IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. ED-26, NO.

3 , MARCH 1979

165

Application of the Superposition Principle to

Solar-Cell Analysis

Abstract-The principle of superposition is used to derive from fundani

Intrinsic carrier density.
mentals the widely used shifting approximation that the current-voltage
4
Electron charge.
characteristic of an illuminated solar cell is the dark current-voltage
RN,Rp
Electron
and
hole
steady-state
recombination
characteristicshiftedbytheshort-circuitphotocurrent.Thusthe
rates
for
thermal
processes.
derivation requires the linearity of the boundary-value problems that
underlie the electrical characteristics. This focus
on linearitydefines
RS
Series resistance.
theconditionsthatmusthold
if theshiftingapproximation
is to
P
Space-charge density.
apply with good accuracy. In this regard, if considerable photocurrent
T
Absolute temperature.
andconsiderabledarkthermalrecombinationcurrentbothoccur
V
Solar- cell terminal
forward
voltage.
within the junction space-charge region, then the shifting approximaVB
Quasi-neutral
base
region
voltage.
tion is invalid. From a rigorous standpoint, it is
invalid also if lowinjectionconcentrationsof
holes andelectronsarenotmaintained
VZ
Intrinsic Fermi potential (or electrostatic
throughoutthequasi-neutral
regions. Thepresence of sizable series
potential).
resistance also invalidatestheshiftingapproximation.Methods
of
VJ
Junction space-charge region voltage.
analysis arepresented totreatthese
cases for whichshiftingis not
VN, Vp
Electronandhole quasi-Fermi potentials.
strictly valid. Thesemethodsare based on an understanding of the
physics of cell operation.ThisunderstandingissupportedbylaboI. INTRODUCTION
ratoryexperimentsandbyexactcomputersolution
of the relevant
boundary-value problems. For the case of high injection in the base
ONVENTIONALLY, the current in an illuminated solar
region, the method of analysis employed accurately yields the depencell is described bythedark(nonilluminated)currentdence of the open-circuit voltage on the short-circuit current (or the
voltage characteristic I D ( V ) shifted by
the
short-circuit
illumination level).

current Isc :

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Electron and hole diffusivities.
Excess electron and hole densities.
Electric field.
Dielectric permittivity.
Optical generation rates of electrons and
holes.
Steady-state
net
generation
current
source
(A/cm3).
Solar-cell current density, current.
Dark diode current density, current (subscript 0
denotes saturation current).
Electron and hole currentdensities.
Short-circuit current density, current.
Uncompensated photocurrent density.
Boltzmann's constant.
Electron and hole mobilities( b = p n / ~ p ) ,
Electron and hole densities.
Ionized acceptor and donor impurity concentrations.
Manuscript received March 1977; revised May 26,1978. This work
was supported by the United States Department of Energy and by the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
F. A. Lindholm and J. G. Fossum are with the Electrical Engineering
Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.
E. L. Burgess is with Sandia Laboratories, Albuquerque,NM 87185.

I( V ) = -ID( V )I- Isc.

(1)

This description has served as a basis for many past theoretical

estimates of various measures of solar-cell performance. The
separation of I ( V ) into the components of(1) is useful because
it reduces the problem of characterizing the illuminated cell
connected to an arbitrary load to two simpler problems: that
of describing the current I ~ cof the illuminated cell connected
to zero load (short circuit), and thatof describing the currentvoltage dependence I D ( V ) of thenonilluminated cell under
applied forward voltage.
As we show in this paper, however, the fundamental reasons
justifying (l), which we term the shifting approximation,hold
only under restricted conditions. The use of the shiftingapproximation beyond its range of validity can lead to sizable
errors in predicting the electrical characteristics of solar cells
and thus tomisleading conclusions about design.
The paper hasseveral purposes:
a) to define the range of validity of (1) from fundamental
consideration of the relevant boundary-value problems;
b) to note instances of practical importance for which the
use of (1) will yield erroneous conclusionsconcerning
cell performance;
c) t o illustrate, by laboratory experimentation and by exact
computer
solution
of the
pertinent
boundary-value
problems, the errors that can result from the use of (1);

