A l i n e of r e t o u c h e s

o n a flake, a b l a d e or a blade-let, w h i c h

f o r m a scraper. E n d s c r a p e r fronts c a n b e
d e s c r i b e d b y adjectives p e r t a i n i n g to char
acteristics of d e l i n e a t i o n , of a n g l e a n d of
morphology.
EXTENT. A term describing the invasive
n e s s of r e t o u c h r e m o v a l s (fig. 6 7 ) . I r r e s p e c
tive of t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of e a c h r e m o v a l , t h e
e x t e n t is said to b e :
- short, if only a s m a l l surface o n t h e e d g e
is c o n c e r n e d ,
- long,
- i n v a s i v e , if it c o v e r s a large portion of
the face,
- c o v e r i n g , if it affects t h e entire face.
T h e surface c o n c e r n e d b y t h e extent of
r e m o v a l s is likely to vary a great deal, t h u s
g i v i n g rise to other adjectives than t h o s e
suggested here.

F
F A C E . Specific surfaces of a b l a n k . T h e
t e r m s l o w e r (ventral) face a n d u p p e r (dor
sal) face apply e x c l u s i v e l y t o flakes, b l a d e s
a n d b l a d e l e t s . T h e l o w e r face (or fracture
face) of a flake, b l a d e or b l a d e l e t (as o p p o
sed to t h e u p p e r face) is t h e p o s i t i v e surface
resulting from t h e fracture of the r a w m a t e
r i a l ; it conjoins w i t h a n e g a t i v e surface o n
the core, w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e n e g a t i v e b u l b
(fig. 5 ) . W h e n traces of d e b i t a g e c a n n o
l o n g e r b e identified (e.g.
o n an entirely
bifacial p i e c e ) , o r w h e n t h e b l a n k is other
t h a n a flake (slab, c o b b l e , b l o c k , etc.), the
faces will b e arbitrarily referred to as "face A "
or "face B " , "face 1" or "face 2 " , etc.
F A C E T T E D . A t e r m for d e s c r i b i n g a butt , in
w h i c h c a s e t h e striking p l a t f o r m is p r e p a r e d
(fig. 6 2 : 4 ) .
F I R S T F L A K E ( O P E N I N G F L A K E ) . In t h e o r y ,

the first flake to b e r e m o v e d from a b l o c k

of r a w m a t e r i a l (fig. 9 : 1 , t o p left). A first
flake a l w a y s h a s a n a t u r a l surface o n t h e
butt a n d t h e u p p e r face. A single b l o c k of
r a w m a t e r i a l c a n y i e l d several i n d e p e n d e n t
first flakes

34

Fig. 67 Extent of removals. 1 : short. 2 :

long. 3 : invasive. 4 : covering.

F L A K E . A g e n e r a l t e r m for a f r a g m e n t of
h a r d stone that is r e m o v e d :
- either from a c o r e during its p r e p a r a t i o n
( p r e p a r a t i o n flake, p r e l i m i n a r y
flake,
etc.),

141

- or from a c o b b l e , a slab, a core, etc., a n d

if n e e d b e fashioned into a tool at a later
stage ( k n a p p i n g flake, d e b i t a g e flake),
- o r from a tool during m a n u f a c t u r e ( r e t o u c h flake, s h a p i n g flake).
T h e u s e of t h e w o r d " f l a k e " d o e s n o t i m p l y
a particular m o r p h o l o g y , a specific u s e , o r
particular d i m e n s i o n s (fig. 5 ) .
F L A K E D S U R F A C E S . F r a c t u r e p l a n e s or sur

faces f o r m e d b y t h e r e m o v a l of d e b i t a g e
p r o d u c t s from c o r e s . F l a k e d surfaces (or
d e b i t a g e surfaces) therefore consist of r e
m o v a l n e g a t i v e s b o u n d e d b y arrises
(fig. 2 0 ) .
F L A K I N G A N G L E . The angle formed by the

b u t t a n d t h e l o w e r (ventral) fac e (fig. 5 ) , as

w e l l as m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n of it. T h e
e x a m i n a t i o n of its m o r p h o l o g y ( p r e s e n c e of
an incipient c o n e , or of a l i p , e t c . ) will
provide information about debitage tech
niques.
F L A T ( P L A I N ) . A descriptive t e r m p a r t i c u
larly applied to b u t ts (fig. 6 2 : 2 ) .
F L U T E D . A t e r m that applies to p r e s s u r e flaked cores (fig. 31). T h e p a r a l l e l i s m a n d
the regularity of t h e arrises are e v o c a t i v e of
the fluting of a D o r i c c o l u m n . F l u t e d is
also u s e d as a s y n o n y m of c h a n n e l - f l a k e d
in t h e c a s e of P a l e o i n d i a n projectile p o i n t s .
1 3 7

F R A C T U R E . T o d i v i d e into p a r t s . R o c k s c a n
b e c a u s e d t o fracture b y natural a g e n c i e s
(frost, surf, e x p o s u r e t o fire, etc.). T h e
e x p r e s s i o n " i n t e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r e " is u s e d
w h e n it c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d that a b r e a k is
not accidental, a n d refers t o all k n o w n a n d
u n k n o w n m e t h o d s of d i v i d i n g a p i e c e of
r a w m a t e r i a l into parts ( s e e k n a p p i n g ) ,
such as p e r c u s s i o n , p r e s s u r e , b e n d i n g ,
s a w i n g , t h e u s e of fire, e t c .
FRACTURE FRONT .

The

fracture

of

142

G
G L O S S . A shiny surface condition. G l o s s
c a n h a v e a natural origin (water, w i n d ,
friction d u e t o vibration, etc.), or b e artifi
cial a n d d u e t o w e a r , t h e best k n o w n
e x a m p l e b e i n g t h e gloss o n stone sickleblades.

H
H A C K L E . A fracture m a r k , w h i c h d e v e l o p s
perpendicular to a fracture front , and t h e r e
fore spreads radially from t h e i m p a c t point,
d u r i n g t h e separation of a flake (fig. 5 ) .
T h e s e m a r k s a r e c a u s e d b y t h e partial d e
t a c h m e n t of very small p i e c e s of m a t e r i a l .
" A l t h o u g h quite n a r r o w , they a r e w i d e r at
their starting points than at their e x t r e m i
t i e s " . T h e y a r e of v a r i a b l e d i m e n s i o n s ,
a n d a r e visible in n e g a t i v e ( o n c o r e s , for
i n s t a n c e ) as w e l l as i n p o s i t i v e o n t h e l o w e r
face of t h e flake. H a c k l e s a l w a y s c o n v e r g e
on t h e i m p a c t point, t h u s a l l o w i n g t h e i d e n
tification of t h e direction of d e b i t a g e in t h e
a b s e n c e of r i p p l e s a n d w h e n t h e e x t r e m i
ties a r e m i s s i n g .
1 3 8

raw

materials obeys physical laws pertaining to

solid objects. T h i s i m p l i e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of a crack, or fracture front, initiating from
an i m p a c t point. Its i m p o r t a n c e for p r e h i s torians lies in t h e characteristic m a r k s (rip ples, h a c k l e s ) left o n t h e l o w e r face of a
flake or o n a n e g a t i v e of r e m o v a l .

137 Tixier, 1963 : 43.

F R A G M E N T . A p i e c e b r o k e n off o r
d e t a c h e d . A f r a g m e n t is identifiable, a n d
can b e a s s i g n e d to a c a t e g o r y of objects.
T h e t e r m s h o u l d therefore n o t b e u s e d o n
its o w n , b u t q u a l i f i e d : b l a d e fragment,
flake fragment, h a n d a x e fragment, tool
fragment, e t c . A s d e b i t a g e is t h e intentional
fracture of a b l o c k of r a w m a t e r i a l ( w h i c h
b e c o m e s a c o r e ) , a n y flake is a " c o r e
f r a g m e n t " . T h i s last e x p r e s s i o n s h o u l d
therefore only b e u s e d i n t h e c a s e of a c o r e
b r o k e n b y natural c a u s e s (internal j o i n t s ,
frost, fire, etc.).

H A M M E R . A natural i m p l e m e n t u s e d for
k n a p p i n g , s h a p i n g , or r e t o u c h i n g h a r d
stone. H a m m e r s c a n b e c o b b l e s or l u m p s of
stone, p i e c e s of w o o d , antler, b o n e , ivory,
etc (fig. 7 2 ) . C o n v e n t i o n h a s fixed t h e
expressions
"hammerstone"
(or " h a r d
h a m m e r " ) for natural m i n e r a l h a m m e r s ,
a n d "soft h a m m e r " for h a m m e r s of
biological
origin.
Furthermore,
some
k n a p p e d objects, i n c l u d i n g d i s c a r d e d c o r e s ,
w e r e s o m e t i m e s u s e d as h a m m e r s .

HEAT TREATMEN T (THERMA L TREATMENT) .

T h e flaking qualities (for d e b i t a g e and r e t o u c h i n g ) of s o m e siliceous r o c k s c a n b e

i m p r o v e d b y p r e l i m i n a r y heat t r e a t m e n t ,
especially w h e r e p r e s s u r e is u s e d (fig. 1 : 7
and fig. 68). T h i s t e c h n i c a l a d v a n t a g e
s e e m s to h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d b y the inv e n t o r s of p r e s s u r e - r e t o u c h i n g and p r e s s u r e
d e b i t a g e , s o m e 15 to 2 0 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o , in
different parts of the w o r l d (p. 2 3 - 2 4 ) .
HINGED. T h i s d e s c r i b e s any r e m o v a l w h o s e
fracture p l a n e , n o r m a l in its p r o x i m a l z o n e ,
a r c h e s s u d d e n l y and intersects p r e m a t u r e l y
t h e u p p e r face of the blank, w h i c h is t h e r e fore shorter t h a n w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d (fig.
7 : 1, a n d fig. 6 1 : 6 ) . T h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e
of t h i s k i n d of a c c i d e n t is p l u n g i n g .

i
IMPACT POINT . T h e point (in fact a s m a l l
surface) w h e r e the b l o w is a p p l i e d to fracture a p i e c e of r a w m a t e r i a l . It is visible o n
the e d g e of the butt adjacent to the l o w e r
face. T h e c o n e a n d the b u l b b o t h d e v e l o p
from the i m p a c t p o i n t (fig. 5).
INDIRECT. A l t h o u g h this is the a n t o n y m of
direct, the t e r m is not u s e d to d e n o t e a
r e m o v a l p o s i t i o n (see i n v e r s e ) . It applies
only to a p e r c u s s i o n t e c h n i q u e .
INDUSTRY. B r o a d l y defined, the w o r d "ind u s t r y " describes h u m a n action applied to
r a w m a t e r i a l s in order to t r a n s f o r m t h e m . It
thus e n c o m p a s s e s all activities a i m e d at
p r o d u c i n g useful objects. M a u s s defined an
industry as b e i n g " a set of t e c h n i q u e s i m p l y i n g the u s e of different m e c h a n i s m s
t o w a r d s a single g o a l "
or, for specialized
industries, " a s a set of t e c h n i q u e s c o n v e r g ing to satisfy a n e e d , or m o r e exactly, a
c o n s u m e r r e q u i r e m e n t [...] b u t it is this
c o n c e p t of c o n s u m p t i o n that p e r m i t s the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i n d u s t r i e s , s y s t e m s
1 3 9

138 Dauvois, 1976. "[Ces stigmates] sont souvent

assez troits, plus larges leur origine qu' leur
extrmit".
139 Mauss, 1947 : 26. "un ensemble de techniques qui
suppose l'emploi de machines diffrentes concourant
un mme but ".

Fig. 68 T h e r m a l l y treated and subsequently

pressure-retouched flint blade. N o t e
the lustre on the three parallel r e m o val negatives (Photo J. Tixier).

of t e c h n i q u e s a p p r o p r i a t e to objectives, org a n i z a t i o n of industries " .

T h e p r e h i s t o r i a n gives a m o r e restricted
a n d c o n c r e t e m e a n i n g to this w o r d b y strictly a p p l y i n g it to artefacts, a n d referring to
b o n e and stone industries. I n d e e d , h e m u s t
rely o n objects m a d e b y p r e h i s t o r i c m e n in
o r d e r to j u d g e h o w they m e t their r e q u i r e m e n t s and dealt with their p r o b l e m s of
consumption.
1 4 0

INVASIVE. A t e r m d e s c r i b i n g the e x t e n t of
r e m o v a l s (fig. 67 : 3).

140 Mauss, 1947 : 4 1 . "comme un ensemble de techniques concourant la satisfaction d'un besoin - ou plus
exactement la satisfaction d'une consommation [...]
mais c'est la notion de consommation qui permet de
dterminer les industries, systmes de techniques appropris des fins, agencement d'industries".

143

I N V E R S E . A t e r m defining a p o s i t i o n . It
refers to r e t o u c h r e m o v a l s s t e m m i n g from
the u p p e r face, a n d c a n therefore only b e
applied to debitage products (flakes, blades,
b l a d e l e t s ) (fig. 7 5 : 2 ) .

L
LANGUETTE.
T h e t e r m refers t o a k n a p p i n g
a c c i d e n t a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e specific m o r p h o p l o g y resulting f r o m t h e u n i n t e n t i o n a l
fracture of a b l a d e d u r i n g d e b i t a g e
(fig; 7 : 2 to 4 ) . T h e fracture w a v e a p p e a r s
to travel first a l o n g t h e surface of o n e of the
faces before p l u n g i n g s u d d e n l y , a n d t h e n
slanting o u t o n t h e o p p o s i t e face. Languettes c a n o c c u r o n t h e l o w e r o r u p p e r face of
a blade, they can b e simple, or double and
opposite. Such accidents are more c o m m o n
w h e n direct p e r c u s s i o n w i t h a soft h a m m e r
or indirect p e r c u s s i o n a r e applied, a n d less
so w h e n u s i n g a h a r d h a m m e r o r w h e n
pressure-flaking.
1 4 2

J
JANUS (FLAKE) . Se e K o m b e w a .

K
K N A P P I N G . A very g e n e r a l t e r m , w h i c h
i n c l u d e s a n y t y p e of action a i m i n g at t h e
intentional f r a c t u r e of h a r d r o c k s , a c c o r d ing to the t w o main m o d e s known, percus s i o n a n d p r e s s u r e . It is a p p l i c a b l e in all
c a s e s , b u t is particularly r e l e v a n t w h e r e t h e
terms "debitage" and "retouching" cannot
b e used, a n d w h e r e n o a s s u m p t i o n c a n b e
m a d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e artefact
(is it a tool o r n o t ? ) .
KNAPPING ACCIDENT . A n unforeseen

and

u n i n t e n t i o n a l i n c i d e n t o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g flaking, shaping or retouching, and generating

p r o d u c t s w i t h a specific a l t h o u g h fortuitous
m o r p h o l o g y ; also t h e o u t c o m e of this incident. E x a m p l e s : p l u n g i ng b l a d e (fig. 7 : 5 ;
fig. 7 4 : 1 t o 3 ) , "Siret" a c c i d e n t a l b r e a k
(fig. 80), languette (fig. 7 : 2 t o 4 ) , nacelle
(fig. 7 : 5 ) , e t c .
KOMBEWA (FLAKE ) o r JANU S (FLAKE) .

flake with t w o l o w e r faces (fig. 2 7 , 2 8 ) .

KOMBEWA (METHOD

).

method

for

o b t a i n i n g a circular, s e m i - c i r c u l a r o r
elliptical
flake.
The
shape
is
p r e - d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o n v e x i t y of t h e
l o w e r face of a n o t h e r flake, p r e v i o u s l y
k n a p p e d t o serve as a c o r e ( p . 6 8 - 6 9 ) . A n
unretouched
Kombewa
flake
thus
possesses two lower f a c e s ,
which
intersect (fig. 2 7 , 2 8 ) . N e i t h e r of t h e s e
faces h a s arrises. T h e directions of
p e r c u s s i o n of t h e K o m b e w a flake thus
o b t a i n e d a n d of t h e flake u s e d as a c o r e c a n
h a v e a n y orientation relative to o n e
another.
1 4 1

141 This is why Kombewa flakes have often been

called "Janus'" flakes.

144

LEVALLOIS (METHOD) .

A special

method

of o b t a i n i n g flakes (in t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e of
t h e t e r m ) . T h e i r form is p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y
the special p r e p a r a t i o n of c o r e s prior t o t h e
r e m o v a l of flakes (p. 6 1 t o 6 8 ) .
LINEAR. A term describing
s h a p e of b u t t (fig. 6 2 : 9 ) .

a particular

LIP. A slight projection of the r i d g e f o r m e d

by t h e butt a n d the lower face can somet i m e s b e o b s e r v e d o n a flake. " I n t h e b u l b
area, a c o u n t e r c u r v e t o p p e d b y a k i n d of lip
is f o r m e d w h e r e t h e fracture m e e t s w i t h t h e
surfaces
of t h e striking
platform"
(fig. 6 2 : 8, profile). T h i s m o r p h o l o g y is
characteristic of flakes r e m o v e d b y a soft
hammer.
1 4 3

LOCALIZATION.

term

describing

the

place occupied by removals on a piece,

relative t o a n o r i e n t a t i o n (fig. 6 9 ) . T h e r e
are t w o possibilities :
1. t h e b l a n k is a d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t a n d
therefore
h a s a single
conventional
o r i e n t a t i o n ; i n this c a s e a l o n e c a n t h e t e r m s
p r o x i m a l , dista l a n d m e s i al (or central) b e
used;
2. a n y o t h e r b l a n k ( d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s
that c a n n o t b e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y oriented,
c o b b l e s , slabs, etc.), is arbitrarily o r i e n t e d
a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a . T h e loca-

142 Bordes, 1970.

143 Dauvois, 1976 : 168. "Au niveau du bulbe, la
rencontre de la fracture avec les surfaces du plan de
frappe du nuclus se fait suivant une sorte de lvre, en
contre-courbe'".

