STUDYSMART

CHEMISTRY FORM 5
CHAPTER 5 : CHEMICAL FOR CONSUMER

5.1 Analysing soap and detergent

5.2 Evaluating the use of food additives
5.3 Understanding Medicine
5.4 Appreciating the existence of chemicals

5.1 ANALYSING SOAP AND DETERGENT

a) Soap
Soap is sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty
acids
RCOO- Na+ or RCOO- K+
R : Alkyl group containing 12-18 carbon atoms
Prepared by hydrolyzing fats or oils under alkaline condition. This process is called
saponification.
It is also the alkaline hydrolysis of esters using alkaline solutions.
Fats/oils (ester) + Concentrated
soap
+ Glycerol
alkali

[ R, R and R : three alkyl groups can be same or different ]

Examples of soaps
Num of C
12
16
18

Formula
CH3 (CH2)10COO- Na+
CH3 (CH2)14COO- Na+
CH3 (CH2)16COO- Na+

Name
Sodium Laurate
Sodium Palmitate
Sodium Stearate

To enhance the soaps marketability, additives are used such as perfume, colouring matter and
antiseptic.
Production of soap can be precipitated by adding common salt to the reaction mixture in order
to reduce the solubility of soap in water.
Properties of soap depends on
a) type of alkali used for saponification
b) type of animal fats or vegetable oils used
Potassium soap are softer, milder than sodium soap which can be used for bathing.

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b) Detergent
Detergent is a synthetic cleansing agent which is made from hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum fraction.
There are 3 types of detergent which depends on the charge on detergent ion.
i) Anionic Detergent
- Head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ion.
- It is divided into two types
Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate ( detergent molecule with a benzene ring)

Sodium alkyl sulphate ( without a benzene ring)

ii) Cationic Detergent

- Head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion.

ii) Non ionic detergent

Preparation of detergent
a) Preparation of Sodium alkyl sulphate
STEP 1 Sulphonation

Long - chain
alcohol

concentrated
sulphuric acid

alkyl sulphonic acid

+ water

STEP 2 Neutralization

Sodium alkyl sulphate (detergent)

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b) Preparation of sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate

STEP 1 Alkylation

Long chain alkene + Benzene alkyl benzene

STEP 2 Sulphonation

alkyl benzene + Concentrated

sulphuric acid
STEP 3 Neutralization

Alkyl benzene sulphuric + water

acid

C12H25CH(CH3)C6H4SO3- Na+ + H2O

C12H25CH(CH3)C6H4SO3H + Sodium
hydroxide

The cleansing action of soap and detergent

A sodium/potassium or detergent dissolves in water to form soap/detergent anion and
sodium/potassium cation.
The anions of soap/detergent consist of two parts :
Hydrophobic part (water-hating)
Long hydrocarbon chain
Insoluble in water
Soluble/dissolve in grease

Hydrophilic part ( water-loving)

Ionic part (carboxylate group/ sulphate
group)
Soluble/dissolve in water
Insoluble in grease

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Process of the cleaning action of soap and detergent.

A piece of cloth is stained with grease and then dipped into soap/ detergent water.
Through this, the wetting ability of water increases.
Thus, the surface of cloth is wetted thouroughly.
The hydrophobic part of the soap/ detergent anion dissolves in grease while the hydrophilic part
is attracted to water molecule.
Because of the forces of attraction between water molecules and negatively-charged heads, the
grease begins to be lifted off the surface when the water is agitated slightly.
Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps the process of emulsification occurs whereby the
grease is broken into small droplets.
The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth due to the repulsion
between the negative charges on the surface. These droplets are suspended in water to form
emulsion. The droplets is rinsed and washed away and leave the surface clean.
The effectiveness of the cleansing action of soap and detergent
SOAP
The hydrophilic group of soap is the carboxyl
group COO-

DETERGENT
The hydrophilic group of detergent is the sulphate
group OSO3- or sulphonate group SO3

In hard water, the cleansing action of soap is

greatly reduced. This is because the soap react
with the calcium and magnesium ions in the hard
water to form insoluble salts called scum.
2RCOO- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) (RCOO)2Ca(s)
2RCOO- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) (RCOO)2Mg(s)

Cleansing action of detergent in hard water is still

high because the calcium and magnesium sulphate
or sulphonate salts are soluble in water. This
means that the detergent particles are not
precipitated out and are still available to remove
the grease spot

The amount of soap particles remained for

cleansing the grease is reduced
No scum formed. The detergent particles are still
free to do the cleansing job.
(The soap particles are precipitated out by the
calcium or magnesium ions)

The alkyl sulphate and alkyl sulphonic acids are

soluble in water. Thus the hydrogen ions will not
precipitate out the detergents particles. They are
still free to do the cleansing action.