0018-9383/79/0300-0165$00.75 0 1979 IEEE

IEEE'TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. ED-26,NO. 3, MARCH 1979

3 66

and to develop approximate analytic expressions F o x cell

performance, based onthe
device physics, that: hold
when (1) fails to apply.
Certain important limits on thevalidity of (1) were recopized
by Wolf [ l ] . But no rigorousderivationhas yet beer1 done
that fully exposes these limits. This paper is meant to I:rovide
such a derivation. The derivation is based on the prin,cfpleof
superposition of differential-equation theory, which apltlies if
and only if the relevant boundary-value problems are 1inc;tr.
Following this derivation, we consider several examrdes of
cell operation for which superposition and the shifting approximation of (1) do not apply. In these examples, we treat the
effects of: a) optical generation and net thermal
recor-tbination in the junction space-charge region; b) high4njectic;ta and
moderate-injection concentrations of holes and electron;; and
c) series resistance. The treatment of high injection relaxes to
cells in concentrated sunlight or to cells in normal sunlight
that have a light base doping concentration. Exact corrI:mter
solutionsofthe
boundary-value problems underlyinl: cell
operation together with laboratory experimentation
are used
to support the theoreticaldevelopments.
11. APPLICABILITY
OF THE SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLE
TO SOLARCELLS

Fig. 1. Onedimensional model of a p-n junction solar cell.

1
L

J BACK CONTACT

Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of the solar cell illustrating that the Kirchhoff
current law holdsregardless of the applicability of superposition.

generation processes in these three regions and at the front and

back surfaces. Todemonstratethisforthe
one-dimensional
n+-pjunction solar cell of Fig. 1, consider

If a system is linear, its response to several excitations 1.9 the

sum of the responses to each excitation applied alone. This is
the principle of superposition, which is a basic theorlern of
linear differential equations[2] and whichis widely used i:n wch
fields as electrical circuit theory [3] and control systems 1'41.
We now apply the principle of superposition to a p-n junction solar cell. Thefundamentalequations
describing this
system in dc steady state are [5], [6]

JN = t qD,VN + qpnNE
= -q&NVVN
Jp = -qDpVP +

qppPE

= -qppPVVp

(2)
6:2a)
(3)
i3a)

O=+V.JN+ISS=V.JN+q(Go-Rss)

(4)

O=-V.JptIs~=-V.Jp+q(GO-RsS)

(5)

V E = -V2V1 (P/E)= (q/e)(P- N + NDD - N A A )

J = JN + Jp.

where the integral is thenet generation currentfromthe

bulkmaterial of the solar cell and the other two terms
are
net generation currents at the front and back surfaces. If the
terms are grouped as

(6)

(7)

The List of Symbols contains the definitions of the syrrlI:jols

in (2)-(7). In [ 6 ] , thefunctionaldependenceof
R J : ~is:
discussed for various special cases such as Auger and ShockleyRead-Hall recombinations.
In general, thissetofequations
is nonlinear. Thus superposition doesnotapply
unless approximations are made
that remove the nonlinearity from the system description.
The first approximationto
be madefollows the wiiiely
used Shockley method of analysis [5] which divides the cell
into three coupled systems: the quasi-neutral emitter (QidE)
and quasi-neutral base (QNB) regions, and the junction spi~cecharge region (SCR) that separates them. The total
cur m t
density J drawn from the cell results from the recombination-

we see that the current density J is the net generation current

density JQNEfrom the quasi-neutral emitter, including both
bulk and surface components, its counterpart JQNBfrom the
quasi-neutral base, and the net generation current J ~ C from
R
the junction space-charge region; that is

Equation (1 1) is analogous toKirchhoff'scurrent

law of
electriccircuit theory [3], as is illustrated in the equivalentcircuit representation of Fig. 2. Equation (1 1) and Fig. 2
are valid, in general, regardless of whether or notsuperposition
can be applied to the system describing the solar cell.

