JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

Volume 3, No.2, Winter 1988

ACCIDENT PREVENTION THROUGH

PERSONNEL SELECTION
John W. Jones
London House, Inc.

Lisa J. Wuebker
Georgia Institute of Technology

ABSTRACT:

This article describes how t h e P e r s o n n e l Selection I n v e n t o r y -

Form 3S (PSI-3S) can be used to supplement more traditional corporate safety

programs. Validation research shows that the PSI-3S subscales, especially the
safety subscale, consistently predict a wide variety of accident-related criteria.
Two time-series studies are presented that document the impact of the PSI-3S
on the reduction of worker accidents, paid insurance losses, and lost work days.
Implications of these findings are discussed.
ACCIDENT P R E V E N T I O N T H R O U G H P E R S O N N E L SELECTION
Safety is an important factor facing industry today. Work-related
accidents cost employers billions of dollars every year. During 1984,
over 3,700 employees were killed in on-the-job accidents, while nearly
two million workers were injured (Cotter, 1986). The National Safety
Council (1983) estimated that one million productive worker hours are
lost each year due to employees' accidents. Types of accidents included
back injuries, slips and falls, lacerations, and motor vehicle accidents.
Gens (1985) reviewed U.S. Department of Labor Statistics for retail
stores and concluded that 10.2% of all retail employees are injured annually and 70.1 days are lost per 100 workers due to these mishaps. Accidents threaten the profitability of a company due to lost production
time, disability payments, lowered morale, damaged equipment, wasted
materials, and most importantly, higher insurance costs (Huber, 1987).
To reduce these staggering statistics, companies must increase their efforts to promote safety in the workplace.
Industrial safety programs that focus primarily on the assessment
and correction of unsafe mechanical and environmental factors need to
Reprints available from Dr. John Jones, London House, Inc., 1550 Northwest Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068.
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be redirected since studies indicate that most accidents are caused by

"human error" rather than unsafe mechanical or physical conditions
(Jones, DuBois, & Wuebker, 1986). Some safety professionals already
promote the safe design of work stations so that the possibility of human error is minimal (cf., McKenna, 1983). Others focus on the training
of personnel to perform their jobs in a safe, efficient manner (Denton,
1982). Komaki, Barwick and Scott (1978) offered an organizational approach to safety where they taught management to identify and reinforce safe work performance. Jones, Barge, Steffy, Fay, Kunz and Wuebker (1988) examined the role of corporate stress management programs
in the reduction of stress-related industrial accidents. This article focuses on yet another approach to controlling industrial accidents-personnel selection.

THE PERSONNEL SELECTION APPROACH TO SAFETY

The personnel selection approach allows employers to systematically screen job applicants for positions where on-the-job injuries are
easily incurred if proper safety rules and precautions are not followed.
High accident risk applicants can be identified and screened out. Applicants identified as high risks for accidents due to individual differences
in attitudes and personality can also be placed in less hazardous jobs, or
placed in special safety training programs designed to reduce their susceptibility for accidents. This article focuses on the assessment of attitudes and personality traits that research has shown are associated
with differential accident susceptibility.
London House, Inc. (1988) has developed the Personnel Selection
Inventory-Form 3S to screen in employment applicants who exhibit
high levels of safety consciousness. The PSI-3S has four subscales that
can conceivably reduce industrial accident rates. They are the Honesty,
Non-violence, Drug-avoidance; and Safety Locus of Control subscales.
Parenthetically, the PSI-3S also has a Distortion subscale that measures job applicants' tendencies to give truthful answers. The PSI-3S
subscales and their reliability coefficients are described in Table 1.
The Honesty subscale is traditionally used to assess applicants' potential for stealing in the workplace. However, research shows that honesty correlates with safety attitudes, too (Wuebker, 1987). That is, persons with more tolerant attitudes toward theft and crime also have
lower levels of safety consciousness and are more inclined to break company rules. The Non-violence subscale assesses applicants' tendencies to
engage in violent, emotionally unstable behavior. This scale has predicted industrial damage and waste in past research (Moretti, 1983). Research has also linked on-the-job alcohol and drug use to industrial acci-

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Table 1
Description and Reliability o f P S I - 3 S Subscales

