Definition of Pastoral Nomadism by Thomas J.

Barfield, 1993:
Societies specializing in animal husbandry requiring periodic movements
are called pastoral nomads.
THE HERDER HANDBOOK
Prepared by The Staff
Hovsgol Global Environment Facility Project
GeoEcology Insitute
Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Objectives and Goals of the Handbook

Are your animals healthy?
This handbook will explain for herders what is the sustainable use of natural
resources, why we need this, and what are the benefits for you and the health
of your animals.
Todays nomads are living in a very different World than their
ancestors occupied. Part of the changes are political and socioeconomic
following the break up of the herder negdels such as limited access to
markets or the absence of transportation for getting products and livestock to
markets for sale. But equally important have been negative impacts on the

steppe. These negative impacts are due to two factors, overgrazing by too
many animals feeding in the same area, and the continued warming of the
climate. Since the 1990s, there have been many more livestock in Mongolia
than in the last 100 or more years. At the same time, during the time period
of 1992 to 1997 the number of herders doubled, and the movements of the
herders has declined.
Overgrazing, due to the increase in livestock numbers has been made
worse because of the loss of transportation to take animals and products to
regional markets. These problems have resulted in larger herd sizes feeding
and removing good food plants, leaving poor food plants to grow and too
often to be the major food for livestock. The frequent movement of herds to
new pastures is essential to allow plants in grazed areas to grow again before
the next grazing season.

Livestock herds keep growing, increasing in

number and this means more grazing on the steppe. This kind of herding is
unsustainable and will lead to serious degradation of the steppe pastures.
The major goal of this handbook is to provide you with information
about the changes in pasture quality, and give you the tools by means of
indicators so that you will be able to identify the signs of overgrazing in the
steppe. These signs will tell you that you must move your animals to new
grazing areas before you destroy your grazing pastures. Only by
understanding the signs of overgrazing, and moving your animals more
frequently will you be able to achieve sustainable pastures that can be used
year after year by you and your children.
What is Overgrazing?
The impacts of overgrazing can be seen in pastures resulting from too many
animals feeding in an area, changing the plants to poor food species, and

creating and hard soil cover with bare areas uncovered by plants. This
intense overgrazing results in the loss of preferred plant foods for livestock,
such as grasses, and encourages the growth of poor nutritional forbs such as
sage brush and spicy species, many of which can be toxic to livestock.
With the loss of plant cover and hard soil cover, rain water cannot soak into
the soil to support plant growth. The water runs off of the soil surface, or
begins to create gullies that erode quickly, causing serious loss of good soils
and filling streams with sediments.
Herders have also been interested in increasing the number of goats
instead of following the traditional herding practices of a diverse herds
structure. The survey result also shows that households expenses are
exceeding the incomes. It suggests that herders are making money by
exploiting natural resources such as hunting, fishing, collecting berries and
lodging. Spending their small income for essential needs such as food and
clothing, herders have a little chance to improve their life.
One reason for the decline in pasture quality was that individual
herders, based on their own specific territories, could no longer graze
different species of herds on a range of suitable pasture. When all the
different type of animals graze on one pasture all the best grasses are quickly
eaten up early in the year, without leaving seeds or growing plants to
reproduce next year. As a result low quality and even toxic plants are
increasing in pastures from year to year.
Why is the Climate Warming and what does it mean for me and my
pastures?
This is not the only reason for the pasture changes; climate is also having an
impact on plant growth. The climate is getting warmer; the average winter

temperature has warmed by almost 3o C in northern Mongolia over the last

40 years. Summers are warmer and the plant growing season is longer, but
there has not been a significant increase in rains. The same climate changes
also are making the beginning of the rainy season more variable. Rains
generally begin in mid to late June, but recently in some years, as in 2004
and 2005; the rains did not begin until after Naadam. The result of this is
that steppe and forest soils are drying out very rapidly each summer, often
prior to the beginning of the summer rains. There are likely to be longer dry
summer periods in the future. Climate change has been substantial in the
steppe of northern and central Mongolia, and it will continue here and
elsewhere in Mongolia.
What is sustainability?
Sustainability is the ability to return to graze in the same area year after year
in areas where plant growth is not seriously depleted each year and is able to
grow back before the next summers grazing season.
If herders continue the (intense) usage without proper management
planning for a long period, given the problems associated with climate
warming, it will damage the environment leaving few natural resources for
future generations, including your own children. Instead of this, we need to
think of proper management plans, how adapt to future changes in climate
and how to achieve sustainable uses of resources allowing the normal cycle
of refreshment and recovery of the natural resources. The alternative is for
natural resources to become seriously limited and be depleted in the near
future.
How can you achieve a sustainable pasture? Alternatives to intensive
livestock herding must be found that allow responsible herding that allows

the grass to grow again next year.