LINDHOLM et al.: SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE IN

We now examine the applicability of superposition to each

ofthe regions of the cell. Considerfirst the quasi-neutral
emitter and base regions. If low-injectionconditions prevail
in the quasi-neutral regions and the effects of series resistance
are negligible, thenthe expressions fortheminority-carrier
current [SI andthenetsteady-statethermalrecombination
rate Rss [6], [7] both become linear in the minority-carrier
concentration.Thusthecontinuityequationforminority
carriers (4) is linear, and the principle of superposition applies.
The linearity of thesystem holds in general despite thepresence
of built-in electric fields arising from impurity concentration
gradients [ l ] . Itholds also despite heavy-doping effects in
the emitter (such as energy-band-edge distortion) because the
models commonly used to describe these effects [6] introduce
parameters,such
as the effective intrinsicdensityorthe
effective energy band gap, that are independent of the dependent variables, P and N.
T o illustrate the use of superposition, consider the p-type
base region of the solar cell of Fig. 1.Forthis
system the
independent excitations are the optical generation rate Go'(x)
and
the
excess minority-carrier
(electron)
concentration
AN(0) at the plane x = 0, corresponding to the edge of the
space-charge region in the base. The response is the minoritycarrier base current JQNB
of (1 1). From (10) and (11)
JQNB = 4

I,,,(GO - ~ s sdx) + J N ( w B ) .

c8=o+JQNB
AN(O)#O

G ~ f O .
U ( 0 )= 0

(1 3)

The first term of (13)

is a dark current - J ~ N BThe
. second
term is a photocurrent J ~ N Therefore
~ .
JQNB = -JGNB + J ~ N B

(14)

which can be represented by the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.

Thisdecomposition of JQNB
focuses attention on the darkcurrent component, whichis given by [ 5 ]
JGNB = J $ N B O ( ~ 9 V W - 1)

(BACK CONTACT1

Fig. 3. Equivalentcircuit for the quasi-neutral baseif superposition

applies. A similar equivalentcircuitrepresents
the quasi-neutral
emitter.
(FRONT1

(12)

The integral in (12) is linearly related to the excess minoritycarrier concentration AN and to the optical generation rate
G o , and JN( W,) is linearly related to AN and Go if thesurface
recombination velocity S, at the back face is constant. Thus
superposition yields
JQNB
=JQNB

167

SOLAR-CELL ANALYSIS

(15 )

forthe assumed conditions of low injectionand negligible

series resistance. In (15), J&BO denotesthesaturation
current (pre-exponential factor) for the dark recombination
current from the quasi-neutral base, which can be determined
by agraphical procedure [SI, [ 9 ] fromthe measured I-V
characteristics.
Analogous
results
describe
thecurrent
JQNE
fromthe
quasi-neutralemitter.Thus
if superposition applies, as it
does for low-injection conditions, the components of current
from the two quasi-neutralregions have the form of (1); it consists of a dark-current characteristic shifted bya photocurrent.
We now consider the applicability of superposition to the
junction space-charge region. In this region, the electric field
E depends on the hole and electron concentrations, N and P.

liJ

@ACU CONTACT1

Fig. 4. Equivalent circuit for the entire solar cell.

This introduces nonlinearity into the current-density

expressions, ( 2 ) and (3). Furthermore, the net thermal recombination
rates, RN and Rp, are nonlinearly related to N and P . Therefore, the continuity equations for holes and electrons,(4) and
(S), are both nonlinear, and superposition does not
apply to
the junction space-charge region.
The results of this section are illustrated by the equivalentnetwork representation of the solar cell in Fig. 4. The dashed
lines thatconnectthecurrentgenerators
representing the
quasi-neutral regions are closed or open depending on whether
superposition is applicable or not in the quasi-neutral regions.
The breaks in connection in the space-charge region representation indicate that superposition is never valid in the junction
space-charge region.
Although the principle of superposition never applies to the
junction space-chargeregion,
the inapplicabilitydoes
not
necessarily invalidate the resolution of the solar-cell currentvoltage characteristics indicated in (1). Using Fig. 4, we now
consider special cases that illustrate this.
A . Casesfor which the Shifting Approximation of (1)Applies

Case A : Here thequasi-neutral regions dominate in determining boththephotocurrent

and thedarkcurrent.
Low
injection prevails throughoutthe quasi-neutral emitter and
base, and series resistance is negligible. Thusthe dashed
lines in Fig. 4 are short circuits, indicating that superposition

168

TRJLNSACTIONS
IEEE

applies. From Fig. 4

B. Cases for which the Shifting Approximation of (1)Does

Not Apply

2 J&R - J ~ N [exp
O (qV/kT)- 11

I:16)

which is consistent with (1).