Scales

Descriptions

Honesty

Measures job applicants' attitudes toward theft and crime. People who
score lower on this scale generally exhibit more rumination over theft
activities, more projection of theft in others, greater rationalization of
theft, less punitive attitudes toward thieves, and more inter-thief loyalty. Split-half reliability = .95. Examples of Honesty scale correlates
include: theft apprehensions; admissions (self-report and polygraph exams); dollar value of' thefts of cash, merchandise, and property; number
of criminal acts committed; number of minutes of unauthorized work
break extensions; convicted felon vs. job applicant status; prior criminal arrests; supervisor ratings for counterproductivity; cash drawer
shortages; company shrinkage; terminations for theft; dysfunctional
turnover; number of disciplinary actions {'or company cash mishandling;
and disregard for company rules in general.

Non-violence

Measures work applicants' tendencies toward on-the-job violent behavior and other related forms of counterproductivity, such as physical
assault, vandalism of company property and merchandise, damage and
waste of company materials, and argumentativeness. Split-half reliability = .87. Examples of Non-violence scale correlates include: number of violent acts committed; dollar amount of damaged company
property and merchandise; physical assault of co-workers, supervisors,
and/or customers; on-the-job waste of company materials and supplies;
violence admissions (polygraph exams and self-reports); and poor customer service.

Drug-avoidance

Measures job applicants' tendencies toward illicit drug abuse in the

workplace. Assesses risk of drug-related industrial accidents. Split-half
reliability = .90. Examples of Drug-avoidance scale correlates include:
weekly alcohol consumption rate; number of times intoxicated; coming
to work hungover or intoxicated; number of on-the-job drug/alcohol
use; self-reported on-the-job alcohol abuse; using and selling illegal
drugs; industrial accidents; and unacceptable urinalysis results.

Safety-control

Measures a set of attitudes endorsed by applicants with a history of

serious and costly accidents and injuries. Assesses if applicants feel
responsible for and committed to accident prevention. Split-half reliability = .85. Examples of Safety Scale correlates include: Injuries
(minor, major); terminations due to unsafe behaviors; level of safety
education; unsafe workplace; medical costs of workplace accidents; supervisors' ratings of safe job performance; and driving safety.

dents (Jones, 1980). Hence, it can be posited t h a t applicants who score

poorer on the Drug-avoidance scale are at greater risk to have drugrelated industrial accidents. Extensive validation research has been
conducted on these three subscales, and they have consistently pre-

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dicted a wide range of counterproductive work behaviors (cf., Terris,

1985 a, b). Hence, these three subscales are not reviewed in depth in
this article.
The P S I - 3 S also includes a Safety Locus of Control Scale. This
scale was specifically designed to predict industrial accidents (Jones &
Wuebker, 1985a). The safety scale is a relatively new addition to the
P S I - 3 S . Therefore, validation studies that support the use of this measure for personnel selection are reviewed below.

Safety Scale Development

Jones developed the Safety Locus of Control subscale to identify
employment applicants at high-risk for industrial accidents, injuries,
and unsafe behaviors in the workplace (e.g., Jones & Wuebker, 1985a,
1988). The subscale was based on the personality construct, "locus of
control," which reflects the degree to which individuals perceive that
the consequences of their behavior and other life events are controllable
by personal effort (cf., Rotter, 1966). Individuals with "internal" safety
locus of control orientations (i.e., high safety consciousness) expect a
contingent relationship between personal actions and any accidents and
injuries they m a y or m a y not have. Persons with "external" safety control orientations (i.e., low safety consciousness) see no cause-and-effect
relationship between personal actions and safety. Instead, externallycontrolled individuals tend to perceive that accidents and injuries are
determined by forces outside their control, such as chance events, bad
luck, or negligent company practices.

