BMCT

1
Building Materials & Construction Technology

Unit 1
FOUNDATIONS
Syllabus:
Function and requirements of a good foundation, Types of foundations, Preliminary investigation of soil, Safe Bearing
Capacity of Soil, Introduction to spread, combined, strap, mat and pile foundations, Design of strip and combined footings
Introduction:
As per civil engineering meaning of building is structure having various components like foundation, walls, columns, floors,
roofs, doors, windows, ventilators, stairs, various types of surface finishes.
Every structure consists of two parts.

(1) Foundation (sub structure)
(2) Super structure.
The sub structure transmits the load of super structure to the underlying soil and is termed as foundation.
Foundation is the most critical part of the building, which should be designed very carefully as most of the failures are
probably due to faulty design of foundations rather than any other cause. The solid ground on which the foundation rest is
called the foundation bed or foundation soil and it ultimately bears the load and interacts with the foundations of buildings.
Functions of foundations:
1) To distribute the total load coming on the structure on large area.
2) To support the structure
3) To give enough stability to the structures against various distributing forces such as wind, earthquake, rain etc.
4) To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
5) To load the substratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.
6) To take structure deep into the ground and thus increase stability and prevent overturning.
7) To provide structural safety against scouring and undermining due to animals, flood water etc.,
8) To prevent or minimize cracks due to movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils.
Essential Requirements of good foundation:

Following are the three basic requirements to be fulfilled by a foundation to be satisfactory
Amarnath C B | REVA ITM

1. Location: The foundation should be located that it is able to resist any unexpected future influence which may
adversely affect its performance. This aspect requires careful engineering judgment.
2. Stability: The foundation structure should be stable or safe against any possible failure
3. Settlement: The foundation structure should not settle or deflect to such an extent so as to impair its usefulness.
Causes of failure of good foundation:

The different causes for foundation failure are given below-
1. Non uniform settlement of sub soil and masonry

2. Horizontal movement of the soil adjacent to structure
3. Alternate swelling and shrinkage in wet and dry cycles of the season
4. Lateral pressure due to lateral movement of earth tending to overturn the structure
5. Action of weathering agencies like sun, wind or rain
6. Lateral escape of the soil beneath the foundation of the structure
7. Roots trees and shrubs which penetrate the foundation
Types of Foundations:
Spread footing
Shallow Foundation
Eccentrically loaded
Grillage footing
Raft footing
Foundation
Pier foundation
Deep Foundation
Caissons
Basements
Cylinders
Shaft foundation
Coffer dam, etc.,
Wall footing
Isolated column footing
Combined column footing
RCC
Inverted arch
Continuous footing
Strap / cantilever footing
I.
Open foundations or shallow foundations:
This is most common type of foundation and can be laid using open excavation by allowing natural slopes on all sides. This
type of foundation is practicable for a depth of about 5m and is normally convenient above the water table. The base of the
structure is enlarged or spread to provide individual support. Since the spread foundations are constructed in open
excavations, therefore they are termed as open foundations. This type of foundation is provided for structure of moderate
height built on sufficiently firm dry ground.
Spread footing:
As the name suggests in the case of spread footing the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is made wider
enough so as to distribute the loads uniformly over the entire area.
The various types of spread footings are:

1. Wall footing
2. Isolated column footing
3. Combined column footing
4. Inverted arch footing
5. Continuous footing
6. Cantilever footing
1. Wall Footing: These footings can be either simple or stepped. The base course of these footings can be concrete or
entirely of one material simple footing are used for light structures. They have only one projection beyond the width of
the wall. The base width of the concrete base course should be equal to twice the width of wall. The depth of concrete
bed is at least twice the projection as shown in fig 1.1. The depth of concrete bed is calculated by the depth of footing
is generally limited to 0.9m the width of footing should be calculated by divided the total load in kg/m run by the
allowable bearing capacity of soil in kg/m2.
Figure 1.1 Wall footing

2. Isolated column Footings: These are used to support in divided columns. They can be of stepped type or have projections
in the concrete base. In case of heavy loaded columns steel reinforcement is provided in both directions in concrete
with 15cm offsets as shown in the fig 1.2.
Fig 1.2 Isolated footing
3. Combined column Footing: A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row A Combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal constructed with reinforced concrete. The location of center of gravity of column loads and
centroid of the footing should coincide. The combined footing is as shown in fig1.3.
Fig 1.3 Combined footing
4. RCC footing: This is designed in the places where the walls are subjected to heavy loads, relatively heavy loads and the
bearing capacity of the soil on which the footing is resting is very low Volume of concrete will be reduced to make it
more economical. RCC footing is as shown in Fig 1.4
Fig 1.4 RCC footing
5. Inverted Arch Footing: This type of construction is used on soft soils to reduce the depth of foundation loads above an
opening are transmitted from supporting walls through inverted arches to the soil. In this type the end columns must
be stable enough to resist the outward pressure caused by arch actions. The inverted arch footing is as shown in fig1.5
Fig 1.5 Inverted Arch footing
6. Continuous Footing: In this type of footing a single continuous R.C slab is produced as foundation of two or three or
more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents
differential settlement in the structure. In order to have better stability a deeper beam is constructed in between the
columns as shown in fig1.6.
Fig 1.6 Continous footing
7. Strap or cantilever footing: Strap footing consists of two or more individual footings connected by a beam called strap
or cantilever footing or pump handle foundation. This type of foundation may be used where the distance between the
columns is so great that combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow with high bending moments strap or
cantilever footing is as shown in fig 1.7.
Fig 1.7 Strap or continuous footing
Eccentrically loaded footing: As far as possible the foundation should be shaped proportionally to the center of gravity
of a whole structure. Advantage can be adopted when walls or columns are to be placed very near to property line,
then we can design for eccentrically loaded footing because the offsets that are designed cannot be spread on both
directions.
Fig 1.8 eccentrically loaded footing
Grillage foundation: This type of footing is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns to foundation soils having
low bearing power. This type of foundation avoids deep excavation and provides necessary area at the base to reduce
the intensity of pressure of the foundation soil is not stiff and there is a plenty of water with spring, the sides are
protected by sharing. The grillage footing is as shown in fig 1.9.
Fig 1.9 Grillage Foundation
Raft Foundation: A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all
the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure loads are heavy the use of spread footings would
cover more than one half of the area and it may be prove more economical to use raft foundation. There are also used
where the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control usually
When the hard soil is not available within 1.5 to 2.5m, a raft foundation is adopted. The raft is composed of reinforced.
Concrete beam with relatively thin slab underneath fig 1.10 shows different types of raft.
Fig 1.10 Raft Foundation
II.
Deep Foundation:
These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soil or fills onto the stronger and less
compressible soils or rocks at depth. These foundations are in general used as basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons,
cylinders, shaft and piles as shown in fig 1.11
Fig 1.11 Deep foundation

1. Pile foundations: Pile foundation is a construction for the foundation supported on piles. A pile is an element of
construction composed of timber, concrete, or steel or a combination of them. Pile foundation may be defined as a
column support type of a foundation, which may be cast in-situ or Pre-cast. This type of construction is adopted when
the loose soil extends to a great depth. The load of the structure is transmitted by the piles to hard stratum below or it
is resisted by the friction developed on the sides of pipes.
Pile foundation can be further classified into:

a) Bearing piles
b) Sheet piles
c) Friction piles
d) Anchor piles
e) Batter piles
f)
Compaction piles
g) Fender / dolphin piles
a) Bearing piles- Penetrate through soft soil and their bottom rest on a hard stratum.
b) Sheet Piles- Sheet piles are thin piles, made of concrete, timber or steel are as shown in Fig 1.12. Sheet pile is
used to function as the retaining wall. They are not meant for carrying any vertical loads. Sheet piles prevent
any action of running water or water leakage
Fig 1.12 Sheet piles
c) Friction piles- When piles are required to be driven at a site where the soil is weak to a considerable depth, the
load carried by a pile is borne by a friction [skin friction] developed between the side of a pile and the
surrounding ground. Friction piles are driven in such a types of soil where in the strength does not increase
with the increase in foundation depth. The frictional resistance is equal to load coming on the piles as shown
in the fig 1.13.
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Fig 1.13 Friction piles

d) Screw piles-Used for gravely ground sand, mixed gravel ground etc., as shown in fig 1.14
Fig 1.14 Screw Piles

2. Caissons: They are hallow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the surface and then sunk as single units
to their required level.
3. Basements: There are constructed in place in an open excavation. They are hallow slab structure designed to provide
working or storage space below ground level. The structural design is governed by their functional requirements.
4. Buoyancy rafts: They are hallow substructures designed to provide a buoyant substructure beneath with the net loading
on the soil reduce to the desired low intensity.
5. Cylinders: They are small single cell caissons
6. Shaft foundations: They are constructed within deep excavation supported by lining constructed in place subsequently
filled with concrete.
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Preliminary Investigation of Soil:
The general inspection of site of work serves as a good for determine the type of foundation, to be adopted for the proposed
work and in addition, it helps in getting the data with respect to the following items.
a) Behavior of ground due to variations in depth of water table

b) Disposal of storm water at site
c) Nature of soil by visual examination
d) Movement of ground due to any reason etc.
Methods of site exploration:
Test pits
Probing
Auger boring
Wash boring
Purpose of Site Exploration:

1. To fix the value of SBC of soil.
2. To select an economical & safe type of foundation.
3. To fix the depth up to which foundation must be taken into the Ground
4. To predict likely settlement of settled foundation & to make allowance for the same in the design
5. To Know the underground water level & if needed to decide upon the method to be adopted to solve the ground
water problem
6. To forecast the difficulties which are likely to be encountered due to nature of sub soil during construction and to
take advance actions in that regards.
7. Disposal of storm water at site.
8. Nature of soil by visual examination.
9. Movement of ground due to any reason.
Bearing Capacity of Soil:

Ultimately the load of the structure is coming on the soil and hence, it is of utmost importance to know the strength and
behavior of the soil. The term bearing power or bearing capacity of soil is used to indicate the maximum load per unit area,
which the soils resist safely without displacement. Dividing the ultimate bearing capacity of a soil by a factor of safety, the
safe bearing capacity of a soil is obtained. Max. Safe bearing capacity of different types of soils are given in table below
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Definitions:
1. Bearing Capacity of soil: It is the ability of the soil to support to load coming over its unit area without causing excessive
settlement & displacement.
2. Ultimate bearing Capacity: It is the minimum load on unit area causing failure.
3. Allowable Bearing pressure: It is used to indicate the maximum pressure to which soil can be subjected without causing
shear failure and excessive settlement of soil.
4. Max safe bearing pressure: It is used to indicate the max pressure that a soil can bear without any risk of shear failure
only irrespective of any that may occur.
Causes of failure of foundations & methods to prevent the same:

1) Unequal settlement of sub soil
This is due to non-uniform nature of sub soil, unequal distribution of loads, eccentric loading. It causes tilting &
overturning & ultimately failure of the structure.
Prevention:
1} Resting the foundation on a rigid strata,
2} limiting pressure on the soil,
3} foundations are not to be disturbed,
4} avoid eccentric loading.
2) Atmospheric action
The behavior of a foundation may be adversely affected due to atmospheric agents like sun, wind, rain, etc., if the
depth of foundation is shallow, the moisture movement due to rains may cause trouble. The stagnant water near
the foundation may cause failure.
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Prevention:
1} providing gentle ground sloping outwards.
2} filling back the foundation trenches with good soil & compacting it.
3} providing a narrow strip of impervious material along the exterior walls
3) Lateral movement of subsoil

This is applicable for soft soils which are liable to move out laterally under vertical loads, especially when the ground
is sloped.
Prevention:
1} Driving the sheet pile to prevent the lateral movement of the soil.
4) Unequal settlement of masonry

It is the result of shrinkage & compressibility of mortar joints. The reason for compressibility of mortar is unequal
mortar thickness & constructing more height of wall in a day than as specified.
Prevention:
1} masonry to be used should be fit,
2} masonry should be raised uniformly & in one day more than 1.5m height of wall should not be constructed,
3} using thin mortar joints,
4} proper curing of masonry.
5) Weathering of subsoil due to stress

The roots of the trees in the vicinity of the foundation may penetrate into the foundation soil resulting in cracks.
Prevention:
1} prevent by removing the trees which are in vicinity
Methods of determine the bearing capacity of soil:

The bearing capacity of soil is determined by any one of the following methods
Method of loading
Method of dropping a weight
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1)
Method of loading Plate load test
Fig 1.15 Arrangement for plate load test
1)
A square pit of required size is excavated up to 5 times the side of steel plate to be used. At the center of pit, square
hole is dig, which is same ratio to that of breadth to depth of pit.
2)
Plates are firmly fixed in the hole, if the ground is uneven, a thin layer of sand is spread below the plate.
3)
Loading to the test plate is applied with help of hydraulic jacks which is provide with remote control pumping unit.
4)
Load is applied in convenient increments say about 1/5th of expected SBC or 1/10th of UBC.
5)
Settlement of plate is observed by 2 sensitive dial gauges which are fixed at the diametrically opposite ends and
supported on a suitable datum bar { dial gauge sensitivity = 0.02mm}
6)
As the plate settles the ram of the dial gauge moves down & settlement is recorded. Load is indicated on load
gauge.
7)
Recording of settlement is continued until rate of settlement becomes less than 0.02mm/hr. the next load
increment is then applied.
8)
The max load i.e., to be applied corresponds to 1.5 times the ultimate load or 3 times proposed allowable bearing
pressure.
9)
The ultimate bearing capacity is then taken as the load at which the plate starts settling at a rapid rate, then the
load settlement curve is plotted.
Limitations of plate load Test:

1) Duration of test: Test is of short duration and hence does not give ultimate settlement capacity especially in case of
cohesive soil.
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2) Nature of soil: Foundation of structure are generally larger & hence the settlement & resistance against shear failure
will depend much on properties of thicker stratum of soil.
3) Size of foundation: For clay soils the ultimate pressure for a large foundation is nearly the same as that on the test plate.
For dense sandy soil, the bearing capacity increases with size of foundation & hence the results obtained on small size
bearing plates found to give conservative values.
2. Method of Dropping Weight:

In this method, a substance of known weight is dropped from a known height as shown in 1.16. The depth of impression
made by the weight on the soil is noted. Then the bearing capacity of the soil is worked out as follows.
Fig 1.16 Method of dropping weight
Working out bearing capacity of soil:

Let,
R = resistance of soil
h = height of drop
d = depth of impression
W = weight of substance
A = cross sectional area of substance
F = factor of safety
Then,
Total energy = Rxd
= wxh
Therefore, R = [wxh] / d
R/A = Resistance of soil / unit area
Therefore, SBC of soil / unit area = R / [Axf]
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The results obtained by this method are approximate and hence, this method is used for minor engineering structures or
at places where first method would be impracticable
Design:
1. Design of shallow foundation
Step 1: given data

Step 2: loads calculation
Super imposed load
Self-weight of wall = T x h x masonry
Total load = SIL + self-weight
Weigh of foundation = 10% of total load
Total load transferred to soil = weight of foundation + total load
Step 3: Width of foundation {b} = total load transferred / SBC

Step 4: Depth of foundation
1sin 2
& Dmin = [1/2n] [(B T) 2d(n1 n)]
Dmin = [1+sin ]
B = width; T = thickness of wall; d = depth of wall {height of wall above ground level} ; q = total load transferred ;
= angle of response ; = unit weight of soil.
Adopt the highest value.

3q
m ; provide a = 15cm
Step 5: Design of concrete bed - d = a
Step 6: Design of offset wkt, B = 1m; T = 0.3 m; remaining width = 1 - .3 = 0.7m

Therefore, offset = remaining width / 2
But offset for concrete = 15cm
Therefore, remaining offset = offset 15cm
Min offset to be provided for brick masonry = 5cm
No. of offsets = remaining offset / 5cm
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2. Design of Combined footing:
Step 1: given data

Step 2: load calculation
Weight of footing (W1) = 10% (W1 + W2 )
Step 3: Area of footing
A = (W1 + W2 + W1) / qs (SBC)
Assume suitable value for L & B such that L x B = A
Projections a1 and a2
CG = X = (W2 L) / W1 + W2 ; a1 + X = L/2 ; a2 = L (l + a1 )
Net upward pressure
p0 =
(W1 + W2 )
bxL
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Unit 2
Masonry
Syllabus:
Classification of Masonry, Definition of terms used in Masonry, Introduction to classification and qualities of bricks, Bonds in
Brick work - English Bond, Flemish Bond, Reinforced, Brick Masonry, Common building stones, their properties and uses,
Classification of stone masonry, Joints in stone masonry, Introduction to load bearing, cavity and partition walls.
Introduction:
Masonry is one of the oldest form of construction known to humanity. Masonry is defined as the art of construction in
which building units, such as clay bricks, sand-lime, bricks, stones, Pre-cast hallow concrete blocks, concrete slabs, glass
bricks, combination of some of these building units etc., are arranged systematically and bonded together to form a
homogeneous mass in such a manner that they can with stand point to other loads and transmit then through the mass
without fail or disintegration.
Definition:
As per IS-1905-1987- Code of practice for masonry: An assemblage of masonry units properly bonded together with mortar
As per IBC-2000 - combination of building units or materials of clay, concrete, stone or approved units bonded together
with or without mortar or grout or any other accepted methods of joining
As per ASTM E 631 - Construction usually in mortar, or natural building stone or manufactured units such as brick, concrete
block, adobe, etc.,
Commonality- Masonry- assemblage of units of same or diff kind that have been bonded together in some way to perform
intended function
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Terms used in Masonry:
Fig 2.1 Terms used in Masonry
1. Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks stones

2. Bed: the surface of a stone perpendicular to the line of pressure of (lower surface of bricks or stones in each course)
3. Back: The inner surface of wall not exposed is called back. The material forming back is known as backing
4. Face: The exterior of the wall exposed to weather is known as face. The material used in the facing of wall is known as
facing.
5. Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between facing and backing
6. Head: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its greatest length at right angles to the face of the work.
7. Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its congest side parallel to the face of the work
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8. Bond: The method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied together
9. Spalls: The chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry
10. Quoins: The stones used for the corners of walls of structure
11. Bat: It is a portion of a brick cut across the width.
12. Closer: It is the portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut
13. Queen closer: it is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length-wise into two portions
14. King closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between the center of one end and the
center of one side.
15. Beveled closer: It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is beveled for maintaining half width at
one end and full width at the other
16. Frog: It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object of forming a key for the mortar.
17. Sill: It is a horizontal stone, concrete or wood, employed for the purpose of shedding off rain water from the face of wall
immediately below the window opening
18. Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the face of a wall to serve as a support for wall
plates
19. Templates: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute load over a greater area.
20. Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the seepage of water
21. Buttress: It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to strengthen the wall against the thrust
of a roof as shown in fig 2.
Section through a wall:
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Fig 2.1 Section through the wall
Plinth: It is the horizontal projecting course of the stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above ground level.
Sill: it is a horizontal member of a brick or stone provided to give support for the vertical members.
Reveal: these are the exposed vertical surface left on the sides of an opening after door or window frames has been fitted
in position.
Lintel: a horizontal member of a stone or brick used to support the masonry or the load above an opening.
Corbel: a corbel is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as support for joist, truss, weather shed, etc.,
Frieze: it is a stone provided immediately below the cornice.
Cornice: it is a horizontal molded projection provided near the top of a building or at the junction of the wall & the ceiling.
It serves as a barrier for shedding the rain water.
Parapet: it is a term applied to a low wall built around the flat roof to act as a protective barrier for the user of terrace.
Coping: it is a covering placed on exposed top of an external wall. It is provided to prevent the seepage of water through
the joints of the topmost course of the wall.
Masonry:
Masonry is a composite construction consisting of
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Masonry units
Adobe sundried mud blocks
Stone, laterite blocks
Burnt clay bricks
Concrete blocks (solid or hollow)
Calcium silicate bricks
Stabilized mud blocks (SMB)
Fly ash gypsum blocks
Mortar
Mud mortar
Lime sand mortar
Cement, lime, sand mortar
Cement sand mortars
Composite mortars (cement, lime, soil, sand & additives)
Reinforcement
Metallic
Non metallic
Mortar:
Masonry mortar is versatile material capable of satisfying a variety of diverse requirements. In masonry construction,
mortars constitute only a small proportion (approximately 7%) of the total wall area, but its influence on the performance
of the wall is significant. To a casual observer, mortar gives the appearance of simply being a joining material for masonry
units in wall system, but actually it serves other purposes also
1. Bond masonry units together into an integral structural assembly
2. Seals joints against penetration by air and water
3. Accommodates small movements within a wall
4. Bonds to joint reinforcement to assist in resisting shrinkage and tension
5. Bonds to ties and anchorage so that all elements perform as an integral unit
Classification of Masonry:
Masonry can be classified into the following categories as shown in fig 2.3
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Stone masonry
Brick masonry
Hallow block concrete
Reinforced masonry
Composite masonry
Masonry
Fig 2.3 masonry classification
These can be further sub-divided into varies types depending upon workmanship and type of materials used.
Advantages of Masonry:
1. Single element can fulfill several functions including structural, fire protection, thermal and sound insulation, weather
protection, and sub-division of space.
2. Vertical construction process in masonry does not need formwork.
3. It is a sustainable material and time tested.
Bricks:
Bricks are obtained by molding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying and burning these blocks. As
bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged, light in weight and hence bricks replace stones.
Fig 2.4 Bricks
Brick types:
1. Country made
2. Wire cut
3. Table molded - first class, second class, third class
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Table Molded:
1. First class bricks
First class bricks are those which strictly confirm to the standard size of bricks i.e., 19 x 9 x 9cm
Fig 2.5: 1st class bricks

Qualities:
Manufactured from good quality plastic earth which is free from saline deposits.
Selected earth should be of uniform in colour.
Bricks should be well burnt.
When 2 bricks are stuck together, hard ringing sound should be emitted.
Bricks should have straight edges and even surfaces.
Bricks should be free from cracks, chips, flaws and deposits of lime.
When immersed in water for one hour, bricks should not absorb water more than 1/6th of their weight.
Bricks should not show efflorescence on drying.
2. Second Class Bricks:

Second class bricks confirm to the standard size, but are slightly irregular in shape and colour.
Fig 2.6: 2nd class bricks

Qualities:
Bricks are burnt fully
When 2 bricks are stuck together, a hard ringing sound should be emitted.
When immersed in water, bricks should not absorb water more than 1/4th of their weight.
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3. Third Class Bricks:
Third class bricks are quite irregular in their size, shape and finish
Fig 2.7: 3rd class bricks

Qualities:
They are not burnt fully
The colour is reddish yellow due to improper burning.
They have low crushing strength.
They are not used for quality brick masonry
Bonds in Brick work:

Bonding is a process of arranging bricks and mortars to tie them together in a mass of brickwork. It should have a minimum
of vertical joints in any part of the work.
Characteristics of brick bond or rules for bonding:

1. The brick masonry should have bricks of uniform shape and size for satisfactory bondage the lap should be one-fourth of
the brick along the length of the wall and half brick across thickness of the wall.
3. The brick bats use should be discouraged
4. The vertical joints in the alternate courses should coincides with the centre line of the stretcher
5. The alternate courses the centre line of header should coincide with the centre line of stretcher, in course below or above
it.
6. The stretcher should be used only in the facing while hearting should be done in the headers only
Classifications of bonds:
The bonds can be classified as follows:
(i) Stretcher bond
(ii) Header bond
(iii) English bond
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(iv) Double Flemish bond
(v) Single Flemish bond
(vi) Garden wall bond
(vii) Facing bond
(viii) Dutch bond
(ix) Raking bond
(x) Zigzag bond
(xi) English cross bond
(xii) Bonds in columns
(xiii) Brick on edge bond or soldier course
(xiv) Bonds at junction and squint junction
Stretcher bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their lengths in the direction of the wall. This pattern is used
only for wall having thickness of 9cm only as shown in fig 2.8.
Fig 2.8 Stretcher bond
Header bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their ends towards the face of the wall. This arrangement is
suitable for one brick wall of curved wall and footings for better load distribution as shown in fig 2.9
Fig 2.9 header bond
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English bond: In this type of bond alternate course of headers and stretchers are laid. It is necessary to place queen closer
in the heading course for breaking the joints vertically. The different English bonds are as shown in fig 2.10
Fig 2.10 English bond
Double Flemish bond: In this type, alternate heads and stretchers are laid in each course. The facing and backing are of the
same appearance brickbats and queen closers are used. The double Flemish bond is as shown in fig 2.11
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Fig 2.11 double Flemish bond
Single Flemish bond: This type of bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing and English bond backing in each course.
This type of construction partially possesses the strength of English bond, and appearance of Flemish bond. As this type of
bond requires minimum thickness of 1 bricks so it cannot be used for walls having thickness less than 1 bricks. The fig
2.12 shows the single Flemish bond
Fig 2.12 Single Flemish bond
Comparison of English and Flemish bond:
English bond is stronger than Flemish bond for walls thicker than 1 brick.
Flemish bond gives more pleasing appearance than the English bond
Broken bricks can be used in the form of bats in Flemish bond.
Construction with Flemish bond requires greater skill in comparison to English bond.
Reinforced Brick masonry

Definition
It is the one wherein reinforcement acts together with masonry in resisting loads, that is as a homogenous material
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Why reinforcement is introduced into masonry?

Since plain masonry is a brittle material, when subjected to dynamic. Loads or sudden loads (ex- seismic loads), it will
undergo sudden failure (i.e., collapse will be all of a sudden), to prevent this, reinforcement is introduced into masonry.
GI wire
Corrosion resistant steel
Stainless steel
Bamboo
Timber
When to introduce reinforcement into masonry?