Case B: Here theconditions are thosestatedfor
c8aia A
exceptthatthe
space-charge region now also contrilutes
significantly to the photocurrent. From Fig. 4

CaseC: Here thedarkcurrentofthe

cell is domir.ated
by the space-charge region and the photocurrent is domir.ated
bythe quasi-neutral regions. Series resistance is negliijble.
Thus from Fig. 4 and the theory of dark p-n junction diodes
[7], we have
J = J ~ N R-

Jgco [exp (qV/m,,kT)

- 13

I:

18)

where msc is the reciprocalslope factorthat characterizes

Shockley-Read-Hall recombination in the junction ,,I )acecharge region (1 < msc < 2).
Case D: Here theconditions are those stated in C I ~ I ; E A
:
exceptthatthe
space-chargeand quasi-neutral regions30th
contribute significantly tothedarkcurrent.Thusfrom
Fig.
4 and [7]
(1

J = JgNR - {JgNO

[exp (qV/kT)- 11

+ Jfco [exp (4Vlmsc k T ) - 11

(: 19)

again in agreement with (1).

Discussion: For cases A, B , and C, the open-circuit vo iage
has the simple form

where m = 1 for cases A and B, and m = m,, for case C. 'The

open-circuit voltage for case D is the solution for V of (19)
when J = 0, but no simple explicit expression for Voc exi,s::;.
The cases just described have practical importance.For
example, cases A and B can describe a p-n junction solar cell
made on asingle-crystal silicon base having light orrloderate doping concentration. Cases C and D candescribe
single-crystal silicon cells having highly doped base regions
(PBASE
0.1 i2 . cm [8] ) or polycrystalline silicon cells.
Experimental Results: To demonstrate the validity of [18)
and (19) for cases C and D, we measured the illuminated and
dark I-V characteristics of a shallow diffused junction n-1:Nn-p
silicon solar cell having a highly doped base region ( N ~ =A I O1
cm-').
For this cell, theemitterandthejunctionsrmecharge regions are too thin to contribute significantly to the
photocurrent, which thus originates predominately in the
quasi-neutral base region. At voltages V near V& formesunillumination,the
space-chargeand quasi-neutral regions
both contribute t o the dark current (case D). For the current
range resulting fromanillumination
level of l/lOO sun,
however, the recombination in the space-charge region ; w n e
determinesthedarkcurrent
(case C). Ourmeasured
Slata
showedexcellentagreementwith
(1) forboth levels 01' illumination, which is consistent with our predictions basecl on
the principle of superposition.

ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. ED-26, NO. 3 , MARCH 1979

Any of the following conditions will invalidate the superposition principle and thus (1):
a) the junction space-charge region contributes importantly
to both the photocurrentand the dark current; or
b) the carrier concentrations in thequasi-neutral regions
exceed low-injectionlevels; or
c) the series resistance contributes significantly to the cell
current-voltage characteristics; or
d) the material parameters, such as the carrierrecombination liftetime, depend on the illumination
level; or
e)the volume ofthe regions producingthephotocurrent
changes appreciably as the cell is loaded (and the terminal
voltage V changes).
The invalidity of (1) for CdS cells has been discussed and
shown experimentally [ 101 . The invalidity of (1) for amorphous silicon (a-Si) cells [ l l ] andtheconsequentpoor
fill
factor probably arises, in part, from the decrease in volume of
the junction space-charge region that accompanies loading of
the cell. Because the diffusivityandhence
the diffusion
length in the quasi-neutral regions of a-Si cells are small,
thephotocarriersgenerated
in thejunction
space-charge
region dominate in determiningthephotocurrent
I. Thus
the invalidity of (1) for a-Si cells owes its origin in part to
conditione) listed above and, in part,tocondition
a). In
single-crystal silicon, condition b) can producecondition
d) because the carrier recombination (Auger or ShockleyRead-Hall) lifetime is injection-level dependent [6]. Such
effects can occurat AM0 illuminationfor base resistivities,
as low as 10 i2 . cm and for much lower base resistivities if
the cell is illuminated byconcentrated sunlight. Condition
d) can also result if the extrinsic portion of the solar spectrum changes theoccupancyoftherecombinationcenters,
thus causing the carrierlifetime in thedark to differ from
that under illumination [6].
Other instances of the invalidity of (1) for single-crystal
silicon cells will be discussed in the following sections, which
treat the solar-cell characteristics for cases b) and c).
111. HIGH INJECTION I N