Criterion-Related Validity
A number of studies have provided evidence of the criterion-related
validity of the P S I - 3 S safety scale. An initial study by Jones and Wuebker (1985a) compared the safety scores of 158 university students with
self-reported accident histories. Subjects with more severe accident histories (i.e., at least one major injury, such as a broken bone) were significantly more "external" in their safety beliefs than students with less
severe or no accident histories (r phi = .54).
Other criterion-related validity studies have generated similar results. A study of 283 hospital employees showed that workers with more
external safety control orientations reported significantly more occupational accidents, as well as more severe and costly injuries, than workers with more internal safety attitudes (p < .05 in all cases) (Jones &
Wuebker, 1985b).
In an investigation using state motor vehicle reports of commercial
bus drivers, Jones and Foreman (1984) found that high risk drivers

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(N = 21) (i.e., those with two or more convictions for unsafe driving)
scored in a significantly more external direction on the safety scale than
drivers (N = 25) with safer records. The relationship was moderately
strong (r phi = .44). This study supports findings by Montag and Comrey (1987). These researchers found driving locus of control test scores
significantly discriminated between drivers who did (N = 200) and did
not (N = 200) have a fatal driving accident in the past (Multiple R = .38).
Drivers in the fatal accident group were more externally-oriented in
their safety beliefs.
The P S I - 3 S safety subscale reliably discriminated between hotel
employees (N = 17) at high risk for on-the-job accidents (i.e., those employees with major accidental injuries reported in their personnel files)
and those employees (N = 103) at low risk for accidents (i.e., no accidents or injuries reported) (Wuebker, Jones, & DuBois, 1985). A significant difference in the predicted direction was obtained (t = 2.6, p < .01).
At an aggregate level, this study of two large, metropolitan hotels found
that the hotel which had a higher accident rate also had employees
(N = 58) who were much more externally-oriented in their safety beliefs
than employees (N = 62) in the low accident rate hotel (t = 2.4, p < .02).
This finding suggests that a poor "climate of safety" within a company
m a y be a reflection of the workers' safety attitudes and behavior. Zohar
(1980) has postulated the existence of a "safety climate" which reflects
workers' perceptions about the value of employee safety and the effectiveness of organizational safety programs.
J o y and Frost (1987) conducted a criterion-related validity study
with a short form of the safety scale. Fifty-four bus drivers completed
the scale and then their supervisors rated their overall job performance.
Statistically significant results ( p < .01 in all cases) were obtained between safety scores and measures of productivity (r = .50), customer relations (r = .52), and overall job performance (r = .51). Safety was a major aspect of the bus drivers' productivity and overall job performance
ratings; hence, these findings were not surprising.
Finally, Jones and Wuebker (1988) administered an expanded and
improved version of the P S I - 3 S safety scale to 106 grocery store employees. This new scale assessed a broader range of safety attitudes and
beliefs. It continued to assess safety locus of control beliefs, yet it also
assessed individuals' self-reported abilities to both concentrate and remain calm and alert under pressure. The new scale also assessed how
many accidents people expected to have in the future, along with their
desire to engage in dangerous, thrill-seeking behavior. The criterion
measure of safety was a supervisor's grouping of the employees into
a "high accident risk" group (N = 52) or a "low accident risk" group
(N = 54) based on accident histories recorded in the employees' personnel files. A statistically significant point-biserial correlation (r = .50)

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was obtained. The low risk group tended to exhibit more internallyoriented safety beliefs than the high risk group.

Construct Validity
Wuebker (1987) examined the construct validity of the safety scale.
She found that safety scale scores of 1,732 employment applicants significantly correlated (p < .001 in all cases) with psychological measures
of dishonesty (r = .31), violence (r = .29), and drug abuse potential
(r = .18). She concluded that poor safety scores seem to be related to a
more general "counterproductivity" factor. That is, employees at risk for
accidents appear to be at slightly greater risk to break company rules,
damage and waste property, and use drugs at work. Parenthetically,
Wuebker found a non-significant relationship (r = .07) between safety
scale scores and distortion or "lie" scale scores. This finding suggests
that it is difficult to fake answers on the safety scale, probably because
its purpose is not obvious to applicants.
In another construct validity study, Fay and Jones (1987) attempted
to identify psychological predictors of exemplary childcare workers. A
small sample of adults (N = 24) was administered a projective drawing
test and the safety scale. Statistically significant results (p < .05 in all
cases) showed that safety scores were associated with the quality of projective drawings made by the adults. That is, "external scorers," when
asked to draw a house, a tree, and a person, were more likely to draw
very clumsy looking hands lacking one or more fingers. External scorers
were also more likely to omit one or both eyes from their drawings. Conversely, "internal" scorers were more likely to draw well-proportioned
hands with five fingers along with a pair of alert, appropriately placed
eyes. This pilot study suggests that safety beliefs might be associated
with subconscious processes, especially processes that reflect how attentive and coordinated people feel with their surrounding environment.
Jones and Wuebker (1985a) compared the safety scores of 15 highly
educated and experienced safety professionals to 46 college students
with low accident histories (e.g., they reported one very minor injury),
60 students with a moderate accident history (e.g., they typically reported two minor injuries such as cuts or small bruises) and 13 subjects
with serious accident histories (e.g., they reported three or more accidents, with at least one accident being a major accident such as a broken bone). Point-biserial correlations revealed that the safety professionals were more internally-controlled ( p < .05 in all cases) in their
safety beliefs than the low accident group (r = .45), the moderate accident group (r--.51), and the high accident group (r = .89). Research is
needed to explore any potential causal relationships between level of
safety education and safety locus of control beliefs.

