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by Tom Nelligan
Of all the applications of industrial ultrasonic testing, flaw detection is the oldest and the most common. Since
the 1940s, the laws of physics that govern the propagation of sound waves through solid materials have been
used to detect hidden cracks, voids, porosity, and other internal discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics,
and ceramics. High frequency sound waves reflect from flaws in predictable ways, producing distinctive echo
patterns that can be displayed and recorded by portable instruments. Ultrasonic testing is completely
nondestructive and safe, and it is a well established test method in many basic manufacturing, process, and
service industries, especially in applications involving welds and structural metals. This paper provides a brief
introduction to the theory and practice of ultrasonic flaw detection. It is intended only as an overview of the
topic. Additional detailed information may be found in the
references listed at the end.
1. Basic Theory: Sound waves are simply organized
mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium, which may
be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. These waves will travel through a
given medium at a specific speed or velocity, in a predictable
direction, and when they encounter a boundary with a different
medium they will be reflected or transmitted according to
simple rules. This is the principle of physics that underlies
ultrasonic flaw detection.
Frequency: All sound waves oscillate at a specific frequency,
or number of vibrations or cycles per second, which we
experience as pitch in the familiar range of audible sound. Human hearing extends to a maximum frequency of
about 20,000 cycles per second (20 KHz), while the majority of ultrasonic flaw detection applications utilize
frequencies between 500,000 and 10,000,000 cycles per second (500 KHz to 10 MHz). At frequencies in the
megahertz range, sound energy does not travel efficiently through air or other gasses, but it travels freely
through most liquids and common engineering materials.
Velocity: The speed of a sound wave varies depending on the medium through which it is traveling, affected
by the medium's density and elastic properties. Different types of sound waves (see Modes of Propagation,
below) will travel at different velocities.
Wavelength: Any type of wave will have an associated wavelength, which is the distance between any two
corresponding points in the wave cycle as it travels through a medium. Wavelength is related to frequency and
velocity by the simple equation
= c/f
where
= wavelength
c = sound velocity
f = frequency
Wavelength is a limiting factor that controls the amount of information that can be derived from the behavior
of a wave. In ultrasonic flaw detection, the generally accepted lower limit of detection for a small flaw is onehalf wavelength. Anything smaller than that will be invisible. In ultrasonic thickness gaging, the theoretical
---------Z2 + Z1
where
R = reflection coefficient (percentage of energy reflected)
Z1 = acoustic impedance of first material
Z2 = acoustic impedance of second material
For the metal/air boundaries commonly seen in ultrasonic flaw detection applications, the reflection coefficient
approaches 100%. Virtually all of the sound energy is reflected from a crack or other discontinuity in the path
of the wave. This is the fundamental principle that makes ultrasonic flaw detection possible.
Angle of Reflection and Refraction: Sound energy at ultrasonic frequencies is highly directional and the
sound beams used for flaw detection are well defined. In situations where sound reflects off a boundary, the
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. A sound beam that hits a surface at perpendicular incidence
will reflect straight back. A sound beam that hits a surface at an angle will reflect forward at the same angle.
Sound energy that is transmitted from one material to another bends in accordance with Snell's Law of
refraction. Again, a beam that is traveling straight will continue in a straight direction, but a beam that strikes a
boundary at an angle will be bent according to the formula:
Sin 1
-------Sin 2
V1
=
----V2
where
1 = incident angle in first material
2= refracted angle in second material
V1 = sound velocity in first material
V2 = sound velocity in second material
This relationship is an important factor in angle beam testing, which is discussed in Section 4.
2. Ultrasonic Transducers
In the broadest sense, a transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Ultrasonic
transducers convert electrical energy into high frequency sound energy and vice versa.
amplitude versus time on a calibrated scale, or as complex as sophisticated digital processing algorithms that
incorporate distance/amplitude correction and trigonometric calculations for angled sound paths. Alarm gates
are often employed to monitor signal levels at selected points in the wave train to flag echoes from flaws.
The display may be a CRT, a liquid crystal, or an electroluminescent display. The screen will typically be
calibrated in units of depth or distance. Multicolor displays can be used to provide interpretive assistance.
Internal data loggers can be used to record full waveform and setup information associated with each test, if
required for documentation purposes, or selected information like echo amplitude, depth or distance readings,
or presence or absence of alarm conditions.
4. Procedure
Ultrasonic flaw detection is basically a comparative technique. Using appropriate reference standards along
with a knowledge of sound wave propagation and generally accepted test procedures, a trained operator
identifies specific echo patterns corresponding to the echo response from good parts and from representative
flaws. The echo pattern from an test piece may then be compared to the patterns from these calibration
standards to determine its condition.
- Straight Beam Testing -- Straight beam testing utilizing contact, delay line, dual element, or immersion
transducers is generally employed to find cracks or delaminations parallel to the surface of the test piece, as
well as voids and porosity. It utilizes the basic principle that sound energy traveling through a medium will
continue to propagate until it either disperses or reflects off a boundary with another material, such as the air
surrounding a far wall or found inside a crack. In this type of test, the operator couples the transducer to the test
piece and locates the echo returning from the far wall of the test piece, and then looks for any echoes that
arrive ahead of that backwall echo, discounting grain scatter noise if present. An acoustically significant echo
that precedes the backwall echo implies the presence of a laminar crack or void. Through further analysis, the
depth, size, and shape of the structure producing the reflection can be determined.
Sound energy will travel to the far side of a part, but reflect earlier if a laminar crack or similar discontinuity is
presented.
In some specialized cases, testing is performed in a through transmission mode, where sound energy travels
between two transducers placed on opposite sides of the test piece. If a large flaw is present in the sound path,
the beam will be obstructed and the sound pulse will not reach the receiver.
- Angle Beam Testing - Cracks or other discontinuities perpendicular to the surface of a test piece, or tilted with
respect to that surface, are usually invisible with straight beam test techniques because of their orientation with
respect to the sound beam. Such defects can occur in welds, in structural metal parts, and many other critical
components. To find them, angle beam techniques are used, employing either common angle beam (wedge)
transducer assemblies or immersion transducers aligned so as to direct sound energy into the test piece at a
selected angle. The use of angle beam testing is especially common in weld inspection.
Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's Law to generate a shear wave at a
selected angle (most commonly 30, 45, 60, or 70 degrees) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident
longitudinal wave with respect to a surface increases, an increasing portion of the sound energy is converted to
a shear wave in the second material, and if the angle is high enough, all of the energy in the second material
will be in the form of shear waves. There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take
advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon. First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles
that generate shear waves in steel and similar materials. Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved
through the use of shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear wave is approximately
The angled sound beam is highly sensitive to cracks perpendicular to the far surface of the test piece (first leg
test) or, after bouncing off the far side, to cracks perpendicular to the coupling surface (second leg test). A
variety of specific beam angles and probe positions are used to accommodate different part geometries and
flaw types, and these are described in detail in appropriate inspection codes and procedures such as ASTM E164 and the AWS Structural Welding Code.
piece serves as both transmitter and receiver (pulse/echo mode), although in some situations involving highly
attenuating or scattering materials separate transmitting and receiving transducers on opposite sides of the part
are used (through transmission mode). A sound wave is launched by exciting the transducer with either a
voltage spike or a continuous wave impulse. The sound wave travels through the test material, either reflecting
off the far side to return to its point of origin (pulse/echo), or being received by another transducer at that point
(through transmission). The received signal is then amplified and analyzed. A variety of commercial
instrumentation is available for this purpose, utilizing both analog and digital signal processing.
A significant advantage of ultrasonic testing over other material analysis methods is that it can often be
performed in-process or on-line. High frequency sound waves can often be successfully transmitted into and
out of moving materials without direct contact, through the use of a water bath or water stream as a coupling
medium. Measurements can also be performed within closed containers by coupling sound energy through the
wall. Because sound waves penetrate through the test specimen, material properties are measured in bulk rather
than just on the surface. It is sometimes even possible, through the use of selective gating, to analyze just one
layer of a multi-layer, multi-material fabrication.
The relevant measurement parameters will typically be one or more of the following:
1. Sound velocity/pulse transit time: Sound velocity is usually the easiest ultrasonic parameter to measure. The
speed of sound in a homogenous medium is directly related to both elastic modulus and density; thus changes
in either elasticity or density will affect pulse transit time through a sample of a given thickness. Additionally,
varying degrees of nonhomogeneity may have an effect on sound velocity.
2. Attenuation: Sound energy is absorbed or attenuated at different rates in different materials, governed in a
complex fashion by interactive effects of density, hardness, viscosity, and molecular structure. Attenuation
normally increases with frequency in a given material.
3. Scattering: Sound waves reflect from boundaries between dissimilar materials. Changes in grain structure,
fiber orientation, porosity, particle concentration, and other microstructural variations can affect the amplitude,
direction, and frequency content of scattered signals. Scatter effects can also be monitored indirectly by
looking at changes in the amplitude of a backwall echo or a through-transmission signal.
4. Frequency (Spectrum) content: All materials tend to act to some degree as a low pass filter, attenuating or
scattering the higher frequency components of a broadband sound wave more than the lower frequency
components. Thus, analysis of changes in the remaining frequency content of a selected broadband pulse that
has passed through the test material can track the combined effects of attenuation and scattering as described
above.
In some applications ultrasonic data such as velocity can be directly used to calculate properties such as elastic
modulus. In other cases, ultrasonic testing is a comparative technique, where in order to establish a test
protocol in a given application it will be necessary to experimentally evaluate reference standards representing
the range of material conditions being quantified. From such standards it will be possible to record how sound
transmission parameters vary with changes in specific material properties, and then from this baseline
information it will be possible to identify or predict similar changes in test samples.
Equipment: A wide variety of ultrasonic instrumentation can be used in material analysis applications. Sound
velocity can be measured with simple hand-held ultrasonic thickness gauges, while velocity, attenuation, and
scattering effects can all be observed with modern digital flaw detectors. Pulser/receivers with appropriate
auxiliary equipment and ultrasonic imaging systems with appropriate software can be used to quantify all of
these properties, and to perform spectrum analysis (frequency content) testing as well. For information on both
instrumentation and transducer recommendations for specific tests, contact us.
Applications: The following is a summary of some specific material analysis applications where ultrasonic
techniques have been used and documented. Extensive discussion, as well as bibliographies on the subject, can
be found in the texts by ASNT1 and Lynnworth2. Both books are recommended as a source of further detailed
information regarding both test procedures and specific instrumentation requirements.
Elastic moduli: Young's modulus and shear modulus in homogenous, nondispersive materials can be
calculated from longitudinal wave and shear wave velocity (along with material density). Use of waveguides
often permits measurement at high temperatures.
Nodularity in cast iron: Both the concentration of graphite in cast iron and its shape and form can be
quantified through velocity measurements.
Cure rate in epoxies and concrete: The speed of sound in these materials changes as they harden; thus sound
velocity measurements can be correlated to the degree of curing. Concrete testing usually requires access to
both sides for through-transmission coupling.
Liquid concentrations: The mixture ratio of two liquids with dissimilar sound velocities can be correlated to
the sound velocity of the solution at a given temperature.
Density of slurries: The liquid/solid mix ratio of slurries such as drilling mud and paper slurry at a given
temperature can be correlated to sound velocity and/or attenuation.
Density in ceramics: Uniformity of density in both green and fired ceramics can be verified by means of
sound velocity measurements.
Food products: A wide variety of tests have been reported, including age of eggs and potatoes, ripeness of
fruits, fat content in beef, and percent of solids in milk. Generally these tests are both nondestructive and noncontaminating.
Polymerization in plastics: In plastics and other polymers, variations in molecular structure such as length or
orientation of polymer chains will often result in corresponding changes in sound velocity and/or attenuation.
Particle or porosity size and distribution: Changes in the size or distribution of particles or porosity in a
solid or liquid medium will affect the amplitude and frequency of scattered ultrasound.
Grain size in metals: Changes in grain size or orientation in steel, cast iron, titanium, and other metals will
cause changes in the amplitude, direction, and/or frequency content of scattered ultrasound.
Anisotropy in solids: Variations in sound velocity, scattering, and/or attenuation across different axes of a
solid can be used to identify and quantify anisotropy.
Case hardening depth in steel: High frequency shear wave backscatter techniques can be used to measure the
depth of case hardening.
Temperature measurement: Ultrasonic thermometry has been used to measure very high temperatures (over
3,000 degrees Celsius) by monitoring changes in sound velocity in a reference medium.
For Further Reading:
1) American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 7, Ultrasonic
Testing (ASNT, 1991)
2) Lynnworth, Lawrence C., Ultrasonic Measurements for Process Control (Academic Press, 1989)
1. What is it?
Ultrasonic nondestructive testing, also known as ultrasonic NDT or simply UT, is a method of characterizing
the thickness or internal structure of a test piece through the use of high frequency sound waves. The
frequencies, or pitch, used for ultrasonic testing are many times higher than the limit of human hearing, most
commonly in the range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz.
Background:
Young's Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress (force
per unit area) to corresponding strain (deformation) in a material under
tension or compression.
Shear Modulus of Elasticity is similar to the ratio of stress to strain in
a material subjected to shear stress.
Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to corresponding axial
strain on a material stressed along one axis.
These basic material properties, which are of interest in many manufacturing and research applications, can be
determined through computations based on measured sound velocities and material density. Sound velocity can
be easily measured using ultrasonic pulse-echo techniques with appropriate equipment. The general procedure
outlined below is valid for any nondispersive material and sample geometry (i.e., velocity does not change with
frequency). This includes most metals, ceramics, and glasses as long as cross sectional dimensions are not close
to the test frequency wavelength.
Rubber usually cannot be characterized ultrasonically because of its high dispersion and nonlinear elastic
properties. In the case of anisotropic materials, elastic properties vary with direction, and so does longitudinal
and/or shear wave sound velocity. Generation of a full matrix of elastic moduli in anisotropic specimens
typically requires six different sets of ultrasonic measurements.
Equipment:
The technique requires ultrasonic pulser-receiver such as a 5072PR or 5077PR, an ultrasonic thickness gage
such as a Model 35DL or 38DL PLUS, or a flaw detector with velocity measurement capability such as the
EPOCH series instruments. It also requires two transducers appropriate to the material being tested, for pulseecho sound velocity measurement in longitudinal and shear modes, Commonly used transducers include an
M112 or V112 broadband longitudinal wave transducer (10 MHz) and a V156 normal incidence shear wave
transducer (5 MHz). These work well for many common metal and fired ceramic samples. Different transducers
will be required for very thick, thin, or highly attenuating samples.
The test sample may be of any geometry that permits clean pulse/echo measurement of sound transit time
through a section on thickness. Ideally this would be a sample at least 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) thick, with smooth
parallel surfaces and a width or diameter greater than the diameter of the transducer being used. Caution must
be used when testing narrow specimens due to possible edge effects that can affect measured pulse transit time.
Procedure:
Measure the longitudinal and shear wave sound velocity of the test piece using the appropriate transducers. A
Model 35DL or 38DL PLUS thickness gage can provide a direct readout of material velocity based on an
entered sample thickness, and an EPOCh series flaw detector can measure velocity through a velocity
calibration procedure. In either case, follow the recommended procedure for velocity measurement as described
in the instrument's operating manual. If using a pulser/receiver, simply record the round-trip transit time through
an area of known thickness with both longitudinal and shear wave transducers, and compute:
Convert units as necessary to obtain velocities expressed as inches per second or centimeters per second. (Time
will usually have been measured in microseconds, so multiply in/uS or cm/uS by 106 to obtain in/S or cm/s.)
The velocities thus obtained may be inserted into the following equations.
Note on units:If sound velocity is expressed in cm/S and density in g/cm3, then Young's modulus will be
expressed in units of dynes/cm2. If English units of in/S and lbs/in3 are used to compute modulus in pounds per
square inch (PSI), remember the distinction between "pound" as a unit of force versus a unit of mass. Since
modulus is expressed as a force per unit area, when calculating in English units it is necessary to multiply the
solution of the above equation by a mass/force conversion constant of (1 / Acceleration of Gravity) to obtain
modulus in PSI. Alternately, if the initial calculation is done in metric units, use the conversion factor 1 psi =
6.89 x 104 dynes/cm 2. Another alternative is to enter velocity in in/S, density in g/cm 3, and divide by a
conversion constant of 1.07 x 104 to obtain modulus in PSI.
For shear modulus simply multiply the square of the shear wave velocity by the density.
Again, use units of cm/S and g/cm 3to obtain modulus in dynes/cm 2or English units of in/S and lbs/in 3and
multiply the result by the mass/force conversion constant.
Bibliography
For further information on ultrasonic measurement of elastic modulus, consult the following:
1. Moore, P. (ed.), Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 7, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
2007, pp. 319-321.
2. Krautkramer, J., H. Krautkramer, Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1990
(Fourth Edition), pp. 13-14, 533-534.
Sound waves are all around us, as mechanical vibrations carried by a medium such as air or water. Ultrasonic
testing involves frequencies beyond the upper limit of human hearing, higher than 20 KHz and most commonly
in the range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz, although higher and lower frequencies are sometimes used as well. The
exact test frequency will be selected with respect to the specific application at hand. All ultrasonic thickness
gages work by very precisely measuring how long it takes for a sound pulse that has been generated by a probe
called an ultrasonic transducer to travel through a test piece. Sound waves will reflect from boundaries between
dissimilar materials, such as the air or liquid on the inside of a steel pipe wall, so this measurement can
normally be made from one side in a "pulse/echo" mode.
The transducer contains a piezoelectric element which is excited by a short electrical impulse to generate a burst
of ultrasonic waves. The sound waves are coupled into the test material and travels through it until they
encounter a back wall or other boundary. The reflections then travel back to the transducer, which converts the
sound energy back into electrical energy. In essence, the gage listens for the echo from the opposite side.
Typically this time interval is only a few millionths of a second. The gage is programmed with the speed of
sound in the test material, from which it can then calculate thickness using the simple mathematical relationship
T = (V) x (t/2)
where
T = the thickness of the part