The cleansing action of soap is greatly reduced in

acidic solution. The soap particles form insoluble
fatty acids with the hydrogen ions
RCOO- (aq) + H+ (aq) RCOOH(s)

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The advantages and disadvantages of soaps and detergents

Cleansing
agent
SOAP

Advantages

Disadvantages

1. very effective in soft water to wash

clothes.( water does not contain Mg &
Ca ions)

1. Ineffective in hard water.

2. A grey scum (Magnesium stearate &
calcium stearate) will be produced in hard
water.
3. Not effective in acid water.( exist as
molecules & do not have hydrophilic ends)
- H ion from rainwater (acid) will react
with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid
molecules of large molecular size that are
insoluble in water.

2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are

made from fats and oils and can be
decomposed by the action of bacteria.

DETERGENTS

1. Effective in soft water and hard water.

( magnesium salt and calcium salts are
formed aand soluble in water)
( scum is not formed)
2. Synthetic cleansing agents
- structure of hydrocarbon chain can
be modified to produce detergent.
3. effective in acidic water as H ions is
not combine with detergent ions.

1. non-biodegradable
2. water pollution occurs.
3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and
the aquatic lives are given the harm.(
phosphates in detergents)
4. a lot of foam will be produced in water
that prevent oxygen from dissolving in
water. As a result, fish and other aquatic
lives face the death.
5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite )
releases chlorine gas that is highly toxic
and kills aquatic life.

The additives in detergent

Additives in detergent is used to increase their cleaning power and make the detergent more
attractive and saleable.
Additives
Function
Example
Builders
To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent Sodium tripolyphosphate
by softening the water.
To increase the pH value of water.
Drying agents
To ensure that the detergent in powdered form Sodium sulphate
is always in dry condition.
Sodium silicate
To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable
to pour it at ease.
Fragrances
To add fragrance to both detergent anf fabrics
Foam control
To control foaming in detergent.
agents
Optical whitener
To add brightness and whiteness to white
Fluorescent dyes
fabrics
Biological enzymes To remove protein stains such as blood.
Amylases ,proteases,
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Whitening agents

Suspension agents

To break down fat and protein molecules in

food stains.
To convert stains into colourless substances.
To make the fabrics whiter and more beautiful.
To prevent dirt particles removed from
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics.

cellulases and lipases

Sodium perborate
Sodium hypochlorite
(NaClO)
Carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC)

5.2 EVALUATING THE USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Food Additives are natural or synthetic substance which are added to food to:
i) prevent spoilage
ii) improve its appearance , taste or texture
iii) prevent growth of microorganisms
iv) Prevent oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air
v) Restore the colour of food destroyed during food processing.
Type of Food Additives and Their Functions
a) Preservatives substance added to food to slow down and prevent the growth of
microorganisms in order to keep the lasts longer. Salts, vinegar and sugar have been used for
centuries to preserve food.
Preservatives

Molecular
Formula

Salt
sugar
Vinegar

CH3COOH

Sodium nitrite
Sodium nitrate

NaNO3
NaNO2

Benzoic acid
Sodium
benzoate
Sulphur
dioxide
Sodium
sulphate

C6H5COOH
C6H5COONa
SO2
Na2SO4

Uses
Draws water out of the cells of microorganisms
Retards the growth of microorganisms.
Provides acidic condition that inhibits the growth of
microorganisms.
To preserve the meat, sausage, cheese and dried fish.
To prevent food poisoning in canned food.
To maintain the natural colour of meat.
To make the meat look fresh.
To preserve sauces, fruit juice, jams and margarine.

Used as antioxidants to prevent browning in fuits.

Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables.
To prevent the growth of yeast.

b) Antioxidants
- added to food to
i) pevent oxidation that causes rancid fats and brown foods
ii) to slow down the oxidation process.
- food containing fats or oils are oxidised and become rancid when exposed to air. This makes
the food unpalatable. The rancid products are volatile organic compounds with 4 odours.

