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OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
POL
Petroleum Open Learning
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
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ISBN 1 872041 85 X
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Visual Cues
Although some of the equations are fairly complex, all relevant data and information is
provided to assist you to solve the problems.
All formulae required for calculations in your examination will be provided for
you. However, it is necessary that you are able to recognise the symbols
in formulae and allocate the correct units of measurement to each
symbol in your calculations
You will also find that a scientific calculator will be useful for this programme.
Contents
Page
Training Targets
Introduction
Section 1
Contents (contd)
*
Types of Plate
Sensing Devices
Metering Stations
Safety Implications
Page
26
34
Visual Cues
training targets for you to
achieve by the end of the
unit
46
activities for you to apply
your new knowledge
54
Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Gas Flow Measurement, you will be able to:
State the gas laws and perform relevant calculations using the appropriate units of measurements.
Define molecular mass, gas density and specific gravity, and perform calculations when given appropriate formulae.
Define Reynolds number and, given Reynolds equation, define the terms in it and use it in a calculation.
Describe Bernoullis principle and state the types of pressure in a flowing fluid.
Describe the main types of gas flow measuring devices.
State the relationship between differential pressure and flowrate.
Describe the main features of orifice plate meters.
Perform a flowrate calculation in which all necessary formulae and data are given.
Draw a schematic diagram of a typical multi-stream system which complies with fiscal standards.
Describe the main safety implications associated with metering systems.
Tick the box when you have met each target
Gas
Flow Measurement
Oil and
Gas Separation
Introduction
Introduction
Systems
For most of this century there has been a necessity to measure gas flow accurately, both in commercial applications and scientific investigations.
The measurement of gas flow is more complex than that of liquid since gas is more sensitive to physical factors, such as pressure, temperature, composition,
etc. It has therefore been subjected to considerable research effort, which has led to a high degree of accuracy now being possible.
In this book we will be mainly concerned with natural gas flow measurement, but the principles are generally applicable to all gas phase matter.
This book comprises four sections :
Section 1, Gas Flow Measurement Applications and Gas Physics, outlines areas in which the ability to accurately measure gas flow is essential. It then
covers the basic physics of gas behaviour, which are essential to an understanding of the measurement and flow calculation methods.
Section 2, Fluid Flow Principles, presents the concepts of laminar and turbulent fluid flow, develops the Bernoulli and continuity principles to produce a
simple flowrate / differential pressure relationship.
Section 3, Measurement Devices and Methods, describes various fluid flow measurement devices which are applicable to gases. It then gives a more
detailed treatment of the orifice plate method, since this is the one most widely used. It ends with the ISO 5167 formula, and an explanation of its terms.
Section 4, Orifice Plate Metering Equipment, describes : various orifice plate designs, differential pressure and gas density sensing and measuring
equipment and a typical gas metering station. It ends by drawing attention to the safety aspects of gas metering systems.
Hydrocarbon Taxation
In most oil and gas producing countries, governments
impose various types of revenue on the production
companies. Most of these revenues are applied on
a volumetric basis, so flow rates must be measured
to a high degree of accuracy.
Fiscal Standards
In the last two examples, in addition to the need
for accuracy, there is also the implication of
complex legal considerations. This has led to
the establishment of a set of fiscal standards,
the purpose of which is to achieve consistent
levels of high accuracy and reliability in fluid flow
measurement.
Units of Measurement
It is not possible to fully appreciate the methods
and procedures of gas flow metering without a
basic understanding of the physical behaviour
of gases, in particular the relationship between
pressure, volume and temperature.
Boyles Law
Figure 1 illustrates the principle behind Boyles
Law, which describes the relationship between
the volume occupied by a given mass, or number
of molecules, of gas and its pressure, while the
temperature remains constant.
Figure 1 depicts a piston in a cylinder which
contains a fixed mass of gas. The highly energetic
gas molecules collide with each other and with the
cylinder walls and the piston face, resulting in a
force being exerted. The property we describe as
pressure is defined as the magnitude of that force
divided by the area over which it acts.
The force acting on the bottom face of the piston
is therefore the pressure multiplied by the cross
sectional area of the piston. To prevent the piston
being driven out of the cylinder, a force of the
same magnitude must be applied downwards, in
this case by a weight (W).
2.
Thus : P = kv
so k = PV which is the mathematical way of stating that the
pressure multiplied by the volume gives a constant value.
Referring to Figure 1 (a) and (b), we can write :
and
HENCE
P1 V1 = k
P2 V2 = k
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Charles Law
Charles Law describes the relationship between the
volume and temperature of an ideal gas, while the
pressure is kept constant.
As in the case of Boyles Law, we can use a cylinder
/piston arrangement to demonstrate the principle behind
Charles Law, as shown in Figure 2.
This time, however, we keep the pressure constant by
leaving the force on the piston unchanged, and heat the
gas in the cylinder. Not surprisingly, we find that the gas
volume increases.
EXAMPLE
5 Ltr of an ideal gas is contained in a cylinder at 2 bar.
A piston then compresses the gas until the volume is
reduced to 3 Ltr.
What will the new pressure be, once the temperature has
stabilised to its initial value ?
We will use the left side of the equation to represent the
initial conditions, and the right the final ones.
Thus :
2 X 5 = P2 X 3
P2 = 2 X 5 = 3.33 bar
3
Figure 4 is similar to Figure 3, but with the graph line extrapolated to intersect the Temperature axis.
This point is taken as 0 for our other temperature scale, and we see that it corresponds to -273.15C.
Absolute Zero is the term that is commonly applied to this temperature, since it is physically impossible
to achieve lower temperatures than it. Absolute zero has been approached experimentally, but has never
been quite achieved; and is therefore a theoretical value rather than a practical one. We see in Figure 4
that the gas would occupy no volume at that point; a futile observation, since no substance would be in
the gas phase at such a low temperature.
V = cT
where c is a constant
so
We see in Figure 5 that if the absolute
temperature is doubled, the gas volume will also
be doubled.
Charles' Law, then, states that: at constant
pressure, the volume occupied by a given
mass of gas is proportional to its absolute
temperature.
c=V
T
V1 = c and V2 =c
T1
T2
hence : V1 = V2
T1 T2
This equation can be used to evaluate the new
volume or temperature of an ideal gas for a
change in which the pressure stays constant.
10
P1V1 = P2V2
T T
1
2
T
1
T2
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1.1 on page 54.
Molecular Mass
elementary chemistry text books and training manuals, but for our purposes a simple description is sufficient.
All matter consists of atoms. In many substances two or more atoms combine to form molecules. As we wish to
keep this description simple, we will accept the atomic mass units (a.m.u.) given in the following text.
Let us consider methane, the lightest alkane hydrocarbon and the main component of natural gas. It is a
molecule comprising one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. Carbon has an atomic mass of 12
atomic mass units (a.m.u.). Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1 a.m.u. The molecular mass of methane is
the sum of the masses of its constituent atoms, which is therefore 12 + (4 x 1) = 16 a.m.u.
11
n= m
Mw
EXAMPLE
Calculate the number of kg-mol in 40 kg of
methane.
We have already seen that the molecular mass of
methane is 16.
n = m = 40 = 2.5kg-mol
Mw 16
n= m equation. Hence:
Mw
n(kg-mol)
Mw
= m(kg)
Mw
= m(kg)
n(kg-mol)
12
The procedure is shown in the following table, and involves adding up the
results of multiplying the mole-fraction of each component by its molecular
mass.
Component
Methane
Ethane
Mol. Mass
Mol. Fraction
Mol. mass x
Mol.Fraction
16
0.80
12.80
30
0.20
6.00
18.80
Gas Constants
The form of the ideal gas equation we looked at earlier :
implies that
PV = a constant
T
In other words, for a given type and mass of an ideal gas, the absolute
pressure multiplied by the volume and divided by the absolute temperature
will always produce the same answer.
If we call the constant C, we can rewrite the equation as:
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1.3 on page 54.
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
PV = CT
13
EXAMPLE
What is the volume of 1.5 kg of air at 1.5 bar and 25C? (Take the molecular
weight of air as 29, and assume ideal behaviour).
and use this value in : PV = nRT, having selected the appropriate value of R
from the table as 0.0831. Note that this will make our volume units m3. As these
are the most commonly used units for gas measurement calculations, we will use
0.0831 for all our calculations where a value of R is required
Inserting these values gives:
V
kPa m3
bar
m3
K
K
Ltr
bar
K
bar cm3 K
oR
psia ft3
kg-mol
kg-mol
g-mol
g-mol
0.0831
V = 1.280 = 0.853 m3
1.5
8.130
0.0831
83.1
Ib-mol 10.73
14
1.
1.013 bar ;
15C
2.
1.013 bar ;
0C
3.
EXAMPLE
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
P1 = 1.013 bar
T1 = 15C = 288 K
V1 = 5 m3
P2 = 3 bar
T2 = 298 K
1.013 x 5
288
0.01007 X V2 =
V2 = 0.01759 =
0.01007
3 X V2
298
0.01759
1.747 m3
15
This provides curves that represent values of Z plotted against pressure for various temperatures;
so to find the appropriate factor, the point that represents the relevant pressure and temperature is
identified and the corresponding value is read from the vertical axis. In Figure 6, for example, we see
that if the gas pressure and temperature is P1 and T1 respectively, the compressibility factor is Z1.
Note that if the stated temperature lies between two curves, interpolation is necessary.
16
PV = ZnRT
17
2.
3.
4.
18
EXAMPLE
Activity
Use Figure 7 to find values of Z for each
of the following sets of conditions :
1. 70 bar ; 20oC
PV = nRT
PV = ZnRT
V = ZRT
P
= 0.68 x 0.0831 x 238
70
V = RT
P
V = 0.0831 x (-35 + 273)
70
= 19.78
70
V =
0.283 m3
= 13.449
70
V = 0.192 m3
19
EXAMPLE
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1.5 on page 54.
We have already seen that, to perform gas
calculations involving changes in conditions from
P1, V1 and T1 to P2, V2 and T2 , we use:
P1V1 = P2V2
T1
T2
65 x 3
0.88 x 293
150 x V2
0.61 x 243
1.012 V2 = 0.756
V2 = 0.756 = 0.747 m3
1.012
Until now, we have used Z values which were
less than 1, which caused the volume occupied
by a given mass of gas to be less than that
predicted by the ideal gas equation.
Examining PV = ZnRT, from which P = ZnRT
V
we see that the pressure of a given mass of gas
at a given volume and temperature would also be
less than if it were ideal.
20
Figures 8 and 9 are examples of such charts, and apply to mixtures of molecular mass 18.85 and
23.2 kg / kg-mol respectively. Charts are also available for lower, intermediate and higher molecular
masses. When applying factors to mixtures with molecular masses that are between values for which
charts are available, reasonable accuracy can be achieved by interpolation.
21
22
Density
Example
=m
V
= PMw =
ZRT
1.013 x 16
0.0831 x 288
= 0.678 kg / m3
m = PMw =
V ZRT
Ethane (Mw
Propane (Mw
Butane (Mw
=
=
=
30)
44)
58)
23
Specific Gravity
Another method of expressing the density of a
material is to use the measurement specific
gravity (s.g.). Specific gravity is sometimes
referred to as relative density, which is an apt
term since it is defined as the density of the
substance being evaluated divided by the
density of a reference substance.
In the case of liquids, the reference material is
water; for gases it is air.
So for gases we can write:
sgg = Mw g
Mw a
..
sgmethane = 16 = 0.55
29
s.g. = g
sgmethane = methane
a
24
Summary of Section 1
Applications in which accurate gas flow measurement is required are :
Boyles Law and Charles Law combine to express the relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature of gases when they behave
ideally, with the proviso that absolute temperature and pressure units must be used in the calculations.
The number of moles of a substance is found by dividing its mass by its molecular mass, a procedure that can be applied to mixtures as well as
pure substances.
The number of moles (n) can then be used in PV = nRT, where R is defined as the universal gas constant.
The interdependence of these properties demands the use of reference pressure and temperature at which gas volumes are calculated.
Most gases only obey the ideal gas laws at certain pressures and temperatures, so the compressibility factor (Z) is introduced to compensate for
non ideal behaviour.
Gas density can be evaluated from the ideal gas equation, and gas specific gravity is defined as its density divided by that of air, both values being
referred to standard conditions. Gas specific gravity is also found by dividing the molecular mass of the gas by that of air.
25
For calculation purposes, the mean or average velocity is the important value;
in a laminar flow situation it would typically be about half the maximum velocity.
Consider now what happens if the flow rate is increased. The laminar profile is
maintained until a certain fluid velocity is reached, at which point eddy currents
start to appear, indicating a breakdown of the laminar pattern as the layers start
to mix, and the onset of turbulent flow.
Turbulence commences near the centre of the pipe, where the velocity is
greatest, and spreads towards the pipe wall as the flow rate increases. At the
pipe wall a thin layer of laminar flow will survive unless very severe turbulence
occurs. A flow pattern exists between the turbulent and laminar regions which is
known as the boundary layer or transition layer, as shown in Figure 11.
26
Reynolds Number
An indication of whether fluid flow is likely to be
laminar or turbulent, or between them, can be
obtained by calculating a value called Reynolds
Number (Re), using the following formula:
Re = DVavg
Where:
D
vavg
27
therefore equals Pm / .
Kinetic Energy is due to the fluids motion,
and can be considered as the energy that will
be converted to another form, or forms, when it
stops moving. It is a function of its mass (m) and
average velocity (v) and is calculated from the
term mw2 which, along with the potential
2
energy expression mgh, you will recognise if you
have studied elementary physics.
Adding these terms to express the total fluid
energy (E) gives:
E = Um + mgh + mP + mv2
Em = P + v2
28
Em = PT = P + v2
2
Qm = Qv = v A
Qv =Av
29
1 A v1 = 2 a v2 =Qm
30
EXAMPLE
A liquid flows through a pipeline the diameter of
which changes from 150 mm to 75 mm. If the
average velocity in the wide section is 0.5 m / s,
what will its velocity in the narrow section be ?
Let A and a be the cross-sectional areas of the
wide and narrow sections respectively, with v1 the
velocity through A and v2 the velocity through a.
Note: We are using / 4 x D2 to calculate crosssectional area, although you may be more familiar
with r2
Av =av
1
2
v2 = A v1 =
a
x 0.1502 x 0.5
4
x 0.0752
4
P1 + v12 = P2 + v22
2
2
31
Qm = v A
v = Qm
A
( )
PT = P+
2
Qm 2
A
( )
1+ Qm 2 = 2+
2 A
2
( )
Qm
a
2p
A2a2
A2 _ a2
32
2.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
A and a
v (note that this is lower case)
Qv
Qm
p
4.
5.
Summary of Section 2
Fluid flow can be categorised as laminar or turbulent, and
Reynold's number can be used to predict which category
applies.
Bernoulli's principle of fluid energy conservation can
be simplified and expressed in pressure terms, the
total pressure being the sum of the static and dynamic
components.
Bernoulli's principle, and continuity principle of mass flow
conservation, combine to produce a fluid flow formula
which does no account for frictional losses.
33
so
Pd = v2
2
v=
2Pd
34
Nozzles
Nozzles, an example of which is shown in
Figure 17, are used in high velocity applications;
especially in hostile environments where erosion
or corrosion would damage devices such as
orifice plates. They produce lower differential
pressure at a given flow rate than most other
devices.
35
Venturi Meter
Dall Tube
In the preceding section it was mentioned that energy losses due to friction occur, and will cause a
reduction in the total fluid pressure. One objective in the design of a flow measuring device should be
to enable the maximum recovery of pressure energy after the fluid has left the measurement location.
The venturi meter is designed to produce a smooth flow, with the minimum turbulence, into and out of
the narrow diameter section where the velocity is increased. These features are evident in Figure 18.
The advantage of low energy loss is often outweighed by their high cost and space required
for installation.
36
Orifice Plate
The simplest, and cheapest, method of creating
a restriction in a pipeline is to insert a disc with a
hole in it, so that the fluid has to flow through the
hole. The concept could hardly be more simple,
but it belies the deeper understanding of fluid flow
principles that the achievement of accurate and
precise flowrate measurements requires.
An orifice plate is mounted between flanged ends in
a pipeline, and it is this relative ease of installation
and subsequent maintenance that has made orifice
plates the most popular gas flow measurement
device in commercial applications, especially in the
case of natural gas.
37
38
39
Beta Ratio
2.
3.
4.
5.
40
Qm = CE d2 2p
4
You will be relieved to learn that it is beyond the
scope of this book to show how this equation is
derived from the preceding one. It looks more
simple, but that is because the modifications have
been mainly incorporated in the first three terms,
which we will now look at.
C is defined as the discharge coefficient, and is
a function of Reynolds number Re and . It can
be calculated from a formula, or obtained from
tables. ISO 5167 presents discharge coefficient
tables for various pressure tapping locations and
pipe internal diameters, but if high accuracy is not
critical, a value of 0.605 can be used in typical
applications.
E=
1 - 4
PY
= Cp
Cv
Qv = Qm
= PMw
ZRT
41
42
EXAMPLE
Having seen the large number of data necessary to calculate flowrates, you will appreciate
that longhand methods of performing the calculations are rather tedious and time consuming.
Fortunately, recent advances in electronic technology have alleviated this problem.
Differential pressure, line pressure, temperature and density measurement signals can be digitised
and processed electronically to yield flowrate readouts directly.
d
=D
d = 0.45 x 200 = 90 mm
We will look at the general layout of such systems in the next section.
2.
3.
4.
5.
43
1 - 4
a.
b.
= PMw
ZRT
d = 125mm
D = 257.4 mm
C = 0.605
= 0.9987
44
Summary of Section 3
The main features of the following devices were described:
Pitot tube
flow nozzles
venturi
dall tube
orifice plate
The Pitot tube is the only velocity head device, the others being dependent on differential
pressure measurement.
The orifice plate was identified as the most popluar gas flow measurement device, and the rest
of the section was devoted to describing its effects on flowing fluid and how these effects could
be used to measure flowrates. The description showed that:
The maximum fluid velocity, and hence minimum static pressure, is at the vena contracta.
Flange-mounted pressure tappings are the most popular type, although they do not tap
into the regions of the meter at which the maximum differential pressure occurs.
The ISO 5167 formula is used for orifice and contains terms which correct for fluid frictional
energy losses and gas compressibility.
45
46
47
Sensing Devices
Line pressure and temperature sensing devices
are widely used throughout industry, and the
types used in gas flow metering systems are the
same as those for other applications. We will
therefore confine our attention to the devices that
measure the orifice plate differential pressure and
the gas density.
Electronic measuring and signal processing
devices are becoming increasingly predominant.
Advancement in the design of intrinsically
safe circuitry has allowed them to replace the
pneumatic instrumentation that was traditionally
the only viable means of measurement and
control in hazardous environments. However, this
conversion process is by no means universal, and
pneumatic systems are still in use, particularly on
older plant installations.
Differential Pressure
I will describe two differential pressure sensors,
one pneumatic and one electrical.
The pneumatic one is the torque balance
transmitter, and a simplified sketch is shown in
Figure 26.
48
Gas Density
A device which is often used to measure gas
density directly uses the vibrating cylinder
principle. The process gas is passed over the
inner and outer surfaces of a thin metal cylinder,
which, like all solid objects, has a natural or
resonant vibration frequency. However, the vibration
frequency of the cylinder is affected by the gas
molecules which interact with its surface and vibrate
with it. The significant property, here is the mass of
gas, the relationship being that increasing the mass
will decrease the vibration frequency. This means
that, if the frequency is measured, it can be used to
evaluate the gas density.
Figure 28, on the next page, is a schematic
diagram of the system. The cylinder requires an
activating signal to make it vibrate; this is achieved
by passing current through the cylinder activating
coil. The vibration frequency is picked up as an
alternating current by the sensing coil, and this
signal is amplified and processed to produce a
square wave output. This type of signal is ideal for
transmission and can be readily converted to an
analogue or digital form.
The upstream pressure is transmitted to the isolating diaphragm on one side of the cell, and the
downstream pressure to the other side. Movement of the isolating diaphragms is transferred to the
sensing diaphragm by silicone oil, and any change in the position of the sensing diaphragm changes
the electrical capacitance between it and the capacitor plates. The resultant electrical signal is
converted to a current reading in the 4 - 20 mA DC range, which can then be processed to produce the
required analogue or digital output.
49
50
Metering Stations
Typical Multi-Stream System
Metering stations to which fiscal standards apply,
and others in applications where maintenance
of production rates is essential, comprise two
or more meter runs; thus allowing fluid flow to
continue while a meter run is shut down for
maintenance.
Figure 29 is a schematic diagram showing the
main components of a two stream metering
station with a computer based electronic signal
processing system.
We see that each stream has its own computer,
and they are connected to the main or station
computer. The operator interface with the system
is the input / output terminal, which displays live or
recorded data and through which entries such as
changes to meter factors are made.
The temperature, pressure, density and differential
pressure transducers transmit their data to their
stream computer where the signals are processed
and the computations are done and sent to the
station computer.
51
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Safety Implications
Most of the safety precautions and procedures that
apply to other items of process equipment handling
combustible gases are pertinent to metering
equipment, and includes:
52
Summary of Section 4
We looked at some variations of orifice pate design, and at the Senior fitting
which is intended as a means of simplifying plate changeouts. The pneumatic
torque balance is ofter used to measure differential pressure where electric
instrumentation is not employed. Electrical measurement of differential
pressure often uses capacitance changes in a sensing cell as the output
signal.
Gas density can be measured by the principle that the mass of gas in contact
with a thin-walled metal cylinder affects its vibrational frequency.
The main features of two-stream gas metering station were described, along
with some of the fiscal standards it complies with.
I finished by drawing your attention to the fact that metering equipment is
subjected to specific seafety procedures along with the plant in which it is
installed; and you must apply them if you are working on that system.
53
Using
P1V1 = P2V2
T
T
1
2
PV = ZnRT
2x2
= P2 x 0.5
(10 + 273)
(25 + 273)
V = ZnRT
P
P2 = 2 x 2 x 298
283 x 0.5
P2 = 8.42 bar a
V = 0.185 m3
n=
2
24.348
n= m
Mw
0.08214 = m
16
= (2 x 12) + (6 x 1) = 30
= 0.08214 kg-mol
m = 0.08214 x 16 = 1.31 kg
54
Q = 0.314 m3 / minute
Q = 0.51 x 2.174 x 0.0831 x 283
130
3
Q = 0.201 m / minute
To replace these actual flow rates at line conditions to standard ones,
we use:
P1V1 = P2V2
T1
T2
and replace V1 and V2 with Q1 and Q2 respectively. We will assign
standard conditions to the left side, so we need to find Q1 for both gas
types.
0.003517Q1 = 0.1442
55
= PM
w
ZRT
56
Re = DVavg
1.
2.
Mass flowrate
3.a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
= 20 kg / m3
D = 0.125 m
vavg = 2 m / s
= 1.2 X 10-5
Re = 20 x 0.125 x 2
1.2 X 10-5
Re = 416,667; indicating turbulent flow.
4.
( )
2 X 3 = 0.0942 m3 / s
)x (0.2)
4
57
PT = 10 mbar
P = 9 mbar
v2 = 10 - 9 = 1 mbar = 100 Pa
2
v2 = 2 x 100 = 200
v = 200 = 8.16 m / s
3
2.
1 and 2.
3.
4.
5.
= d = 130 = 0.52.
D 250
58
Re and .
2.
3.
accounts for gases being compressible and thus experiencing a change in density when
flowing through the meter.
4.
Because the resolution is poor at the lower end of a square root scale.
5.
=d
D
59
= d = 125 = 0.486
D 257.4
E=
1 - 0.4864 = 0.972
= PMw =
25 x 22.7
= 21.9 kg / m3
ZRT
0.937 x 0.0831 x 332
Qm = CE d2
4
2p
b.
Qv = Qm Note that we need the volumetric flowrate at standard
1- 4
a.
2 x 10000 x 21.9
Qm = 4.77 kg / s
60