THE

QUASI-NEUTRAL
BASE

One important example of high injectionoccurs

in the
quasi-neutral base region of a solar cell exposed to concentrated sunlight [ 121 . Despite the inapplicability of superpositionto this cell from a strictstandpoint, an analytic
description based on superposition can be developed for the
case of high-level injection for which P --N > > N A ~in the
base region. For this case, aswill be discussed, superposition
yields
J-JdO)

=JN(0)
AN(O)=O

= -Jo

+ Jupc.

(21)

In (21), JD is thedark current-voltagecharacteristic of the

cell. The term J ~ p cin (21) is the photocurrent ina highly
illuminated cell to whicha reverse bias is applied to insure
AN(0) = 0; JUpcis essentially the maximum current that can

LINDHOLM e l al.: SUPERPOSITION

INPRINCIPLE

,v,

IVI

SOLAR-CELL
ANALYSIS

169

O
0.75
*
'
i

UL

b+l q
0.55

Pn

UPC

I I I1111

I I I 1 1 1 1

10

I
50

Jupc IAkm'l

Fig. 5 Superposition-based theoretical dependence of VOC on Jupc showing invalidity of (1) for high injection but
showing agreement with values (points) obtained from computer solution of the differential equations.

be drawn from the solar cell for a given level of illumination.

We thus call it the uncompensated photocuwent. In general,
JUPC

>Jsc.

The result of superposition shown in (21) is an approximation. A strict equality in (21) would require strict linearity in
the continuity equations, (4) and ( 9 ,for N and P and in the
relations, (2) and (3), betweenJN and N and J p and P.
To explorethislinearity,it
is instructive to consider the
ambipolar transport equation [ 131 , [ 141

d2AN
dAN
O=Go - Rss + p a E z +Da

dx

which is derived by combining (4) and ( 5 ) and by using the

condition from quasi-neutrality that AN = AP. In (22)

In general, (22) is nonlinear in AN.

We now considera solar cell inwhich the base region is
homogeneously doped ( N A A = constant) and in which Rss 0
in the quasi-neutral base, which is a good approximation for a
well-designed solar cell in whichhigh injectionoccursfor
illumination levels ranging from 25 to 100 suns [ 121 . Then,
in both the low- and high-injection limits, (22) reduces to the
form

O=Go+D,-

dZAN
dx

where D, = D, for low injection and

D, = DH = 2 D,D,/
(Dn t D,) for high injection. For low injection, the response
JN becomes

which is also linear in AN. For high injection, comparison of

(24) with (4) implies that

if Go = 0 in the quasi-neutralbase, except near the spacecharge region [ 1 2 ] . In (26), C is a space-independentconstant; C --l for the condition,J =JN(O), assumed in (21).
Thus for silicon, for which D, D,, in both the low- and
high-injection conditions,the ambipolar transportequation
for AN and the current equation forJN are both linear in AN,
they have exactly the same form, and they have coefficients
that are the same orderofmagnitude.It
follows, therefore,
that the quasi-neutral base region can be described approximatelyby a single set of linear equations even thoughthe
injectioncondition across the base region varies from highto lowlevel injection; thisvariation in injection level is implied
by the boundary condition in (21) that AN(0) = 0 and by the
possible boundary condition AN(WB)= 0 (corresponding to an
ohmic contact or highsurface recombination velocity at the
back face). Because thequasi-neutral base region canbe
described by a single set of linear equations, the superposition
principle can be applied and (21) results.
Using (21) and including effects of high injection in the base
region, one can derive analyticalexpressions fortheopencircuit voltage VOC of highly illuminated silicon solar cells
[12]. In Fig. 5, values of Voc calculated from these expressions for 1042 * cmn+-p cells [ Voc proportionalto
(2/b t l)(kT/q)In (Jvpc/JDo)] and 4-Q . cm p*-n cells
[ VOC proportional to (2b/b t l)(kT/q)In ( J u p c / J ~ o ) ]are
plotted against J u p c ; (b = Pa//+).
Thesedependencies
of
VOC on J u p c (or, to a first approximation, on JSC) are compared at several levels of illuminationwith values of Voc
calculated from exact numerical solutions of (2) through (7).
These results are contrasted with the classical relation, derived
from (1) for low-injection conditions