Reinforced brick work is one which the brick masonry is strengthened by providing the mild steel flats or the mesh.
It is adopted in the following circumstances:
When the brick has to bear tensile & shear load.
When it is required to increase the longitudinal bond.
When the brick work is supported on the soil which is susceptible to the large settlement.
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When the brick work is to resist lateral loads such as retaining wall.
When the brick wall is to carry heavy compressible loads
Advantages of Reinforced brick/block work:
ductility is imparted to masonry, hence it can handle dynamic loads in a better way
compressive and tensile strength of masonry is improved to a very good extent
Economy can be achieved by use of reinforcement into masonry which can reduce or bring down the thickness of walls
Brick masonry
Introduction:
Brick masonry is a unified mass obtained by systematic arrangement of laying bricks and bonding together with mortar. It
is used in foundations, walls, buttresses, retaining structures, copings, ornamental brickwork, circular brickwork, fire places,
flumes, tall chimneys, steps, arches etc.,. The strength of brick masonry works depends upon the quality of bricks and type
of mortar used. Mortar not only imparts strength but holds the bricks together to act as homogenous mass.
Generally mortars are following types used for brick masonry
(i) Mud mortar
(ii) Cement mortar
(iii) Cement lime mortar
(iv) Lime surkhe mortar
General principles in brick masonry construction:

1. A good brick masonry should utilize bricks, which are sound, hard, well burnt and tough with uniform colour, shape and
size.
2. The bricks should be compact, homogeneous, free form holes, cracks, flaws, air-bubbles and stone lumps and soaked in
water for at least two hours before use
3. In the brickwork, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing upwards
4. The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly vertical joints
5. as far as possible the use of brick bats should be discouraged
6. as far as possible the brick wall should be raised uniformly less than 1.5m in day with proper bond.
7. When the mortar is green the face joints should be racked to a depth of 12 to 19mm in order to have a proper key for
plastering or pointing.
8. In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and the new, the wall should be stopped with a toothed end.
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9. Finished brickwork should be cured for a period of 2 to 3 weeks for lime mortar and 1 to 2 weeks for cement mortar
10. In order to carry out the brickwork at higher level, a single scaffolding is used.
Defects in Brick masonry:
Sulphate attack:
This is a common defect, especially at locations where the brick work is either exposed (such as in boundary walls, un
plastered external walls etc.,).
The Sulphate salts present in brick react with hydraulic lime In the case of lime mortar and alumina of cement in case of
cement mortar. Due to this reaction, the increase in the volume of mortar takes place, resulting in chipping and spalling of
bricks.
Crystallization of salts from bricks:
If the bricks are manufactured from the earth containing excessive soluble salt, entry of the moisture either by dampness
or due to rain which dissolves the soluble salts.
These salts after getting dissolved in water appear in the form of fine whitish crystals on exposed surface of a brick. This is
known as efflorescence.
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Corrosion of embedded fixtures:
Iron or steel fixtures such as pipes or hold fasts of the door that are provided in the brick masonry gets corroded with time
especially in the case of lime mortar.
The corrosion results in the increase in volume resulting in cracks in the brick masonry. Therefore the fixtures should be
embedded in cement mortar
Drying shrinkage:
When the moisture penetrates the brick work, it swells on evaporation of moisture during the dry season due to
atmospheric heat, it shrinks and cracks are formed.
Common Building stones, properties & uses:

1. Basalt & trap
Classification: Igneous
Properties:
hard & tough; difficult to work. Specific gravity = 3; compressive strength = 150 185 N/mm2 ; Weight = 18 29 KN / m3
Uses:
Road metal, for rubble masonry; foundation work, etc.,
Localities:
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Maharashtra, Bihar, Gujarat, Bengal and M.P
2. Chalk
Classification: sedimentary
Properties: pure white lime stone; soft and easy to form powder.
Uses: In preparing glaziers putty; as coloring material in manufacture of Portland cement
Locations: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Andaman islands, Bengal, Bihar, A.P., Himachal Pradesh, M.P., and
U.P.
3. Gneiss:
Classification: Metamorphic
Properties: splits into thin slabs; easy to work; sp. Gt. Is 2.69; compressive strength is 206 N/mm2.
Uses: street paving, rough stone masonry work, etc.,
Locations: madras, Mysore, Bihar, A.P., Maharashtra, Bengal, kerala, Gujarat.
4. Granite:
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Classification: Igneous
Properties:
hard, durable and available in different colors, highly resistant to natural forces, can take nice polish, sp. Gt. = 2.6 2.7,
compressive strength = 75 127 N/mm2, weight = 26-27 KN/m3
Uses:
steps, sills, facing work, walls, bridge piers, columns, road metal, ballast, not suitable for carving.
Localities:
Kashmir, madras, Punjab, Rajasthan, U.P., M.P., Mysore, Maharashtra, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Kerala, Gujarat
5. Kankar:
Properties:
Impure limestone
Uses:
road metal, manufacture of hydraulic lime, etc.,
Localities:
North and central India
6. Laterite:
Classification: metamorphic
Properties:
Porous & spongy structure, easily quarried in blocks, contains high percentage of oxide of iron, available in different colors,
comp. strength = 1.8 3.1 N/mm2
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Uses:
building stone, road metal, rough stone masonry work, etc.,
Localities:
Bihar, Orissa, Mysore, M.P., Maharashtra, Kerala, A.P. and Madras
7. Limestone:
Properties:
Consists of carbonate of lime, easy to work, Sp. Gr. = 2 2.75, comp. strength = 54 N/mm2
Uses:
floors, steps, walls, road metal, manufacture of lime in blast furnace, etc.,
Localities:
Bihar, M.P., Maharashtra, A.P., M.P., U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Andaman Islands, Bengal, Punjab.
8. Marble:
Properties:
Can take good polish and available in different colors, sp. Gr. = 2.65, comp. strength = 71 N/mm2
Uses:
flooring, facing work, columns, steps, ornamental work, etc., can take nice polish, it can easily be sawn and carved.
Localities:
Rajasthan, M.P., Maharashtra, Mysore, A.P. and U.P.
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9. Murum:
Properties:
Decomposed laterite, deep brown or red in colour.
Uses:
blindage for metal roads, for fancy paths and garden walls.
Localities:
Bihar, Orissa, Mysore, M.P., Maharashtra, Kerala, A.P. and Madras
10. Quartzite:
Properties:
Hard, brittle, crystalline and compact, difficult to work and dress.
Uses:
Retaining walls, road metal, concrete aggregate, pitching, rubble masonry, facing of building, etc.,
Localities:
Bengal, A.P., Himachal Pradesh, Madras, U.P., Mysore, Gujarat, Punjab and Rajasthan
11. Sandstone:
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Properties:
Consists of quartz and other materials, easy to work and dress and available in different colors, sp. Gr. = 2.65 2.95, comp.
strength = 64 N/mm2, weight = 20-22 KN / m3
Uses:
Steps, facing work, columns, floorings, walls, road metals, ornamental carving, etc.,
Localities:
Bengal, A.P., M.P., Madras, U.P., Punjab, Gujarat, Andaman Islands, Himachal Pradesh, kashmir and Rajasthan
12. Slate:
Properties:
Splits along natural bedding planes, nonabsorbent, Sp. Gr. = 2.89, comp. str = 75 207 N/mm2
Uses:
Roofing works, sills, damp proof course, etc.,
Localities:
U.P., M.P., Bihar, Madras, Rajasthan and Mysore.
Stone Masonry:
Introduction:
Stone masonry has been used from ancient times. Materials used in stone masonry are stone and mortar. When stones
are available easily, it works out cheaper than brickwork. When groundwater table is high & bricks are liable to
deteriorate, stone masonry is a solution for it even today in foundation work.
Uses of stone masonry:
Stone masonry construction is used in
1. Building foundations, dams, monumental structures
2. Building walls, piers, columns, pillars, light houses and architectural works.
3. Arches, domes, lintels and beams
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4. Roofs, flems, paving jobs

5. Railway, bullest, black boards and electrical switch boards
Selection of stone for stone masonry:

The selection of stones for stone masonry depends upon
a. Availability
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance
d. Strength and stability
e. Polishing characteristics
f. Economy
g. Durability
Materials used:
Cement
OPC, RHC, PPC, BFSC, MC
sand
Should not be too coarse not too fine
Lime
hydraulic or fat lime
Pozzolonic material
Fly ash, surkhi, etc.,
Mud
Mud to be properly selected such that dont contain harmful contents such as sulphate, etc.,
Additives
To be carefully chosen based on requirement
Water
Potable water
(fit for construction)
General principles in the stone masonry construction

1. The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.
2. The pressure acting on stones should be vertical
3. The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the requirements
4. The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell shape.
5. In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the ends of griders, roof trusses etc., large flat stones should be
used
6. The beds of the stones and plan of the course should be at right angles to the slope in the case of sloping retaining wall
7. Wood boxing should be filled into walls having fine dressed stone work to protect it during further construction
39

8. The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified faces.
9. The instruction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.
10. The plumb bob should be used to check the vertically of erected wall
11. The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and not the tensile stresses
12. The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a period of 2 to 3 weeks
13. As per as possible broken stones or small stones chips should not Used
14. Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher level
15. The masonry hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips if necessary to avoid hallows
16. The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked
Classification of stone masonry:

Coursed rubble masonry
Un coursed rubble
masonry
Random rubble masonry
Rubble masonry
polygonal rubble masonry
Dry rubble masonry
Plinth rubble masonry
Stone masonry
Fine tooled masonry

Rough tooled masonry
Ashlar masonry
Quarry faced masonry

Chamfered masonry
Facing masonry
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Rubble masonry:
Here the blocks of stones used either undressed or comparatively less dressed. This masonry has wide joints since the
stones of irregular shapes are used.
Coursed rubble masonry:
In this type of rubble masonry the height of the stones may vary from 50mm to 200mm. The stones are sorted out before
starting work. Masonry work is then started in courses such that the stones in a particular course are of equal height.
Un-coursed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and poorest form of stone masonry. The stones used in this type
of masonry very much vary in their shape and size and are directly obtained from quarry. Un-coursed rubble masonry can
be divided into the following.
a) Un-coursed random rubble
b) Un-coursed squared rubble
Un-coursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and edges are removed with masons hammer. Generally, bigger
stone blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase the strength of masonry
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Un-coursed squared rubble: In this type the stone blocks are made roughly square with hammer. Generally the facing stones
are given hammer-dressed finish. Large stones are used as quoins. As far as possible the use of chips in bedding is avoided.
Random rubble masonry: This type of masonry is commonly used in the construction of low height walls of public buildings,
residential buildings, abutment and piers of ordinary bridges. The stones of 5 to 20cm size are used in each course.
Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones are roughly dressed to an irregular polygonal shape. The stones
should be so arranged as to avoid long vertical joints in face work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone chips
should not be used to support the stones on the facing.
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Dry rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the construction of retaining walls pitching earthen dams and canal
slopes in the form of random rubble masonry without any mortar. The hallow spaces left around stones should be tightly
packed with smaller stone pieces.
Plinth rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the areas where the flint is available in plenty. The flint stones varying
in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in length from 15 to 30cm are arranged in the facing in the form of coursed or uncoursed
masonry.
Ashlar masonry: This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine joints of about 3mm
thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The backing of ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar
masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stones blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness. Height of the stone will
varies from 25-30cm.The height of the blocks in each course is kept equal but it is not necessary to keep all the courses of
same height.
1. Ashlar fine masonry: In this type of masonry the Beds, sides and also faces are finely chiseled and dressed. The
stones arranged in proper bond & thickness of mortar joint should not exceed 3mm. Gives smooth appearance but
it is costlier in construction
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2. Ashlar Chamfered masonry: Similar to ashlar fine masonry but, the only difference is the edges of the stone are
beveled by an angle of 45 degree for a depth of 25mm
3. Ashlar facing masonry: In this type of masonry the faces of the stone are rough tooled. The backing may be made
in brick or concrete. This composite construction reduces the cost of work. Height of course should not be less than
20cm and width of each stone is equal to 1.5 times its height. Lapping should be around 15cm.
4. Ashlar rough tooled masonry: Here, the exposed face of the stone will have a rough surface. Joint thickness should
not exceed 6mm
5. Ashlar quarry faced masonry: This is similar to ashlar rough tooled masonry except that the exposed faces of the
stones between the chisel drafting's are left rough.
Joints in stone masonry:
Butt joint
Rebated joint
Table joint
Cramp joint
Plugged joint
Dowel joint
Rusticated joint
Tongue / grooved / joggle joint
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Butt Joint: this joint is formed by placing 2 stones side by side
Rebated Joint: This type of joints provided in case of arches, gables to prevent possible movement of stones, also to prevent
sliding along slopes. Length of rebate depends on nature of work and should not be less than 70mm
Joggle joint: This type of joints is provided to prevent sliding along the side joints Joint provided by projection or tongue in
one stones.
Bed joint: This joint is used to prevent lateral movement of stones such as in sea walls where the lateral pressure is heavy.
Height of projection is kept about 30 40 mm. Width is kept to above 1/3rd the breadth of the stone
Cramped joint: this joint uses metal cramp instead of dowels. Holes in adjacent stones in dove tail shape are made. Cramp
used are of gun metal or copper or wrought iron. Once cramp is placed, joint is grouted and covered with cement or lead
or asphalt. This prevents tendency of joint to be pulled apart
Plugged joint: an alternative of cramp joint. Consists of plug holes, made dove tailed shape in plan & cut below top surface
of stones. Plug is filled with molten lead or cement
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Dowel joint: Simple type of joint which ensures stability of components against displacement or sliding. Dowels may be of
gun metal, copper or brass. Joint is formed by cutting rectangular holes in each stones and inserting dowels
Rusticated joint: This kind of joints is used in plinths or masonry in lower storeys of buildings to give the structure
massive appearance
Wall:
Wall is one of the most essential components of a building. The primary function of a wall is to enclose or divide space
of a building to make it more functional & useful. Walls provide privacy, afford security and give protection against heat,
cold, sun & rain. Walls provide support to floors & roofs.
Definition: A wall may be defined as a vertical load bearing member, length of which exceeds four times the thickness.
Walls should be design to provide adequate:
1] Strength & stability,
2] Weather resistance,
3] Durability,
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4] Fire resistance,
5] Thermal Insulation,
6] Sound insulation
1. Load Bearing walls:
Load bearing walls are those which are designed to carry super imposed loads (transferred through roofs, etc.,) in
addition to their own weight (self-Weight).
Load bearing walls may be subjected to a variety of loads like live loads (super imposed loads / LL ), dead loads
(DL) , wind pressure, earth quake forces, etc.,
LL & DL acts in vertical direction.
When the floor slabs transferring the loads to the wall are not supported through the full width (length) of the wall,
the loads act eccentrically, causing moments in the wall.
2. Cavity walls
A cavity wall or hollow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls, called leaves or skins, with a cavity or
gap in between.
The 2 partitions of the wall may be connected together by metal pins or bonding bricks at suitable interval.
Cavity walls are often constructed to give better thermal insulation to the building.
Size of cavity walls varies from 4 10 cm, the inner and outer skins should not be less than 10cm each.
Advantages:
External moisture cannot travel inside the building because there is no direct contact between inner & outer walls
Cavity walls have about 25% greater insulation value than the solid walls because the cavity between 2 leaves is full
of air which is a bad conductor of heat
Offers good insulation against sound
Nuisance of efflorescence is also very much reduced
They are cheaper and economical
Loads on foundations are reduced because of lesser solid thickness
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3. Non load bearing walls / partition walls:
A partition wall is a thin internal wall which is constructed to divide the space with in the building into rooms or
areas.
Generally partition walls are non-load bearing, load bearing partition walls are called as internal wall.
On ground floors, partitions rest either on flooring concrete or on beams spanning between the main walls.
In multi storied buildings partitions are supported on concrete beams spanning between columns.
The total self-weight of partition may considerably affect the total load carried on the frame work and on
foundations. The lighter the partitions, lighter and smaller will become the structural elements and building as a
whole will become economical.
However lighter and thin partitions raise problems of sound insulation and fire resistance.
Requirements to be fulfilled by partition walls:
Should be strong enough to carry its own load
Should be strong enough to resist impact to which the occupation of the building is likely to subject them
Should have capacity to support suitable decorative surface
Should be stable & strong enough to support some wall fixtures, wash basins, etc.,
Should be as light & thin as possible
Should be fire resistance
Should act as sound barrier, especially when it divides two room
Slenderness ratio:
Wall strength depends on slenderness ratio, which is a function of:
Height of the wall
Length of the wall
Thickness of the wall
Support conditions
Slenderness ration = (h / t) or (L / t) min of the above two values
48