Fig. 69 Localization of removals, various examples. 1 : distal right. 2 : proximal right and mesial left.
3 : distal right and proximal left. 4 and 5 : basal.

lizations a n d their d e n o m i n a t i o n s
are
therefore
d e p e n d a n t o n the
different
orientations.
In all c a s e s t h e t e r m s " r i g h t " a n d "left" are
a p p l i e d relative to t h e faces.
LOW ANGLE . D e n o t e s the a n g l e of r e m o v a l s
(fig. 5 6 : 4 ) .

M
MESIAL. A n adjective of l o c a l i z a t i o n , r e
ferring to the m i d d l e section of a blank. T h e
w o r d " c e n t r a l " is also u s e d (fig. 5).
METHOD. A n o r d e r l y set of r a t i o n a l pro
c e d u r e s d e v i s e d for the p u r p o s e of a c h i e v
ing an end. T h e m e t h o d f o l l o w e d to create
a p r e h i s t o r i c tool is thus an orderly se
q u e n c e of a c t i o n s carried out a c c o r d i n g to
o n e or m o r e t e c h n i q u e s , a n d g u i d e d b y a
rational plan.

MICROBURIN. Distal microburin

: distal
part of a flake, b l a d e or b l a d e l e t d e t a c h e d
b y the m i c r o b u r i n b l o w t e c h n i q u e .
Proximal microburin
: p r o x i m a l part of a
flake, b l a d e or b l a d e l e t d e t a c h e d b y the
microburin blow technique.
Double microburin
: central part of a b l a d e
or b l a d e l e t s h o w i n g at b o t h e n d s the char
acteristics of a m i c r o b u r i n (fig. 33).
MORPHOLOGICAL AXIS

The

axis

of

m a x i m u m s y m m e t r y of an object, in t h e
direction of its greatest l e n g t h , w h e t h e r
on a d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t ( r e t o u c h e d or n o t ) , a
bifacial tool, a c h o p p e r , etc. T h i s axis is
r e l e v a n t to p r o b l e m s of c o n v e n t i o n a l
o r i e n t a t i o n , a n d certain m e a s u r e m e n t s are
d e p e n d e n t u p o n its d e t e r m i n a t i o n , w h e t h e r
t h e object is d r a w n or not. It is also u s e d to
1 4 4

144 Dauvois, 1976 : 24.

145

distinguish t h e types of certain tools, such

as djete c o n v e r g e n t scrapers (fig. 4 1 : 4 ) ,
pseudo-Levallois points, etc.
MORPHOLOGY. A t e r m c o n v e y i n g t h e idea
of s h a p e ; i.e. t h e m o r p h o l o g y of a tool, of
a blank, of a c o r e , of a r e m o v a l , e t c .
MORPHOLOGY O F RETOUCH REMOVALS .

T h e s h a p e s of r e t o u c h r e m o v a l s a r e a l m o s t
infinitely variable. T h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d
t e r m s a r e (fig. 7 0 ) :
- s c a l e d : w i d e , short r e m o v a l s , w i d e r i n
their distal e x t r e m i t y t h a n in their p r o x i m a l
extremity, and bearing a close resemblance
to f i s h - s c a l e s , or m o r e exactly t o t h e
i m p r i n t left b y f i s h - s c a l e s ; in their distal
z o n e t h e flakes r e m o v e d a r e slightly hin
g e d , a n d this c a n b e felt b y r u n n i n g a
finger-nail a c r o s s t h e s u r f a c e ;
- s t e p p e d : r e m o v a l s s h o w i n g similar, b u t
far m o r e p r o n o u n c e d characteristics, akin
to a flight of s t e p s ; this i m p l i e s a rela
tively thick b l a n k ;
- p a r a l l e l : a series of r e m o v a l s s e p a r a t e d
b y parallel a r r i s e s ; there a r e m a n y p o s s i b i l
ities, w h i c h c o m b i n e t h e length a n d t h e
a n g l e of series of r e m o v a l s w h e n they a r e
o b t a i n e d b y p r e s s u r e : parallel t r a n s v e r s e o r
o b l i q u e , c h e v r o n patterned, r i p p l e d , e t c .
(fig. 7 1 ) ;
- s u b - p a r a l l e l : a series of r e m o v a l s sepa
r a t e d b y arrises that a r e m o r e or less p a r a l
lel.
145

1 4 6

1 4 7

N
NACELLE BREAK

. A rather u n c o m m o n acci

d e n t a l fracture w i t h a specific m o r p h o l o g y ,
w h i c h c a n h o w e v e r o c c u r quite frequently
w h e n pressure-flaking o b s i d i a n b l a d e s . It
d e v e l o p s n o t very far from t h e butt. T h e
fracture w a v e s u d d e n l y a r c h e s t o w a r d s t h e
u p p e r face, r e m o v i n g part of the t w o e d g e s ,
travels a l o n g s i d e t h e faces for a f e w milli
m e t e r s , a n d intersects quite as s u d d e n l y t h e
l o w e r face. T h e nacelle is plainly visible o n
the l o w e r face of t h e b l a d e , a n d t h e s m a l l
c o r r e s p o n d i n g w a s t e p r o d u c t also b e a r s a
specific m o r p h o l o g y (fig. 7 : 5 ) .

145 Bordes, 1961 : 8.

146 ibid.
141 These are known as "ripple-flakes" and refer to
the Egyptian predynastic knives.

146

34

Fig. 70 Morphology of removals. 1 : scaled.

2 : stepped. 3 : parallel. 4 : sub-paral
lel (Bordes, 1961 : fig. 2, 1).

NEGATIVE BULB . I m p r i n t or n e g a t i v e of t h e
b u l b of a flake (fig. 2 0 ) .
NEGATIVE O F REMOVAL. B y d e f i n i t i o n , t h e

c o m p l e m e n t a r y surface of a r e m o v a l
c r e a t e d b y t h e fracture of t h e r a w m a t e r i a l .
R e m o v a l n e g a t i v e s a r e thus t h e scars
visible o n cores (fig. 2 0 ) , o n t h e u p p e r
faces of flakes (fig. 5 ) , a n d o n t h e r e t o u c h e s
o n all tools.
NOSE. A t e r m of d e l i n e a t i o n , d e n o t i n g a
projection
flanked
by two shoulder s
(fig. 6 5 : 9 ) .

NOTCH. A term describing the delineatio n

of a n e d g e , indicating a sharp dent, g e n e r a l
ly c o n c a v e , s o m e t i m e s V - s h a p e d , w i t h a
small curvature radius, and created b y va
rious r e t o u c h t e c h n i q u e s (fig. 3 4 : 4 ) . S e e
Clactonian.

o
O P E N I N G F L A K E . S e e first flake.
O R I E N T A T I O N . T h e o r i e n t a t i o n of k n a p p e d

stone objects is entirely a m a t t e r of c o n v e n

tion. It c a n vary, d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r
objects are b e i n g d r a w n or studied. S e e
d e b i t a g e axis , m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis , locali z a t i o n (fig. 4 1 ) .
O V E R H A N G . A projection c r o w n i n g a c o r e .
The strikin g
or p r e s s u r e p l a t f o r m
o v e r h a n g s t h e n e g a t i ve b u l b s (fig. 2 0 ) . Its
abrasion
signally
eases
debitage,
especially in t h e c a s e of direct p e r c u s s i o n
w i t h a soft h a m m e r . It is n o t , h o w e v e r ,
n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e d for d e b i t a g e b y
p e r c u s s i o n with a h a r d h a m m e r , or for
pressure debitage. T h e presence or absence
of a n o v e r h a n g therefore supplies useful
information
about
the
debitage
or
preparation techniques.

Fig. 7 1 E x a m p l e s of oblique c o v e r i n g paral

lel r e t o u c h . L e f t : obsidian, J. Tixier.
R i g h t : G r a n d - P r e s s i g n y heat-treated
flint, D E . Crabtree. (Atelier p h o t o
C.N.R.S., Meudon).

c r u s h i n g a n d levelling o u t t h e r o u g h e s t
e d g e s of t h e s t o n e " . W h e n applied to a
s m o o t h surface, it h a s a r e v e r s e effect,
p r o d u c i n g small i n d e n t a t i o n s . T h i s action is
k n o w n as p e c k i n g , a n d i n a r c h a e o l o g y t h e
t e r m refers to a t e c h n i q u e that c a n b e
d e t e c t e d o n artefacts b e a r i n g a pitted facing
p r o d u c e d b y a stone h a m m e r . P e c k i n g c a n
b e u s e d for :
- b l u n t i n g ridges a n d o b t a i n i n g a r o u n d e d
form, as in t h e s h a p i n g of s p h e r o i d s a n d
b o l a s ( w h i c h s h o u l d n o t b e m i s t a k e n for
h a m m e r s t o n e s , a l t h o u g h t h e difference is
n o t a l w a y s o b v i o u s , fig. 16 : 2, 3 ) ;
- for r o u g h e n i n g surfaces, as i n t h e c a s e of
g r i n d i n g stones (querns a n d m o r t a r s ) , or, i n
m o r e r e c e n t prehistoric t i m e s , for dressing
building stones;
- for p r e p a r i n g a surface p r i o r t o p o l i s h i n g
1 4 8

p
P A R A L L E L . A term describing t h e m o r p h o l o g y o f r e m o v a l s (fig. 7 0 : 3 , fig. 7 1 ) .
P A R T I A L . A t e r m a p p l y i n g to :
- t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e m o v a l s along a n
e d g e (fig. 6 6 : 3 ) ;
- bifacial tools n o t entirely k n a p p e d (par
tial biface).
P A T I N A . A n a t u r a l alteration of t h e outer
part of an object, after its intentional
k n a p p i n g . O n a single object therefore, t h e
p a t i n a a l w a y s d e v e l o p s later than t h e
c o r t e x . A tool c a n s h o w several p a t i n a s ,
w h i c h c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s e q u e n c e of
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o w h i c h it h a s b e e n
subjected.
PECKING. The stone-cutter's

it;
- etc.

pick-hammer

(or p e c k e r ) , a p o i n t e d h a m m e r u s e d for
tooling t h e faces of a stone, is a m o d e r n
i n s t r u m e n t . " T h e p i c k - h a m m e r is u s e d for

148 Bessac, 1987 : 79. "La boucharde crase

galise les plus grosses asprits de la pierre".

ou

147

Fig. 7 2 T h e s t o n e - k n a p p e r ' s set of tools for percussion (J. Pelegrin). 1, 2, 3 : various h a m m e r s t o n e s .

4, 5, 6 : antler billets. 7, 8 : small abrading sandstone p e b b l e s . 9, 10 : w o o d e n billets for direct
or indirect percussion. 11, 12, 13 : antler p u n c h e s (Atelier p h o t o C.N.R.S., M e u d o n ) .

PERCUSSION. B y definition, the action of

striking o n e object with another. Of the t w o
m a i n t e c h n i q u e s u s e d for fracturing h a r d
stone during prehistoric t i m e s , p e r c u s s i o n
w a s the first to a p p e a r and the only o n e in
u s e for a very long p e r i o d . It therefore
refers to k n a p p e d , flaked, shaped, a n d r e
t o u c h e d objects.
D i r e c t p e r c u s s i o n (fig. 4 : 1, 2 ; fig. 72) is
directly a p p l i e d b y a h a m m e r . It is current

148

ly i m p o s s i b l e to distinguish an " a c t i v e " (or

m o b i l e ) h a n d - h e l d h a m m e r - s t o n e from a
" p a s s i v e " (or i m m o b i l e ) o n e , as the traces
they b e a r are identical.
I n d i r e c t p e r c u s s i o n (fig. 4 : 3) i n v o l v e s an
i n t e r m e d i a t e object (a p u n c h ) as w e l l as a
h a m m e r . T h e r e is n o i n d i s p u t a b l e e v i d e n c e
for the u s e of this t e c h n i q u e d u r i n g the
P a l a e o l i t h i c , in spite of w h a t has r e p e a t e d l y
been claimed.

Fig. 7 3 T h e s t o n e - k n a p p e r ' s set of tools for pressure (J. Pelegrin). 1 : long crutch. 2 : contraption u s e d
for i m m o b i l i z i n g the core during blade debitage. 3 : short crutch for bladelet debitage or for
retouching. 4 : w o o d e n g r o o v e d device. 5 : h a n d - h e l d g r o o v e d device. 6 : flat sandstone
p e b b l e (used for a b r a d i n g the e d g e of the pressure platform). 7, 8, 9 : antler tools for pressure
debitage or retouching in the hand.

PIQ UANT- TRIED RE. T h e traces visible o n the

e x t r e m i t y of a b l a d e or b l a d e l e t w h e n part
of it h a s b e e n r e m o v e d b y the m i c r o b u r i n
b l o w t e c h n i q u e (fig. 33). In addition to
part of a notch ( w h o s e r e m o v a l s a l w a y s
s t e m from the l o w e r f a c e ) , the "piquanttriedre"
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d - as the n a m e
suggests - by a sharp extremity with three
flat faces :
(1) part of the l o w e r face of the flake, b l a d e
or bladelet.
(2) part of the u p p e r face of the flake, b l a d e
or bladelet.
1 4 9

149 Allowing for very few exceptions, which can be

disregarded : microburins obtained by applying blows
to the upper face can be counted on the fingers of one
hand throughout the world.

(3) t h e characteristic surface left b y t h e

r e m o v a l of t h e m i c r o b u r i n .
W e h a v e g i v e n p r e f e r e n c e to this t e r m ,
c o i n e d b y E . - G . G o b e r t , o v e r the rather
vague "oblique point" commonly used by
other F r e n c h p r e h i s t o r i a n s and c o i n e d b y
L. S i r e t . T h e t e r m "piquant-triedre"
can
h o w e v e r b e criticized for n o t h i g h l i g h t i n g
the m i c r o b u r i n b l o w t e c h n i q u e , the latter
t e r m b e i n g altogether unsatisfactory.
1 5 0

1 5 1

P L A I N . S e e flat.

PLUNGING. This denotes any remova l

w h o s e fracture p l a n e , a l t h o u g h n o r m a l in
its p r o x i m a l z o n e , a r c h e s sharply f o r w a r d
150 Gobert, 1955 : 229.
151 Siret, 1924 : 123, caption of figure 6.

149

F i g . 7 4 V a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of p l u n g i n g b l a d e s and flakes. 1 : on a core with a cortical end. 2 : on a

p y r a m i d a l pressure core. 3 : on a core with t w o opposite striking platforms. 4 : on a bifacial
foliate piece. 5 : p l u n g i n g burin spall. 6 : p l u n g i n g Levallois preferential flake.

a n d tears a w a y a w h o l e section of t h e
b l a n k , b e it a c o r e , a d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t or a
tool. A v e r y c o n c a v e l o w e r face a n d a
g e n e r a l l y distal t h i c k e n i n g are the t w o
characteristics of p l u n g i n g . P l u n g i n g c a n
r e m o v e (fig. 74) :
- part of the cortical c a p of a core at t h e
b e g i n n i n g of d e b i t a g e ;
- the a p e x of a p y r a m i d a l c o r e ;

150

- part of t h e o p p o s i t e striking p l a t f o r m o n
a c o r e w i t h t w o striking p l a t f o r m s ;
- o n a L e v a l l o i s c o r e , part of the
preparation
opposite
to
the
striking
platform;
- the e n d of a b u r i n o p p o s i t e to that w h e r e
the b u r i n b l o w h a s b e e n a p p l i e d ;
- part of the opposite edge on a bifacial p i e c e ;
etc.