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Wuebker (1988) correlated 40 college students' safety scale scores

with scores from Rotter's general locus of control scale (Rotter, 1966).
(Higher scores on Rotter's scale mean more "externality".) A significant
correlation was obtained, yet only at the - . 4 1 level (p<.01). This
means that "internal" scorers on the safety scale feel more responsible
for and in control of all aspects of their life, while "external" scorers typically feel more powerless. However, the fact that the two scales are
only moderately correlated indicates that they are measuring overlapping, yet different psychological constructs.

Time-Series Analysis
The P S I - 3 S safety subscale appears to be a valid predictor of a
number of different safety criteria. This section examines the impact of
the entire P S I - 3 S battery, including the safety subscale, on the reduction of industrial accidents and insurance losses.
The research reviewed above indicates that the entire P S I - 3 S battery should effectively reduce industrial accidents. The research seems
to support the notion that rule-abiding, non-violent, non-drug-abusing,
and particularly safety conscious job applicants should have less industrial accidents than their more counterproductive counterparts. The
next research step is to document that companies that use test batteries
like the P S I - 3 S actually have a reduction in accidents.
Jones and Steffy (1986) evaluated the effectiveness of the P S I - 3 S
on accident criteria in a large national trucking firm. The study was a
41 month investigation. In Phase A (the first 23 months) interviews and
reference checks were used to screen job applicants. In Phase B (the last
18 months) the P S I - 3 S was added to the screening process and all applicants (over 300) were given the inventory.
The results supported the use of the P S I - 3 S as an effective accident
reduction program. Monthly paid insurance losses were significantly
(p < .05 in all cases) reduced from an average of $25,600 in Phase A to
an average of $5,400 in Phase B. Moreover, the average number of lost
work days due to injuries was significantly reduced by 50%, from 161
days per month in Phase A to 79 days per month in Phase B. These results are summarized in Figure 1. They suggest that a personnel selection approach to safety is a viable adjunct to more traditional safety
programs.
The next study examined the impact of the P S I - 3 S on the reduction of worker compensation losses (e.g., back injuries, slips and falls,
lacerations, and miscellaneous strains). This is a new study. It was specifically hypothesized that companies would experience a reduction in
worker compensation losses once they implemented the P S I - 3 S for personnel selection. Not only would more safety conscious employees be

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194

Figure 1
Impact of P S I - 3 S on P a i d I n s u r a n c e Losses and Lost Work Days
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A~.rageNumber~ Lost Work Days

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1983.1984
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hired, but use of the PSI-3S for applicant screening would communicate to all employees that management is fully committed to improving
workplace safety. An improved organizational "climate of safety" could
evolve (cf., Zohar, 1980).
Methods. the PSI-3S was implemented in eight milk processing and delivery companies beginning in the first quarter of 1985. The eight firms
were part of the same parent company. Each location employed approximately 35-40 employees. The employees within each company basically
shared duties when it came to processing, packaging and delivering
milk and dairy products. From March, 1985 through November, 1986,
the eight companies collectively processed over 200 PSI-3S's. They
hired approximately 80 applicants who passed all of the PSI-3S subscales. Based on PSI-3S scores, these applicants were classified as being at low risk to have workplace accidents.
A single-factor repeated measures research design was used. The
single factor was the year in which accidents were reported. Four years
were studied: 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986. Since the PSI-3S was implemented in the first quarter of 1985, it was predicted that a significant
reduction in accidents would be observed in 1986. The dependent variable was the total frequency of worker compensation accidents recorded
for each company during each of the four years studied. Accident frequency rates were obtained from computer data bases maintained by
the company's insurance agent.