Where,
h = effective height
t = effective thickness
L = effective length
49

Unit 3
Arches, Lintel & Balcony

Syllabus:
Elements of an arch, Classification of arches, Stability of arch, Definition and classification of Lintels, Definition and
functions of Chejja, Canopy & Balcony.
Arch
Introduction:
An arch is a structure which is constructed to span across openings such as doors, windows, etc., Generally it consists of a
small wedge shaped bricks or stone blocks which are joined together with mortar and supported at the abutments and
piers
Because of their wedge like form, the units supports each other, the load tends to make them compact & enables them to
transmit the pressure downwards to their supports.
Elements of an Arch:
Springing line: Horizontal line joining the two springing points.
50
Intrados: Inner curved surface of the arch is known as Intrados. Sometimes it is also called as Soffit.
Rise: The clear vertical distance b/w the highest point on the intrados &springing line.
Springing point: It is the point from where the curve of an arch begins.
Voussoirs: Wedge shaped blocks which are used in the construction of arch.
Extrados: The external curved surface of the arch.
Crown: The highest point of the extrados.
Key: Wedge shaped block, used at the crown. Sometimes it is made larger than normal voussoirs.
Span: The clear horizontal distance b/w the supports.
Span dril: the irregular triangular space formed b/w the horizontal line drawn tangent to the crown of extrados , &
the vertical line from the top of a skew back.
Haunch: The lower half portion of the arch b/w the crown & the skew back.
Skew back: The inclined or wide spread surface on the abutment, which is prepared to receive the arch.
Springer: The lowest voussoirs immediately adjacent to the skewback.
Springer points: The points at the intersection b/w skewbacks & intrados.
Abutment: The end supports of an arch.
Piers: The intermediate supports of an arch.
Classification of arches:
1. Classification based on shape of arch
2. Classification based on number of centers
3. Classification based on material used
4. Classification based on workmanship
1. Arches classification based on shape

a) Flat arch:
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The apparent shape of this arch is flat & usually the skew back forms an angle of 60 degree with the horizontal.
Thus an equilateral triangle is formed with one side as intrados. Intrados is given a slight rise or camber of about 10
-15mm/m width of the opening so as to allow for slight settlement of the arch. Flat arches are found to be
comparatively week and they are used only for light loads and for spans up to 1.5m.
a) Segment arch:
The center of the arch is situated below the springing line. This is the common type of arch used for buildings.
The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an inclined direction.
b) Semicircular arch:
The center of the arch lies on the springing line and the shape of curve of arch is a semicircle. As the skew back is
horizontal, the thrust transferred to the abutment is preferably in vertical direction
c) Semi elliptical arch:
Arch shape is Semi-elliptical and has more than one center. It may have either 3 centers or 5 centers. It looks
pleasing & has comparatively smaller rise than circular arch.
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d) Pointed arch
This type of arch consists of 2 curves which are meeting at the apex of a triangle. The triangle formed may be
equilateral or isosceles (called as Lancet arch). The centers of the arch may be on or below the springing line &
that may be between or outside the springing points. In equilateral arch, the centers will be on springing points.
e) Relieving arch:
This arch is constructed over a wooden joist or a flat arch as shown in figure. Thus it relieves the joist or flat arch
from carrying the load. The ends of a relieving arch should be kept sufficiently inside solid wall or there should be
enough cover beyond the ends of joist, opening or portion to be strengthened by relieving arch. Thus the span of
the relieving arch will be equal to the clear span of the opening plus twice the bearing of wooden joist which is
being relieved from taking load. The relieving arch makes it possible to replace the existing decayed or damaged
wooden lintel without distributing stability of the existing structure
f) Horse shoe arch:
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This arch has the shape of a horse shoe as shown in figure and it is mainly adopted from architectural
considerations. Shape of the arch includes more than semicircle
g) Stilted arch:
This type of arch has a semicircular shape attached at the taps of the two vertical portions as shown in fig. The
springing line passes through the taps of vertical portions.
h) Venetian arch:
In this type of arch, the depth at crown is more than that at the springing line. This arch has four centers, all
located on the springing line
i) Floren line arch:

This type of arch is similar to the venetion arch except that the intrados has the shape of a semicircular curve as
shown in figure. There are 3 centers for a frontline arch, all located on the springing line
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2. Arches classification based on Number of centers

a) One centered arch:
This type of arch has one center only. Flat, segmental, semicircular, horse shoe and stilted arches are one
centered. Sometimes circular windows are used to have an architectural effect
b) 2 centered arch:
This type of arch has two centers. A pointed arch is a good example of this type of arch.
c) 3 centered arch:
This type of arch has three centers. It is in the form of semi ellipse as shown in figure. Ex: frontline arch
d) 4 centered arch:
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It has four centers. It has pointed arch. It consists of 2 different curves and has an appearance of an ellipse at
the haunches. Ex: venetion arch
e) 5 centered arch:
This has five centers and nearly like a semi elliptical arch.
3. Classification based on Material used

a) Stone arches:
Rubble masonry
Ashlar masonry
Flat stone arch in

Ashlar masonry
These arches can be constructed in rubble or ashlar masonry. Rubble masonry is weak and is used for inferior
type of work. Rubble masonry stone arch spans about 1m or so. Ashlar masonry are constructed from the
wedge shaped stones.
b) Brick arches:
Rough brick arches
Purpose made brick

arches
56

Can be constructed with ordinary or purposed made bricks. Ordinary bricks are not cut to shape of voussoirs &
hence rough brick arches are formed. For getting the arch curve, joints are made wedge shaped with greater
thickness at extrados and small thickness at intrados. Hence arch appearance is spoiled, thus rough brick arches
are not suitable for exposed brick work. Purpose made bricks are special bricks of different sizes which are
suitable for good quality arch work.
c) Concrete arches:
Constructed with precast cement concrete blocks or monolithic concrete. Blocks are similar to stones & are
prepared by casting cement concrete in specially prepared molds. Monolithic concrete arches are constructed
from cast in site concrete and are suitable for big spans, hence they are employed in construction of culverts &
bridges.
d) Gauged Brick Arches:
Soft bricks (rubber bricks) are manufactured from special material & they can be easily cut, sawn & rubbed to
the desired shapes. Exact size and shape are obtained by cutting them with the help of wire saw. The surfaces
of the bricks are then fine dressed by a file. This gauged brick arches are with truly radial thin joints of 1mm
1.5mm width are obtained.
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4. Classification based on workmanship

a) Rough arch:
Constructed from ordinary uncut bricks, as the bricks are rectangular in shape, the mortar joints become wider
at the extrados than at the intrados. IT is constructed where appearance is of secondary importance or when
it is intended to plaster face of arch.
b) Axed or rough cut arch:
Constructed from bricks which are cut to a wedge shape by means of an axe, according to class of work the
bricks are rough axed or fine axed. Mortar joint thickness = 3 6 mm.
c) Gauged arch:
Constructed from bricks which are finely cut by means of wire saw. Brick surface is finished with file. Mortar joint
thickness = 1.5 0.75mm.
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Stability of an arch:
An arch transmits the super-imposed load to the abutments / piers / side walls through the combined action of
friction between surface of voussoirs & cohesion of mortar. Every element of an arch remains in compression and
it has also to bear the transverse shear.
Following are the four ways of failure of an Arch:
1. Crushing of the masonry: In this case compressive stress or thrust exceeds the safe crushing strength of
materials and the arch fails due to crushing of the masonry.
Measures to avoid this failure:
Material used for construction should be of adequate strength.
Size of voussoirs should be properly designed to bear the thrust transmitted through them.
Height of voussoirs should not be less than 1/12 th of the span. If span exceeds 6.5m, the thickness of arch
ring may be increased by 20% of crown thickness.
If necessary, Voussoirs of variable heights may be provided, i.e., less height near crown and more height
near skew back.
2. Rotation of some joint about an edge: To prevent the rotation of joint, the line of resistance should be kept
within intrados & extrados. The line of thrust should also be made to cross the joint away from the edge so as
to prevent the crushing of that edge. It should fall within middle third portion of arch height.
3. Sliding of Voussoir: To safeguard against the sliding of adjacent voussoirs due to transverse shear, voussoirs of
great height should be provided. It should also be seen that the angle between the line of resistance of the arch
and the normal to any point is less than the angle of internal friction
4. Uneven settlement of abutment or pier: The secondary stresses in the arch are developed due to the uneven
settlement of the supports of arch.
Measures to avoid such conditions
Arch should be symmetrical so that unequal settlement of the two abutments or abutment and pier are
minimized.
The supports of arch should be strong enough to take or resist the thrust as well as to bear all the loads
transferred to them through the arch.
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Lintel
Introduction:
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion of the structure above. Lintel
is a sort of beam width of which is equal to width of wall & ends of which are extended into the wall (bearing). Bearing
provided shall be minimum of 10cm or height of lintel or (1/10) th of span of lintel. Load carried by lintels is transferred
to the masonry in jambs. At present lintels of RCC are widely used to span the openings for doors, windows, etc., in a
structure.
Definition:
Lintel are structural members which are designed to support the loads of the partition of wall above the opening and
to transmit such loads to the ends of walls / piers / jambs / columns over which they are supported.
Classification of lintels:
1. Timber lintel:
Oldest type, not much in use, common in hilly areas. Relatively costlier, structurally weak, not fire proof,
prone to decaying. Depth of wood lintel min-7.5cm
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2. Stone lintel:
Used where stone is available easily and the structure is of stone masonry. Min depth should be 8cm. Limitation
of stone lintel is stone tend to undergo failure when subject to sudden/shock stresses. Also these are bulky &
heavy.
3. Brick lintel:
Consists of bricks which are laid on end or edge. Bricks used shall be well burnt, copper coloured & of good
quality. Temporary wood support known as turning piece used. Steel bar of length of lintel is provided at the
bottom portion of lintel for improved stability
4. Steel lintels:
These lintels consists of channel sections (c-sections) which are held together by tube separators. These are
further embedded into concrete to avoid risk of corrosion.
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5. Reinforced cement concrete lintels:
Consists of steel reinforcement embedded in concrete & are most commonly preferred lintels since these are
durable, economical, fire proof & ease of construction. Usually 1:2:4 mix is used for concrete here. These can
be pre-cast or cast-in-situ.
6. RCC boot lintel

