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Within each subspecies there is a range of phenotypes. Explain the factors that
give rise to this variation. (4)
Phenotype depends on genotype and environment
different local environments can produce variation;
different selection pressures;
mutations producing new alleles;
meiosis produces new combinations of alleles/example;
random fusion of gametes / sexual reproduction
Independent assortment in meiosis
Crossing over in meiosis
Explain why standard deviation is more useful than range as a measure of
variation within a population.
Definition of range + SD / effect of outliers on range + SD;
Ranges are similar in both areas;
Suggests that variation within populations is similar;
SD smaller in area of high light intensity;
Shows that area of high light intensity is a more uniform population;
When comparing variation in size between two groups of organisms, it is
often considered more useful to compare standard deviations rather than
ranges. Explain why.
Range influenced by single outlier (accept anomaly) /
converse for S.D.;
S.D. shows dispersion/spread about mean;
Range only shows highest and lowest values/extremes;
S.D. allows statistical use;
Tests whether or not differences are significant;
Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following
types of variation. Continuous variation and discontinuous variation
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative.
2
discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.
Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following types of
variation continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous:
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative.
Discontinuous:
Discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.
Explain how you would use a quadrat to estimate the number of dandelion
plants in a field measuring 100 m by 150 m. (3)
Principle of randomly placed quadrats;
Method of producing random quadrats; (Reject throwing)
Valid method of obtaining no. dandelions in given area (mean per
quadrat/ total no. in many quadrats);
Multiply to give estimate for total field area;
DNA
In eukaryotes, DNA is linear and associated with proteins.
In prokaryotes, DNA molecules are smaller, circular and are
not associated with proteins.
Describe two features of DNA which make it a stable
molecule.
Two strands with specific base pairing;
large number of hydrogen bonds (between
strands);
helix/coiling reduces chance of molecular
damage / protects H bonds;
strong sugar-phosphate backbone;
Describe the molecular structure of DNA
Long polymer of nucleotides;
composition of a nucleotide (pentose sugar, phosphate and N
containing base)
4 bases named (A, T, C and G)
(Uracil (U) is a base in RNA that
replaces T), A, G are purine bases
(2 ring structure) T, C and U are
pyrimidine bases (single ring structures)
sugar-phosphate backbone;
two (polynucleotide) strands;
specific base-pairing;
example e.g. AT / CG; there are 2 H bonds between A/t
and three H bonds between C/G
hydrogen bonding between bases
Explain how the structure of DNA is related to its
function.(6)
sugar - phosphate backbone gives strength (phosphodiester
bonds)
(coiling gives) compact shape;
sequence of bases allows information to be stored;
long molecule stores large amount of information;
information can be replicated / complementary base
pairing;
(double helix protects) weak hydrogen bonds / double helix
makes molecule stable prevents code being corrupted;
chains held together by weak hydrogen bonds;
chains can split for replication / transcription
Complementary base pairing enables information to be replicated / transcribed;
Many hydrogen bonds together give molecule stability;
Hydrogen bonding allows chains to split for replication / transcription OR molecule unzips
easily for replication / transcription.
Some definitions
Locus: Position of a gene on a strand of DNA.
Genes: are short sections of DNA that contain coded information as a specific sequence
of bases. Genes code for polypeptides that determine the nature and development of
organisms.
Mutation: A change in the base sequence of a gene
Alleles: alternative forms of a gene (created through mutations).
Codon: A sequence of three bases (called a triplet) that codes for a specific amino acid.
The base sequence of a gene determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide.
Exons: sequences of bases in a gene that code for the polypeptide
Introns: (In eukaryotes), sequences of bases in a gene that do not code for
polypeptides.
Differences in base sequences of alleles of a single gene may result in non-functional
proteins, including non-functional enzymes.
Non-overlapping: each base is part of only one codon
Degenerate genetic code: there are 20 amino acids and 64 codons, so most amino acids
have more than one codon. There are 3 stop codons and 1 start codon.
In eukaryotes, DNA is linear, associated with proteins and large compared to the smaller,
circular DNA in prokaryotic cells that also have no proteins associated with it.