What is the pasture management?
The pasture management is the sustainable plan for use of the pasture.
Herders would ask or thought why we need to allocate the pasture by
seasons or decrease livestock numbers, why we must move, why we cant
stay one place during the year. In Mongolia, number of livestock is exceeded
the carrying capacity of the pasture or no places to be more remotely move.
Practical methods to rehabilitate pasture lands once affected by degradation
is to control grazing by seasons and to allow lands to regenerate naturally
and to leave land vacant for three years or more and to plant perennial plants
during this period. Currently, the most practical method is to allocate pasture
lands by seasons.
Factors effecting pasture use include:
Not properly managing grazing activities to determine the livestock
carrying capacity for the area.
Changing climatic conditions affect the number of livestock and
pasture production levels.
Local administrations in the bags and soums do not give sufficient
knowledge of traditional pasture allocation systems.
In recent years, the number of livestock has increased but herders are
not going to otor. Most of the herders are not able to pay transportation
(cart and horse) costs for Otor. Herders agree with the idea to allocate
pastures by seasons and hence provide protection to this resource.
A small amount of wild hay is cut, dried, and stored in the more
productive mountain-steppe areas, but most herders rely on standing dead
forage during the winter and spring seasons, when fresh grass is unavailable.

We sometimes think, Why ismy livestock is not growing?. Wolf, drought,

dzud, livestock theft, disease and barren soil are the reasons affect number of
livestock. But in growth of livestock not only above reasons are affecting
also need human knowledge of take care animals and self effort are the
growth of herders livestock.
In Mongolia most case summer and winter zone pasture capacities are
exceeded.
If current practices continue unabated, in the future the degraded area
of pasture lands will cover more area due to poor management and without
allocation of pasture for each season. There is a fine balance that needs to be
struck between ensuring the resources for the next generation while also
ensuring that the current generation of local herders have access to natural
resources to make a livelihood.
Movement by seasons is the key element of pastoral nomadism and it
should be the key of pasture management for its sustainability. Scientists
have been proven that steppe and mountain steppe pastures are highly
resilient and recover rapidly when grazing pressure is relaxed or removed.
For instance, the following photo is shown how pasture quality was
increased after a year livestock grazing removal from pasture by a big
difference between inside and outside of the enclosure established in Turag
valley of Hanh soum, Hovsgol aimag. We strongly recommend that the first
step of pasture management is to increase a frequency and distance of
seasonal movement.

Also if the herders do not move longer distance gene chronological problems
occurred. For example: 50% of the herders are genetically related in every
soum of Mongolia.

Present pattern of Mongolian pasture

There is 128 million ha natural pasture and 2 million ha natural hay area in
Mongolia. It consists of about 70% of the total area of the country (1.72
million square kilometers) and is semi-arid grasslands or arid desert. The
grasslands have been occupied by nomadic pastoralists for centuries and
have evolved with a long history of grazing. However, Mongolian
grasslands have been preserved until recently due to the sustainable use of
pastureland as a result of the mobility of the pastoral nomads.
These grasslands presently support Mongolias 28 million head of
domestic livestock and large cyclical populations of wild herbivores such as
grasshoppers, Brandts vole, gazelles and wild ass. Livestock numbers have

increased almost 4-fold over the last 80 years and Mongolia now has the
highest number of livestock per person in the World; livestock account for
over 32% of Mongolias gross domestic product and 30% of exports. With
this increase in the number of livestock, more than 70% of pasture has
experienced some degradation and 7% is heavily degraded. Most researchers
have been proven that the main reasons of the pasture degradation facing
with Mongolians over the last 15 years are the livestock increasing number
and restriction of number and length of herders movement by seasons.
With the pasture degradation, although Mongols have a rich tradition
of nomadic animal husbandry, it is becoming increasingly important to
provide herders with a handbook on pasture plants and soil. Especially,
herders should know what are the indicators of pasture degradation so they
can avoid overgrazing a pasture by their livestock.
About 2200 vascular plant species, of which about 600 species are
palatable for livestock, occur in the natural pasture of the country. Not all
plant species found on pasture for whole Mongolia are included in this
handbook. Instead, the handbook focuses on commonly seen plants and
plants that are representative of pasture degradation. More extensive
information about pasture plants can be found in two excellent guides,
Forage Plants in Mongolia ( 2003 by Sodnomdarjaa Jigjidsuren and
Douglas A. Jonhson) and The Key to Forage Plants of Mongolia ( 1985 by
Nadmid Olziikhutag). Except this two guides, previous guides and keys to
the vascular plants of Mongolia such as Palatable plants in pasture of
Mongolian People Republic by Yunatov, A. A, 1954, The Key to Forage
Plants of Mongolia by Olziikhutag, N, 1985 and The Key to Vascular Plants
of Mongolia by Grubov, V. I, 1982 were used as references in this small
handbook as well.