W h e t h e r p l u n g i n g is a c c i d e n t a l or intentio
nal s u c h r e m o v a l s a l w a y s p r o v i d e i n f o r m a
tion a b o u t t h e m e t h o d s a n d t e c h n i q u e s
used. A n y one w h o has experimented with
k n a p p i n g will h a v e realised this s o o n e r or
later.
P O L I S H . T h e polish ( s m o o t h a n d shiny
a p p e a r a n c e ) of a p i e c e c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y
various m e a n s , w h e t h e r intentional ( s e e
p o l i s h i n g ) or n o t (p. 9 1 ) .
P O L I S H I N G . T h e finishing of a s h a p e d tool,
or t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a p i e c e b y friction
against an active or p a s s i v e polisher, w i t h
or w i t h o u t an a b r a s i v e . P o l i s h i n g is thus t h e
result of intentional action.
P O S I T I O N . A w o r d referring to t h e p o s i t i o n
of r e m o v a l s relative to t h e faces of a n
object (fig. 7 5 ) ; t h e s e c a n b e :
- direc t
- invers e
- alternat e
- alternatin g
- bifacia l
- crossed .
PREFORM.
A
term
defined
by
D.E. C r a b t r e e
to d e s c r i b e a bifacial
p i e c e that h a s b e e n s h a p e d (usually b y
p e r c u s s i o n ) to a l l o w it to b e finished b y
pressure-retouching
or
channel-flaking.
T h e w o r d p r e f o r m is therefore u s e d w h e n
referring to a p i e c e that h a s b e e n s h a p e d or
p r e p a r e d with a v i e w to u n d e r g o i n g a final
series of o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g o n e or m o r e
techiques (pressure-retouching, pecking,
p o l i s h i n g ) , w h i c h differ from t h o s e u s e d for
s h a p i n g or p r e p a r a t i o n (fig. 18). F o r very
elaborate
pieces,
the preform
stage
n o r m a l l y follows t h e r o u g h o u t stage, a n d
c o m e s i m m e d i a t e l y before t h e finishing
stage.
1 5 2

P R E L I M I N A R Y F L A K I N G . T h e initial series

of o p e r a t i o n s carried out o n a natural b l o c k

( i n c l u d i n g cortex r e m o v a l ) in order t o p r e
p a r e it before u n d e r t a k i n g to :
- r o u g h out a t o o l ;
- s h a p e out a core (fig. 10 : 1).
PREPARATION.
Any
work
prior
to
d e b i t a g e , or a n y s y s t e m a t i c r e t o u c h i n g
carried out to i m p r o v e t h e c h a n c e s of
152 Crabtree, 1966.

s u c c e s s , c a n b e referred to as p r e p a r a t i o n .
F o r i n s t a n c e , a crest is p r e p a r e d o n a c o r e
(fig. 6 4 ) , t h e e d g e of a b l a n k is p r e p a r e d to
r e c e i v e a b u r i n b l o w (fig. 7 6 : 2 b ) , an e d g e
is p r e p a r e d prior to b e i n g r e t o u c h e d , a
p r e f o r m is p r e p a r e d b y (pre-) p o l i s h i n g in
order to obtain long parallel p r e s s u r e
r e t o u c h e s , e t c . T h e confusion b e t w e e n
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d r e t o u c h i n g , a n d therefore
b e t w e e n tools a n d w a s t e p r o d u c t s , c a n only
b e a v o i d e d t h r o u g h t h e reconstitution of t h e
e x a c t c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e of t e c h n i c a l
actions.
P R E S S U R E . U n l i k e p e r c u s s i o n , this m e t h o d
of fracturing h a r d stone is carried out w i t h
a tool w h o s e e x t r e m i t y applies p r e s s u r e to
d e t a c h a flak e (fig. 7 3 ) . P r e s s u r e c a n b e
u s e d for d e b i t a g e (fig. 4 : 5, a n d fig. 3 0 ) , or
for r e t o u c h i n g (fig. 4 : 6 ) .
P R E S S U R E P L A T F O R M . T h e p a r t of a c o r e t o

w h i c h p r e s s u r e is applied in order to d e t a c h
flakes, b l a d e s , or b l a d e l e t s .
Pressure
p l a t f o r m s are often p r e p a r e d (fig. 3 1 ) , b u t
c a n also b e flat (fig. 32) or natural surfaces.
P R O X I M A L . A n adjective of l o c a l i z a t i o n
(fig. 6 9 : 2) qualifying t h e e n d of t h e b l a n k
that b e a r s t h e b u t t - a n d - b u l b part. (fig. 5 ) .
A p p l i e s only to d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s (flake,
blade, bladelet).
P U N C H . A n object i n t e r p o s e d b e t w e e n t h e
striking platform of a core a n d t h e h a m m e r .
E x p e r i m e n t h a s s h o w n that this k n a p p i n g
t e c h n i q u e , called indirect p e r c u s s i o n , c a n
b e u s e d for t h e s h a p i n g out of cores, for t h e
r e j u v e n a t i o n of striking a n d p r e s s u r e
platforms,
for bifacial
shaping,
and
e s p e c i a l l y for b l a d e d e b i t a g e (fig. 4 : 3 ) .
T h i s object c a n b e of stone, w o o d , b o n e ,
h o r n , antler, ivory or m e t a l (fig. 7 2 : 11 to
13).
P U N C T I F O R M . A t e r m restricted to a
particular m o r p h o l o g y of t h e b u tt (fig. 6 2 :
10).

R
R E F I T . A c o m p l e t e series of c o n j o i n i n g
sets, w h i c h b e l o n g to s a m e b l o c k of r a w
m a t e r i a l (a c o r e a n d its d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t s
for i n s t a n c e ) (fig. 3 6 a n d 4 0 ) .

151

Fig. 75 Position of removals. 1 : direct. 2 : inverse. 3 : alternate (being here direct on the left edge and
inverse on the right edge). 4 : alternating. 5 : bifacial. 6 : crossed.

Fig. 76 Examples of preparation. 1 : notch for stopping a burin spall. 2a : irregular unretouched blade
edge. 2b : preparatory straightening of the edge prior to the removal of a burin spall.

152

Fig. 77 C o r e tablet a n d rejuvenation flake. 1 : total rejuvenation of a striking or p r e s s u r e platform

a c h e i v e d t h r o u g h t h e r e m o v a l of a core tablet. 2 : partial rejuvenation of a striking or p r e s s u r e
platform requiring only t h e r e m o v a l of a flake.

REJUVENATION. A g e n e r a l t e r m , w h i c h
d e s c r i b e s t h e action of m a k i n g an e d g e or a
r i d g e sharper, of rejuvenating a surface.
T h e t e r m applies particularly t o a p r e p a r a
tion of the c o r e d u r i n g d e b i t a g e , w h i c h m a y
b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y w h e n t h e c o n d i t i o n of
the striking o r p r e s s u r e p l a t f o r m p r e c l u d e s
the d e b i t a g e from b e i n g c o n t i n u e d . T h e
o p e r a t i o n consists i n r e m o v i n g t h e striking
or p r e s s u r e platform, b y m e a n s of a single
thick r e m o v a l ( r e j u v e n a t i o n c o r e tablet )
(fig. 7 7 : 1), or of several t h i n n e r r e j u v e n a
tion flakes (fig. 7 7 : 2 ) , s t e m m i n g from t h e
flaked surfaces.
REJUVENATION

CORE

TABLET.

flake

characteristic of the r e n o v a t i o n of the strik

ing o r p r e s s u r e p l a t f o r m of a c o r e . T h e
u p p e r face of a first r e j u v e n a t i o n core tablet
thus s h o w s t h e n e g a t i v e m a r k s of the p r e p a
ration of a striking or p r e s s u r e platform,
a n d t h e butt consists of part of t h e flaked
surfaces (fig. 7 7 : 1). It is s o m e t i m e s n e c e s
sary t o r e m o v e a s e c o n d flake of t h e s a m e
t y p e . Its u p p e r face thus s h o w s t h e r e m o v a l
n e g a t i v e of t h e first r e j u v e n a t i o n core t a b
let, a n d t h e butt also consists of part of t h e
flaked surfaces. T h i s a c c o u n t s for t h e often
thick e d g e s of r e j u v e n a t i o n core tablets,
1 5 3

153 Hamal Nandrin, Servais, 1921.

a n d for their p o l y g o n a l s h a p e . In s o m e
industries, the O m a l i a n
for i n s t a n c e ,
r e j u v e n a t i o n c o r e t a b l e t s a r e as a r u l e
repeatedly removed on blade cores.
1 5 4

R E M O V A L . 1. A g e n e r a l t e r m d e n o t i n g t h e
action of r e m o v i n g part of a h a r d stone
during intentional flaking.
2. F o r t h e sake of c o n v e n i e n c e , t h e t e r m
also d e n o t e s n e g a t i v e traces left b y this
action.
RETOUCH.

retouch

is a r e m o v a l

or

series of specific r e m o v a l s carried o u t for

the p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g a tool. R e t o u c h i n g
is t h u s t h e structuring, sculpting a n d inten
tional t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a b l a n k , w h e t h e r or
n o this b l a n k b e a d e b i t a g e p r o d u c t . T h e
r e t o u c h e s - o r r e t o u c h - a r e t h e m a r k s left
b y this action. A r e t o u c h c a n b e defined b y
a set of characteristics (ch. 5 ) .
RESHARPENING. See sharpening .

RIDGE. A general morphological term,

w h i c h d e n o t e s t h e intersection of several
surfaces (especially t w o ) f o r m i n g d i h e d r a l
a n g l e s . F o r i n s t a n c e t h e r i d g e of a h a n d a x e ,
the r i d g e of a crest, e t c .

154 Cahen et al 1979.

153

cm

Fig. 78 Proximal fragments of pressure-flaked obsidian bladelets, showing more (2, 3) or less (1)
invasive traces of rubbing down on their upper faces, Obeid, Tell el Oueili, Irak.

R I P P L E S . C o n c e n t r i c w a v e s of v a r i a b l e
length and amplitude spreading from the
i m p a c t point, and resulting from t h e p r o p a
g a t i o n of the fracture front; they are often
visible o n the l o w e r faces of flakes, a n d c a n
also b e o b s e r v e d o n the r e m o v a l n e g a t i v e s
(fig. 5 ) . In t h e a b s e n c e of t h e b u t t / b u l b
part, they i n d i c a t e the direction of k n a p
ping.
N o t e : ripples m a y n o t b e p e r c e p t i b l e o n
very homogeneous, non-vitreous raw ma
terials, and direction of k n a p p i n g m a y b e
i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e o n h e t e r o g e n e o u s
r a w m a t e r i a l s o w i n g to distorted r i p p l e s . In
all c a s e s , h a c k l e s r e m a i n t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t
c l u e s to the orientation of d e b i t a g e p r o d
ucts.
R O U G H O U T . R o u g h a n d still i m p e r f e c t
f o r m g i v e n to a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l artefact.
T h i s t e r m is u s e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y for
bifacial tools o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s h a p i n g .
S o u n d a r g u m e n t s , entailing an i n - d e p t h
t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s , are n e c e s s a r y to
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t an o b j e c t is y e t u n c o m
pleted, and is therefore still a r o u g h o u t . In
t h e past, s u c h objects h a v e b e e n very r a s h l y
interpreted.

154

R U B B E D D O W N . A p p l i e s to surfaces w o r n
off t h r o u g h abrasion. Refers specifically to
a t e c h n i q u e u s e d o n s o m e o b s i d i a n c o r e s to
p r e p a r e t h e p r e s s u r e platform, a n d thus
p r e v e n t t h e tool from slipping o n the
vitreous r o c k during d e b i t a g e (fig. 7 8 ) . It is
w i d e l y d o c u m e n t e d in C e n t r a l A m e r i c a
for t h e P r e h i s p a n i c p e r i o d , and is also
k n o w n in the E a s t a n d the F a r E a s t
( Y u b e t s u a n d Shirataki m e t h o d s from
J a p a n , etc.).

s
SCALED. A term describing the morphol o g y of r e m o v a l s (fig. 7 0 : 1).
S E C T I O N . A section is t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
the virtual surface c r e a t e d b y a p l a n e s e c
tioning an object (fig. 4 4 c ) , w h e r e a s a
section v i e w r e p r e s e n t s the parts of the
object situated b o t h at and b e h i n d the sec
t i o n i n g p l a n e (fig. 4 4 b ) .
S E M I - A B R U P T . A t e r m referring to the
a n g l e o f r e t o u c h or r e m o v a l (fig. 5 6 : 3).

Fig. 7 9 V a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of sharpening o n simple

sharpening. 2 : sharpening b y successive
parallel r e m o v a l s . 4 : sharpening o n both
truncation a n d application of a n e w burin

SHAPING. S h a p i n g is a k n a p p i n g o p e r a t i o n
carried o u t for t h e p u r p o s e of m a n u f a c t u r
ing a single artefact b y sculpting t h e r a w
m a t e r i a l in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e s i r e d
form. In a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e t e r m applies t o
the m a n u f a c t u r e of bifacial, p o l y h e d r a l , tri
h e d r a l p i e c e s , e t c . , w h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e of
the b l a n k a n d t h e size of t h e finished p r o d
uct. S h a p i n g g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e s t w o s u c c e s
sive p h a s e s , r o u g h i n g o u t a n d finishing, a n d
c a n b r i n g into play a n u m b e r of t e c h n i q u e s .
U n l i k e d e b i t a g e , t h e p u r p o s e of t h e o p e r a
tion is n o t t o obtain b l a n k s - a l t h o u g h
s h a p i n g often p r o d u c e s a h i g h n u m b e r of
flakes - b u t t o transform a n y t y p e of b l a n k
into a tool.
SHAPING O U T . T h e e x p r e s s i o n refers to t h e
last o p e r a t i o n that gives a core its final
s h a p e i m m e d i a t e l y prior to d e b i t a g e p r o p e r .
F o r i n s t a n c e , a n unflaked L e v a l l o i s core, o r
a b l a d e core still p o s s e s s i n g its crest(s)
(fig. 10 a n d fig. 6 4 : 1).
SHARPENING o r RESHARPENING. This t e r m
s h o u l d only b e a p p l i e d t o t h e r e j u v e n a t i o n
of a tool b y t h e s a m e m e t h o d u s e d to create

burins. 1 : burin with a single burin facet, n o visible

burin b l o w s on t h e s a m e point. 3 : sharpening b y
burin facets of a dihedral burin. 5 : sharpening b y
b l o w on t h e opposite e d g e .

the original. If a different m e t h o d h a s b e e n

u s e d , t h e t y p e of tool is t r a n s f o r m e d .
I n d i s p u t a b l e traces of s h a r p e n i n g c a n s u b
sist o n s o m e t o o l s , such as b u r i n s (fig. 7 9 :
3, 4 , 5 ) .
F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y c h a r a c terisitc flakes, a n d direct p r o o f b y c o n j o i n s
a n d refits .
1 5 5

S H A R P E N I N G S P A L L . S e e b u r i n spall .

S H O U L D E R . T h e F r e n c h cran
a n d epaulement, t e r m s d e s c r i b i n g t h e d e l i n e a t i o n of
an e d g e , a r e b o t h translated b y " s h o u l d e r " .
Cran i m p l i e s a r e g u l a r line of r e m o v a l s ,
w h i c h cuts sharply into a n e d g e , a n d then
c u r v e s along t h e e d g e to its very e n d (fig.
65 : 7 ) . Epaulement
i m p l i e s a regularly
c u r v e d line of r e m o v a l s , associating a c o n
cavity with a c o n v e x i t y (fig. 6 5 : 8 ) . T h e
p r i n c i p l e is t h e s a m e , b u t epaulement
is

155 Thus, a burin on the retouched edge of a backed

blade can easily be transformed into a dihedral burin on
a backed blade.

155

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y applied to " t h e fashioning

of t h e active part of t h e t o o l " .
1 5 6

"SIRET" (ACCIDENTAL BREAK). "The

SO-

1 5 7

called ' S i r e t ' b u r i n

s h o u l d b e laid to rest
o n c e and for all, as it is n o t h i n g b u t a
k n a p p i n g accident. It s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n s
that d u r i n g the separation of a flake t w o
p e r p e n d i c u l a r flaking p l a n e s d e v e l o p , t h e
s e c o n d o n e separating t h e flake into t w o
m o r e or less e q u a l p a r t s "
(fig. 80). T h i s
t y p e of a c c i d e n t a l b r e a k is c o m m o n in
flakes r e m o v e d w i t h a h a r d h a m m e r . It
o c c u r s less c o m m o n l y in b l a d e s , as w e l l as
w h e n a soft h a m m e r is u s e d or w h e n i n d i
r e c t p e r c u s s i o n is applied. T h e f r e q u e n c y of
its o c c u r e n c e is also l i n k e d to the quality of
the r a w m a t e r i a l . F o r i n s t a n c e it is v e r y
c o m m o n in the c a s e of c o a r s e - g r a i n e d
quartzites ( F o n t a i n e b l e a u quartzite, B r a z i l
ian silicified arenite), or c o a r s e - g r a i n e d
v o l c a n i c r o c k s l a c k i n g in h o m o g e n e i t y
(East African p h o n o l i t e ) .
1 5 8

S K E T C H . A free h a n d d r a w i n g , r e n d e r i n g
t h e m a i n features of the object w i t h j u s t a
few strokes. It c o m e s before t h e final
d r a w i n g , of w h i c h it is t h e f o u n d a t i o n (fig.
45).
SPONTANEOUS REMOVALS. The

expression

" s p o n t a n e o u s r e t o u c h " w a s c o i n e d in 1976

by M. N e w c o m e r
to d e s c r i b e r e m o v a l s
t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n a fraction of a s e c o n d
after the d e t a c h m e n t of a flake, w h i c h c a n
not fall free as the c o r e is p r e s s e d against
the h a n d , foot, or t h i g h of the k n a p p e r .
T h e s e r e m o v a l s are d u e to the p r e s s u r e of
the flake against the c o r e . T h e y are quite
u n i n t e n t i o n a l , a n d are t h u s referred to as
spontaneous removals.