7. Reinforced brick lintel:
Comparison of Arches with Lintels:
Canopy:
The extended portion of a lintel or chejja with or without the probed support is known as canopy.
Classification of canopy:
Straight slope canopy
Gable canopy
Concave canopy
Convex canopy
Dome canopy
Elongated dome canopy
Hip end canopy
Rounded canopy
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Patio canopy
Pyramid canopy
Balcony:
Extended portion of the roof is called Balcony
Chajja:
Component of building which is placed over the opening to prevent adverse effect of weather on a room
Chajja Classification based on material used:

1. RCC chajja:
a) Reinforcement is provided in both directions
b) This is casted along with lintel monolithically
c) Thickness of min 50mm is a must
d) Length of r c chajja will be equal to length of lintel
e) Top surface of chajja shall be compulsorily water proofed
f)
At the junction of wall & chajja, a curved shaped slope shall be provided
g) Most popular type practiced in construction
2. Stone chajja:
a) 20 mm thick stone slabs( granite) can be used
b) Stone slab > 20mm thick used for chajja shall be plastered on both face
c) Can be incorporated into wall during construction as well after construction also( by making an opening
into the wall)
d) These chajja are usually above the lintel
3. Tile chajja:
a) Consists of metal frame & tiles
b) Initially, L shaped frame(primary members) is fixed to the wall, these are connected in between by
secondary members
c) Space in between the secondary members are covered with tiles
d) Aesthetically these are better
4. Sheet chajja
5. Wooden chajja
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6. FRP or Ferro cement chajja
Purpose of chajja:
1. The purpose of chajja or sun shade is to prevent direct entry of sun light into the room to a certain extent.
2. Also, it acts as a barrier to direct entry of rain water into the room through the opening.
3. It also adds on to the aesthetic appeal of a building.
4. Usually it is provided at a height of around 7 ft from floor level.
5. If it is made of concrete, it is casted along with lintel monolithically.
6. An equal bearing of 9 inch-1ft has to be provided on both the sides of opening.
7. It can be either cast-in-situ or precast.
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Unit 4
ROOFS AND FLOORS

Syllabus:
Types of Roofs & Roofing materials, Flat roof (RCC), Types of pitched roofs, Wooden Truss, Steel trusses, Types of flooring,
Factors affecting selection of flooring materials.
Introduction:
A roof is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a frame work to given protection
to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind etc. A roof basically consists of structural elements provided at the top of
building for the support of roof coverings.
Following are the requirements of well-planned roof:
(i) It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies such as wind, rain, sun etc.
(ii) It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
(iii) It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of taking the loads likely to come over it.
(iv) It should be well-drained
(v) It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
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Classification of roofs:
Lean to roof
couple roof
Single roof
couple close roof
collar beam roof
Sloped
roof /
pitched
roof
Double or Perlin roof

King post truss
Queen post truss
Roof
Trussed
roof
Mansard truss
Steel truss
truncated truss
Composite
Madras terrace
Flat roof
Lime concrete terrace with tile

Mud phuska terrace with tile
a) Pitched roofs: A sloping roof is known as pitched roof as shown in the fig below. It is the most common form of the roof
and generally it is regarded as the cheapest alternative for covering a structure. Slope less than 1:3 is not recommended.
Slope of 1:1 is considered in snow fall area to reduce the incidence of snow load on roof. It is desirable to provide false
ceiling (with insulating materials like plywood, asbestos sheet, thermocol sheet) when sloped roof has to be
constructed in hot regions.
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Types of pitched roofs:
(i) Single roof
(ii) Double or purlin roof
(iii) Trussed roofs
1. Single roof: In this type of roofs, common rafters are provided to each slope without any intermediate support. The
following are the varieties of single roof.
a) Lean to roof
b) Couple roof
c) Couple close roof
d) Collar beam roof
a) Lean to roof: It is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is known as pent roof or Aisle roof. In this type of roof, one
wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the other to give necessary slope to the roof. A lean-to roof is generally used
for sheds, out-houses attached to main buildings verandah etc. This is suitable for a maximum span of 2.40m as shown
in fig below.
b) Couple roof: In this type of roof the common rafters slope upwards from the opposite walls and they meet on a ridge
piece in the middle as shown in the fig below. A couple roof is suitable for spans up to about 3.6m.
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c) Couple close roof: This roof is just similar to couple roof except that the legs of the common rafters are connected by
a tie beam as shown in the fig below. The tie beam prevents the tendency of rafters to spread out and thus danger of
overturning of the walls is avoided. This roof can be adopted economically up to the span of 4.2m.
d) Collar beam roof: The tie beam is raised and placed at a higher level as shown in fig below known as collar or collar
beam. This beam roof is adopted to economize the space and to increase the height of a room. This roof can be adopted
up to a maximum span of 4.8m.
(ii)
Double or purlin roofs: When the span exceeds 2.4m, the necessary size for the rafters becomes uneconomical.
Hence in order to reduce the size of rafters, intermediate supports called purlins are introduced under the rafters
as shown in fig below. This roof can be adopted economically up to 4.8m.
(iii) Trussed roofs: When the span exceeds 4.8m and when there are no inside supporting walls or partitions for purlins,
framed structure known as trusses are on the roof, position of cross walls, span and material of the truss. The spacing is 3m
for wooden trusses. Trusses carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the common rafters rest. Some of the usual forms
of roof truss are given below.
a) King-post truss
b) Queen post truss
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c) Mansard truss
d) Truncated truss
f) Steel trusses
g) Composite trusses
a) King post truss: In this type of truss, the central post known as king-post forms support for the tie beam. The inclined
members, known as struts, prevents the principal rafters from bending in the middle. A king-post truss suitable for roofs
of span varying from 5 to 8 m as shown in fig below.
b) Queen post truss: This truss is differ from a king-post truss in having two vertical members known as queen posts. The
upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by means of a horizontal member known as straining beam.
Additional purlins are supported on the queen posts. A queen post truss is suitable for roof spans varying 8 to 12 m as
shown in fig below.
c) Mansard truss: this is a combination of king post and queen post trusses. Lower queen post & upper king post trusses.
Use of mansard trusses results in the economy of space and room may be provided in the room as shown in the fig
below.
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d) Steel trusses: For spans greater 12m, it becomes economical to use steel trusses. For smaller spans, steel trusses consists
of angles riveted or welded together through plates known as gusset plates. As steel resists both compression and
tension stresses, the design of steel truss is simplified various types of steel trusses are shown in fig below.
Steel roof truss for various spans:
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Advantages of steel roof truss over timber roof truss:
Steel trusses are stronger & are more rigid.
Fire proof & termite proof
Can be used for any span length, whereas timber trusses are suitable for span length up to 15m
Light in weight & can be fabricated to any desired shape depending on its requirements
Sections comprising of steel truss are readily available in required dimension resulting in minimum wastage of
materials
More resistant to other environmental agencies like temperature, wind, moisture, etc.,
Fabrication of steel roof truss is easier and quicker.
e) Truncated truss: This is similar to mansard except that the top is finished flat as shown in fig below.
f)
Composite truss: This truss composed of wooden members and steel. Steel members resists tension. A composite
truss is light and economical as shown in the fig below.
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The factors should be considered before selecting the type of roof covering for pitched roof
(i) Climate of the locality
(ii) Nature of the building
(iii)Initial cost and maintenance cost
(iv)Resistance to fire and heat
(v) Special features of the locality.
b) Flat Roofs: A roof which is nearly flat is known as flat roof. It should be noted that no roof can be laid perfectly level.
The roof must slope in one direction or the other to cause rain water to flow off rapidly and easily. The construction of
flat roof is same as that of floors except that the top surface is made slightly. Sloping in case of flat roofs. The types of
flat roofs commonly used are:
1. Madras Terrace Roof:
Procedure of construction:
1. Teak wood joists are placed on rolled steel joists with a furring piece between the joists and rolled steel joists. The
furring is placed sloping and gives necessary slope to the flat roof
2. A course of specially prepared terrace bricks of 150x75x25mm is laid diagonally across the joists with lime mortar
3. After the brick course, has set, a course of brick bat concrete of 75mm thick with 3 parts of brick bats, one part of
gravel and sand and 50 percent of lime mortar by volume is laid.
4. The concrete is well rammed for three days and allowed to set
5. Flat tiles are laid over the layer of concrete of thickness 50mm
6. Finally, the surface of roof is finished with three coats of plaster given a slope of 1 in 30.
7. As this type of flat roof is widely used in madras state, it is known as madras terrace roof as shown in fig above.
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2. Lime concrete terracing with tiles:
This type of tiling is normally adopted over the RCC roofing.
1st RCC slab is cleaned off dust & a layer of hot bitumen is applied at the rate of 1.7 kg/m2
A layer of coarse sand is spread immediately over the hot layer of bitumen
Then a layer of lime concrete 10cm thick is laid to a proper slope (consisting of Lime : Surkhi : Brick ballast = 2:2:7).
Concrete is well tamped
Above this 2 courses of flat brick tiles are laid in 1:3 CM.
The joints of the top course are pointed with cement mortar.
Roof covering types:

1. Thatch covering
This is a very light roof covering, but its combustible, absorbs moisture rapidly & easily liable to decay.
Framework to support the thatch consists of round bamboo rafters spaced at 30cm apart & tied with split bamboos
laid at right angles to the rafter.
Used in rural areas because of its cheap and simple in construction.
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2. Shingles
Use of shingles is generally restricted to hilly areas where wood is easily available at low cost.
Wooden shingles are cut from well-seasoned timber, are laid in similar manner as slates or tiles.
Shingles length varies from 30 -38 cm 7 width varies from 6 25cm.
3. G I sheets
GI sheets are prepared by pressing slat rough wrought iron plates between rollers with grooves or teeth & then
galvanized with a coat of zinc.
Available in lengths 1.2 3.6 m & width 0.6 0.9m
They are costly and do not offer resistance to fire & sound
4. Slates
These are fire resisting, lite and cool
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Not easily affected by weather
About 8 slates are required for covering 1 m2 of roof area
Generally available in grey, black and red colors.
5. Asbestos cement sheets
Cement is mixed with about 15% of asbestos fibers & paste so formed is pressed under rollers with grooves or
teeth. Thus sheets commonly known as the A.C sheets with a series of waves or corrugations formed.
Used for factories, workshops, garages, big halls, etc.,
Corrugations help to increase strength & rigidity & permit easy flow of rain water
6. Tiles
They are named according to their shape & pattern & manufactured in similar manner as bricks.
The commonly used tiles are flat pan tiles, half round country tiles, Mangalore tiles, quilon & other similar tiles.
Weather proofing for RCC roof:
Painting has to be done with a layer of hot bitumen at the top of roof slab at a rate of 1.7 kg/m2 of the roof surface
Spreading immediately a coarse sand at the rate of 0.6m3 of sand per 100m2 of the roof surface when the bitumen
is still hot
Laying cinder concrete of 1:15 ratio In an average thickness of 15cm & suitable provision for the slope
Laying 7.6cm thick layer of lime concrete over the consolidated layer of cinder concrete
Spreading 13mm thick layer of cement mortar over the lime concrete
Advantages & disadvantages of flat roof:
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Disadvantages
Advantages
Flat roof can be used as terrace
for playing, gardening, etc.,
Cannot be used for large spans

without introducing
intermediate beams & columns
It is easy to render the flat roof,

fire resistant
Construction is more expensive
Good insulating property
Exposed to sun & are subjected

to more temperature
Best choice for multi storied

building
Leakage in flat roof is difficult

to trace & rectify
Requires less area of roofing

material in comparison with
pitch roof
Construction progress of flat

roof is slow when compared to
pitch roof.
Flooring:
Introduction:
In order to sub-divide the portion between the plinth level or basement level and roof level, solid constructions
are Carrie out. These constructions are known as floors and exposed top surface of floors are termed as floorings.
Ground floors or basement floors, which directly rest on the ground, do not require the provision of a floor. But
they are provided with suitable type of flooring.
Definition:
Floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of e building, furniture, equipment, inside
partition walls.
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Following are the requirements of the floor:
Should be of adequate strength & stability.
Should have adequate fire resistance.
Should have sound insulation.
Should be damp resistance.
Should have thermal insulation.
Factors that affect choice of flooring material:

1. Initial cost cost of material should be in conformity with building type
2. Appearance covering should give pleasing appearance, should give desired color effect & architectural
beauty
3. Cleanliness flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, should be resistant against absorption of
oil, grease, etc.,
4. Durability should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes, etc.,
5. Damp resistance should have sufficient resistance against dampness. Concrete & mosaic flooring is best
than brick flooring
6. Sound insulation should provide good insulation from noise, cork, rubber, timber flooring are good from
this point of view
7. Thermal insulation flooring should offer good thermal insulation providing good comp=fort to residents
8. Hardness should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks, imprints likely to be
caused on shifting of instruments
9. Fire resistance flooring material should offer fire resistance
10. Smoothness flooring surface should be smooth and should have even surface but not slippery.
Classification of Flooring:
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Cement concrete flooring
Mosaic flooring
Flooring
Marble flooring
Granolithic flooring
Rubber flooring
Industrial Flooring
Linoleum flooring
Plastic / PVC flooring
1. Cement concrete flooring:
This is commonly used for residential, commercial & industrial buildings since it is moderately cheap, quite
durable and easy to construct.
It has 2 components
Base concrete
Topping / wearing surface
Both components of the floor can be constructed either monolithically or non-monolithically.