Also, in this handbook we provide herders with some simple methods

for measurements of pasture soil parameters, which are main indicators of
pasture soil degradation.
Indicators of pasture degradation
A. Pasture Soil
Soil can be described in many different ways, such as heavy, light, sandy,
clay, loam, poor or good. Scientists typically describe soil according to its
color, compaction, moisture content, organic content, acidity, structure,
temperature, and texture. Although each of these indicators is important,
four indicators (texture, color, compaction and temperature) are more
important than the others. We will provide a brief overview and simple
methods to measure the three indicators below.
Soil texture
There are three major categories of soil as a sandy, loamy and clay soil.
Sandy soil absorbs more than 5 cm of water per hour. It is very porous, with
large spaces between soil particles. Little water is retained and the sandy soil
dries out quickly. Loamy soil absorbs from 0.1 cm to 5 cm per hour. The soil
is loose and porous and holds water quite well. Clay soil absorbs less than
0.1 cm of water per hour. Clay soil is dense with few air spaces between
particles and holds water so tightly that little water is available for plants.
To figure out what type of soil you have, there are several easy
methods. The first, called the rope test, requires that you squeeze a moist,
but not muddy, small part of soil in your hand. Then rub the soil between
your fingers. Sandy soil feels gritty and loose. It won't form a ball and falls
apart when rubbed between your fingers. Loam soil is smooth, slick,

partially gritty and sticky and forms a ball that crumbles easily. It is a
combination of sand and clay particles. Clay soil is smooth, sticky and
somewhat plastic feeling. It forms ribbons when pressed between fingers.
Clay soil requires more pressure to form a ball than loam soil, but does not
crumble apart as easily.
Soil Color
Soil color can provide information about organic matter in the soil, drainage,
biotic activity, and fertility. The chart below can give you some insight into
the condition of your soil just from its appearance. To identify the color of
your soil, you should take a small shovel, and dig a shallow hole, at least 3
cm 4cm deep, and gauge the color (you should do this quickly before the
sun can dry it out).
Condition
Organic matter
Erosion factor
Aeration
Available nitrogen
Fertility

Dark
High
Low
High
High
High

Color
Moderately dark
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium

Light
Low
High
Low
Low
Low

Bare ground
The most important characteristic of healthy pasture is an adequate cover of
vegetation. Bare ground causes rain to run off swiftly, carrying with it
sediment and soil nutrients. The result is erosion and less productive
rangeland. Vegetation traps rainfall so that it has time to soak into the soil,
lessens the force of raindrops on the soil, and slows and filters water flowing
over the land so that less water and sediment run off. All of these actions

improve the quality of water entering our surface and ground water supplies.
A good plant cover also lowers soil temperature and protects the soil surface
from animal and mechanical traffic, which increases the ability of the soil to
absorb precipitation. Soil that holds water well produces higher quality
forage and lessens the financial risk of drought.
Estimating the percentage of your pasture that is bare of vegetation,
and keeping track of that information over time, will tell you whether or not
the health of your pasture are declining. The small line transect method is a
simple way to determine the percent of bare ground and rock. Within your
pasture area, establish several beginning points (at least 5 points) for
transects (straight lines). At each beginning point, pick a random point in the
distance and walk toward it. After every ten paces stop and observe the
ground at the tip of your right shoe. On the paper sheet, record whether there
is bare ground or rock, or whether there is vegetation. Continue until you
have taken ten such readings along each transect. Calculate the percentage of
bare ground for each transect (the number of stops where you recorded bare
ground or rock, times ten). For example, three instances of bare ground or
rock in 10 observations (100 paces) would equal 30 percent bare ground.
Then calculate the percent bare ground average for the whole pasture area by
averaging the percentages of all transects. For example, if you walked three
transects and they showed 30, 20 and 50 percent bare ground, the average
for the pasture area would be 33 percent. There will be obvious seasonal
changes in vegetative cover because of plant growth and death. So use the
method at least twice each yearbefore the growing season begins and again
after the first frost in the fall. Monitor at the same times each year so that
your record will accurately reflect changes in bare ground over time.
Not all range sites have the potential for 100 percent vegetative cover.