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Antioxidants

Uses

Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA)

Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT)
Sodium citrate
Vitamin C

To retard rancidity in oils.

Vitamin E

To stop fats from turning rancid.

Inhibits the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines.
Stimulates the immune systems.
Protects against chromosome breakage.
Preserve the colour of fruit juice.
Neutralizes free radical compounds before the cell
membrane are damaged.
Reduce the risk of heart diseases and cancer.

c) Flavourings
- Flavourings are the largest group of food additives.
- Function is to improve the taste of food restore taste loss due to processing.
- There are 2 types of flavourings :
i) Flavour enhancers
* Flavour enhancers are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours/ to
enhance the tastes of food.
* Example: monosodium glutamate (MSG)
*MSG is a sodium salt of glutamic acid. It exists as solid fine white crystal. It is added to
savoury prepared and processed :
frozen foods
spice mixes
canned and dry soups
salad dressings
meat and fish based products
* In order to protect the public health. MSG is not allowed in baby foods and less used for
the adults.
ii) Artificial sweeteners
Aspartame
- Aspartame is a white , odourless powder, approximately 200 times sweeter than
sugar.
- It is used in a variety of foodstuffs
- It is stable when dry or frozen but breaks down and loses its
- sweetness over a time when stored in liquids at temperature above 30 OC
- Example : diet drinks and soft drinks
- Synthetic Essences
* contain chemicals which are made to resemble natural flavour.
* Exp :pentyl ethanoate, CH COOC H give banana flavour and is cheaper to use.
- Many of compounds are used to produce artificial flavours belong to the homologous series
of esters.
d) Stabilizers
- a substance which helps to prevent on emulsion ( oil /water droplets suspended in water/oil
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droplets) from separating out.

- It is used in margarine, butter, ice cream and salad cream.
- example : lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids.
e) Thickeners
- are chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from
liquefying.
- They absorb water and thicken the liquid in food to produce a jelly-like structure.
- They are natural carbohydrates.
Thickeners
Explanation
Modified starch Used in instant soups and puddings.
pectin
Used in jams and jellies.
Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a
mixture.
Is not digested.
Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre.
Acacia gum
To thicken chewing sum. jelly and wine.
Gelatine
To thicken yogurt.
f) Dyes
- Chemicals that are added to food to give the colour so as to improve the appearance of
food.
- is used to add or restore the colour in food in order :
* to enhance its visual appeal
* match consumer expectations
* give colour to food that have no colour.
- artificial food dyes are oftenly used as they are more uniform, less expensive and have
brighter colours than natural food dyes.
- many food dyes are
i) azo compounds ( red , orange, yellow)
- orang drinks, custard powders, sweets and apricot jam.
ii) triphenyl compounds( blue-brilliant blue FCF, green)
- main trend in colour of food towards the use of natural colours is anthocyanin.
* found in red grapes, red cabbage sweet potatoes
* have antioxidants properties.

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Effect of Food Additives on Health.

Effects
Allergy

Cancer
Brain damage
Hyperactivity

Explanation
Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT. MSG and food dyes( yellow No. 5).
Cause an diseases named ' Chinese restaurant syndrome' (giddiness, chest pain and
difficulty in breathing)
Cause 'blue baby* diseases occuring on babies which iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen
and the presence of sodium nitrate /nitrite.
Caused by carcinogens(sodium nitrite)
Nitrite reacts with amines to produce nitrosamine(cause cancer)
Caused by excessive intake of nitrites.
Caused by tartrazine (additives)
Difficult to sleep or relax and felt restless.

5.3 UNDERSTANDING MEDICINE

Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to
illness.
It is classified as Traditional Medicine and Modern Medicine
Traditional medicine
A medicine derived from natural resources without being processed chemically.
Can be obtained from plants and animals.
Any medicinal plant containing alkaloid is potentially toxic to liver.
Some of it interacts with medications resulting in serious side reactions.
Example : garlic capsules combined with diabetes medication can cause a sudden decrease in
blood sugar

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Modern medicine
They usually contain a mixture of active ingredients prepared in different forms such as
capsules, pills, solution and suspensions.
Example : Alka-Seltzer (used as antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ),
Citric acid and aspirin to neutralize the excess stomach acid.
Modern medicine can be classified as follows based on their effect on the human body :
a) analgesics (painkillers)
medicines that relieve pain without causing numbness or affecting consciousness.
Analgesics
Aspirin
Pain relief and antiinflammatory action.
Acetyl salicylic acid
(IUPAC name)
Contains 2 functional
groups(carboxylic
acid ester)
Acidic.
Paracetamol
neutral

Uses
*Reduce fever
*Relieve headaches.
muscle aches and joint
aches,
*Treat arthritis
*Acts as an
anticoagulant prevent clotting blood,
*Reduce the risk of
heart attack and
strokes.

Side effect
Cause brain and liver
damage of illedchildren.
Cause bleeding in the
stomach.
Cause allergy
reactions, skin rashes,
asthmatic attacks.

* To relieve mild to
moderate pain
(headache. Muscle and
joint pain, backache.
period pains)
* Does not irritate the
stomach to bleed.

Causes skin rashes,

blood disorders and
acute inflammation
of the pancreas.
Cause liver damage.

Cause addiction,
depression, nausea,
drowsiness

Codeine
Is an organic compounds
mat contains carbon,
hydrogen oxygen and
nitrogen elements.
Used in headache tablets
and cough medicine
Is synthesized from
morphine
Is a narcotic drugs.
Is a strong analgesics

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b) antibiotics
* Chemicals that destroy / prevent the growth of infected microorganisms.
* Will not cure the infection caused by viruses such as cold and flu.
* Obtained from bacteria/fungi.
* Broken down by acid in the stomach.
Antibiotics
Penicillin
Derived from the
mould penicillium
notatum
Streptomycin
Produced by soil and
bacteria at the genus
Streptomyces

Uses
o Treat diseases
caused by bacteria
such as oueunionia,
gonorrhoea, syphilis
and tuberculosis.
o Treat tuberculosis,
whooping cough
and some forms
of pneumonia.

Side effects
Cause allergic
reactions
Cause daeth for
people who
allergiuc at it.
Cause
nausea.vomitng.
dizziness, rashes
and fever.
Loss of hearing
following long
term use.

c) Psychotherapeutic medicines.
A group of drugs for treating mental / emotional illness.
Psychotherapeutic
medicines
Stimulants
A medicine which activates
the level of arousal and
alertness of the central
nervous system to reduce
fatigue and elevate moon
in most people.

Uses

Side effects

i) Adrenaline
A need in demanding energetic
activities.
ii) caffeine
weak, naturally occuring
stimulant found in coffee, tea
and cola drinks,
in) Amphetamines
Strong synthetic stimulants
Increase alertness & physical
ability.
Increase the heart *reparation
rates & blood pressure.
Antidepressants
i) tranquilizers
Medicine used primarily in to calm down a person
the
reduce tension A anxiety
treatment of depression.

Cause addiction

Cause drowsiness,
poor coordination
and light
headedness.
respiratory
difficulties,
Sleeplessness, coma
and death if
overdose.

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i) Barbiturates
To sedate, calm and relax
individual
in Ion* doses.

Antipsychotic
i) chlorpromazine
ii) haloperidol
in) clozapine

Cause sleep (high

dose)
Cause addiction and
habit forming
Cause death.

To treat psychiatry illness such as Cause mild, dry

schizophrenia (loses touch with mouth,
reality)
blurred vision,
urinary
retention,
constipation,
tremor and less nest
as well as
sedation(more
calmer/sleepy)

5.4 APPRECIATING THE EXISTENCE OF CHEMICALS

The chemicals for consumers such as soap, detergents , food additives and medicine play an
important role in our life .
However, they can contribute negative effects to our health and the environment if these
chemicals are not used wisely .
Some proper management of these chemicals :Detergents
* Wear gloves when working with strong detergents to protect your hands.
* Use biodegradable detergents.
* Use appropriate amounts of detergents.
Food additives
* Be wise when we consume the food with food additives.
* Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar.
* Avoid foods with additives which you are sensitive to.
* Avoid rewarding children with junk food.
Medicines
* No self-medication.
* Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else
* Check for expiry date .
* Follow your doctors instruction for taking medicine.
* Keep away from children .
* Do not overdose .

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