When the floor is laid monolithically a good bond between two components is obtained resulting in smaller
overall thickness.
Whereas monolithic construction has the following disadvantages:
Topping is damaged during subsequent operation.
Hair cracks are developed because of settlement of freshly laid base course.
Work progress will be slow because the workman has to wait at least for initial setting of base coarse.
Hence we go for non-monolithic construction.

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Steps to be followed for Cement Concrete Flooring:
1. Base coarse [7.5 10cm] thick either in lean or lime concrete is laid over well compacted soil, levelled & cured
2. Once base coarse is hardened its surface is brushed with stiff broom and cleaned. It is wetted previous night &
excess water is drained
3. Topping is then laid in square or rectangular panels of 1 x1 / 2 x 2m. Topping consists of 1:2:4 cement concrete
laid to dressed thickness (4cm)
4. Prior to laying of concrete in panel, a coat of neat cement slurry is applied. This slurry Is laid on rough finished
base coarse so that proper bonding with topping is achieved
5. Topping spread with help of trowel
6. Dusting of surface with cement & then trowelling results in smooth finish at the top.
7. Curing done for 7 14 days.
2. Mosaic Flooring:
Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement arranged in different pattern.
A concrete base is prepared as in the case of cement concrete flooring & over it 5-8cm thick lime surkhi mortar is
spread & levelled over an area so that mortar gets dried after floor work completes.
On this 3mm thick cementing material in the form of paste (slaked lime: powdered marble: cement = 2 : 1 : 1) is
spread and is left to dry for about 4hrs.
Thereafter small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors are arranged in desired pattern & is
hammered into the cementing layer.
Then surface is gently rolled by means of stone roller by sprinkling water on the surface, there by cement comes
out of surface & thereby even surface is obtained.
Surface is allowed to dry for 1 day & is then rubbed with pumice stone so that surface will be smooth & polished.
Floor is allowed to dry for 2 weeks and then used.
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3. Marble flooring:
EX: Granite, Vetrefied tiles, Ceramic
It is superior type of flooring used in temples, kitchen, bathrooms, hospitals, etc., where extra cleanliness is
essential.
Can be laid in different sizes.
Procedure:
Base concrete is prepared as that of cement concrete flooring, over this 20mm thick mortar in 1:4 ratio is spread
under the area of each individual slab.
Marble slab is then laid over it, gently pressed with wooden mallet & is levelled.
Marble slab is lifted up & fresh mortar is added to hollow space left in between.
Mortar is allowed to harden slightly.
Cement slurry is spread over it & then marble is fixed in position
4. Granolithic Flooring:
It consists of rich concrete made with very hard & tough quality coarse aggregate (EX; granite, basalt, quartzite,.)
in graded form.
Suitable for Industrial buildings which need hard wearing surface.
For public buildings proportion should be 1:2:3 / 1:1:2 / 1:1:3 for heavy duty floor.
Thickness of finish = 25mm when laid monolithically & 35 mm when laid over hardened surface.
Abrasive grit may be sprinkled uniformly over the surface at the rate of 1.5 2.5 kg/m2 during flooring operation
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Industrial Flooring:
1. Rubber flooring:
Consists of sheets or tiles of rubber in variety of patterns & colors. Thickness varies from 3 10mm. Manufactured by
mixing floor rubber fillers such as cotton fiber, asbestos fiber. These sheets are fixed to concrete base by adhering it.
They are expensive used in office, public buildings.
2. Linoleum flooring:
Available in roles, which is spread directly over concrete / wooden flooring. These sheets are prepared by mixing
oxidized linseed oil in gum, rasein, pigments, wood flour, cork dust & other filling material. IT is very cheap, durable and
attractive too. These sheets get rottened when get wetted, hence it is not suitable for kitchens, bathrooms, etc.,
3. PVC flooring:
PVC is fabricated in form of tiles of different sizes, shapes & colors. Laid on concrete base with the help of adhesive,
then pressed gently with help of wooden rollers. Extra gum coming out is wiped off & washed with warm soap before
use. Gets damaged when in contact with burning objects.
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Part B
Unit 5
Doors and Windows

Syllabus:
Location of doors and windows, Definition of technical terms, Types of Doors, Types of windows, Varieties of
materials for doors and windows & their properties.
Introduction:
A door may be defined as a frame work secured in an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing access
to the uses of the structure. A window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing
daylight, vision and ventilation. Basically, a door consists of two parts: (i) door frame, and (ii) door shutter. The
door shutter is held in position by the door frame which in turn is fixed in the opening of the wall by means of
hold-fasts etc.
Store room requires only light window may be fixed so that they cannot be opened.
A window is also a vented barrier secured in a wall opening. The function of the window is to admit light and air
to the building and to give a view to the outside. Windows must also provide insulation against heat loss, and in
some cases, against sound. Some windows are also required to give a measure of resistance to fire. A window
also consists of two parts: (i) window frame, secured to the wall opening with the help of hold fasts, and (ii)
window shutters held in position by the window frame.
Location of Doors and Windows:
The following guidelines should be kept in view while deciding the location of doors and windows in a building.
1. Doors should as for as possible be located near the corner of a room, about zoom a way 20 cm from the
corner.
2. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum to achieve optimum utilization of space. Large
number of doors besides causing obstruction, consume more area in circulation.
3. The window still should be placed at 75 to 100 cm above the floor lever.
4. Windows should be located opposite to each other wherever possible.
5. The size and number of windows should be sufficient to provide adequate light, ventilation and privacy in the
room.
6. The shutters of windows in external walls should open outside.
Definition of technical terms:
Door frame or Window frame

Door frame or window frame is made up of two vertical members and which are secured by one or two cross
Pieces at top and bottom.
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Shutter
Shutters are generally made up of timber frame work with panel insets of glass, timber or plywood. Shutter
frame work should have styles, top rail, bottom rail, locking rail and panel.
Style
The vertical members in both sides of shutter in style.
Top rail
The horizontal member in the top of shutter is termed as top rail.
Bottom rail
The horizontal member in the bottom of shutter is called as bottom rail.
Lock rail
The horizontal member in the shutter in between top rail and bottom rail to fit locks is called as lock rail.
Panel
The portion inside the shutter frame work in termed as panel.
Sash
The frame made for glass like panels is called as sash.
Mullion
The vertical member which separates the shutter in the middle is mullion.
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Transom
The horizontal member which divides the shutter into two parts is called as transom.
Louver
The small strips of wood fixed inclined in the shutter is called as louver.
PUTTY
The mixture of lime and lined oil used for fixing the glass with shutters is termed as putty.
Types of Doors:
1. Ledged doors.
2. Ledged and braced doors.
3. Ledged and framed doors.
4. Ledged, braced and framed doors
5. Framed and paneled doors.
6. Glazed doors
7. Flush doors.
8. Louvered doors.
9. Collapsible doors.
10. Revolving doors.
11. Rolling doors.
12. Sliding doors.
1. Ledged doors:
This door consists of a series of vertical battens fixed together with horizontal members known as ledges. There
are three ledges named top ledge, bottom ledge and middle ledge. The door is hung on the frame by iron hinges
called T-hinges or cross garnet hinges. These types of door are mostly used for rooms where economy rather
than the appearances is of main consideration.
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2. Ledged and braced doors:

This is an improved form of battened and ledged door. In this type of door two additional members are
provided in the form of inclined braces as shown in figure below. The braces incline downwards towards the
side on which the door is hung.
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3. Ledged and framed doors:

The frame work of this type of door consists of two vertical members called stiles, three horizontal members
called stiles, three horizontal members known as ledges and vertical battens. Size of stiles should be 10 cm X
40 mm. This is considered to be superior in strength, durability and appearance to other two types of doors
mentioned above.
4. Ledged, braced and framed doors:

This door consists of battens, ledges, braces and frames. It has more strength, durability and appearance.
The braces me housed and inclined towards the side on which the door is hung.
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5. Framed and Paneled Doors:

This type of door is commonly provided in all types of buildings. This door consists of timber frame work of
stiles and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive one or more panels. The number of panels and type
of panels should be selected according to the places used. The thickness of shutter should be 30 mm / 40 mm
and thickness of panels should be 20 mm. the door may be single, double, three, four or six paneled and so
on. This should have good appearance.
6. Glazed doors:
This type of doors used in residential as well as public buildings like hospitals, schools or colleges etc., with a
view to supplement the natural lighting provided by windows. They can be glazed fully or partly. The glass
should be fitted by using putty with frames.
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7. Flush doors:
Flush doors have pleasing appearance, Simple construction, high strength and durability and cost less. Flush
doors can be divided in following types.
1. Solid core type flush door.
2. Hollow core type flush door.
1. Solid core type flush door
The frame is made out of selected species of timber. It is necessary to provide hardwood lipping around
the frame. The thickness of the shutter should be 30 mm.
2. Hollow core type flush door:

In this type the frame consists of stiles, top rail, bottom rails and minimum inter mediate rails. The space
between stiles and the rails is divided by fixing wooden battens not less than 25 mm in width. The voids
are equally distributed. The voids should be filled with work. Plywood sheets and face veneers are then
glued under pressure on both faces of the core.
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8. Louvered doors:
In this type of doors the stiles of shutter are grooved to receive a series of louvers which may be of glass or
wood. The louvers are set within the grooves in inclined position, so that they slope downward to the outside
in order to run off the rain water and obstruct the horizontal vision at the same time. It may be fixed or
pivoted. These are commonly used in bathrooms, W.C., Workshops, dressing rooms etc.,
9. Collapsible Doors:
These doors are used for shops garages, public buildings, go downs etc., and in situations where width of
opening is large. The door essentially consists of vertical double channels each 20 x 10 x 2 mm in size and
spaced at i0 to 12 cm apart. These are braced with flat iron diagonals 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick. The door
shutter slides over roller mounted at its bottom and is held in position by the rails. This door is also used for
residences to increase safety and protection.
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10. Revolving doors:

This door essentially consists of four leaves radially attached to a-centrally placed mullion in a Circular
opening. The leaves and the mullion are enclosed in a vestibule. The leaves may be glazed paneled or partly
glazed; such doors are provided in hotels, banks, offices and other such important Public buildings.
11. Rolling doors:

The shutter consists of thin steel slabs inter locked to each other and wiled upon specially designed pipe shaft
mounted at the top of the opening. The door shutter travels in two vertical steel guide channels installed at
either end of the opening. The shutter is counter balanced by means of helical spring enclosed in the drum.
These are used for stores, shop fronts, factories and garages etc.,
12. Sliding Doors:

The door is provided with top and bottom guide rails or runners within which the shutters slide. The guide
rails run past the opening for a distance equal to the width of the shutter so that when the door is required
to be opened, the door shutter occupies a new position parallel to the wall face and clear off the opening.
This type of door is suitable for good shops, sheds, go downs, officer, and garages.
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TYPES OF WINDOWS:
1. Dormer window
2. Louvered window
3. Bay window
4. Lantern window
5. Skylight window
6. Gable window
7. Comer window
8. Sliding window
9. Glazed or sash window
1. Dormer Window:
It is a vertical window built in the sloping side of a pitched roof. This window is provided to achieve proper
ventilation and lighting below the roof
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2. Louvered Window
In this type of window the stiles of shutter are grooved to receive a series of louvers. The louvers are set
within the grooves in inclined position so that they slope downward to the outside in order to obstruct the
horizontal vision. Louvers should be fixed or pivoted. Mostly used in bathrooms and toiler
3. Bay Window
A window projecting outward from the walls of a room is termed as a bay window. Bay window may be square,
rectangular or polygonal in plan and it is introduced with a view to provide an increased area of opening for
admittance of light and ventilation.
4. Lantern Window
If the light from the windows on the walls is not enough, windows are provided on the roof also. These are
called as lantern window. It should be square or rectangular in shape.
5. Sky light Window

This is a type of fixed window provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof. The frame work of skylight
supporting the glass panels. This type of windows are provided to get one more light.
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6. Gable Window
The window provided in the gable end of a pitched roof is known as gable window.
7. Corner Window
This type of window is essentially located in the corner of a room. It serves an architectural features for
improving the elevation of the building.
8. Sliding Window
In this type of window the shutters move on the roller bearing and vertically.
9. Glazed Window
The shutters of this window should be glass. The glass panels are secured in either by putty or by small fillets
known as glazing beads. These windows should also be giving light when the window is closed.
93
FIXTURES FOR DOORS AND WINDOWS:
Hinges
1. Back flap hinge: It should be used when the thickness of door shutter is less.
2. Butt hinge: It is the commonly used type of hinge.
3. Counter flap hinge: While closing the door the two parts of the door should join together.
4. Garnet hinge: It is used in ledged and braced doors.
5. Rising butt hinge: It increases height by 10 mm when opening.
6. Strap hinge: It is used for heavy doors.
Bolts
1. Al drop bolt: It is used in external doors of the buildings,
2. Barrel bolt: These are fixed in the backside of doors.
3. Latch: Used for all types of doors and windows,
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4. Hasp and staple bolt: Used for external doors.