Meiosis
Explain the importance of meiosis in the life cycle of a sexually reproducing
organism.
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes (formation of haploid gametes, eggs and
sperm)
Restoration of diploid number at fertilisation;
Introduces variation;
Describe what happens to chromosomes in meiosis.(6)
1. Chromosomes condense;
2. Chromosomes associate in homologous pairs (bivalents)
3. Crossing-over (chiasma formation)
4. Join to spindle (fibres) / moved by spindle ;(*)
5. (Join via) centromere
6. (At) equator/middle of cell
7. Independent assortment
8. (Homologous) chromosomes move to opposite poles /
chromosomes separate/move apart; (ALLOW are pulled apart)
nd
9. (Pairs of) chromatids separated in 2
division;
Describe how meiosis causes variation and explain the advantage of variation
to the species.(5)
1. Crossing-over;
2. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of (homologous)
chromosomes in meiosis I;
3. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of chromatids in meiosis II;
Advantages of variation, any three from:
4. Different adaptations / some better adapted;
5. Some survive / example described;
6. To reproduce;
7. Pass on gene/allele;
8. Allows for changing environment/different environment/example described;
Explain how crossing over can contribute to genetic variation.
Sections of chromatids exchanged;
sections have different alleles;
new combinations of (linked) alleles;
Give two processes, other than crossing over, which result in genetic variation.
Explain how each process contributes to genetic variation.
Mutation;
different/new allele formed / genes deleted or duplicated/ sequence of genes
changed (reject genetic information);
random fusion of gametes in fertilisation;
new combination of alleles;
independent assortment (of chromosomes) (accept random);
shuffling of maternal and paternal chromosomes/new combination
of alleles;
Explain the importance of genetic variation in the process of evolution.
Causes variation in phenotype some organisms are better have more favourable
characteristics for environment
Natural selection of better adapted organisms survive and reproduce passing on genes
selection is due to different phenotypes being better suited to different environments;
eventually leads to species change/change in gene pool/change in gene frequencies
Cancer
Mutation is a change in the base sequence for a gene.
Mutations occur naturally, but the frequency can be increased by mutagens like, UV light,
X-rays, Gamma radiation, or other high energy ionising radiation.
Mutations in genes controlling the cell cycle may lead to the development of cancer.
There are 2 key genes involved in the cell cycle
1) Proto-oncogenes: encode proteins that are growth factors and stimulate cell division.
Mutate to form oncogenes and express proteins at all times and can lead to uncontrolled
cell division
2) Tumour Suppressor genes: encode proteins that inhibit cell division
Cancer is caused by a mutation in several genes.
Cancer cells: high rate of division, ability to separate form adjacent cells and migrate to
other tissues
If the DNA of the cell is damaged, a protein called p53 stops the cell cycle.
Mutation in the gene for p53 could cause cancer to develop. Explain how.
Cancer cells often have damaged DNA;
Mutation in gene for p53 means the p53 protein is faulty or not made;
Consequently, a cell (with faulty /DNA) divides/completes cell cycle;
Uncontrolled division produces cancer;
Explain what is meant by a malignant tumour and describe how exposure to
cigarette smoke may result in the formation of a malignant tumour. (6)
A malignant tumour is a mass of abnormal cells;
That can spread to other tissues (metastasis);
(Relative risk of) lung cancer decreases the longer it is since giving up smoking;
(Relative risk of) lung cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day;
Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens/ mutagens/cancer-causing chemicals;
Causes changes in DNA;
Of genes that control cell division;
Reference to oncogenes;
Reference to tumour suppresser genes;
Rapid rate of cell division/ uncontrolled cell division;
Describe how altered DNA may lead to cancer.
1 (DNA altered by) mutation;
2 (mutation) changes base sequence;
3 of gene controlling cell growth / oncogene / that monitors cell division;
4 of tumour suppressor gene;
5 change protein structure / non-functional protein / protein not formed;
6 (tumour suppressor genes) produce proteins that inhibit cell division;
7 mitosis;
8 uncontrolled / rapid / abnormal (cell division);
9 malignant tumour;
Genetic Diversity
The DNA of different species varies due to the different genes. More closely related
species the more common their DNA will be. Genetic diversity is important to help a
population survive changing environments.
Factors that increase genetic diversity are..
Mutations (producing new alleles)
Gene flow: alleles move between populations as individuals form one population
reproduce with those form another.
Factors that reduce genetic diversity are
A genetic bottleneck happens when a population is drastically reduced in size due to a
natural catastrophe or a continual more gradual change in the environment. The few
individuals left will only have a small range of alleles between them, so if they reproduce
and the population increases again there will be reduced genetic diversity. Many of the
original variety of alleles will have been lost in individuals who didnt survive.
Large number of
population dies
Original population:
many different alleles
shown by different
colours
Reproductio
n
New population:
reduced genetic
diversity compared to
original
The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals colonise a new habitat
and start a new, isolated population. Since the few individuals will only have a small
range of alleles between them. Founder effects are common throughout evolutionary
history, and are readily seen in remote islands (such as the Galapagos Islands), where
colonisation is difficult and rare. These modern populations will have low genetic
diversity, reflecting the small range of alleles in the small founding population.
Original
population: retains
high genetic diversity
New population:
Genetic diversity is
reduced
Original
population: many
different alleles
shown by different
colours
Founder population:
isolated from original
population, reduced variety
of alleles
Haemoglobin
Describe how haemoglobin normally loads oxygen in the lungs and
unloads it in a tissue cell.
Oxygen combines (reversibly) to produce oxyhaemoglobin;
each haemoglobin molecule/ one haemoglobin may transport 4 molecules of
oxygen;
high partial pressure of oxygen / oxygen tension / concentration in lungs;
haemoglobin (almost) 95% / 100% saturated;
unloads at low oxygen tension(in tissues);
presence of carbon dioxide displaces curve further to right / increases oxygen
dissociation;
allows more O2 to be unloaded;
increase temp/ acidity allows more O2 to be unloaded;
low pO2 / increase CO2 / increase term / increase acid occur in vicinity of
respiring tissue;
Describe how haemoglobin is involved in absorbing oxygen in the lungs and
transporting it to respiring tissues.
1. Diffusion of oxygen into red cell / haemoglobin in red cells;
2. High affinity of haemoglobin in high oxygen concentration;
3. (Therefore) loads / becomes saturated in lungs / where oxygen abundant;
4. oxyhaemoglobin formed;
2+
5. Reference to role of haem e.g. energy changes /role of Fe
ions /Hb molecule combines
with fewer oxygen molecules;
6. Unloads / low affinity in low concentration;
7. Explanation in terms of dissociation curve i.e. small changes in concentration gives large
changes in saturation;
+
8. Respiration in tissues gives high CO2 concentration / high temperature / high H
concentration / low pH
9. Dissociation curve shifts to right / oxyhaemoglobin dissociation at higher partial pressure
The blood leaving a muscle has a lower pH than the blood entering it.
During vigorous exercise, the fall in pH is even greater. Explain what
causes this greater fall in pH.
(in exercise) - faster respiration rate;
more CO2 production;
CO2 is acidic / forms carbonic acid;
lactic acid production;
+
release of H ions;
During exercise, the rate of respiration of
muscle cells increases. Explain what
causes human haemoglobin to unload
more oxygen to these cells.
Partial pressure on oxygen in muscle falls more;
high / more carbon dioxide produced;
lowers PH;
increase in temperature;
percentage saturation of Hb falls / lowers
affinity /
increase dissociation;
displaces curve to right / results in Bohr shift;
Starch/Glycogen vs
Cellulose
Starch/Glycogen
(1,4 and) 1,6 bonds
branches
2. All glucose same way up
3. Helix/coiled/compact
4. Alpha glucose
5. No (micro/macro)
Fibrils/fibres
Celluose
1. 1,4 bonds no 1,6
bonds
2. Alternate glucoses
upside down;
3. Straight;
4. Beta glucose;
5. Micro/macro
fibrils/fibres;
Many large animals have blood systems. Explain why these animals need blood
systems to supply their cells with oxygen.
Gas exchange surface long distance from (some) respiring tissues;
Blood system allows rapid transport/faster supply;
Diffusion is slow;
Many of the mammals found in cold parts of Finland have a larger size and
body mass than related species found in warmer regions. Explain the
importance of this to their survival.(4)
Large animals have small surface area to volume ratio;
Large mammals are homoiothermic;
Lose less heat to environment;
By radiation/convection/conduction;
Fat;
For insulation;
Gas Exchange
Describe and explain how the structure of the mammalian breathing system
enables efficient uptake of oxygen into the blood.(6)
1. Alveoli provide a large surface area;
2. Walls of alveoli thin to provide a
short diffusion pathway;
3. Walls of capillary thin/close to
alveoli provides
a short diffusion pathway;
4. Walls (of capillaries/alveoli) have
flattened cells;
5. Cell membrane permeable to
gases;
6. Many blood capillaries provide a
large surface area;
7. Intercostal/chest
muscles/diaphragm muscles / to
ventilate lungs / maintain a
diffusion/concentration gradient;
8. Wide trachea / branching of
bronchi/bronchioles for efficient
flow of air;
9. Cartilage rings keep airways open;
A fish uses its gills to absorb oxygen from water. Explain how the gills of a fish
are adapted for efficient gas exchange.
1 Large surface area provided by
lamellae/filaments;
2 Increases diffusion/makes diffusion
efficient;
3 Thin epithelium/distance between water
and blood;
4 Water and blood flow in opposite
directions/countercurrent;
5 maintains concentration gradient (along
gill)/equilibrium
not reached;
5 Not enough to say gives steep
concentration gradient
6 As water always next to blood with lower
concentration of oxygen;
7 Circulation replaces blood saturated with
oxygen;
8 Ventilation replaces water (as oxygen
removed);
Describe and explain how fish maintain a flow of water over their gills.
1. mouth opens, operculum/opercular valve shuts;
2. floor of mouth lowered;
3. water enters due to decreased pressure / increased volume;
4. mouth closes, operculum/opercular valve opens;
5. floor raised results in increased pressure / decreased volume;
6. high/increased pressure forces/pushes water over gills;
Explain how the countercurrent principle helps fish to extract oxygen from
water.
Water flows in opposite direction to blood;
across (gill) lamellae;
Capillary
Thin wall, allowing
diffusion/exchange;
only endothelium present,
allowing short diffusion pathway;
Fenestrations to allow materials
to be exchange
Narrow lumen slows down red
blood cells and
Presses them against the walls of
the capillary allowing more time
and increasing the surface area
for exchange
Endothelium that reduces friction;
Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. Explain how the
structures of the walls of arteries and
arterioles are related to their
functions.
Elastic tissue
1 Elastic tissue stretches under pressure/when heart
beats;
2 Recoils/springs back;
3 Evens out pressure/flow;
Muscle
4 Muscle contracts;
5 Reduces diameter of lumen/vasoconstriction/constricts vessel;
6 Changes flow/pressure;
Epithelium
Artery arterioles: elastic fibres decrease
7 Epithelium smooth;
and muscle fibres increase.
8 Reduces friction/blood clots/less resistance;
The thickness of the aorta wall changes all the time during each cardiac cycle.
Explain why.
1. (Aorta wall) stretches;
2. Because ventricle/heart contracts / systole / pressure increases;
3. (Aorta wall) recoils;
4. Because ventricle relaxes / heart relaxes /diastole / pressure falls;
5. Maintain smooth flow / pressure
Explain the difference in thickness between the pulmonary artery (thicker) and
the pulmonary vein (thinner).
High pressure / smooth out blood flow / artery wall contains more collagen / muscle /
elastic (fibres) / connective tissue;
Describe two ways by which blood flow in the veins is
maintained.
Valves prevent backflow;
effect of (skeletal) muscle contraction
Residual blood pressure from heart;
negative pressure from thorax;
suction effect from heart;
Explain how tissue fluid is formed and how it may be returned to the
circulatory system.
1. (Hydrostatic) pressure of blood high at arterial end;
2. Fluid/water/soluble molecules pass out (reject plasma);
3. Proteins/large molecules remain;
4. This lowers the water potential / water potential becomes more negative;
5. Water moves back into venous end of capillary (reject tissue fluid);
6. By osmosis / diffusion;
7. Lymph system collects any excess tissue fluid;
8. (Lymph) returns to blood / circulatory system / link with vena cava/returns tissue fluid
to vein;
Describe how tissue fluid is formed and how it is returned to the circulatory
system.
Formation
1. High blood / hydrostatic pressure / pressure filtration;
2. Forces water / fluid out;
3. Large proteins remain in capillary;
Return
4. Lower water potential in capillary / blood;
5. Due to (plasma) proteins;
6. Water enters capillary / blood;
7. (By) osmosis;
8. Correct reference to lymph collecting excess fluid returning blood to main circulation
Describe the part played by proteins in the plasma in returning tissue fluid to the
capillary.
Produces lower water potential;
Water moves into capillary;
By
osmosis/diffusion;
Describe and explain one way in which the composition of tissue fluid differs from
that of plasma.
Contains little/no protein;
Molecules too large (to pass through capillary wall);
Contains less glucose;
some will have entered tissue cells;
The tissues of people who are starving often swell because of the accumulation of
tissue fluid. Explain what causes this accumulation of tissue fluid.
Starvation linked to low protein content of diet/Low protein concentration
in plasma/blood;
Water potential of blood higher/smaller water potential gradient;
Tissue fluid formed faster than returned/less tissue fluid returned to blood;
Histamine increases the permeability of capillary walls so that large molecules can
pass through. Explain how this change in permeability results in swelling round the bite.
Proteins can move into tissue fluid;
Lowers water potential of tissue fluid;
Increases tendency to draw water/fluid out/
Reduces tendency to reabsorb water;
Suggest an explanation for the link between high blood pressure and the
accumulation of tissue fluid.
High blood pressure increases rate of filtration / forces more fluid out;
Lymph system cannot cope / higher pressure reduces reabsorption;
Explain how water enters a plant root from the soil and travels through to the
endodermis.
Water enters root hair cells;
by osmosis;
because active uptake of mineral ions has created a WP gradient;
water moves through the cortex;
(by osmosis) down a WP gradient;
through cell vacuoles and cytoplasms / symplastic pathway;
through cell walls / apoplastic pathway;
Not required here but remember that all water is forced into the symplastic pathway at
the endodermis because of the casparian strip
Describe and explain how water moves via the apoplastic and symplastic
pathways from the soil to the xylem in a root.
Apoplastic Via cell walls / spaces external to cell membrane / external to
cytoplasm / between cells;
As far as endodermis / Casparian strip / layer of wax;
Caused by transpiration pull;
Cohesion / hydrogen-bonding between water molecules;
Symplastic Through cell surface membrane (of epidermis / root hair cell) / ref.
vacuoles membrane;
High to low / s;
Diffusion / osmosis;
Cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata / via strands of cytoplasm;
Secretion / active transport of ions into xylem by endodermis;
OR
Active uptake of ions from soil at epidemis;
Lowers / s in xylem / increases osmosis into xylem;
Explain how the structure of the endodermis affects the passage of water
by this apoplastic pathway.
Casparian bands; (accept ref to suberin)
which are impermeable/waterproof;
lower water potential in the cytoplasm of endodermis cell;
enters symplastic pathway / cytoplasm of cell;
by osmosis;
Root pressure is a force that is partly responsible for the movement of water
through xylem in stems. Explain how the active transport of mineral ions into
xylem vessels in the roots results in water entering these vessels and then
being moved up the xylem tissue.
Water potential in xylem reduced (by entry of ions);
Water potential gradient established between xylem and surrounding cells;
Plasma membranes of surrounding cells are partially permeable;
Water enters xylem by osmosis;
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Cannot move back due to gradient;
Pressure in xylem increases (and forces water upwards);
Describe one piece of evidence that supports the root pressure theory
and explain how it supports this theory.
Suitable accepted evidence, 1 mark for evidence and 1 mark for explanation
EITHER e.g.guttation
(only) upward pressure could force liquid water out of leaves;
OR
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem;
(only) upward force could make this happen;
Explain how water enters xylem from the endodermis in the root and is then
transported to the leaves.
(In the root)
1. Casparian strip blocks apoplast pathway / only allows symplast pathway;
2. Active transport by endodermis;
3. (Of) ions/salts into xylem;
4. Lower water potential in xylem / water enters xylem by osmosis /down a water
potential gradient;
(Xylem to leaf)
5. Evaporation / transpiration (from leaves);
6. (Creates) cohesion / tension / H-bonding between water molecules / negative pressure;
7. Adhesion / water molecules bind to xylem;
The diameter of a tree is less during the day, when the tree is transpiring, than it is at night.
Evaporation from leaves during daytime; tension/negative pressure (on water) in xylem creates
inward pull (on walls of xylem vessel);
xylem vessels become narrower; due to adhesion of water molecules (to walls of xylem vessels);
If air enters the xylem the transpiration stream can cease as cohesion is disrupted between the water molecules.
If the xylem breaks air is sucked into the vessel suggesting a negative pressure inside
R u b b e r s to p p e r
R e s e rv o ir fo r p u s h in g a ir b u b b le b a c k
to rig h t-h a n d e n d o f c a p illa ry tu b e
C a p illa r y tu b e w ith s c a le
A ir b u b b le
Potometer above assumes that all the water taken up is lost in transpiration but some will be
used in.
Photosynthesis, maintaining turgidity of cell, hydrolysis reactions
Volume of water up taken by shoot = r2 distance travelled (r = radius of capillary tube)
Rate of transpiration = distance moved by bubble time taken
Rate of water uptake (mm3s-1) = Speed of movement of air bubble (mm s-1) x cross-sectional area
The theory behind this is that as water evaporates from the leaves of the shoot water is moved up
the shoot due to cohesive forces and the air bubble is drawn along the capillary tube at the same rate
thus giving a measure of the transpiration rate. However, it is actually the rate of water uptake being
measured this is not the same as transpiration because.
1. The cross sectional area of the shoot is not as large as the area of the root hairs that normally
absorb water to supply the leaves so rate of uptake is less than transpiration.
The potometer can be used to investigate how various environmental factors affect the rate of
transpiration.
Light. Light stimulates the stomata to open allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis, and as
a side effect this also increases transpiration. This is a problem for some plants as they may
lose water during the day and wilt.
Temperature. High temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the spongy
cells, and reduces air humidity, so transpiration increases.
Humidity. High humidity means a higher water potential in the air, so a lower water potential
gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation.
Air movements. Wind blows away saturated air from around stomata, replacing it with drier
air, so increasing the water potential gradient and increasing transpiration.
Setting up the potometer
1) Cut a leafy shoot from the plant and immediately put it under water then cut a small section
from the stem again while it is under water, this prevents air getting into the xylem and
breaking the column of water. Do not get the leaves wet as this will affect the transpiration
rate.
2) Put the potometer under the water (freshly boiled and cooled water minimises air bubbles)and
move it from side to side to remove the air from the system then attach the leafy shoot into
the potometer under water also.
3) Seal all joints with water proofing substance like petroleum jelly so that any water loss is from
the leafs only
4) Ensure the environmental conditions dont change around the leaves as this will heavily
influence the transpiration rate
5) The air bubble introduce into the capillary tube can be timed as it moves across a set
distance, thus the rate of water loss can be measured.
Classification/taxonomy
Taxonomy: arranging organisms into groups based on similarities and differences.
The most common system of classification uses.
7 groups (taxonomic groups).
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(Remember this pneumonic: King, Philip, Came, Over, from, Germany, Swimming)
The groups are organised into a hierarchy
(As you move down the hierarchy there are more groups at each level, but fewer organisms
in each group)
The smaller the group the more similarities between the organisms in that group
There is no overlap between the groups
The hierarchy ends with species
A species is a group of similar organisms able to reproduce and give fertile offspring.
Each species is assigned a binomial name Genus and Species.
Q. Describe the principles on which the system of classification of living
organisms is based. (4)
Hierarchy of 7 taxonomic groups (KPCOFGS);
no overlap between groups;
organisms placed in groups due to common structures / similar characteristics;
reflecting evolutionary history (phylogeny) of organisms within a group;
binominal nomenclature / example;
definition of a species;
Phylogenetics
The study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms, telling us who is related to
whom and how close this relationship is compared to a common evolutionary ancestor.
It is closely related to classification because grouping needs to reflect evolutionary
relationship
Members of one genus must be more closely related to each other than they are to
organisms in a different genus.
Q. How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy?
Hierarchical classification, large groups are divided into smaller groups
Process starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class,
phylum. As the groups get larger there is a more distant common ancestory
Initially this was based on shared easily observable characteristics
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
members of a group have features in common; based on
anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of cell biology or homologous structures,
reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny.
Q. Explain the principles biologists use to classify organisms into groups
compared to older models.
Consider phylogeny
Look at evolutionary lineage/history
Find the point of divergence from a common ancestor
Consider, genetic, biochemical, embryology, homology of anatomy
Organisms are arranged in a hierarchy where large taxa (groups) are subdivided into
smaller taxa
(K, P, C, O, F, G,S)
As groups get smaller the similarities between the species increase
Each species is given a binomial name using the genus and species
Older models of classification used observable features to group organisms
Problems with classification
Defining a species is difficult when, reproductive behaviour cannot be observed because.
They organisms are extinct
Reproduce asexually
Practical and ethical issues involved when trying to cross breed certain different species
Scientists studied two species of North American seahorse. They thought that these
two species are closely related. Describe how comparisons of biological molecules in
these two species could be used to find out if they are closely related.
(Compare) DNA;
Sequence of bases/nucleotides;
DNA hybridisation;
Heat and Separate DNA strands / break hydrogen bonds;
Mix DNA/strands (of different species);
Measure Temperature/heat required to separate (hybrid) strands indicates relationship;
Higher temp more closely related
Compare same/named protein;
Sequence of amino acids /primary structure;
Immunological evidence not a mark
Inject (seahorse) protein/serum into animal
(Obtain) antibodies/serum;
Add protein/serum/plasma from other (seahorse) species;
Amount of precipitate indicates relationship
Behaviour in the males of a species of cichlid fish. In this some males are territorial while others
are not. Territorial males have flashy eyebars and reddish- orange patches on their flanks, while
the drab non-territorial males look rather like females. The territory holders aggressively
dominate males without territories and only the territorial males can breed. Should a territory
holder die, a drab male will quickly become colourful and behave as aggressively as the previous
owner. Being an underling in this species has dire physiological consequences. Not only is
reproductive behaviour suppressed, but so is the entire system that links the brain to the testes.
The results are shrunken testes and a low concentration of androgens. Dominant territorial fish,
on the other hand, have large testes and a high concentration of androgens.
Suggest how the appearance and behaviour of male cichlids are likely to lead to
success in reproduction.(6)
territorial signal / territory holder linked to colour aggressiveness;
sex recognition;
species recognition;
sexual maturity;
courtship signal;
reduces conflict / warm off other males;
territorial / dominant males have larger testes / more sperm;
Antibiotic resistance
Suggest three ways in which antibiotics may act on bacteria.
Prevent DNA replication;
prevent protein synthesis/transcription/translation/ribosome function;
damage/inhibit formation of cell wall;
Describe ways in which antibiotics can act against bacteria. Explain why this mode of action is effective
against the bacteria.
Prevent DNA replication
Prevent m-RNA synthesis (transcription)
Prevent transfer of amino acids to ribosomes (translation)
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Preventing DNA replication:
Bacterial cell will be unable to divide;
Prevent reproduction population of bacteria will not increase;
Preventing m-RNA synthesis
No m-RNA means code not passed to ribosomes form transcription;; no protein synthesis means no new
enzymes;
Preventing transfer of amino acid
No proteins made at ribosomes
No translation means no enzymes / no proteins structures;
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Water potential of bacterial cell lower than surrounding solution
Water enters by osmosis
Osmotic lysis occurs
Bacteriostatic antibiotics do not kill bacteria but allow patients to recover
from a bacterial infection. Explain why they allow patients to recover.
Prevent further growth/multiplication of bacteria;
allow time for immune response (to bacteria);
Explain how resistance to an antibiotic could become widespread in a bacterial
population following a gene mutation conferring resistance in just one
bacterium.
Bacteria with natural mutation develop resistant allele and have (selective) advantage
over others / described;
Frequent use of antibiotic creates selection pressure/ antibiotic kills non resistant
bacteria;
Resistant bacteria (Survive to) reproduce more than other types;
Pass on advantageous allele/ mutated allele in greater numbers;
Frequency of (advantageous) allele increases in subsequent generations;
(penalise use of gene instead of allele once only)
Frequency of resistant types increases in subsequent generations;
Biodiversity
All the organisms living in a habitat are collectively called its community, and species
diversity means the variety of species in a community. Species diversity is useful
because it tell us about the complexity, quality and stability of an ecosystem.
The best measure of Species diversity considers the number of different species (species
richness) and the abundance (number) of each species within a community.
The higher the species diversity of plants and trees, the more habitats, the more varied
the food sources and the more food available which consequently means a higher
diversity of insects and birds and animals.
We can calculate species diversity using the Simpson Index of Diversity
N = total number of all organisms
n = Total number of organisms in one species
= sum of
Agricultural practices (intensive farming) why things are done and the consequences of
these processes
Agriculture
Selective breeding: done to select for certain favourable characteristics reduces genetic
diversity.
Destruction of hedgerows: Makes large farms with large fields are cheaper and more
efficient to run by easing the moving machinery and harvesting. Hedgerows provide
habitats for at least 30 species of trees and shrubs, 65 species of nesting birds, 1500
species of insects and 600 species of wildflowers. These in turn provide food for small
mammals. Hedgerows also act as wildlife corridors, allowing animals to move safely
between woodlands.
Monoculture: increases the productivity by growing the best crops, which can be sowed
and harvested quickly using dedicated machinery. This increases yield and reduces
labour costs. It reduces genetic diversity and renders all crops in a region susceptible to
disease. Reduces animal species diversity, because there are few niches.
Fertilisers: maintain soil fertility, but they can pollute surrounding groundwater causing
eutrophication and killing aquatic animals.
Pesticides: are sprayed on crops to prevent attack by insects and other invertebrate
animals, but many pesticides have a broad spectrum, killing a wide range of animals and
so reducing diversity.
Herbicides: kill competing plants (weeds) that might reduce crop yield.
Deforestation
The Two main reasons humans clear forests are:
To use the land for agriculture, housing, mining or reservoirs
To use the timber for fuel, charcoal, paper or building materials.
Forests have a high biodiversity because a mature forest has many different species of
plants in several layers; each adapted to their own conditions of light and nutrient
availability. The different plants have different animals feeding on them and living in
them; and the different primary consumers have different secondary consumers feeding
on the. So forests contain complex food webs with high diversity.
Agriculture Deforestation
By contrast, a field of crops has very low diversity with very few plants (often just the
crop and a few weeds) and so few animals. Deforestation therefore reduces biodiversity.
As the diagram shows, forests have a deeper and more extensive root system, so binding
the soil together.
Without this root system, soils can be eroded, leading to desertification (fertile land
becomes desert). Forests also have a high productivity: i.e. there is a lot of plant material
produced per square meter of land, and a lot of photosynthesis takes place. So
deforestation reduces the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere
and so increases the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Diversity reduced
Less carbon dioxide stored: leading to climate change
Possible sources of medicines (often found in rain forest) are lost
Natural beauty lost
benefits More food can be produced
Food is cheaper to produce and so cheaper to buy
Attraction of local business
Risks
Diversity is reduced due to monoculture, loss hedgerows, use of herbicides
and pesticide
Natural beauty lost