Fig. 80 " S i r e t " accidental b r e a k : snapping in

t w o of a flake along the percussion
axis. (Atelier p h o t o C.N.R.S., M e u don).

1 5 9

SPUR. A t e r m restricted to a f a c e t t e d b u t t
m o r p h o l o g y (fig. 6 2 : 8).

STEPPED.
A
term
describing
the
m o r p h o l o g y of r e m o v a l s (fig. 7 0 : 2, a n d
fig. 3 4 : 6 ) .
STRIKING P L A T F O R M . T h e part of a c o r e
that is struck, u s i n g p e r c u s s i o n , in o r d e r to
d e t a c h a flake, b l a d e or bladelet. A striking
p l a t f o r m c a n b e a natural, flat, or p r e p a r e d
surface (fig. 2 0 ) .
SUB-PARALLEL. A t e r m d e s c r i b i n g
m o r p h o l o g y of r e m o v a l s (fig. 7 0 : 4 ) .

156 Brzillon, 1968 : 124. "... au dgagement de la

partie active".
157 Siret, 1933.
158 Bordes, 1961 : 32. "// convient d'excuter une fois
pour toutes le burin dit 'de Siret' qui n'est qu'un
accident de taille. Il arrive parfois que, lors du dtachement d'un clat, deux plans d'clatement perpendiculaires se produisent, le second sparant l'clat en deux
parties plus ou moins gales".
159 Newcomer, 1976.

156

the

T
TANG. A t e r m of d e l i n e a t i o n , w h i c h refers
to a projection o u t l i n e d b y t w o flanking
n o t c h e s or s h o u l d e r s (fig. 6 5 : 1 1 , 1 2 ) ;
l o n g n a r r o w t a n g (fig. 6 5 : 13).
TECHNIQUE.
A
technique
being
the
practical m a n n e r of a c c o m p l i s h i n g
a

p a r t i c u l a r task, w e define a " t e c h n i q u e " as

o n e of t h e p r o c e d u r e s of a craft ( a n d
s o m e t i m e s of an art) : that of t h e p r e h i s t o r i c
knapper.
E x a m p l e s of t e c h n i q u e s a r e : direct p e r c u s
sion w i t h a h a m m e r s t o n e , t h e d e b i t a g e of a
b l a d e b y pressure-flaking, a n d t h e fracture
of a b l a d e l e t b y m e a n s of t h e m i c r o b u r i n
blow.
A m e t h o d of k n a p p i n g is arrived at b y t h e
rational linking t o g e t h e r of a n orderly s e
q u e n c e of actions, carried o u t a c c o r d i n g t o
one or more techniques.
THERMAL TREATMENT .

See hea t treat -

ment.
T O N G U E . A t e r m of d e l i n e a t i o n , w h i c h
refers t o t h e fashioning b y r e g u l a r r e m o v a l s
of a t o n g u e - s h a p e d p r o t u b e r a n c e o n t h e
e x t r e m i t y of a t o o l
(fig. 6 5 : 10).
1 6 0

T O O L . S o m e k n a p p e d stones w e r e certainly
tools
or tool c o m p o n e n t s , others w e r e
w e a p o n s or w e a p o n c o m p o n e n t s . C o n v e n
tionally, a n d for s i m p l i c i t y ' s sake, t h e w o r d
"tool"
encompasses
both
tools a n d
w e a p o n s , as it is u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o
p r o v e w h e t h e r it b e l o n g s t o either o n e o r
t h e o t h e r of t h e s e t w o c a t e g o r i e s . T h e t e r m
applies to a n y artefact that h a s i n d u b i t a b l y
b e e n used, irrespective of its s u r m i s e d
function. This i n c l u d e s p i e c e s m a d e o n
k n a p p e d b l a n k s (e.g. e n d s c r a p e r o n b l a d e )
o r , o n natural b l a n k s (e.g. scraper o n s l a b ) ;
u n r e t o u c h e d p i e c e s w h o s e function c a n b e
d e m o n s t r a t e d b y m i c r o w e a r analysis (e.g.
flakes u s e d for cutting m e a t ) ; natural
"objects" modified by macro- or micro
s c o p i c traces of w e a r o r h a f t i n g ; r e t o u c h e d
or u n r e t o u c h e d p i e c e s b e a r i n g traces of
i n t e n t i o n a l g l o s s ; tools u s e d for m a k i n g
stone tools (e.g. h a m m e r , p e c k e r , p u n c h ,
etc.).
1 6 1

1 6 2

o r d e r t o obtain a n u n r e t o u c h e d t e r m i n a l
cutting e d g e . A variant of this m e t h o d
p r o d u c e s a lateral cutting e d g e , seen o n a
n u m b e r of A c h e u l e a n h a n d a x e s from
w e s t e r n E u r o p e . T h i s h a s b e e n called t h e
"lateral t r a n c h e t b l o w "
(fig. 3 4 : 2 ) .
1 6 3

T R I M M E D EDGE . This expression should be

u s e d w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e m o d i f i e d part of
a c o b b l e , a b l o c k or a slab, as n o a s
s u m p t i o n is t h e r e b y i m p l i e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e
n a t u r e of t h e artefact or its function.
1 6 4

T R U N C A T I O N . A line of r e g u l a r c o n t i n u o u s
r e t o u c h e s , a l m o s t a l w a y s abrupt, t r u n c a t i n g
either t h e p r o x i m a l , distal o r lateral part of
a flake, b l a d e o r bladelet, a n d f o r m i n g t w o
a n g l e s w i t h t h e e d g e s of t h e b l a n k to w h i c h
it is applied. A s t h e t e r m truncation n e c e s
sarily i m p l i e s " r e t o u c h e d " , it is pointless t o
a d d this epithet.

u
U N M O D I F I E D . R e f e r s to t h e r a w m a t e r i a l i n

its original u n w o r k e d / u n t r e a t e d state, b e

fore a n y h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n .
U N R E T O U C H E D . T h i s t e r m d e s c r i b e s all or
part of a d e b i t a ge p r o d u c t (flake, b l a d e , o r
bladelet) n o t m o d i f i e d b y r e t o u c h i n g .

v
V E R S A N T . T h i s t e r m is u s e d t o d e n o t e t h e
t w o surfaces that limit t h e r i d g e of a crest
on a c o r e , o r o n t h e u p p e r face of a c r e s t e d
b l a d e . A t least o n e of t h e m m u s t b e a r t h e
n e g a t i v e s of r e m o v a l s left b y t h e p r e p a r a
tion o r t h e s h a p i n g o u t of a c o r e (fig. 6 4 :
5).

TRANCHET B L O W TECHNIQUE . A technique

that i n v o l v e s t h e r e m o v a l of a flake f r o m
o n e e x t r e m i t y of certain P a l a e o l i t h i c a n d
N e o l i t h i c bifacial p i e c e s (fig. 3 4 : 1), i n

W I N G E D . A n e x p r e s s i o n u s e d only for a
b u t t m o r p h o l o g y (fig. 6 2 : 6 ) .

160 Gobert, 1950 : 23.

161 Mauss, 1947.
162 Audouze, 1988 : 110.

163 Zuate y Zuber, 1972.

164 Roche, 1980.

157

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que des Hautes E t u d e s .

Multilingual vocabulary

cortical zon e :

E N G L I S H - ARABIC

L*j-A i

HL\

covering : ^L* *

impact p o i n t : ^L. ojuJ 1

crest: u i jj t

indirect: ^AL L* j~x&

abrasion: J" U

crested blad e : -ij * If J <i.*>' >

industry:

abrupt: j I , t -h WI j u a A

crossed : ^ . L l il

invasion: ^ A T x

c r u t c h : jA .a

inverse : c-j ^IX*

translated b y ^ i i j ^ a

alternate: c ^ J L i L J I ^L*

^ jLLlLuj

JaUi- *

^ULluf t

alternating : l i L J I ^1^ ^ 1 * J a U l ^
L>

"d^bitage" :

angle o f retouch : <jiU- *

"angle d e chasse " : j j X J l ^ j l j
a n v i l : ^I JJUa p e x (o f a pyramida l c o r e ) :
arris :

denticulated:

iiL*
j

<1^\

bladelet: <L-* u
blunted:

k JI

>

j>*- *

) all* *
jbJ I

fli u

K o m b e w a : Ij ^-j-*

Levallois:

jl>Jl*j

linear:
lip: < J *

low angl e : 3 iAt k \

^-I M**

direct: j . A l.

bifacial: j

blank: U.

dihedral: Q j n. L.. JI ^-LULL *

b a s e : *j^ U

blade:

"debitage" axi s :

J a n u s : ^uj^U .
knapping, k n a p p e d : ^y>* ~

"dent (d u burin) " :

j+J i

"debitage" product s :

delineation : J 5 L A J I

atypical: ^ J ^ * J j^xk

backed: I U

debris: UlX i

artifact: ItaJln *

back:

L i ^ J f ^I JJVI j u l ^ U

m e s i a l : l*~u*jl*

discontinuous : 1 *">

m e t h o d :^Uu * >J

distal: ^ U- l

microburin :

distribution: j I J I A J L j I

morphological a x i s :

j-uuj* J f - * 3 '

J1AJI

edge : l i U .

break:

morphology:

JAJ

bulb: Uurt j

end-scraper front: L

bulb-scars : <L-o- J I

extent:

A< 1 I
negative bul b : <L-*- d I c_J U*

burin blo w techniqu e :

f a c e : <*. j

n e g a t i v e o f remova l :
li\m A l l CLiUjJa

facet:
burin f a c e t :

J_^jV

burin s p a l l :

J^-jV I ij-uu A

first f l a k e : ^ j V U d i A l l

butt: i ^ J U

flake: ( U ^ j )

U i L

flaked surfac e : j j j J L i f -L-uJ I

flaking angl e : 3 iU A l l )

c a n t e d : J! U

flat:

"chapeau d e gendarme " :

fluted:

clactonian: ^ ^ ^ ^

fracture:
jjJ^

cone : J * j j ^ . *
conjoining ( f l a k e s ) : J U * S ]
core :
core-like : *l> U I J A

L r

c o r t e x : X ,^AJi
cortex remova l : I jAJJ
cortical:

<

$>A5

cortical reserve d zon e :

J A J I ^ j U

>

fractionize ( t o ) : #J AJI ^.,H1J

conchoidal : JAJ I ^L

(JOIA I

JjJ-*

jjuS

fracture fron t :

^jSJ I

orientation:

<j^j^

overhang:

parallel:

^jlj^L *

partial:
percussion : J j - L
plunging:
p o l i s h e d : Jjli. i

gloss : <m1

polishing: J l . - *

jjj.kj^- *

h a m m e r ( s t r i k e r ) : UkjL~*
heat t r e a t m e n t : *
hinged:V

notch: j -

p a t i n a : 3 > *<

fragment:

hackle:

nose: f

jljaJL^LJU ^

position :

^Luui j

preform : ^ J j l J -A
preparation:

jj.A^

pressure : JLJLu2

169

pressure platfor m :

semi-abrupt: j U , <^S

t e c h n i q u e : 3 >M*

snap: *

thermal t r e a t m e n t :

p r o x i m a l : <^U I

shaping :

punch : 41 irt'tll ^Ij-ULu. )

s h a p i n g o u t : J&uJ I j f j x j

punctiform : 3 U '* 11 J^ i j^ix

sharpening : j ^

itfa

tranchet blo w techniqu e :

sharpening s p a l l :

trihedral poin t (negativ e o f

microburin s c a r s ) :

ram:
reassembling: ^,>f i Ijlc j
rejuvenation : jujj ^JLI I -L*
r e m o v a l : 1 ifcA't

shoulder: (^Uii^i

) > ll <

trimmed edg e : Li.LV LiL >

Siret (accidenta l b r e a k ) :

truncation : ^ \ m \ * (-1^)

r e t o u c h : t^. * aV

spontaneous removal s :

resharpening: j - j J a j

unretouched: V

ridge : H U,

stepped:

ripples: o L * > * j

striking platfor m : j^-LJ I ^JL-^ u

r o u g h o u t : J j - i ^ JSL A

sub-parallel: l^L

dA- f

U.

versant:

*
winged:

t a n g (lon g narrow ) :
scaled: >

t o n g u e : <^uu J

flake :

(UlLA)

ajUi j

angle : U j l j

burin blo w techniqu e

s h a p i n g : < i j

conjoining (flakes ) : J L * 3 |
tool : la1

spontaneous removal s : ^ l i l s

"angle d e chasse" : 3>LJI

flanking angl e : 3jU A l lf ^ j l j

bifacial : 0-f*j

orientation : C u ,
microburin
J a n u s : ^ j ^ U.

t a n g : j Ua
t a n g (lon g narrow )

.^1 * j U ]

JlAJl jfjx f

proximal : ^ L * !

partial :
fracture fron t : I

reassembling : 4
s h a p i n g ou t :

fragment :

negative bul b. * <L** jJI

ARABIC - ENGLISH

bulb-scars : < I

flat :

3-*-^.

end-scraper fron t : L . t X l l X+x*.

(jAiLm]

" d^bitage" product s : Jj-kJI ^LU]

distribution : j l A ^ J

J L
c a n t e d : ^ j A JI ^-iU .

n e g a t i v e o f remova l
rejuvenation : j u j ^ "J l ^. U< >
burin face t : J ^ ^ t f !
p r e s s u r e platfor m : L i. A11 ^ k a - i
striking platfor m : j j U I ^JL* *

bulb :

ridge, arri s : 3JU

trimmed edg e :

< Lu

debris : UU U

^ X V Lib*

b a c k e d : *j^L
low angl e : 3 ^

abrasion : J"U

>

resharpening :

: (il l ... J 1 cJLuiJ ^ J U L j^U)

scaled

versant :

delineation :

jud*u

JSAJI

preparation : j j . A ^
u n r e t o u c h e d : t^aJL* j^- c ft* .
trihedral poin t
(negative o f microburin scars )
blank : (all
)
anvil : < j ! j l L u .

170

nose :

f jJL^i

linear : JL^
{

distal :

r e t o u c h : lyij.tA S
removal :

LJiJUu

k n a p p i n g , k n a p p e d : ^ U ml
technique : Ouil S
: J ^ j V I ^_lu * 3 >'til

"dbitage" a x is : J ^ l J I

notch : j

base : * x c U

conchoidal : J A J I ^ L j j *
^>U>

< j

cortex : *

denticulated
hackle : ..L^Apolished :

cortical :

ojx A

morphology : J l A J I
preform :

first flake :
shoulder :

h a m m e r (striker ) : U ^ k*

(Lj*jJ) . *"<

^ j Vl U k A J I

f l a k e d surfac e : ( l l xi j ) 3 jlU A

fracture :

lip :

s n a p : 1 j+t

h e a t t r e a t m e n t : i j l ^U L J U *

^ jl J l A

r o u g h o u t : J j" ^ J 1A

Jjaaa

facet : 11A *

abrupt : j l x a ^ V I

sharpening : i * ~ A
"chapeau d e gendarme "

crutch :

^A

gjljl* < x

sub-parallel :

cone : Jftjjih~ *

fluted : J A J l

semi-abrupt : j U.

UA

burin spal l : J-j-a 3J A

c o v e r i n g : ^L* *
punch :

S i r e t (accidenta l break )

inverse : v^^IjU
extent :

truncation : f U *U j -u4^

i n d u s t r y : ^ULu-

clactonian : ^ i j a ^ ^ K

artifact : ^ u . a

i n v a s i v e : j , A.1 ' *
cortical zon e : ^ ^ A Jt 3 j l L j u *
: XJi ji-fc *

patina : 3a
Kombewa : I

p u n c h : 3i.~\I1 ^

llLJU

pressure :

cortical r e s e r v e d zon e

t o n g u e : CruuJ

hinged :

g l o s s : <jJ L

discontinuous :

p o l i s h i n g : Ji*-

ridge, arri s : ^Ls

p e r c u s s i o n : Jj-L

Levallois : j f j J U j J
s h a r p e n i n g spal l

overhang, r a m :
h a c k l e : J*

j x L*

direct : j..Al,j>

<^y>

alternate :o *JLiUJI J

jL-a

blade :
crested blade : I 4

t r a n c h e t blo w techniqu e

alternating

bladelet :

pluging : j j U J U

i m p a c t p o i n t : "L* j u - o J I l - k i i

dihedral :

a p e x (o f a :
pyramidal core )
face :

LiJLUij

cortex r e m o v a l : * j A J LI I Jf3-f
fractionize (to)

back : j f i i

stepped : j d l *

core :

position :

m e t h o d : 3JL*jJL

crossed : ^ U i 1

c r e s t : *J*

^ ^ L . J I 5^^- *

butt : ,

d i s c o n t i n u o u s : ^ . U il *

p u n c t i f o r m : XLlU \ <J- A j ^JLc

parallel : ^ } l > L t

core-like : *I>1JI J l A ^ ^ i t

COntinUOUS :

J^mljl*

m e s i a l : -Llu >i-*

"debitage"

blunted : daJ I p i l *
winged : g 'i >
morphological a x i s : J 1 A JI j

indirect :
atypical :

jJulx* j - j l c
^jjji* j- ax

171

ENGLISH : F R E N C H

crossed : crois(e )
crutch : bquill e

abrasion : a b r a s i o n
abrupt : abrupt(e )
addition : ajou t
alternate : altern e
alternating : alternant(e )
angle (of retouch) :
inclinaison
angle de chasse :
chasse
anvil : e n c l u m e

a n g le d e

apex (of a p y r a m i d a l core) :

pyramidion
arris : n e r v u r e
atypical : a t y p i q u e
b a c k : d os
backed : abatt u
b a s e : bas e
bifacial : bifacial(e )
blade : lam e
bladelet : l a m e l l e
blank : suppor t
blunting : m o u s s
b r e a k : cassur e
bulb : b u l b e
bulb scars : e s q u i l l e m e nt d u
bulbe
burin b l o w technique : b u r i n
(technique d u c o u p de )
burin facet : p an ( du burin )
burin spall : c h u te d e b u r i n
burin tip : d e nt d u b u r i n
butt : talo n
canted : d v e r s
carn (carnage) : c a r n
(carnage)
channel-flaked : flut
chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau d e gendarm e
cintrage : cintrag e
clactonian : c l a c t o n i e n
conchoid : conchod e
cone : cn e
conjoining (flakes) : r a c c o r d
continuous : continu(e )
core : n u c l e u s
core-like : n u c l e i f o r m e
cortex : corte x
cortex r e m o v a l : d c o r t i c a g e
cortical : cortical(e )
cortical reserved z o n e :
r s e r v e cortical e
covering : couvrant(e )
crest : crt e
crested blade : l a me crt e

172

debitage : d b i t a g e
debitage axis : a xe de
dbitage
debitage products : p r o d u i t s
de dbitag e
debris : dbri s
delineation : delineation
denticulated : denticul(e )
diacritical d i a g r a m : s c h m a
diacritique
dihedral : didr e
direct : direct(e )
direction line : h a c h u r e
discontinuous : discontinu(e )
distal : distal(e )
distribution : rpartitio n
edge : bor d
end-scraper front : front d e
grattoir
extent : t e n d u e
face : fac e
facetted : facett
first flake : e n t a m e
flake : cla t
flaked surface : surfac e
dbite
flaking angle : angl e
d'clatement
flat, plain : liss e
fluted : c a n n e l
fracture : fractur e
fracture front : front d e
fracture
fragment : f r a g m e n t
gloss : lustr e
h a c k l e : lancett e
hammer : percuteu r
heat treatment : t r a i t e m e n t
thermique
h i n g e d : rflchi(e) ,
rebrouss(e)
i m p a c t point : p o i nt d ' i m p a c t
indirect : indirect(e )
industry : industri e
invasive : envahissant(e )
inverse : invers e
J a n u s flake : clat Janus (see
Kombewa) :

k n a p p i n g accident : a c c i d e n t
de taill e
k n a p p i n g , k n a p p e d : taille ,
taill(e)
K o m b e w a (method, flake) :
K o m b e w a ( m t h o d e , clat )
languette
(accidental
break) : languett e (fractur e
en)
Levallois (method, flake,
etc.) : Levallois ( m t h o d e ,
clat, etc.)
linear : linair e
lip : l v r e
localization : localisatio n
l o w angle : rasant(e )
mesial : msial(e )
method : mthod e
microburin : m i c r o b u r i n
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis : a xe
morphologique
morphology : morphologi e
nacelle (accidental break) :
nacelle (fracture en)
negative bulb : c o n t r e - b u l b e
negative of r e m o v a l , scar :
ngatif d ' e n l v e m e n t
nose : m u s e a u
notch : c o c h e
orientation : orientatio n
overhang : cornich e
parallel : paralll e
partial : partiel(le )
patina : p a t i n e
pecking : bouchardag e
percussion : p e r c u s s i o n
piquant-tridre :
piquant-tridre
p l u n g i n g : outrepass(e )
polish : poli(e) :
polishing : polissag e
position : positio n
preform : p r f o r m e
preliminary flaking :
pannelage
preparation : p r p a r a t i o n
pressure : p r e s s i o n
pressure platform : p l an d e
pression
proximal : proximal(e )
punch : punc h
punctiform : p u n c t i f o r m e

refit(ting) : r e m o n t a g e
rejuvenation core tablet
(flake) : tablette (clat ) d e
ravivage
removal : enlvemen t
removal morphology :
morphologie d'u n
enlvement
resharpening : r a v i v a g e ,
avivage
retouch : r e t o u c h e
ridge : art e
ripples : o n d u l a t i o n s
roughout : bauch e
r u b b e d d o w n : gris
scaled : cailleux(se )
section : sectio n
semi-abrupt : s e m i - a b r u p t ( e )
shaping : f a o n n a g e
shaping out : m i se e n f o r m e
sharpening : afftag e
sharpening spall : r e c o u p e
de buri n
shoulder : c r a n, p a u l e m e n t
Siret (accidentai break) :
Siret (accident )
sketch : c r o q u i s
spontaneous r e m o v a l :
spontan (enlvement )
spur : p e r o n
stepped : scalariform e
striking platform : p l an d e
frappe
sub-parallel : sub-paralll e
tang : p d o n c u l e, soi e
technique : techniqu e
t o n g u e : languett e
tool : outi l
tranchet b l o w t e c h n i q u e :
tranchet (cou p du )
t r i m m e d edge : b o rd taill
truncation ; t r o n c a t u r e
unmodified : b r u t
u n r e t o u c h e d : b r ut d e
d b i t a g e , b r u t d e taill e
versant : v e r s a n t
w i n g e d : aile d ' o i s e a u (en )

accident de taille : k n a p p i n g
accident
afftage : s h a r p e n i n g
aile d ' o i s e a u (en) : w i n g e d
ajout : a d d i t i o n
alternant(e) : a l t e r n a t i n g
alterne : alternat e
angle d ' c l a t e m e n t : flakin g
angle
angle d e chasse : angle de
chasse
arte : ridg e
atypique : atypica l
axe d e dbitage : d e b i t a g e
axis
axe m o r p h o l o g i q u e :
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axi s
base : b a s e
bquille : c r u t c h
bifacial(e) : bifacia l
bord : e d g e
bord taill : t r i m m ed e d g e
bouchardage : peckin g
brut : u n m o d i f i e d
brut d e debitage, brut d e
taille : u n r e t o u c h e d
bulbe : bul b
burin (technique d u c o u p
de) : b u r in b l o w t e c h n i q u e
cannel : fluted
carn (carnage) : carn
(carnage)
cassure : b r e a k
chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau de gendarme
chute d e burin : b u r in spal l
cintrage : cintrage
clactonien : clactonia n
coche : notc h
conchode : conchoi d
cne : con e
continu(e) : c o n t i n u o u s
contre-bulbe : n e g a t i ve b u l b
corniche : o v e r h a n g
cortex : corte x
cortical(e) : cortica l
couvrant(e) : c o v e r i n g
cran, p a u l e m e n t : s h o u l d e r
crte : cres t
crois(e) : c r o s s e d
croquis : s k e t c h

F R E N C H : ENGLISH
abattu: backe d
abrasion : a b r a s i o n
abrupt(e): abrup t

dbitage : debitag e
dbris : d e b r i s
dcorticage : cortex r e m o v a l
delineation : delineatio n

dent du burin : b u r in t i p
denticul(e) : d e n t i c u l a t e d
dvers : cante d
didre : dihedra l
direct(e) : direc t
discontinu(e) : d i s c o n t i n u o u s
distal(e) : dista l
dos : b a c k
bauche : roughou t
cailleux(se) : s c a l e d
clat : flake
grisage : r ub
mouss : blunte d
e n c l u m e : anvi l
enlvement : remova l
e n t a m e : first flake
envahissant(e) : invasiv e
pannelage : preliminar y
flaking
paulement : shoulde r
peron : s p u r
esquillement du bulbe : bul b
sears
tendue : exten t
face : fac e
facett : facette d
faonnage : s h a p i n g
flte : ehannel-flake d
fracture : fractur e
fragment : f r a g m e n t
front de fracture : fractur e
front
front de grattoir :
e n d - s c r a p e r fron t
h a c h u r e : direction lin e
inclinaison : a n g le (o f
retouch)
indirect(e) : indirec t
industrie : i n d u s t r y
inverse : invers e
J a n u s (clat) : J a n us (flake )
see K o m b e w a
K o m b e w a ( m t h o d e , clat) :
K o m b e w a ( m e t h o d , flake)
lame : blad e
l a m e crte : crested b l a d e
lamelle : bladele t
lancette : h a c k l e
languette (fracture en) :
languette
(accidental b r e a k )
languette : t o n g u e

173

Levallois (mthode, clat,

etc.) : Levalloi s ( m e t h o d ,
flake etc. )
lvre : li p
linaire : linea r
lisse : flat, plai n
localisation : localizatio n
lustre : glos s
msial(e) : mesia l
mthode : metho d
microburin : m i c r o b u r i n
m i s e en forme : s h a p i n g ou t
morphologie : morpholog y
morphologie d'un
enlvement : remova l
morphology
m u s e a u : nos e
nacelle (fracture en) :
nacelle
(accidentai break)
ngatif d ' e n l v e m e n t :
n e g a t i v e o f r e m o v a l , sca r
n e r v u r e : arri s
nucliforme : core-lik e
n u c l e u s : cor e
ondulations : ripple s
orientation : orientatio n
outil : too l
outrepass(e) : p l u n g i n g
pan (du burin) : b u r i n face t
parallle : paralle l
partiel(le) : partia l

patine : p a t i n a
pdoncule : tan g
percussion : p e r c u s s i o n
percuteur : h a m m e r
piquant-tridre :
piquant-tridre
p l a g e corticale (voir
cortical) : cortica l z o n e
plan de frappe : strikin g
platform

rserve corticale : cortica l

reserved zon e
retouche : retouc h
scalariforme : s t e p p e d
s c h m a diacritique :
diacritical d i a g r a m
section : sectio n
semi-abrupt(e) : s e m i - a b r u p t

plan d e pression : p r e s s u r e
platform

Siret (accident de) : Sire t

point d ' i m p a c t : i m p a ct poin t

poli(e) : p o l i s h e d
polissage : polishin g
position : positio n
prforme : p r e f o r m
prparation : p r e p a r a t i o n
pression : p r e s s u r e
produits de dbitage :
debitage p r o d u c t s
proximal(e) : p r o x i m a l
punch : punc h
punctiforme : p u n c t i f o r m
p y r a m i d i o n : a p e x (o f a
p y r a m i d a l core )

soie : t a ng (long , n a r r o w )

raccord : c o n j o i n i n g (flakes )
rasant(e) : l o w angl e
ravivage : r e s h a r p e n i n g
r e c o u p e de burin :
s h a r p e n i n g spal l
rflchi, rebrouss(e) : h i n g e d
r e m o n t a g e : refittin g
rpartition : distributio n

(accidental b r e a k )
spontan (enlvement) :
spontaneous remova l
sub-parallle : sub-paralle l
support : b l a n k
surface dbite : flaked
surface
tablette (clat) de r a v i v a g e :
c o r e tablet , r e j u v e n a t i o n
c o r e flake
taille, taill(e) : k n a p p i n g ,
knapped
talon : b u t t
technique : t e c h n i q u e
traitement t h e r m i q u e : h e a t
treatment
tranchet (coup du) : t r a n c h e t
blow techniqu e
troncature : t r u n c a t i o n
versant : v e r s a n t

174

ENGLISH : GERMA N

cortex r e m o v a l : E n d r i n d u n g

t r a n s l a t e d b y J. H a h n

cortical: Kortex cortical reserved z o n e :

Kortexbereich
cortical z o n e : K o r t e x flche
covering : flachendeckend
crest: Kernkant e
crested blade :
Kernkantenklinge
crossed : b e r k r e u z t
crutch : D r u c k s t a b

abrasion : V e r r u n d u n g
a b r u p t : Stei l
addition : R e s i d u e
alternate : a l t e r n i e r e n d
Zweikantig
alternating : a l t e r n i e r e n d
Einkantig
angle (of r e t o u c h ) :
Retuschewinkel
angle de chasse :
Schlagwinkel
anvil: Ambos s
apex (of a p y r a m i d a l core) :
F u s s (eine s
pyramidenfrmigen Kerns )
arris : G r a t
atypical : atypisc h
back : Rcke n
backed : rckengestumpft e
(Kante)
base : B a s i s
b i f a c i a l : bifazia l
blade : K l i n g e
bladelet: Mikrokling e
blank : Grundfor m
blunting : v e r r u n d e t
break : Bruc h
bulb : B u l b u s
bulb scars : S c h l a g n a r b e
burin b l o w t e c h n i q u e :
Stichelschlag-Technik
burin f a c e t : Stichelfacett e
burin s p a l l : Stichelabfal l
burin tip : Stichelschneid e
b u t t : Schlagflchenres t
canted : stumpfwinklig(er )
Schlaflchenrest
carene : Kiel, (kielfrmig )
chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau de
gendarme
eintrage : g e w l b t e
Abbauflche
clactonian : c l a c t o n i a n
conchoid : Bulbu s
cone : Kege l
conjoining ( f l a k e s ) :
Zusammenpassung
continuous : d u r c h g e h e n d
core : Kern(stein )
core tablet, rejuvenation core
flake : K e r n s c h e i b e
core-like : k e r n a r t i g
cortex : K o r t e x (Rinde )

debitage : A b s c h l a g m a t e r i a l
(Grundproduktion)
debitage axis : S c h l a g a c h s e
debitage products :
Grundform
debris : T r m m e r
delineation : K a n t e n f o r m
denticulated : g e z h n t
diacritical d i a g r a m :
unterscheidendes
(diakritisches) S c h e m a
dihedral: Mehrschla g
(stichel)
d i r e c t : direk t
direction line : Schraffierun g
discontinuous : u n t e r b r o c h e n
d i s t a l : dista l
distribution : V e r t e i l u n g
edge : Kant e
end-scraper f r o n t :
Kratzerstirn
extent: Ausdehnun g
face : F l c h e
facetted : Facettier t
first flake : erst e A b h e b u n g
flake : A b s c h l a g
flaking angle : A b b a u w i n k e l
flat, plain : glat t
fluted : k a n n e l i e r t
fracture : B r u c h
fracture f r o n t : B r u c h K a n t e
fragment: Fragmen t
gloss : G l a n z
hackle : L a n z e t t s p r u n g
h a m m e r : Schlagstei n
heat t r e a t m e n t : T e m p e r n
hinged : a n g e i f r m i g
i m p a c t p o i n t : Treffpunk t
i n d i r e c t : indirek t
industry : Industri e
invasive : flchendeckend

inverse : i n v e r s
Janus flak e : J a n u s a b s c h l a g
knapping accident : B r u c h
knapping, knappe d :
Steinbearbeitung,
geschlagen
Kombewa (method) :
Kombewa (Methode )
Levallois (method ) :
Levallois ( M e t h o d e )
linear : linea r
lip : L i p p e
localization : L o k a l i s i e r u n g
low angl e : spitzwinkli g
mesial: media l
method : M e t h o d e
microburin : K e r b r e s t
morphological axi s :
Symmetrieachse
morphology : M o r p h o l o g i e
nacelle : k a h n f r m i g e r
Aussprung
negative bul b :
Bulbusnegativ
negative o f removal , sca r :
Abschlagnegativ
nose : N a s e
notch : K e r b e
orientation : O r i e n t i e r u n g
overhang : b e r h a n g
parallel: paralle l
partial: partiel l
patina: P a t i n a
pecking : V e r s t u m p f u n g ,
verstumpft
percussion : S c h l a g
piquant-triedre :
Kerbres t
negativ
plunging : d u r c h g e s c h l a g e n
polished : geschliffe n
polishing : Schlif f
position : L a g e
preform : V o r a r b e i t
preliminary flakin g :
Zurichtung
preparation : P r p a r a t i o n
pressure : D r u c k
pressure platfor m :
Druckflche
proximal: p r o x i m a l
punch : Z w i s c h e n s t c k

175

punctiform : p u n k t f r m i g
refitting : Z u s a m m e n s e t z e n
removal: Abhebun g
removal morphology :
Abschlagmorphologie
resharpening :
Nachschrfung
retouch : Retusch e
ridge : G r a t
ripples : W a l l n e r l i n i e n
roughout: Versuc h
rubbed down : Reibspuren ,
gerieben
scaled : s c h u p p i g
section : Q u e r s c h n i t t
s e m i - a b r u p t : fei n
shaping : B e a r b e i t u n g
shaping o u t : Z u r i c h t u n g
sharpening : N a c h s c h r f u n g
sharpening s p a l l :
s e k u n d r e r Stichelabfal l
shoulder: Schulte r
Siret (accidental b r e a k ) :
Siret (-Bruch )
sketch : Skizz e
snap : B r u c h
spontaneous r e m o v a l :
spontan
spur: Vorsprun g
s t e p p e d : stufi g
striking platform :
Schlagflche
sub-parallel: annhern d
paralle
tang : Stie l
technique : Techni k
tongue : zungenfrmi g
tool: Werkzeu g
tranchet b l o w t e c h n i q u e :
Schneidenschlag
trimmed edge : geschlage n
Kante
truncation : E n d r e t u s c h e
unmodify : G r u n d f o r m
unretouched : Grundfor m