5. Tower bolt: It is nearly the same as barrel bolt. But three or two rings used instead of the barrel.
Locks and handles:

1. Cup-board lock: used for small doors
2. Hook and eye: to keep the window in open condition these bolts are used
3. Mortise lock: to lock the doors from outside of the rooms
4. Pad lock: these are used together with the aldrap bolt
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Unit 6
STAIRS
Syllabus:
Definition of technical terms, Requirements of good stair, Types of Stairs, Geometrical design of RCC Dog legged
and open well stairs (Plan and section elevation).
Introduction:
A stair may be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting different floors of a
building.
Terms used in staircase:
Tread: The horizontal upper part of a step on which foot is placed in ascending or descending stairway.
Riser: The vertical portion of a step.
Rise: It is the vertical distance between the successive treads.
Landing: A plat form o1-resting place provided between two flights.
Flight: A series of steps without any platform break or landing in their direction.
Going: The run of a step in a stair the width of the tread between two successive risers.
Nosing: The outer projecting edge of a tread is termed as nosing.
Line of nosing: It is an imaginary line touching the nosing of each tread.
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Hand rail: They are provided to render assistance in negotiating a stair way.
Newel Post: It is a post supporting the hand rails
Stringer: These are the sloping wooden or concrete members providing support for the steps.
Windows: Thesearetaperingstepswhichareprovidedforchangingthedirectionofastair.
Baluster: lt is a wooden, metal or masonry vertical member supporting a hand rail.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIR:
The width of the stair should be minimum l00cm
The tread should not be less than 25 cm.
The riser should be maximum 20cm
The number of steps should not exceed 12 in a flight.
The pitch of the stair should be minimum 250 and maximum 400
The width of the landing should not be less than the width of the stair.
It should be so located that sufficient light and ventilation is ensured in the stair way. If possible it should be
located centrally so as to be easily accessible from the different corners of the building.
Types of Stairs:
The stair of different materials here been given below.

1. Brick stairs.
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2. Wooden stairs
3. Stone stairs
4. Steel stairs
5. Concrete stairs
The different forms of stairs may be classified under the following main heads.
1. Dog legged stairs
2. Open well stairs
3. Circular stairs
4. Bifurcated stairs
5. Geometrical stairs
6. Straight stairs
1. Dog Legged stairs:
It consists of two straight flights of steps with abrupt turn between them. Usually, a level landing
is place a cross the two flights at the change of direction. This type of stair is useful where the
width of the stair case hall is just sufficient to accommodate two widths of stair.
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2. Open well stairs:

It consists of two or more straight flight arranged in such a manner that a clear space called a
"well" occurs between the flights. The well should be rectangular or curved in shape.
3. Circular stairs or Spiral stairs:

Circular stair is commonly provided at the back side of building for rendering access to its various
floors for service purposes. The circular stairs are commonly constructed in R.C.C. Steps radiate
from a newel post or well hole, in the form of winders.
99
4. Bifurcated stairs:
This type of stair is suitably provided in modern aristocratic public buildings. In this type of stair
the flights are so arranged that there is a wide flight at the start which is sub divided into narrow
flights at the mid landing.
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5. Geometrical stairs:
This is similar to the open-newel stair with the difference that the open well between the flights is
curved. In this form of stair, the change in direction is obtained through winders. It is classified
into half turn stairs and quarter tum stairs.
6. Straight Stairs
In this form of stair all the steps rise in the same direction, if the ascending is steep, the straight
flight may be broken at an intermediate landing.
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Geometrical design of RCC Dog legged stairs and Open newel stairs:
Example 1: Plan a dog legged stair for a building in which the vertical distance between the floors is 3.6m. The
stair hall measures 2.5 m x 5 m.
Fig. shows the plan of the hall.

Let the rise be 15 cm and tread be 25 cm.
Let us keep width each flight = 1.2 m.
Width of landing = Width of stairs = 1.2 m.
Height of each flight = 3.6 / 2 = 1.8m
Therefore, number of risers required = 180 / 15 = 12 in each flight.
NO. of treads in each flight = 12-1 = 11
Therefore, space occupied by treads, 11x25 = 275 cm
Therefore, space left for passage = 5-1.2-2.75 = 1.05 m.
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Example 2: Fig. below shows the plan of a stair hall of a public building, which measures 4.25 m x 5.25 m. The
vertical distance between the floors is 3.9 m. Design a suitable stair for the building.
Solution.
Since it is a public building, let us fix the width of stairs = 1.5 m.
Since the width of room is 4.25 m, space left between the two flights =4.25-2x1.5 = 1.25 m. This suggests that we
can provide an open well type stairs.
Let the height of risers be 15 cm. keeping two flights, No. of riser in each flight = (1/2) x {(3.9x100)/15} = 13
No. of treads in each flight =13-1=12
Keeping width of tread = 25 cm and width of landing =1.5 m,
Horizontal distance required to accommodate these = (25 x 12) + 150 = 450 cm = 4.5 m.
This will leave width of passage = 5.25 - 4.5 = 0.75
m only which is not sufficient. Also, in public buildings, maximum number of treads in each flight is limited to 9.
Hence let us provide 6 treads in the landing portion, which can be easily accommodated in a width=5x25=125
cm, which is equal to the width of well.
Provide 9 treads in each flight. Thus there will be a total of 9+ 9+5=23 treads
The stairs will be of quarter landing type. Total number of risers to 23 treads in three flights will be = 23+3 = 26
Height of riser = (3.9x100)/26 = 15cm
Thus the steps will have risers of 15 cm and treads of 25 cm.
Horizontal space required for 9 treads = 25 x 9 = 225 cm = 2.25 m.
Width of passage left = 5.25- (1.5+ 2.25) = 1.50
The plan of the stairs is shown in fig. above
103
Unit 7
Syllabus:
PLASTERING AND PAINTING

Purpose of plastering, Materials of plastering, Methods of plastering, Defects in plastering, Introduction to
Paintings and types of Painting, Constituents of paints & types, Purpose of Painting, Defects in Painting,
Application of Paints to new and old surfaces.
Introduction to plastering:
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings, and other building components
with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface. The coating of plastic material (i.e. mortar) is
termed as plaster' Plastering on external exposed surfaces is known as rendering.
Purpose of Plastering:
1. Plastering is done to achieve the following objects:
2. To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
3. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge
4. To give decorative effect
5. To protect surfaces against vermit.
6. To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship
Materials of Plastering:
Special materials are used in plastering or over the plastered surface to meet some specific requirements of the
finished surface, such as increased durability, better or attractive appearance, fire proofing, heat insulation,
sound insulation etc.,
Following are the usual special materials used for plastered surfaces.
1. Acoustic plaster.
This contains gypsum mixtures applied as final coat in finishing the plastered surface. Such a coat undergoes
chemical reaction resulting in production of gas bubbles and consequent formation of tiny openings in the
coat. These honey-combed minute openings absorb sound. Such plaster is useful in the interior walls of halIs,
auditoriums etc., The plaster is applied in two coats each of 6 mm thickness, using wooden float.
104
2. Asbestos marble plaster.

This plaster is made of cement, asbestos and finely crushed marble, imparting marble like finish.
3. Barium plaster.
It is made from cement, sand and barium sulphate, and is provided in X-ray rooms, to protect the persons
working in it.
4. Granite silicon plaster.
This plaster is used for superior type of construction since it is quick setting & possess highly elastic properties
which eliminate cracks.
5. Gypsum plaster
(plaster of Paris) Plaster of Paris is obtained from heating finely ground gypsum heated at 160 to 170 degree
centigrade. It hardens within 3 to 4 minutes of adding water. To extend the setting time, suitable retarders
are used. Plaster of Paris is generally used in combination with lime, for ornamental work, and for repairing
holes and cracks.
6. Kenees cement plaster.
Kenee's cement is obtained by the calcination plaster of Paris with alum. This is very hard and sets in few days,
taking white, glass-Like polish. It is used for situations such as angles, skirtings etc., Because of its polishing
characteristics, it is also useful for ornamental work and decorative plastering.
7. Martins cement plaster.
Martin's cement is obtained when pearl ash is calcined with Plaster of Paris. It has quick setting properties,
and forms a white hard surface on drying. It is used for internal finishing work
8. parian cement plaster.
Parian cement is obtained when borax is calcined with Plaster of Paris. Like Kenee's cement, it is also used for
interior work. However it is cheaper than Kenee's cement'
9. Scagliola plaster.
Scagliola is obtained by dissolving Kenee's cement and coloring pigments in glue. It is used for plastering
pilasters, panels, columns etc., It appears like marble.
10. Sirapite plaster.
Sirapite is obtained when plaster of Paris is slaked in petroleum. It is quick setting and fire resisting. It
produces white hard surface on drying.
11. Snowcrete and colourcrete cements.
105
These are the trade names given to white and coloured cement respectively. These are used on external walls
to create good appearance.
12. Thistle hard wall.
It is a product of high grade gypsum. It sets rapidly and produces excellent finish. It is used for interior work.
Methods of Plastering:
Preparation of background:
For plastering new surfaces, all masonry joints should be raked to a depth of 10 mm in brick masonry and
15 mm in stone masonry for providing key to the plaster.
All mortar droppings and dust, and laitance (in case of freshly laid concrete) should be removed with the
help of stiff wire brush.
Any unevenness is levelled before rendering is applied.
For finishes applied in three coats, local projections should not be more than 10 mm proud of general
surface and local depressions should not exceed 20 mm.
For two coat plaster, these limitations are 5 mm and 10 mm respectively.
The surface should be washed with clean water and kept damp uniformly to produce optimum suction.
In no case the surface should be kept soaked with water so as to cause sliding of mortar before it sets or
kept less wet to cause strong suction which withdraws moisture from mortar and makes it weak, porous
and friable.
If plaster is to be applied on old surface, all dirt, scool, oil, paint etc. should be cleaned off. Loose and
crumbling plaster layer should be removed to its full thickness and the surface of the background should
be exposed and joints properly raked.
The surface should be washed and kept damp to obtain optimum suction.
1. LIME PLASTER
Lime plaster is applied either in three coats or in two coats. Before the application of plaster, the background
is prepared as described above.
a) Three-coat plaster
In the 3-coat plaster, the first coat is known as rendering coat second coat is known as floating coat and the
third coat is known as setting coat or finishing coat.
106
1. Application of rendering coat

The mortar is forcibly applied with mason's trowel and pressed well into joints and over the surface. The
thickness of coat should be such as to cover all inequalities of the surface; normal thickness is 12 mm. This is
allowed to slightly harden, and then scratched criss - cross with the edge of trowel (or with devil float); the
spacing of scratches may be 10 cm. The surface is left to set at least for 7 days. During this period, the surface
is cured by keeping it damp and then allowed to dry completely.
2. Application of floating coat

The rendering coat is cleaned off all dirt, dust and other loose mortar dropping. It is lightly wetted. Patches
15 cm x 15 cm or strips 10 cm wide are applied at suitable spacings to act as gauges. The mortar is then
thrown with mason's trowel, spread and rubbed to the required plain surface with wooden float. The surface
so obtained should be true in all directions. In case of lime-sand plaster, the finishing coat is applied
immediately. In the case of lime surkhi plaster, the floating coat is allowed to slightly set and then lightly
beaten criss - cross with floats edge at close spacing of 4 cm. It is then cured to set completely for at least 10
days and then allowed to dry out completely. In either case, the thickness of coat varies from 6 to 9 mm.
3. Application of finishing
In the case of lime-sand mortar the finishing coat is applied immediately after the floating coat. The finishing
coat consists of cream of lime (called neeru or plasters putty, having lime cream and sand in the ratio of 4:1)
applied with steel trowel and rubbed and finished smooth. The rubbing is continued till it is quite dry. It is left
for 1 day, and then curing is done for at least 7 days. In the case of lime-surkhi mortar, the finishing coat is
applied 7 days after the floating coat, after cleaning the surface of all dirt, dust and mortar droppings and
after fully wetting the surface of previous coat. The finishing coat is rubbed hard and finished smooth.
b) Two-coat plaster
In the case of two-coat plaster, the rendering coat is a combination of the rendering floating coats of threecoat plaster and is done under one continuous operation exc6pt that the scratching of rendering coat, as
specified in the three-coat plaster, is not done- The total thickness may be about 12 mm. The finishing is then
applied in a manner similar to the three-coat plaster.
2. CEMENT PLASTER AND CEMENT LIME PLASTER
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Cement plaster is applied either in two coats or in three coats, the former being more common. For interior work,
single coat plaster is sometimes provided.
a) Two-coat plaster. The following procedure is adopted:
1. The background is prepared by racking the joint to a depth of 20mm, cleaning the surface and wellwatering it.
2. If the surface to be plastered is very uneven, a preliminary coat is applied to fill up the hollows, before the
first coat
3. The first coat or rendering coat of plaster is applied, the thickness being equal the specified thickness of
plaster less 2 to 3 mm. In order to maintain uniform thickness of plaster, screeds are formed of plaster on
Wall surface by fixing dots of 15cm x 15 cm size. Two dots are so formed in vertical line, at a distance of about
2m, and are plumbed by means of a plumb bob. A vertical strip of mortar known as screed, is then formed. A
number of such vertical screeds are formed at suitable spacing. Cement mortar is then applied on the surface
between the successive screeds and the surface is properly finished.
4. Before rendering hardens, it is suitably worked to provide mechanical key for the final or finishing coat. The
rendering coat is trowelled hard forcing mortar into joints and over the surface. The rendering coat is kept
wet for at least 2 days and then allowed to dry completely.
5. The thickness of final or finishing coat may vary between 2 and 3 mm. Before applying the final coat, the
rendering coat is damped evenly. The final coat is applied with wooden floats to a true even surface and
finished with steel trowels. As far as possible, the finishing coat should be applied starting from top towards
bottom and completed in one operation to eliminate joining marks.
(b) Three-coat Plaster.