Some are naturally rocky or sparsely covered with plants. The importance of
monitoring your pasture is that you will know whether or not the percentage
of bare ground is increasing. If it is, the pasture is becoming less healthy and
corrective actions are needed.
B. Pasture Plant
Pasture plants are different in steppe, mountain steppe and gobi desert zones.
Generally, scientists estimated that there are about 200 pasture types in
Mongolia. In other hand, 200 pasture types are comfort for livestock
grazing. These pasture types respond differently to livestock grazing.
Here we provide information and image of plants that commonly
distribute throughout whole Mongolia and are endorsed by most scientists
and researchers as an indicator of pasture degradation. Note that the plants
including in this handbook are in climax community without livestock
grazing in some extend. Due to heavy grazing these plants abundantly grow
in pasture because they have good ability to grow in soil with low nutrient
and moisture. Also in this handbook do not contain plants that abundantly
grow around herder camp such as goosefoots, nettles and wormwoods
(species of Chenopodium, Urtica and Artemisia).

Mongolian name: Agi

Scientific name: Artemisia frigida Willd
Indicator of pasture degradation

Fragrant, aromatic perennial, mat-forming, xerophytic "semi-shrub," woody

at the base. Grayish and leaf is velvety. Grows to a height of 10 to 35cm
with a spread of 15 to 30cm. Woody stems are spreading and often much
branched. Numerous small yellow flower heads are borne in nodding
racemes or open panicles.
Its phenology is influenced by geographic location. Generally growth
begins about mid-April. Flowers in late August, and seed ripen by midSeptember and the foliage dries "soon" afterward.
Wormwood occupies a wide variety of sites. Most typically, it grows
in full sunlight in dry, gravelly and stony slopes, foothills, rocky sites in dry
river basins, edges of dry river banks, and desert steppe with coarse, shallow
soils.
This species distributes in Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Mongol-Daurian,
Hovd, Mongol Altai, Midlle Halha, Depression of Great Lakes, Valley of
Lakes, East Gobi and Gobi-Altai.
Wormwood varies considerably in its value as forage for livestock. It
is unpalatable to cattle. Livestock will not begin to eat it until other forage
becomes scarce. However, it rates "very good" for domestic sheep and goats
in palatability, especially during winter and spring.
It consists of more than 40% of total pasture yield of heavily grazed
south facing pasture.

Mongolian name: Navtuul

Scientific name: Potentilla acaulis L
Indicator of pasture degradation

Xerophytic perennial forb with bright yellow flower. This plant forms small
loose tufts. Leaves numerous, hairy, velvety, grayish. Flowers in May and
seed mature in June-July. If summer condition is favorable, it flowers in late
autumn again.
Prefers steppe debris, stony slopes, tailings, thin sands in sandy
steppes, montane steppes and rocks.
This species distributes in Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Mongol-Daurian,
Hovd, Mongol Altai, Middle Halha, East Mongolia, Depression of Great
Lakes, and Valley of Lakes.
Sheep and goats graze well young plants in early spring. Large
animals dont graze because of its extremely short growth. Relative
preference for this species decreases when other plants are abundant.
This species consists of 40-45% of total yield of heavily grazed
pasture. Indicator species of pasture degradation.

Mongolian name: Hiag

Scientific name: Elymus chinensis
Indicator of pasture degradation

Xerophytic perennial grass. Reproduces by rhizomes branching at 2-8 cm

soil depth. Height is about 20 cm in degraded pasture and 50 cm in ungrazed
pasture. Whole plant is grayish. The upper side of leaf is hairy. Growing
begins in early spring. Flowers in July, and seed ripen between in late July
and first days of August. Grows in steppe, steppe meadows, sandier river
valley, cropland, and along road.
This species distributes in Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Mongol-Daurian,
Great Hingan, Middle Halha, Eastern Mongolia, Depression of Great Lakes,
Valley of Lakes and Gobi-Altai.
In wintertime its palatability is moderate for all livestock. Horse
prefers it in summer. Cattle graze well and sheep and goats graze moderately
in summer.
It consists of about 25% of total yield of overgrazed pasture.
Mongolian name: Yorhog
Scientific name: Agropyron cristatum L
Indicator of pasture degradation

Xerophytic perennial bunch grass. Height is 30-70 cm. Grayish, and hairy.
Spikelet (inflorescence) is comb shaped and straight. Growing begins in late
April, flowers in mid July and seed matures in mid August. Grows in
mountain steppe, steppe, meadow, and along sandy shore of river. \
Distributes in Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Mongol Daurian, Mongol
Altai, Middle Halha, Eastern Mongolia, and depression of Great Lakes.
Horse, sheep and goats graze well in spring. Generally, palatability is
good for all livestock.
This species consists of 15-20 percent of total yield of overgrazed
pasture.
Mongolian name: Hazaar ovs
Scientific name: Cleistogenes squarrosa
Indicator of pasture degradation

Xerophytic, perennial grass. Height is 15-30 cm. Color is bright green. Root
is fibrous and 50-60 cm long. Flowers in late July, seed ripens in September.
Grows in stony slope, mountain steppe and mountain steppe.
Distributes in Hentii, Hangai, Mongol-Daurian, Mongol Altai, Middle
Halha, Eastern Mongolia, Depression of Great Lakes, Valley of Lakes,
Eastern Gobi, and Gobi Altai.
Moderately palatable to all livestock in summer time. In autumn it
dries, litters and blows by wind.
Mongolian name: Shireg ulalj
Scientific name: Carex duriuscula
Indicator of pasture degradation
Xerophytic, perennial sedge. Height is about 5 cm in heavily overgrazed
pasture, 15 cm in ungrazed pasture. This plant forms a tight mat. Leaves are
short, narrow, and bound to spikes. Flower is brown. Flowers in late May,
seed matures in early June. Grows in sandier steppe, lower part of mountain
steppe, and moist meadow.
This species distributes Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Mongol Daurian,
Mongol Altai, Middle Halha, Eastern Mongolia, Depression of Great Lakes,
Valley of Lakes, Gobi-Altai and Eastern Gobi.
It is good for small animals during summer and moderately palatable
for horse and cattle.
In heavily grazed meadow and lower part of hill and mountain steppe
pasture it consists of more than 70% of total yield because of its ability to
form a tight mat.

Mongolian name: Ganga

Scientific name: Thymus gobicus Tschern
Indicator of pasture degradation

Semi-shrub with woody base. 2-3cm in height, prostrate. Heavily branched

stems round and evenly hairy, leaves small and red brown. Flowers in July,
and seed matures in August. Cured litter persists through winter. Prefers
sandy deposits, sandy steppe, gravelly banks, gravelly and stony slopes,
hillside areas, boulders, and scree.
This species distributes in Hovsgol, Hentii, Hangai, Middle Halha,
Mongol-Daurian, Depression of Great Lakes, Valley of Lakes, Eastern
Mongolia and Gobi-Altai.
Animals dont eat green plants. Sheep and goats graze a dried and
cured standing matter, and horse graze occasionally. Camels and cattle dont
graze.
This species consists of 40-50% of total pasture yield of south facing
upper steppe of heavily grazed pastures whereas it constitutes 10-20% in
ungrazed pastures.

LIVELIHOOD and MARKETS OF HERDER HOUSEHOLD

Herder livelihood and markets of herder household
Herder components of income are selling wooden furniture, selling
cashmere, preserving and selling meat, selling animal skins, preparing hay,
preparing firewood, selling milk products, selling sheep wool, gathering and
selling blueberry, making transport and also handy crafts.
The consequences of the introduction market economy have increased
the gap between wealthy and poor herders. Wealthy families have more
capacity to increase family income but poor families have no such ability.
Herder livelihoods depend directly on the number of family members, the
number of hands labor, number of livestock, labor abilities of head of family
and members and their innovation and initiatives. Herder would think that
can I get the incomes as big as cashmere from livestock product?
Yes, it is possible. In nowadays, intensive livestock industry
becoming main resource of the big income. But in Mongolia it is critical and
due to lack of infrastructures still can not develop the intensive animal
husbandry. But due to remoteness from the market and inability to access to
the market most herders can not sell the products market prices.
Herders cooperation with local government
In the addressing current unsustainable gazing patterns, policymakers need
heed the multiple ways in which wealth and poverty affect pastoral resource
use and must consider how to help herders overcome materials as well as
social constraints on mobility. Particularly the trend for households to camp
in one place for all for seasons and graze the surrounding pasture year-round
without an opportunity for the to rest .
In soums and bags built without planning, the corrals and barns for
winter and spring are the main sources of restriction to establish such pasture
allocations. Therefore herders, researchers and local governments are always
needed to cooperate. This means that local government must consider the
results of environmental study and use this in their decision making to solve
all kind of problems that facing to herders. This is the one of the important
thing of sustainability.
What can I do to protect my pasture and animals?

Better cooperation and development of management plans is required to

allocate the pasture land by seasonal zones for each family or Hot Ail to
manage these resources for now and in the future.