VOC = (kT/q)In (JSClJDO)

which is a special case of (20). At low-injection levels, Ju,:

(27)

IEEE TRAIiSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES,

VOL.

170

ED-26, NO. 3 , MARCH 1979

I
1.2

- 0.3 Q-cm

lSOlO5A-lll

INTRINSIC STRUCTURE

(b)
Fig. 7. (a) Entire solarcell
in which AN(0) dependsnonlinearly
on I. (b) Intrinsic solarcell in which AN(0) is proportionalto
[exp W I s l k T ) - 11.
Fig. 6. Experimental dependence of VOC on Jupc normalized to one~ Jupc,x designate the open-circuit vaJtage
sun values. V O C , and
and the uncompensated photocurrent at X suns. Note the agreenimt
with the theoretical results of Fig. 5.

Jsc; otherwise, Jupc >J,c, because a considerable potential

difference can develop across the quasi-neutral base [ 121. The
inapplicability of (27) is apparent in Fig. 5 . Themethodof
analysis, based onthesuperposition principle that underlies
(21), gives the needed correction and provides the theoret ml
dependence of VOC on Jsc (or .Iupc),
These theoretical results are supported by experimental d&ta
(Fig. 6)plotted innormalizedfashion
against the measured
Jupc for three types of n+-p solar cells: a cell having a bflse
resistivity of 0.3 n * cm,and two cells having a base resistivity of 10 8 * cm, one made with a back-surface field (%SF)
and the other without a BSF. At high
levels of illuminat on
(large Jupc),high injection occurs in the base of the 1042 ::an
cells attheopen-circuitcondition.Forthe
10-8 cm d l
without aBSF, the measured dependenceof VOC on JL;VC
agrees with the theoretical predictions
of Fig. 5 and demmstratesexperimentallythat
(27) is invalid. The VOCdepwdence observed forthe
BSF cell again demonstrates..he
inapplicability of (27). The nonlinearitiesassociated
with
high injection in the base region of this cell present m
;
analytical problem different from that
describinga non-B!iiF
cell. Basic correctionsof classical theory required by these
nonlinearities will be treated in a later publication.
High injection does not occur in the 0.342 cm cell, and i t s
VOCversus Jupc characteristic agrees with the classical res&
of (27).

the use of superposition in which AN(O), defined by (28), is

regarded as an independent excitation.
A solar cell with significant R s can be treated analytically by
separating R s fromthe intrinsic system, as in Fig. 7. The
intrinsic system is defined so that
A N O ) a [exp ( 4 V l s l W - 11 .

(29)

Since AN(0) thusdefineddependsonlyonthe

voltage VIS
across the system, it can be regarded as an independent excitation.Thusthe
intrinsicsystem of Fig. 7 can be treated as
described in Section 11, where we indicated the conditions for
which superposition applies.
Use of a superposition requires that the excitation AN(0)be
set to zero, which defines the photocurrent J u x . As for the
high-injection condition describedin Section 111, here also a
short circuitappliedacross
the cell terminals fails to make
AN(0) = 0 because

V=

VIS

IRs.