A b s c h l a g : flak e
Abschlagmaterial
(Grundproduktion): debitag e
Abschlagmorphologie :
removal morpholog y
Abschlagnegativ: negativ e
of r e m o v a l , sca r
alternierend Einkantig :
alternating
alternierend Z w e i k a n t i g :
alternate
A m b o s s : anvi l
angeifrmig : h i n g e d
a n n h e r n d paralle :
sub-parallel
a t y p i s c h : atypica l
Ausdehnung : exten t

geflgelt
(Schlagflchenrest): winge d
geschlagen K a n t e : t r i m m e d
edge
geschliffen : polishe d
gewlbte Abbauflche :
eintrage
gezhnt: denticulate d
G l a n z : glos s
g l a t t : flat , plai n
G r a t : arri s
G r a t : ridg e
Grundform : blan k
Grundform : debitag e
products

Basis : b a s e

i n d i r e k t : indirec t

Bearbeitung : shapin g

Industrie : i n d u s t r y

b i f a z i a l : bifacia l

invers : i n v e r s e

Bruch : brea k
B r u c h : fractur e

w i n g e d : geflgel t
(Schlagflchenrest)

J a n u s a b s c h l a g : J a n us flake

Bruch : knapping acciden t

Bruch : sna p
B r u c h K a n t e : fractur e fron t
Bulbus : bul b
Bulbus : conchoi d
Bulbusnegativ : negativ e
bulb
chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau de
gendarme
clactonian : c l a c t o n i a n
d i r e k t : direc t
distal : dista l
D r u c k : pressur e
Druckflche : pressur e
platform
Druckstab : crutc h
durchgehend : continuou s
durchgeschlagen : plungin g
Endretusche : truncatio n
E n d r i n d u n g : corte x r e m o v a l

versant :
Prparationsflchen

Grundform : unmodif y
Grundform : unretouche d

erste A b h e b u n g : firs t flak e

F a c e t t i e r t : facette d
fein : s e m i - a b r u p t
F l c h e : fac e

kahnfrmiger Aussprung :
nacelle
k a n n e l i e r t : fluted
Kante : edg e
K a n t e n f o r m : delineatio n
K e g e l : con e
Kerbe : notc h
Kerbrest: microburi n
Kerbrest negativ :
piquanMriedre
Kern(stein): cor e
kernartig : core-lik e
K e r n k a n t e : cres t
Kernkantenklinge : creste d
blade
K e r n s c h e i b e : e o r e tablet ,
r e j u v e n a t i o n c o r e flake
Kiel, ( k i e l f r m i g ) : carene
Klinge : blad e
Kombewa (Methode):
K o m b e w a (method )
K o r t e x ( R i n d e ) : corte x
Kortex flche : cortica l z o n e
Kortex- : cortica l
K o r t e x b e r e i c h : cortica l
reserved zon e
Kratzerstirn : e n d - s c r a p e r
front

flachendeckend : c o v e r i n g
flchendeckend : invasiv e

GERMAN: ENGLIS H

Fragment: fragmen t

A b b a u w i n k e l : flakin g angl e
Abhebung : remova l

F u s s (eines
p y r a m i d e n f r m i g e n Kerns) :
a p e x (o f a p y r a m i d a l core )

176

L a g e : positio n
Lanzettsprung : hackl e
Levallois ( M e t h o d e ) :
Levallois ( m e t h o d )
l i n e a r : linea r

L i p p e : li p
Lokalisierung : localizatio n
medial : mesia l
M e h r s c h l a g (Stichel) :
dihedral
Methode : metho d
M i k r o k l i n g e : bladele t
Morphologie : morpholog y
Nachschrfung :
resharpening
Nachschrfung : s h a r p e n i n g
Nase : nos e
Orientierung : o r i e n t a t i o n
parallel : paralle l
partiell : partia l
Patina : patin a
Prparation : p r e p a r a t i o n
Prparationsflchen : v e r s a n t
proximal : proxima l
punktfrmig : p u n c t i f o r m
Querschnitt : sectio n
R e i b spuren, gerieben :
rubbed dow n
R e s i d u e : additio n
Retusche : retouc h
R e t u s c h e w i n k e l : angl e (o f
retouch)
Rcken : bac k
rckengestumpfte (Kante) :
backed

Schlag : p e r c u s s i o n
S c h l a g a c h s e : debitag e axi s
Schlagflche : strikin g
platform

Symmetrieachse :
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axi s

Schlagflchenrest: but t
Schlagnarbe : b u l b scar s
Schlagstein : h a m m e r
Schlag w i n k e l : angle de
chasse

Tempern : heat treatmen t

Schliff: polishin g
Schneidenschlag : t r a n c h e t
blow techniqu e
Schraffierung : directio n lin e
Schulter: shoulde r
schuppig : scale d
sekundrer S t i c h e l a b f a l l :
s h a r p e n i n g spal l
Siret (-Bruch) : Sire t
(accidental b r e a k )
Skizze : s k e t c h
spitzwinklig : l ow angl e
spontan : s p o n t a n e o u s
removal
Steil: abrup t
Steinbearbeitung,
geschlagen : k n a p p i n g ,
knapped
Stichelabfall : b u r i n spal l
Stichelfacette : b u r i n face t
Stichelschlag-Technik:
burin blo w techniqu e
Stichelschneide : b u r in ti p
Stiel: tan g
stufig : s t e p p e d
stumpfwinklig(er)
Schlaflchenrest: cante d

Technik : techniqu e
Treffpunkt: impac t poin t
T r m m e r : debri s
berhang : overhan g
berkreuzt: crosse d
unterbrochen : discontinuou s
unterscheidendes
(diakritisches) S c h e m a :
diacritical d i a g r a m
verrundet: blunte d
Yerrundung : abrasio n
Verstumpfung, verstumpft:
pecking
Versuch : roughou t
Verteilung : distributio n
Vorarbeit: prefor m
Vorsprung : spu r
Wallnerlinien : ripple s
W e r k z e u g : too l
zungenfrmig : tongu e
Zurichtung : preliminar y
flaking
Zurichtung : s h a p i n g o u t
Zusammenpassung :
c o n j o i n i n g (flakes )
Z u s a m m e n s e t z e n : refittin g
Zwischenstck : punc h

177

ENGLISH : G R E E K
translated by
A. Moundrea-Agrafioti
abrasion : apotrib
abrupt : aptomh
(epecergasa)
addition : prosJema
alternate : enallc
alternating :

enallassmenh

apex (of a pyramidal core) :

pqramdeio

arris : neqrwsh
atypical : atqpikV
back : pyh
backed : plqr

me
apotmh epecergasa
base : bsh
bifacial :
amfiprswph
epecergasia
blade : lepda
bladelet :lepdame
korqf
blank : qpbaJro
blunting :
amblqmnoV
break : Jraqsh
bulb : bolbV, knoV
bulb scars :
apolpish
toq knoq
burin blow technique :

teynik thV kroqshV

thz glqfidaV
burin facet : dra

glqfdaV

aprrima

burin tip : akm

butt : fterna

glqfdaV

canted : gert (ftrna)

carn, carnage : karna,

tropdwsh

channel-flaked : rabdwtV
chapeau de gendarme :

kapelsyhmoV
cintrage : audwsh, toq
pqrna
clactonian : klaktnioV
conchoid : kogyoeidV
cone : knoV
178

COntinUOUS : sqneyV
(epecergasa)
core : pqrnaV
core tablet,
rexqwenation

yore flake U dskoV

ananwshV pqrna
core-like :
pqrhnoeidV
cortex : floiV
apoflowsh

klsh
(thV epecergasaV)
angle de chasse : gwna
apspashV
anvil : amni

burin spall :

sqnarmog

cortex removal :

(epecergasa)
angle (of retouch) :

glqfdaV

conjoining (flakes) :

cortical : floidhV
cortical reserved zone :

floideV mroV

flat, plain : lea, eppedh

(ftrna)
fluted :
aqlakwtV
fracture : Jraqsh
fracture front : mtwpo

JraqshV

gloss :
hackle :

rwgm

stlbh
logyoeidV

hackle : rwgm
hammer : kroqstraV
heat treatment : Jermik

diergasa

covering :

tmma

fragment :

anastrof

epikalqptoqsa

hinged :

(epecergasa)
crest : korqf
crested blade :

impact point :

crossed :
diastaqroqmenh
(epecergasa),
yiast
Crutch :
sqmpiestV

indirect : mmesoV (h)

industry : ergoteyna
invasive :
epidromik
(epecergasa)
inverse :
anstrofoV

kroqshV

mikrolepda

debitage : apkroqsh
debitage axis : conaV

apkroqshV

ashmeo

Janus (flake) : IanV

(folda), se e Kombeva

debitage products :

prointa apkroqshV

debris : sqntrimma
delineation :
pergramma
denticulated : odontwtV
diacritical diagram :

diakritik syma
dihedral : diedrikV
direct : orJ
(epecergasa)
direction line :

grammoskash

discontinuous : asqneyV
distal : nw (kro)
distribution : katanom
edge : pleqr
end-scraper front :

cstroq

mtwpo

extent : ktash
face : uh
facetted : polqedrikV
first flake : prwttomo
flake : folda
flaked surface :

apokroqsmneV
epifneieV
flaking angle :

apkroqshV

gwna

knapping accident :

atfyhma kaka th
lceqsh

knapping, knapped :

lceqsh,

lacemnoV

Kombewa (method) :
Kompoqa (mJodoV)
Levallois (method) :
Leballoq (mJodoV)
linear :
nhmatoeidV
(ftrna)

lip : yeloV

localization :
entopismV
low angle : epiklinV
(epecergasa)
mesial : mesao ( t m m a )
method : mJodoV
microburin :
mikroglqfda
morphological axis :
morfologikV conaV
morphology :
morfologa
nacelle : lemboeidV

Jraqsh

negative bulb : antiknoV

negative of removal, scar :

arnhtik apolpishV
rqgyoV
egkop

nose :
notch :

orientation :

prosanatoliamV
overhang : geso
parallel :
parllhloV
partial : merik
(epecergasa)
patina : patna
pecking :
sfqrokphma
percussion :
epkroqsh
piquant-tridre :
aiymhr

tredro

plunging : qprbash
polish : leiasmnoV
polishing : leansh
position : Jsh
(epecergasaV)
preform : prosydio
preliminary flaking :

ceyntrisma

preparation :
proetoimasa
pressure : pesh
pressure platform : eppedo

pesh

proximal : ktw ( t m m a )
punch : pestro
punctiform :
stigmoeldV
refit(ting) : anasqndesh
(sqnarmolghsh)
removal :
apolpish
removal morphology :

morfologa apolpishV
resharpening :
ananwsh
retouch :
epecergasa
ridge : akm
ripples : kqmatseiV
roughout :
prosyedasma
rubbed down : leansh
scaled : folidwt
(epecergasaV)
section : tom
semi-abrupt : phmiaptomh

epecergasa

shaping :
katergasa
shaping out :
diamrfwsh
sharpening : aknisma,

ananwsh

Siret

epkroqshV

moV

(ayyidental

break) U Jlsh Surt,

pepimkhV Jlsh
sketch :
skarfhma
spontaneous removal :

aqJrmhth apolpish

apoflowsh

: corte x

removal

apokrousmneV
epifneieV : flake d surfac e
apolpish : remova l
apolpish tou knou :

bulb scar s

sub-parallel :

apotrib : abrasio n
apkroush : debitage
aprrima glufdaV : buri n

qpoparallhlh
tang : msyoV
(epecergasa)
technique : teynik
tongue :
glwssda
tool : ergaleo

spall

aptomh

abrupt

tranchet blow technique :

teynik toq kopa

trimmed edge : pleqr
lceqshV
truncation :
kolbwsh

(epexergasa) :

arnhtik apolpishV :

negative o f removal, sca r

asunecV : discontinuou s
zyupikV : atypica l

atuchma kata th
lxeush : knappin g
accident

unmodify :

anepecrgastoV (
apkroqshV)

pron

unretouched :

anepecrgastoV (
lceqshV
versant :

pron

pafqf

winged :

ftrna

pterqgsyhmh

GREEK : ENGLIS H

aixmhr tredro :
piquant-triedre
akm : ridg e

akm glufdaV : buri n tip

aknisma, ananwsh :

sharpening

amblumnoV : blunte d
amfiprswph
epexergasa : bifacia l
amni : anvi l
ananwsh : resharpenin g
ananwsh glufdaV :
sharpening spal l
anastrof : hinge d

anasundesh

sharpening spall :

ananwsh glqfdaV
shoulder : esoy,

spur :
emboloeidV
(ftrna)
stepped :
baJmidwt
(epecergasa)
striking platform : eppedo

(sunarmologhsh) :
refit(ting)
anstrofoV : invers e
anepexergastoV (proon
apkroushV) : unmodif y
anepexrgastoV (pron
lxeushV) : unretouche d
antiknoV : negativ e bul b

aulakwtV : flute d
auqrmhth apolpish :
spontaneous remova l
nw (kro) : distal
xonaV apkroushV :
debitage axi s

aydwsh, tou purna :

cintrage

baqmidwt
(epexergasa) v atepped
bsh : bas e
bolbV, knoV : bulb

celoV : li p
diakritik scma :

diacritical diagra m
diamrqwsh : shapin g out

diastauroumenh

(epexergasa), ciast :
crossed
diedrikV : dihedra l

dskoV ananwshV
purna : cor e tablet ,

rejuvenation cor e flak e

egkop : notc h
emboloeidV (ftrna)
enallassmenh

: spur

(epexergasa) : alternating

enallx : alternat e
entopismV : localizatio n
epexergasa : retouc h
epidromik (epexergasa) :

invasive

epikaluptousa

(epexergasa) : covering

179

epiklinV

low angl e

(epexergasa) :

kumatseiV :
knoV : cone

ripple s

prosanatolismV :
orientation

eppedo pesh

Leballou

proscedasma : roughou t
proscdio : prefor m
prsqema : additio n
prwttomo : first flak e
pterugschmh ftrna :

ergaleo
ergotecna
esoc
glufdaV

leiasmnoV
lea, eppedh

puramdeio :

leansh
leansh
lemboeidV qraush :

purhnoeidV
purnaV

lepda : blade
lepdamekoruf : bladele t
logcoeidV rwgm : hackle
merik (epexergasa) :

qsh

epkroush : percussio n
eppedo epkroushV :

striking platfor m
: pressur e
platform
: too l
: industr y
: shoulde r
dra
: burin face t
ktash : exten t
mmesoV (h) : indirect

floiV : corte x
floideV mroV

nacelle

: cortica l

reserved zon e
: cortica l
: cortica l
zone
(epexergasa) :
scaled
: flak e
: but t

floidhV
floidhV znh

folidwt

folda
ftrna

geso : overhan g
gert (ftrna) : canted
glwssda : tongu e
grammoskash : directio n
line

gwna apkroushV :
flaking angl e

gwna apspashV :
de chasse

angle

semi-abrupt

IanV (folda), see

Kombewa : Janus (flake )
kapelschmoV

: chapeau de

karna, tropdwsh :

carn,

carnage
: distributio n
: breakag e
: shapin g
(tmma) : proxima l
: clactonia n

katanom
kattmhsh
katergasa
ktw
klaktnioV
klsh (thV
epexergasaV) vangle(of
retouch)
kogcoeidV : conchoi d
kolbwsh : truncatio n
Kompoua (mqodoV) :
Kombewa (method )
: cres t
: hamme r

koruf
kroustraV
180

partial

winged

apex (o f a
pyramidal core )
: core-lik e
: core

qermik diergasa

: heat
treatment
(epexergasaV) :
position

qlsh Sirt, epimkhV

qlsh : Siret (accidenta l

break)

mesao (tmma) : mesial

mqodoV : metho d
mtwpo qraushV : fractur e

qraush : break
qraush : fractur e
qrummatismV : snap

mtwopo xstrou :

rabdwtV : channel-flake d
rch : back
rch,me :backed
rugcoV : nose
rwgm : hackle

front

end-scraper fron t
: microburi n
: crested blad e
: tan g
: tang (long , narrow )
xonaV :
morphological axi s
: morpholog y

mikroglufda
mikrolepda
mscoV
mscoV
morfologikV

morfologa
morfologa apolpishV :
removal morpholog y

hmiaptomh epexergasa :

gendarme

lxeush, laxemnoV :

knapping, knappe d
(mqodoV) :
Levallois (method )
: polis h
(ftrna) :
flat, plai n
: polishing
: rubbed dow n

neurwsh : arris
nhmatoeidV (ftrna) :
linear

odontwtV : denticulate d
orf (epexergasa) : direct
yh : face

parllhloV : paralle l
paruf : ersant
patna : patina
pergramma : delineatio n
pesh : pressur e
pestro : punch
pleur : edg e
pleur lxeushV :
trimmed edg e

pleur me apotmh
epexergasa : backed
poluedrikV : facette d
proetoimasa : preparatio n
prointa apkroushV :
debitage product s

sfurokphma : pecking
shmeo kroushV : impact
point

skarfhma : sketc h
stigmoeidV : punctifor m
stlbh : gloss
sumpiestV : crutch
sunarmog : conjoinin g
(flakes)

sunecV

(epexergasa) :
continuous
: debri s

suntrimma

tecnik : techniqu e
tecnik thV kroushV thV
glufdaV : burin blo w
technique

tecniktoukopea:

tranchet blo w techniqu e

tmma : fragmen t
tom : sectio n

uprbash : plungin g
upoparllhlh

(epexergasa) : sub-parallel
blank

upbaqro :

moV : shoulde r

xecntrisma :
flaking

preliminar y

ENGLISH : ITALIA N
translated b y D . Zampetti
abrasion : abrasione
abrupt : ripido(a)
addition : aggiunta

cortical : corticale
cortical reserved z o n e :

riserva cortical e
covering : coprente
crest : cresta

crested blade : lama

alternate : alterno
alternating : alternante

crossed :

incrociata

a cresta

angolo di

angle de citasse :

rimozione
anvil : incudine

apex (of a p y r a m i d a l core) :

sommit di un nucleo
piramidale
arris : nervatura
atypical :

k n a p p i n g accident :

debitage : scheggiatura

knapping, knapped :

scheggiatura

K o m b e w a (method) :

incidente di lavorazione

abbatuto

base : base

bifacial : bifacciale

bladelet : lamella

supporto
blunting : smussato
b r e a k : frattura

blank :

bulbo

burin b l o w technique :

bulino (tecnica del colpo di)

burin facet : faccia

burin spali : stacco di bulino

burin tip : dente del bulino
butt : tallone

inclinato

carenaggio
chapean de

di scheggiatur a

debris : residuo
delineation : delineazione
denticulated : denticulato

gendarme :

capello di gendarme
cintrage : curvatura

continuous : continuo(a)
core : nucleo

grattatoio

bulbo

negativo del

negativo di un distacco

scheggiate

orientation : orientamento
overhang : cornice

facetted : sfaccettato
first flake : scheggia cortical e
flake ; scheggia
flaked surface : superfici
angle : angolo di

distacco

flat, plain : liscio(a)

fluted : scanalato
fracture : frattura
fracture front : fronte d i

gloss : lustro
h a c k l e : frattura

termico

hinged :

nose : muso
notch : intaccatura

parallel : parallelo(a)
partial :

parziale

patina : patina
pecking :

bocciardatura

percussion : percussione
piquant-tridre :

a lancetta

heat t r e a t m e n t :

decorticazione

nacelle : navicella

n e g a t i v e of r e m o v a l , scar :

flake : tavoletta di

cortex r e m o v a l :

morphology : morfologia

face : faccia

h a m m e r : percussore

cortex : cortice

avvivamento

negative b u l b :

extent : estensione

core tablet, rejuvenation core

ravvivamento o di
avvivamento
core-like : nucleiforme

lip : labbro

m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis :

fragment : frammento

raccordo

linear : lineare

distal : distale
distribution : ripartizione

conchoid :

conjoining (flakes) :

Levallois (metodo )

mesial : mediano(a)
m e t h o d : metodo
microburin : microbulino

frattura

concoide

Levallois ( m e t h o d ) :

direction line : striatura

discontinuous :

clactonian : clactoniano(a)
cone : cono

Kombewa (metodo )

localization : localizzione
low angle : radente

flaking
carena,

lavorazione, lavorato(a )

diacritico

end-scraper front : fronte d i

b u l b scars : scagliatura de l

prodotto

edge : margine

bulb : bulbo

carne, carnage

debitage products :

discontinuo(a)

b i a d e : lama

canted :

di

dihedral : diedro
direct : diretto(a)

back : dorso
backed :

debitage axis : asse

diacritical d i a g r a m : schema

apico

J a n u s (flake) : G i a n o
(scheggia, see K o m b e w a )

crutch : gruccia

angle (of retouch) :

inclinazione

industry : industria
invasive : invadente
inverse : inverso(a)

trattamento

ripiegato, rifless o

piquant-tridre
plunging : oltrepassato
polished : levigato(a)
polishing : levigatura
position : posizione
preform : preformato
preliminary flaking :

sgrossatura

preparation : preparazione

i m p a c t point : punto

pressure : pressione
pressure platform : piano

indirect : indiretto(a)

proximal :

d'impatto

pressione

di

prossimale

181

f r a m m e n t o : fragment
frattura : break
frattura : fracture

p u n c h : punzone
punctiform : puntiforme

a b b o z o : roughout
abrasione : abrasion

refit(ting) : rimontaggio,

aggiunta : addition
ala d ' u c c e l l o (ad) : winged

fronte di frattura : fracture

alterno : alternate

fronte di grattatoio :

affilatura : sharpening

ricomposizione
r e m o v a l : distacco

alternante : alternating

removal morphology :

morfologia d i un distacco

resharpening : ravvivamento
retouch : ritocco
ridge : spigolo
ripples : ondulazioni
roughout : abbozo
r u b b e d : levigatura :

angolo di distacco : flaking

angle

a n g o l o di r i m o z i o n e : angle
de chasse
apico : atypical
asse di scheggiatura :

debitage axi s

frattura a lancetta : hackle

front

end-scraper fron t
Giano : Janus

grezzo(a) : unmodify
grezzo(a) di lavorazione :

unretouched

gruccia : crutch

avvivamento :

morphological axi s

scaled : a scaglie
section : sezione
semi-abrupt : semiripido
shaping : lavorazione
shaping out : messa

base : base

in forma

bifacciale : bifacial

bocciardatura : pecking

sharpening : affilatur a
sharpening spall : stacco d i

b u l b o : bulb

ravvivamento di un bulino
shoulder : spalla, cran

burin blow techniqu e

Siret (accidental break) :

capello di g e n d a r m e :
chapeau de gendarme
carena (carenaggio) : carne,
carnage

Siret (incidente )
sketch : schizzo

spontaneous r e m o v a l :

spontanei (distacchi )

spur : sperone
stepped : scalariform e

striking platform : piano

percussione

di

sub-parallel : sub-parallelo(a)
tang (long, n a r r o w ) : codolo

tang : pedonculo
technique : tecnica
tool : strumento

bulino (tecnica del colpo di) :

clactoniano(a) : clactonian
c o d o l o : tang (long, narrow)
c o n c o i d e : conchoid

cono : cone
continuo(a) : continuous

coprente : covering
cornice : overhang
corticale : cortical

curvatura :

cintrage

tranchet b l o w technique :

trincetto (colpo di)

trimmed edge : margine

lavorato

truncation : troncatura
unmodify : grezzo(a)
u n r e t o u c h e d : grezzo(a)

lavorazione
versant : versante
winged :

di

ala d'uccello (ad)

inclinazione : angle (o f

retouch)

snap

incrociata : crossed

incudine : anvil
indiretto(a) : indirect
industria : industry

intaccatura : notch

invadente : invasive

inverso(a) : inverse

K o m b e w a (metodo) :

Kombewa (method )
labbro : li p

lama : biade
lama a cresta : crested blad e
lamella :

bladelet

lavorazione : shaping
lavorazione, lavorato(a) :

knapping, knappe d
Levallois (metodo) :

Levallois (method )
polished

decorticazione : cortex

levigato(a) :

delineazione : delineation
dente del bulino : burin ti p
denticulato : denticulated

levigatura : ru b

removal

diedro : dihedral

diretto(a) : direct
discontinuo(a) :

discontinuous

distacco : removal
distale : distai

dorso : back

ITALIAN : ENGLISH

estensione : extent

a scaglie : scaled
abbatuto : backed

faccia : burin face t

faccia : face

182

knapping acciden t
inclinato : canted

incrinatura :

cortice : cortex
cran : shoulder
cresta : crest

t o n g u e : linguetta

incidente di lavorazione :

levigatura : polishing
lineare : linear

linguetta : tongue
liscio(a) : flat, plai n

localizzione : localization
lustro : gloss
m a r g i n e : edge

margine abbatuto : backed

margine lavorato : trimmed

edge

mediano(a) : mesial
messa in forma : shaping ou t
m e t o d o : method
microbulino : microburin

morfologia : m o r p h o l o g y
morfologia di u n distacco :
removal morpholog y
m u s o : nos e
navicella :

nacelle

n e g a t i v o del b u l b o : negativ e
bulb
n e g a t i v o di u n distacco :
n e g a t i v e o f r e m o v a l , sca r
nervatura : arri s
nucleiforme : core-lik e
n u c l e o : cor e

prodotto di scheggiatura :
debitage p r o d u c t s
prossimale : proxima l
puntiforme : p u n c t i f o r m
punto d'impatto : impac t
point
punzone : punc h
r a c c o r d o : c o n j o i n i n g (flakes )
radente : l o w angl e
ravvivamento : resharpenin g
residuo : debri s
riflesso, ripiegato : h i n g e d
rimontaggio,

oltrepassato : p l u n g i n g
ondulazioni : ripple s
o r i e n t a m e n t o : orientatio n
parallelo(a) : paralle l
parziale : partia l
patina : patin a
pedonculo : tan g
percussione : percussio n
percussore : h a m m e r
p i a n o di p e r c u s s i o n e :
striking p l a t f o r m
p i a n o di pressione : p r e s s u r e
platform
piquant-tridre :
piquant-tridre
p o s i z i o n e : positio n
preformato : prefor m
preparazione : preparatio n
pressione : pressur e

r i c o m p o s i z i o n e ; refittin g
ripartizione : distributio n
ripido(a) : a b r u p t
riserva corticale : cortica l
reserved zon e
ritocco : r e t o u c h

sgrossatura : p r e l i m i n a r y
flaking
Siret (incidente) : Sire t
(accidental b r e a k )
smussato : b l u n t i n g
s o m m i t di u n n u c l e o
piramidale : a p e x (o f a
p y r a m i d a l core )
spalla : s h o u l d e r
sperone : s p u r
spigolo : ridg e
spontanei (distacchi) :
spontaneous remova l
stacco di b u l i n o : b u r i n spal i
stacco di r a v v i v a m e n t o di u n
b u l i n o : s h a r p e n i n g spal l
striatura : directio n lin e
strumento : too l
sub-parallelo(a) : sub-paralle l
superfici scheggiate : flaked
surface

scagliatura del b u l b o : b u l b
scars

supporto : b l a n k

scalariforme : s t e p p e d

tallone : b u t t

scanalato : fluted

sezione : sectio n

tavoletta di r a v v i v a m e n t o o
di a v v i v a m e n t o : cor e tablet ,
r e j u v e n a t i o n cor e flake
tecnica : t e c h n i q u e
trattamento t e r m i c o : h e a t
treatment
trincetto (colpo di) : t r a n c h e t
blow techniqu e
troncatura : t r u n c a t i o n

sfaccettato : facette d

versante : v e r s a n t

scheggia : flake
scheggia corticale : first flake
scheggiatura : d e b i t a g e
s c h e m a diacritico :
diacritical d i a g r a m
schizzo : s k e t c h
semiripido : s e m i - a b r u p t

183

ENGLISH :
PORTUGUESE
abrasion : abraso
abrupt : abrupto(a)

acrescento

alternate : alterno
alternating : alternante
angle (of retouch) :

inclinao

angle de chasse

lascamento

: ngulo de

anvil : bigorna

a p e x (of a p y r a m i d a l core) :

vrtice de pirmide
arris : nervura
atypical : atpico

embotado, gasto
: fractura

bulb : bolbo
bulb scars : esquirolament o

do bolbo

burin b l o w t e c h n i q u e : buril

(tcnica do golpe de)

burin facet : facet a

burin spall : resto de buril

(resto caracterstic o
resultante do golpe de buril)
burin tip : bisel do buril
butt : ta l o

c r e s t : crist a
crested blade : lamina d e

impacto

reserva cortica l
covering : cobridor(a)

crista, ver crista

impact p o i n t : pont o d e

indirecto(a )
industria
invasive : invasor(a)
inverse : inverso(a)
indirect:

crossed : cruzada
crutch : muleta

industry :

compressora, pua
compressora

Janus (lasca),

debitage : debitagem
debitage axis : eixo de

Janus (flake) :

debitage products : produt o

knapping accident:

esquema diacritic o
d i h e d r a l : diedr o
d i r e c t : directo(a )
direction line : tra^o,
tracejado
discontinuous :

descontinuo(a)

d i s t a l : dista l
distribution : reparti^ao

edge : bordo
end-scraper f r o n t : frent e d e

see Kombew a
de talhe

acident e

knapping, knapped :

talhado(a)

talhe,

Kombewa (method):

Kombewa (metodo )

raspadeira
extensa o

caren a

arqueamento ou curvatura

clactonian : clactonense

conchide

cone : cone
conjoining (flakes) : jun o
continuous : contnuo(a)
core : ncleo
core tablet, rejuvenation core
flake : placa or tablette d e

reavivamento ou de
avivamento
core-like : nucleiforme

Levallois (method) :

Levallois (metodo )
linear : linear

lip : labio

localization : localiza^ao
low angle : rasante
m e s i a l : mesia l
method : metodo
microburin : microburil
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis :

morfologico

eixo

morphology : morfologia

extent:

: nacelle (fractur a
em forma de canoa)

nacelle

face : face

chapeau de gendarme :
chapu de gendarme
cintrage : arco ,

184

hinged :

diacritical d i a g r a m :

blunting :

conchoid :

termico, ver calor

reflectido(a),
revertido(a)

cortical reserved z o n e :

debris : residuo
delineation : delinea^ao
denticulated : denticulado

blade : lamina
bladelet : lmela
blank : suporte

(carenagem)

heat t r e a t m e n t : tratament o

de debitagem ou de
lascamento

bifacial : bifacial

canted : inclinado
carne, carnage :

descorticamento
c o r t i c a l : cortica l

debitagem ou de lascamento

back : dorso
backed : abatido
base : base

break

h a m m e r : percutor

cortex r e m o v a l :

translated by L. Raposo :

addition :

hackle : lanceta

cortex : cortex

facetted : facetado

first flake : lasca inicial

flake : lasca
flaked surface : superficie s

debitadas, superficie s
lascadas
flaking

angle : angulo d e

extrac^ao, angulo extern o

flat, p l a i n : liso(a )
fluted : canelado(a),

negative bulb : contra-bolb o

negative of r e m o v a l , scar :

negativo de levantamento
nose : focinho
notch : entalhe

orientation : orientagao
overhang : cornija

paralelo(a )

adelgaado(a) po r meio de
canelura(s)
fracture : fractura

parallel:

fractura

percussion : percussao

fracture f r o n t : frent e d e

f r a g m e n t : fragment

gloss : lustro

p a r t i a l : parcia l
patina : patina

p e c k i n g : bojardagem

piquant-triedre :

triedrico

apice

plunging : ultrapassado

polished : desgaste

polimento

de

tranchet b l o w technique :

tranchet o u trinchete (golp e

de)
t r i m m e d edge : bordo
talhado

polishing : poliment o

position : posigo

preform : pr-forma ,

truncation : truncatura

pr-formata^o

preliminary flaking :

desbastamento, formata^ o
inicial
preparation : preparad o
pressure : presso

pressure platform : plano

presso

de

p r o x i m a l : proxima l
p u n c h : puncjio, extracto r

unmodify : bruto(a)

unretouched : bruto de

debitagem o u de
lascamento, (a ) de talhe
v e r s a n t : vertente , lad o

winged : asa de passaro (em )

de lmina s

punctiform : punctiforme
refit(ting) : remontagem
r e m o v a l : levantament o
removal morphology :

morfologa d e um
levantamento

resharpening : reavivamento
retouch : retoque
ridge : aresta
ripples :

ondulare s

roughout:esbozo

r u b b e d d o w n : areago,

areado

scaled : escamoso(a)
section : secgo
s e m i - a b r u p t : semi-abrupt o
shaping : formatago,

afeigoamento
shaping o u t :

conformad o

sharpening : agugamento

sharpening s p a l l : residu o de

buril

shoulder : ombreira ,

ombro(em), cren a

Siret (accidental b r e a k ) :

Siret (acidente )
sketch : esbozo

spontaneous r e m o v a l :

espontneos (levantamentos )
s p u r : esporo(em )

stepped : escalariform e
striking platform : plano

de
percusso o u de lascamento
s u b - p a r a l l e l : sub-paralelo(a )
tang : pednculo
technique : tcnica
t o n g u e : linguet a

t o o l : utensili o

canelado(a), adelgaado(a)
p o r m e i o d e canelura(s) :

fluted

carena (carenagem) : carne,

carnage
chapu de gendarme :
chapeau de gendarme

clactonense : clactonian

cobridor(a) : covering
c o n c h i d e : conchoi d

cone : cone
conformao : shaping out
continuo(a) : continuous

contra-bolbo : negative bul b

cornija : overhan g

cortex : cortex

PORTUGUESE: ENGLIS H
abatido : backed

abrasao : abrasio n

a b r u p t o ( a ) : abrup t

acidente d e talhe : knappin g

accident

acrescento : addition

agugamento : sharpening
alternante : alternating

alterno : alternat e
angulo d e extracgao, angulo
externo : flaking angl e
angulo d e lascamento : angle
de chasse
apice triedrico :
piquant-triedre
arco, a r q u e a m e n t o ou
curvatura : cintrage
areagao, areado : rubbed

down

a r e s t a : ridg

arrancamento : hackle
asa de passaro(em) : winged
atipico : atypica l

base : base

b i f a c i a l : bifacia l
b i g o r n a : anvi l
bisel d o b u r i l : buri n tip

bojardagem : pecking
bolbo
bordo
bordo
bordo

edge

: bulb
: edge
abatido : backed
talhado : trimmed

bruto (a) : unmodif y

bruto d e debitagem ou d e
lascamento, (a) d e talhe :

unretouched

buril (tecnica d o g o l p e d e ) :

burin blo w techniqu e

cortical : cortical
crena, cran : shoulder

crista : crest
cruzada : crossed

d e b i t a g e m : debitag e

delineao : delineation
denticulado : denticulated
d e s b a s t a m e n t o , formatao

inicial : preliminary flakin g

descontinuo(a) :

discontinuous

descorticamento : cortex

removal

desgaste d e p o l i m e n t o :

polished
diedro : dihedral

directo (a) : direct

distal : distal
dorso : back

eixo d e d e b i t a g e m ou d e
l a s c a m e n t o : debitage axi s
eixo morfolgico :

morphological axi s

e m b o t a d o , gasto : bluntin g
entalhe : notch
esboo : roughou t
esboo, croquis : sketch

escalariforme : stepped
escamoso(a) : scaled

espigo : tang (long , narrow )

espontneos
(levantamentos) :

spontaneous remova l
esporo ( e m ) : spur
e s q u e m a diacrtico :

diacritical diagra m
esquirolamento d o bolbo :

bulb scar s

extenso : extent

185

face : fac e

microburil: microburi n

f a c e t a : b u r i n face t
facetado : facette d
focinho : n o s e
formatago, afeigoamento :
shaping
fractura : b r e a k
f r a c t u r a : fractur e
fragmento : f r a g m e n t
frente de fractura : fractur e
front
frente de raspadeira :
e n d - s c r a p e r fron t

morfologia : m o r p h o l o g y

inclinago : angl e (o f
retouch)
inclinado : c a n t e d
indirecto(a) : indirec t
industria : i n d u s t r y
i n v a s o r ( a ) : invasiv e
i n v e r s o ( a ) : invers e
J a n u s (lasca), see K o m b e w a :
J a n u s (flake )
j u n g o : c o n j o i n i n g (flakes )
K o m b e w a (mtodo) :
Kombewa (method )
labio : li p
lmela : bladele t
l m i n a : blad e
l m i n a de crista, ver crista :
crested blad e
lanceta : h a c k l e
lasca : flake
lasca i n i c i a l : firs t flake
Levallois (mtodo) :
Levallois (method )
levantamento : remova l
linear : linea r
lingueta: tongu e
liso(a) : flat, plai n
localizago : localizatio n
lustro : glos s
m e s i a l : mesia l
mtodo : metho d

186

morfologia de u m
levantamento : remova l
morphology
muleta compressora, pua
compressora: crutc h
nacelle (fractura e m forma
de c a n o a ) : nacelle
negativo de l e v a n t a m e n t o :
negative o f r e m o v a l , s c a r
nervura : arri s
nucleiforme : core-lik e
n c l e o : cor e
ombreira, o m b r o (em) :
shoulder
o n d u l a g e s : ripple s
orientago : o r i e n t a t i o n
p a r a l e l o ( a ) : paralle l
p a r c i a l : partia l
ptina : p a t i n a
pednculo : tan g
percusso : percussio n
percutor: hamme r
placa, tablette
de
r e a v i v a m e n t o , de
a v i v a m e n t o : cor e tablet ,
r e j u v e n a t i o n cor e flake
p l a n o de p e r c u s s o ou de
l a s c a m e n t o : strikin g
platform
p l a n o de presso : p r e s s u r e
platform
p o l i m e n t o : polishin g
p o n t o de i m p a c t o : i m p a c t
point
posigo : positio n
pr-forma, pr-formatago :
preform
preparago : p r e p a r a t i o n
presso : p r e s s u r e
p r o d u t o de debitagem ou de
l a s c a m e n t o : debitag e
products
proximal : proxima l

pungo, extractor de
lminas : p u n c h
punctiforme : p u n c t i f o r m
rasante : l o w angl e
reavivamento : resharpenin g
reflectido(a), r e v e r t i d o ( a ) :
hinged
r e m o n t a g e m : refittin g
repartigo : distributio n
reserva c o r t i c a l : cortica l
reserved zon e
residuo : d e b r i s
residuo de b u r i l : s h a r p e n i n g
spall
resto de buril (resto
caracterstico resultante do
golpe de buril) : b u r i n spal l
retoque : r e t o u c h
secgo : sectio n
semi-abrupto : s e m i - a b r u p t
Siret (acidente) : Sire t
(accidental b r e a k )
s u b - p a r a l e l o ( a ) : sub-paralle l
superficies debitadas,
superficies lascadas : flaked
surface
suporte : b l a n k
talo : b u t t
talhe, talhado(a) : k n a p p i n g ,
knapped
tcnica : t e c h n i q u e
trago, tracejado : directio n
line
tranchet ou trinchete (golpe
de) : t r a n c h et b l o w
technique
tratamento trmico, ver
calor: hea t treatmen t
truncatura: truncatio n
ultrapassado : p l u n g i n g
utensilio : too l
vertente, lado : v e r s a n t
vrtice de p i r m i d e : a p e x
(of a p y r a m i d a l core )

ENGLISH : SPANISH
t r a n s l a t e d b y S. R i p o l l

cortical : cortical
cortical reserved zone :

abrasion : abrasin
a b r u p t : abrupto(a )

cortical z o n e : playa cortica l

covering : cubriente

addition : aadido
alternate : alterno
alternating : alternante
angle (of r e t o u c h ) :

inclinacin

angle de chasse

expulsin

: ngulo de

anvil : yunque
apex (of a p y r a m i d a l c o r e ) :

piramidin (d e ncleo)

arris : nervadura
a t y p i c a l : atpic o

back : dorso
backed : abatido
base : base

impact p o i n t : punt o de

impacto

reserva cortica l

crest: arista , cresta

crested blade : hoja con
arista
crossed : cruzado(a)
crutch : muletilla (utilizad a
como compresor )

debitage : talla
debitage axis : eje de talla
debitage products : producto

de talla

lip : labio

localization : localizacin
low angle : rasante

(de

m e s i a l : mesia l
method : mtodo
microburin : microburil

d i s t a l : dista l
distribution : reparticin

m o r p h o l o g i c a l axis : ej e

morfolgico

burin b l o w t e c h n i q u e : buril

edge : borde
end-scraper f r o n t : frent e d e

burin f a c e t : facet a
burin s p a l l : golp e de buril

extent:

b u t t : tal n

facetted : facetado

burin tip : diente de buril

canted :

inclinado

carene, carnage

carenado

carena,

channel-flaked : aflautado(a)

raspador
extendid o

flake : tableta de reavivado

o de avivado
core-like : nucleiforme
cortex : cortex

cortex r e m o v a l :

descortezado

negativo de levantamiento

flake : lasca
flaked surface : superficies

orientation : orientacin
overhang : cornisa

descortezado

talladas

flat, plain : liso

fluted : acanalado

core tablet, rejuvenation core

navecilla

first flake : lasca d e

cintrage : cimbreo
clactonian : clactoniense
conchoid : conoide
cone : cono

continuous : continuo(a)
core : ncleo

nacelle :

nose : hocico
notch : escotadura

flaking

remontaje

morphology : morfologa

negative b u l b : contra bulb o

negative of r e m o v a l , scar :

face : cara

chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau de gendarme

conjoining (flakes) :

talla,

Kombewa (method):

linear : lineal

discontnuo(a)

(tcnica del golpe de)

tallado(a)

Kombewa (mtodo )

discontinuous :

bulbo

accidente de talla

knapping, knapped :

diacritical d i a g r a m :

lneas)

bulb : bulbo
bulb scars : esquirlado de l

knapping accident:

Levallois (mtodo )

d i r e c t : directo(a )
direction line : haces

blank : soporte

Janus (flake) : Jano (lasca,

see Kombewa )

Levallois (method) :

dihedral : diedro

blunting : romo
b r e a k : fractura

invasive : invasor
inverse : inverso

debris : debris
delineation : delincacin
denticulated : denticulado

esquema diacrtic o

b i f a c i a l : bifacia l
b l a d e : hoja
b l a d e l e t : hojit a

indirecto(a )
industria

indirect:

industry :

lascado

angle : ngulo de

parallel:

pecking :

(prismtico)
fracture : fractura

piquant-tridre :

picantetriedro
sobrepasado

fractura

plunging :

f r a g m e n t : fragment

polished : pulido

gloss : lustre
hackle : lanceta (fractur a

percutor

en)

heat t r e a t m e n t : tratamient o

trmico

abujardar

percussion : percusin

fracture f r o n t : frent e d e

hammer :

paralel o

p a r t i a l : parcia l
p a t i n a : ptin a

hinged : reflejad o

polishing : pulimento
position : posicin
preform : conformado
preliminary flaking :

desbastado
preparation : preparacin
pressure : presin

187

pressure platform : plano de

presin

winged : ala de pajaro(en

forma de)

delincacin : delineatio n
denticulado : d e n t i c u l a t e d
desbastado : preliminar y
flaking

SPANISH : ENGLISH

descortezado : corte x
removal
desgastar, desgastado : r ub
diedro : d i h e d r a l
diente d e b u r i l : b u r i n t i p
d i r e c t o ( a ) : direc t
discontinuo(a) :
discontinuous
d i s t a l : dista l
dorso : b a c k

proximal: proximal
punch : cincel
punctiform: puntiforme
refitting : remontaje
removal: levantamiento
removal morphology :
morfologa de u n
levantamiento
resharpening : reavivado
retouch : retoque
ridge : n e r v a d u r a
ripples : ondulaciones
roughout: esbozo
rub(bed) down : desgastar,
desgastado
scaled: escamoso(a)
section : seccin
semi-abrupt: semiabrupto
shaping : facetado
shaping o u t : puesta a punto
sharpening : aguzar, afilar
sharpening spall: recorte de

abatido : b a c k e d
abrasin : a b r a s i o n
abrupto(a) : a b r u p t
abujardar: peckin g
a c a n a l a d o (prismtico) :
fluted
accidente de talla : k n a p p i n g
accident
aflautado(a): channel-flake d
aguzar, a f i l a r : s h a r p e n i n g
ala d e pajaro(en forma d e ) :
winged
alternante : alternatin g
alterno : alternat e
aadido : a d d i t i o n
n g u l o d e expulsin : angle
de chasse
n g u l o d e l a s c a d o : flaking
angle
arista, c r e s t a : cres t
atpico : atypica l

buril
shoulder: muesca
shoulder : h o m b r e r a (en)
Siret (accidental break):
Siret (accidente de talla)
sketch : croquis
snap : r o t u r a
spontaneous removal:
espontneos
(levantamientos)
spur: espoln
stepped: escaleriforme
striking platform : plano de
percusin

base : b a s e
b i f a c i a l : bifacia l
borde : e d g e
b o r d e abatido : b a c k e d
b o r d e tallado : t r i m m ed e d g e
bulbo : bul b
buril (tecnica del g o l p e de) :
burin blo w techniqu e
c a r a : fac e

unretouched : soporte en
b r u t o , talla en b r u t o

carena ( c a r e n a d o ) : carene,
carnage
chapeau de gendarme :
chapeau d e gendarm e
c i m b r e o : cintrage
cincel : p u n c h
clactoniense : c l a c t o n i a n
conformado : prefor m
cono : con e
conoide : conchoi d
continuo(a) : c o n t i n u o u s
contra b u l b o : n e g a t i ve b u l b
c o m i s a : overhan g
cortex : c o r t e x
c o r t i c a l : cortica l
croquis : s k e t c h
cruzado(a): crosse d
cubriente : c o v e r i n g

versant: vertiente

debris : d e b r i s

sub-parallel: subparalelo
tang : pednculo
technique : tcnica
tongue : lengeta
t o o l : til
tranchet blow technique :
t r a n c h e t (golpe de)
trimmed edge : b o r d e tallado
truncation: t r u n c a t u r a
unmodify: en b r u t o

188

eje de talla : debitage axi s

eje morfolgico :
m o r p h o l o g i c a l axi s
en bruto : u n m o d i f y
esbozo : roughou t
escaleriforme : s t e p p e d
e s c a m o s o ( a ) : scale d
escotadura: notc h
espoln : s p u r
espontneos
(levantamientos) :
spontaneous remova l
e s q u e m a diacrtico :
diacritical d i a g r a m
e s q u i n a d o del b u l b o : b u l b
scars
extendido : exten t
faceta : b u r in face t
facetado : facette d
facetado : s h a p i ng *
fractura: brea k
f r a c t u r a : fractur e
fractura en lanceta : h a c k l e
fragmento : f r a g m e n t
frente d e fractura : fractur e
front
frente d e r a s p a d o r :
e n d - s c r a p e r fron t
g o l p e d e buril : b u r in spal l
haces (de lneas) : directio n
line
hocico : nos e
hoja : b l a d e
hoja c o n arista : creste d
blade
hojita : bladele t
h o m b r e r a (en) : s h o u l d e r
inclinacin : a n g le (o f
retouch)

inclinado : c a n t e d
i n d i r e c t o ( a ) : indirec t
i n d u s t r i a : industr y
i n v a s o r : invasiv e
inverso : invers e
J a n o ( l a s c a ) : J a n u s (flake ,
see K o m b e w a )
Kombewa (mtodo):
K o m b e w a (method )
labio : li p
lanceta (fractura e n ) : h a c k l e
lasca : flake
lasca de d e s c o r t e z a d o : firs t
flake
lengeta : t o n g u e
Levallois ( m t o d o ) :
Levallois (method )
levantamiento : remova l
l i n e a l : linea r
liso : flat, plai n
l o c a l i z a c i n : localizatio n
lustre : glos s
m e s i a l : mesia l
mtodo: metho d
microburil: microburi n
morfologa : m o r p h o l o g y
morfologa d e u n
levantamiento : r e m o v a l
morphology
m u e s c a : shoulde r
muletilla (utilizada c o m o
compresor): crutc h
n a v e c i l l a : nacelle
n e g a t i v o de l e v a n t a m i e n t o :
n e g a t i v e o f r e m o v a l , sca r
n e r v a d u r a : arri s

nervadura : ridg e
nucleiforme : core-lik e
ncleo : cor e
ondulaciones : ripple s
orientacin : o r i e n t a t i o n
paralelo : paralle l
parcial : partia l
ptina : p a t i n a
pednculo : tan g
percusin : p e r c u s s i o n
percutor : h a m m e r
picantetriedro :

piquant-tridre
piramidin (de ncleo) :
a p e x (o f a p y r a m i d a l core )
p l a n o d e percusin : strikin g
platform
p l a n o d e presin : p r e s s u r e
platform
p l a y a cortical ; cortical zon e
posicin : positio n
preparacin : preparatio n
presin : p r e s s u r e
p r o d u c t o de talla : d e b i t a g e
products
proximal : p r o x i m a l
puesta a p u n t o : s h a p i ng o u t
pulido : p o l i s h e d
pulimento : polishin g
puntiforme : p u n c t i f o r m
p u n t o de i m p a c t o : i m p a c t
point
rasante : l o w angl e
reavivado : resharpenin g
recorte d e buril : s h a r p e n i n g
spall
reflejado : h i n g e d

remontaje : c o n j o i n i n g
(flakes)
r e m o n t a j e : refittin g
reparticin : distributio n
reserva cortical : cortica l
reserved zon e
retoque : retouc h
romo : bluntin g
rotura: sna p
s e c c i n : sectio n
semiabrupto : semi-abrup t
Siret (accidente de t a l l a ) :
Siret (accidenta l b r e a k )
sobrepasado: plungin g
soporte : b l a n k
soporte en bruto, talla en
bruto: unretouehe d
subparalelo : sub-paralle l
superficies talladas : flaked
surface
tableta de r e a v i v a d o o de
avivado : c o r e tablet ,
r e j u v e n a t i o n c o r e flake
talla: debitag e
talla, tallado(a) : k n a p p i n g ,
knapped
taln : b u t t
tcnica: techniqu e
tranchet (golpe d e ) :
tranchet blo w techniqu e
tratamiento t r m i c o : h e a t
treatment
truncatura: truncatio n
t i l : too l
vertiente : v e r s a n t
y u n q u e : anvi l

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LOUIS-JEAN
avenue d'Embrun, 05003 GAP cedex
Tl. : 04.92.53.17.00
Dpt lgal : 461 Juin 1999
Imprim en France