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195

Results and Comments

The average accident rate for years 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986
equaled 17.13 (S.D. = 11.04), 12.25 (S.D. = 9.22), 13.75 (S.D. = 4.86) and
6.5 (S.D. = 4.0), respectively. These between-year differences were statistically significant using a repeated measures analysis of variance
(F[3/21] = 6.01, p < .005). Post-hoc analyses, using the Duncan multiple
range test, revealed that the 1986 average was significantly lower than
the 1985 ( p < .05), the 1984 ( P < .05) and the 1983 (p<.01) averages. No
other accident reduction programs were introduced during this period.
Therefore, since the results are in the predicted direction, they support
the notion that the P S I - 3 S was a major contributing factor in the reduction of industrial accidents. These results are summarized in Figure 2.
The research design in this study did not employ a control group.
However, after the study was completed, two milk producing companies
in the same region of the country were approached to serve as a nonequivalent control group. Due to the size of this control group (N = 2),
no formal statistical analyses were computed. The frequency of worker
compensation accidents was obtained from insurance statistics for each
company.
For the control group, the average accident frequency rate for 1983,
1984, 1985, and 1986 in order equaled 12.0 (S.D. - 4.24), 8.5 (S.D. = 2.12),
8.0 (S.D. = 0), an 10.0 (S.D. = 2.83). These average rates are slightly
lower than those obtained by the P S I - 3 S group. However, while the
P S I - 3 S group experienced a sharp reduction in accidents for 1986 compared to 1983, 1984, and 1985, the control group was fairly stable across
years, and it experienced a slight increase in accidents for 1986 compared to 1984 and 1985. Future field experiments need to utilize more
appropriate control group designs. Unfortunately, most companies are
unwilling to postpone the use of personnel selection programs in some of
their locations for research purposes.
One final note. The parent company was unwilling to provide exact
figures on the costs of the worker compensation claims for the eight
P S I - 3 S companies. However, they provided ball park figures suggesting
that total accident related losses were approximately $1,300,000 in
1983, $900,000 in 1984, $1,100,000 in 1985, and only $300,000 in 1986.
These findings are very promising and might reflect the financial impact Of the P S I - 3 S on the reduction of insurance losses. The results obtained in this second time-series study support and extend the findings
of Jones and Steffy (1986).

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J O H N W. J O N E S AND LISA J. WUEBKER

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Adverse Impact Analyses

In addition to validity, one of the most important concerns of employers using any type of personnel selection instrument is that it meets
the standards set by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(1979). In its 1978 Uniform Guidelines, the EEOC accepts the use of jobrelated selection devices provided that there is no "adverse impact"
against any subgroup (e.g., race or sex groups). Selection procedures
that have adverse impact against any subgroup are allowable only if the
procedure has been properly validated. Although the validation of the
safety scale has been documented, studies have also demonstrated that
the scale has no adverse impact against protected groups (e.g., Jones &
Wuebker, 1985a, b). In fact, the PSI-3S battery as a whole has no adverse impact (Terris, 1985a, b). Of course, local validation and adverse
impact studies should always be conducted whenever possible by companies using any personnel selection system.
CONCLUSION
The studies reviewed in this article suggest that accident reduction
through personnel selection is a promising new approach to corporate
safety. Personnel selection systems like the PSI-3S can supplement the
more traditional corporate safety programs. Companies that use effective safety programs should be rewarded by society in general since
they are reducing the risk of workplace accidents and fatalities, while
lowering insurance claims. One type of reward is to offer lower insurance premiums to companies that combine the new, personnel-based
safety programs (e.g., personnel selection, rewarding safe work practices, controlling stress-related accidents, etc.) with the more traditional
safety programs that focus primarily on the improvement of unsafe
equipment and work environments. Research on the contributions of
personnel selection to industrial accident prevention should continue.
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