(30)

From (29) we see that AN(0) = 0 implies V, = 0, and from

(30) that a reverse bias of about IupcRs must, therefore, be
applied to the solar cell toexperimentallydetermine Jum.
We note again that Jupc > J ~ cwhere
,
J ~ c= J( V = 0).
For low-injection conditions, Rs is approximately constant,
independent of I in an illuminated cell, and can be determined
experimentally [ 151 , [ 161 .
A similar method of analysis will extend the applicability of
the superposition principle to solar cells whose characteristics
are affected by shunt resistance.

V. DISCUSSION
The basis underlying this paper is the superpositionprinciple.
Its use here provides insight about the shifting approximation
of (1) that the characteristic of an illuminated solar cell is the
dark current-voltage
characteristic
shifted
by
the
shortcircuit current. Interpreted from the standpoint of the superposition principle, the current I ( V ) in (1) is the sum of the
responses to two excitations applied independently, one at a
time. One excitation is the hole-electron optical generation
rateresulting
fromthe
sunlight. Theother is the excess
W O ) a [exp ( q V / W exp (41Rs/kT>- 11
( 2 8) carrier concentration at each edge ofthejunction
spacevoltage difference
where I depends on JN(0). The nonlinearity of (28) precludes charge region, which is related tothe

IV. SERIESRESISTANCE
In a p-n junction solar cell, series resistance R s can originate
in the metal contacts,in the metal-semiconductor interface, in
the emitter, and in the base. The presence of R s invalida..::s
thedirect use of superposition.To illustrate this,considx,
as the system under study, a p-type quasi-neutral base regic 11.
Though the electron continuity equation (4) remains linear for
low injection, the presence of R s results in a nonlinear bour (1ary condition relating AN and JN

LINDHOLM et al.: SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE IN SOLAR-CELL ANALYSIS

across the cell terminals. Thetwo responses are,therefore,

the short-circuit current and the dark-current characteristic.
The optical generation rate and the excess carrier concentrationatthe
space-charge-region edges are chosen as theexcitations because they are theindependent variables in the
boundary-valueproblem describing the cell. These variables
arelinearlyrelated
tothecurrentandtothe
excess carrier
concentrations within the cell undercertain
well-defined
conditions which, therefore, are necessary for superposition to
apply. These conditions are:
a) the junction space-charge region may contribute importantlytoeitherthephotocurrentorthedarkcurrent,
but not to both;
b)the carrier concentrations in thequasi-neutral regions
must stay within low-injection
levels;
c) the series resistance(and shunt resistance) mustcontribute negligiljly to the cell current-voltage characteristics;
d)thematerialparameters,
such as theminority-carrier
lifetime, must be essentially independent of the illumination level; and
e) the volume of the regions that contribute appreciably to
thephotocurrent must stay essentially constant as the
cell is loaded.
We have described how a superposition-based theory can be
developed even if conditions b) or c) are violated. The violation of condition b)
discussed here relates to an application
ofmuch practical importance:theperformanceof
silicon
p-n junction cells in concentrated sunlight. Although,ina
strict sense, thesuperposition
principle is invalid forthis
application, we used superposition indeveloping
the correction. This use led to atheoryforthedependence
of
VOCon ISC that agreed well both with laboratory experimentation and with the exact computer solution of the underlying
differential equations (2)-(7).
This is the first application of the superposition principle of
differential-equationtheorytothe
analysis of solar cells,
althoughthe principle hasbeen used previously to describe
the saturated operation of the bipolar transistor
[ 171 , [ 181 .
We believe that this principle offers insight about the range of
validity of (l), the shifting approximation,andaboutthe
considerablesimplifications that (1) yields. Beyond this, the
treatment discussed here of a cell in concentrated sunlight has
shownthatsuperposition
provides a basis from which to
developexpressionsuseful
for design when superposition,
from a strict standpoint, fails to hold. We anticipate that the
superposition principle also will proveusefulin
applications
otherthanthose discussed indetail here.Othertreatments
[19], [20]ofthe
shifting approximationandsuperposition
are now appearing, prompted by an early conference version
[21] of our present paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank Prof. C . T. Sah, Prof. M. Wolf,
Prof. R. J. Van Overstraeten, and Dr. B. Williams for helpful
discussions. We also thanktheanonymous
reviewers who
indicated several places in the manuscript that needed major
revisions.

171

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