The procedure for applying three-coat plaster is similar to the two-coat plaster except that an
intermediate coat, known as floating coat is applied. The purpose of this coat of plaster is to bring the
plaster to an even surface. The thickness of rendering coat, floating coat and finishing coat are kept 9 to
10 mm, 6 to 9 mm and 2- 3 mm resp. The rendering coat is made rough. The floating coat is applied about
4 to 7 days after applying the first coat.
108
(c) single-coat plaster.

This is used only in inferior quality work, It is applied similarly as two coat plaster except that the rendering
coat, as applied for two-coat plaster, is finished off immediately after it has sufficiently hardened'
Defects in Plastering:
The following defects may arise in plaster work:
1. Blistering of plastered surface. This is the formation of small patches of plaster swelling out beyond the
plastered surface, arising out of late slaking of lime particles in the plaster.
2. Cracking. Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in the plaster work resulting from the following
reasons:
(i)
Imperfect preparation of background.
(ii)
Structural defects in building.
(iii)
Discontinuity of surface.
(iv)
Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or rapid drying.
(v)
Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion (in case of gypsum plaster) or
shrinkage (in case of lime sand plaster).
(vi)
Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat.
(vii)
Faulty workmanship.
(viii)
3. Crazing. It is the formation of a series of hair cracks on plastered surface, due to same reasons which cause
cracking.
109
4. Efforescene. It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the surface due to presence of salts in
plaster-making materials as well as building materials like bricks, sand, cement etc., and even water. This gives
a very bad appearance. It affects the adhesion of paint with wall surface. Efforescene can be removed to
some extent by dry brushing and washing the surface repeatedly.
5. Flaking. It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface, due to poor bond between successive
coats.
6. Peeling. It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface, resulting in the formation of a
7. patch. This also results from imperfect bond.
8. Popping. It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of some particles which
expand on setting
9. Rust stains. These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on metal laths.
10. Uneven surface. This is obtained purely due to poor workmanship.
Introduction to painting:
Paints are the liquid composition of pigments and binders which when applied to the surface in thin coats, dry
to form a solid film to impart the surface a decorative finish apart from giving protection to the base material.
Characteristics of good paint:
An ideal paint should possess the following characteristics
(1) Paint should form hard and durable surface.
(2) IL should give attractive appearance.
(3) It should be cheap and readily available.
(4) It should be such that it can be applied easily to the surfaces.
(5) It should have good spreading quality, so as to cover maximum area in minimum quantity.
(6) It should dry in reasonable time.
(7) It should not show hair cracks on drying.
(8) It should form film of uniform colour, on drying.
(9) It should be stable for a longer period.
(10) It should not be affected by atmospheric agencies.
Constituents of paints:
A paint generally is made up of the following constituents
110
1. A base.
2. Inert filler or extender
3. Colouring pigment
4. Vehicle
5. solvent or thinner
6. Drier
1. Base
It is generally a metallic oxide and is used in a paint. Base is an essential pigment which forms the chief ingredient
of a paint. The most important purpose of adding a base in a paint is to form an opaque coating to hide the
surface to be painted. It also makes the paint film resistant to abrasion and prevents shrinkage crack likely to be
formed in the film during drying cement, white lead, red lead, zinc oxide, ferrous oxide are the bases commonly
used.
2. Inert filler or extender
It is the cheap pigment which is added to a paint to reduce its cost. In addition it modifies the weight of the paint
and makes it more durable. The commonly used inert filler are 4 , silica, gypsum, charcoal, etc.,
3. Colouring pigment
As the name indicates it is white or coloured pigment mixed into a paint to get desired colour of a paint.
4. Vehicle
It is a liquid which acts as a binder for the various pigments like base extender and colouring pigment. The vehicle
makes the paint in the state of fluid and thus helps to spread the ingredients present in the paint uniformly over
the surface to be painted. This forms a surface resistant to abrasion and also impermeable film on drying.
Refined linseed oil is commonly used vehicle in the case of oil paint, soyabean, sunflower, tobacco, etc., are also
being used as vehicle in various combination with or without linseed oil.
5. Solvent / thinner
It is a liquid which thins the consistency of the paint and evaporates after the paint has applied to the surface. It
imparts smoothness and easy flow of paint.
Turpentine, pure oil, petroleum spirit are commonly used as solvent or thinner
6. Drier
These are the materials containing metallic compounds and are used in small quantities for accelerating the
drying of a paint. The driers should not be used in excess (not more than 10% of volume) if used in excess they
111
tend to destroy the elasticity of the paint which finally leads to its flaking. Lead acetate, Mno2, cobalt are the
commonly used driers.
Types of paints:
1. Aluminium paint: It consists of finely ground aluminium suspended in either quick-drying spirit varnish or slow
drying oil varnish as per actual requirements. A thin metallic film of aluminium is formed When the spirit or
oil evaporates. It is used for painting wood work or metal surfaces.
2. Anticorrosive paint: this paint is generally used as a metal protection paint for preserving structural steel work
against the adverse effect of acid etc.,
3. Asbestos paint: this type of paint is especially suitable for patch work or stopping leakage of metal roof. It is
also used for painting gutters in order to prevent rusting. Asbestos paint is sometimes used as damp proof
cover for the outer surface of the wall
4. Bituminous paint: these are alkali resistant and it is used for painting exterior brick work and plastered
surfaces, they are also used for water proofing and protection of iron and steel work which are under water.
These paints get deteriorated when exposed to direct sunlight.
5. Bronze paint: this type of paint is often used for painting interior or exterior metallic surface on amount of its
high reflective property it is commonly applied on radiators
6. Cellulose paint: this type of paint is made from celluloid sheet, it dries very quickly and possess additional
advantage of hardening, flexibility and smoothness. It can be cleaned very easily and remain unaffected by
hot water or acidic atmosphere, it is much superior to ordinary house paint and also very expensive. On
amount of its high cost its usage is generally restricted for painting to motor cars, aero planes, etc.,
7. Casein paint: Casein is a protein substance extracted from milk curd which is mixed up with the base consisting
of white pigment like titanium to form the paint, it is usually applied on walls, ceiling, cement blocks, etc., to
enhance the appearance of the substance.
8. Cement based paint: this is a type of water paint in which cement farms the base. No oil or other organic
matter is used in making this paint. This type of paint I available in packed powder form under different names
(snow cem). This paint can be made by adding paint powder to water to obtain thick paste and thereafter
diluting the paste with water to brush able consistence. This paint has to be used within one hour after mixing
since the paint gets spoiled due to the settling of cement.
9. Enamel paint: it is made of adding pigments like white lead to a vehicle, here the vehicle is varnished. This
paint can be used for interiors as well as exterior surface. They are not affected to any atmospheric changes
112
10. Oil paint: This type of paint can be used for almost all surfaces such as wooden, masonry, metal, etc.,
11. Rubber based paint: this type of paint has an excellent acid, alkali and water resistant property, it can be
readily used for application on new concrete and lime plastered surface
Defects in Painting:
The following defects may occur in painting work:
1. Blistering. It is the defect caused due to the formation of bubbles under the film of paint. The bubbles are
formed by water vapors trapped behind the painted surface.
2. Bloom. In this defect, dull patches are formed on finished polished surface- This may be either due to
defect paint or due to bad ventilation.
3. Crawling or sagging. This defect occurs due to the application of too thick a paint.
4. Fading. This is the gradual loss of colour of paint, due to the effect d sunlight on pigments of the paint.
5. Flaking. Flaking is the dislocation or loosening of some portion of the painted surface, resulting from poor
adhesion
6. Flashing. It is the formation of glossy patches on the painted surface, resulting from bad workmanship,
cheap paint or weather action.
7. Grinning. This defect is caused when the final coat does not have sufficient opacity so that background is
clearly seen.
8. Running. This defect occurs when the surface to be painted is too smooth. Due to this, the paint runs back
and leaves small areas of the surface uncovered.
9. Sponification. This is the formation of soap patches on the painted surface due to chemical action of
alkalies.
Application of paints to new and old surfaces:

Repainting old work:
Before repainting old work, the old paint having cracks and blisters should be removed, by applying any one of
the following solvents or paint removers:
1. Applying solution containing 1kg of caustic soda in 5 litres of water. The paint gets dissolved.
2. Applying mixture containing one part of soft soap, two parts of potash and one part of quick lime, while
in hot state. After 24hs of the application, surface is washed with hot water.
113
3. Applying mixture of equal parts of washing soda and quicklime to the required consistency. After 1 hour
or application, the surface is washed with water.
After removing the old paint, the surface is properly cleaned and then rubbed with pumice stone or glass
paper. The cleaned surface is given two or three coats of paint to obtain the desired finish.
PAINTING NEW IRON AND STEEL WORK

Iron and steel surfaces are painted so that rusting is prevented. Hence surface should be prepared very carefully
1. The surface is cleaned off scale and rust etc. by scrapping or brushing with steel wire brushes. Oil,
grease, etc., is removed by washing the surface with petrol, benzene or lime water.
2. The cleaned surface is treated with a film of phosphoric acid. This film protects the surface from
rusting and provides better adhesive surface for the paint.
3. First coat is then applied with a brush. The coat consists of dissolving 3 kg of red lead in 1 litre of
boiled linseed oil.
4. After prime coat dry. Two or three under coats are applied either with a brush or with spray gun.
Each coat has to be applied only after previous coat gets completely dried. Under coat may
consists of 3kg of red oxide, dissolved in 5liters of boiled linseed oil.
5. After the undercoat has dried, the final coat of the desired type of paint is applied. Finishing coat
should present smooth finish.
Repainting old iron and steel work:
Before repainting, the old surface is thoroughly cleaned by application of soap water. The grease, if any, may be
removed by washing the surface with lime and water. However if the old paint has cracked, it has to be removed
by flame cleaning. A flat oxy-acetylene flame is passed over the metal, burning off the old paint and loosening
rust and scale, the surface is then scrapped with wire brush and washed with solution of caustic soda and fresh
slaked lime. After the surface is thus prepared, painting is carried out as for the new surface.
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Unit 8
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Syllabus:
Properties and uses of plastics, aluminum, glasses, varnishes, Introduction to smart materials and its application,
Introduction to formwork and scaffolding, Formwork details for RCC Column, Beams and Floors, Shoring and under
Pinning, Damp Proofing - Causes of Dampness, Effects of Dampness, Methods of Damp Proofing

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1

Building Materials & Construction Technology

Every structure consists of two parts.

Essential Requirements of good foundation:

Amarnath C B | REVA ITM

Building Materials & Construction Technology

Causes of failure of good foundation:

1. Non uniform settlement of sub soil and masonry

Amarnath C B | REVA ITM

Building Materials & Construction Technology

Open foundations or shallow foundations:

The various types of spread footings are:

Amarnath C B | REVA ITM

Building Materials & Construction Technology

Figure 1.1 Wall footing

Fig 1.2 Isolated footing

Amarnath C B | REVA ITM

Building Materials & Construction Technology

Fig 1.3 Combined footing

Fig 1.4 RCC footing

Fig 1.5 Inverted Arch footing

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Fig 1.6 Continous footing

Fig 1.7 Strap or continuous footing

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Fig 1.8 eccentrically loaded footing

Fig 1.9 Grillage Foundation

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Fig 1.10 Raft Foundation

Fig 1.11 Deep foundation

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Pile foundation can be further classified into:

g) Fender / dolphin piles

Fig 1.12 Sheet piles

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Fig 1.13 Friction piles

Fig 1.14 Screw Piles

5. Cylinders: They are small single cell caissons

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a) Behavior of ground due to variations in depth of water table

Methods of site exploration:

Purpose of Site Exploration:

Bearing Capacity of Soil:

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Causes of failure of foundations & methods to prevent the same:

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3) Lateral movement of subsoil

4) Unequal settlement of masonry

5) Weathering of subsoil due to stress

Methods of determine the bearing capacity of soil:

Method of dropping a weight

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Method of loading Plate load test

Fig 1.15 Arrangement for plate load test

Limitations of plate load Test: