Controller Design for Hysteresis

Compensation of Piezo Actuators for

Micro/Nano Positioning
Thesis submitted to the

School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur,
(Formerly Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur )
Howrah 711103
West Bengal
India
in the partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the Degree
of
Master of Technology in Mechatronics and Robotics
by
ANIRBAN BHAKTA
Roll no. 191225002; Registration no. 235512002
Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. Saikat Kr Shome
Scientist, Electronics& Instrumentation Group
and
Dr. Arpita Mukherjee
Senior Scientist, Electronics& Instrumentation Group

Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, (CMERI),

Durgapur- 713 209
India
May 2014

School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur

&

CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, (CMERI), Durgapur

I, hereby forward the Progress Report of the Thesis entitled Controller design for Hysteresis
Compensation of Piezo Actuators for Micro/Nano Positioning. Prepared by Anirban Bhakta
under my and supervision in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Technology in Mechatronics.

Mr. Saikat Kr Shome

Scientist, Electronics &Instrumentation Group
CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur

Dr. Arpita Mukherjee

Senior Scientist, Electronics &Instrumentation Group
CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur

Countersigned by,

Director, School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah

(Dean of Faculty of Engg. & Technology

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology Shibpur, Howrah

School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
Howrah 711103

Certificate of Approval

The foregoing Progress Report is hereby approved as a creditable study of

engineering subject carried out and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant
its acceptance as a prerequisite for the Thesis work for which it has been
submitted. It is understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily
endorse or approved any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn
therein but approve the Progress Report only for the purpose for which it is
submitted (Thesis Work).

....
Board of Examiners

School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
Howrah 711103

Student Declaration

I, hereby declare that the work presented in this project entitled Controller
design for Hysteresis Compensation of Piezo Actuators for Micro/Nano
Positioning, submitted towards completion of Partial Fulfillment Of the
Requirement of the Degree of Master of Technology at Indian Institute of
Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur is an authentic record of my work
carried out under the guidance of Dr. A.Mukherjee and Mr. S.K.Shome. The
project was done in full compliance with the requirements and constraints of the
prescribed curriculum.

Place: Durgapur
Date:
Anirban Bhakta
Registration number
235512002

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This M.Tech project titled Controller design for Hysteresis

Compensation of Piezo Actuators for Micro/Nano Positioning required a lot of
commitment, patience and hard work. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr.
Pijush Pal Roy, Director, CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur, for giving me the
opportunity to carry out my project in this esteemed organization.

I express sincere gratitude and indebtness to my project guide Dr.

A.Mukherjee and Mr. S.K.Shome, CMERI Durgapur, for their constant
encouragement and active involvement in every step of the project, making it a
great learning experience, and also an enjoyable one.

I am very thankful to Prof. Debjani Ganguly, Director, School of

Mechatronics and Robotics, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Dr. Subhasis Bhaumik, Coordinator, School of Mechatronics and
Robotics, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology and Dr. S.N.
Shome, Coordinator, School of Mechatronics and Robotics at CMERI, Durgapur
for providing me an opportunity to undertake the project in this esteemed
organization.

My journey of one and half year in CMERI is quite an experience, and there
are lots of life outside the lab and the working hours. I take this opportunity to
thank my friends Biswarup and Bipin for extending their help in every way they
could, and sometimes even without asking. Without them, life at Durgapur could
have been much more difficult. Finally I would like to thank my parents for the
support and encouragement, they provided in this period that enabled me to
successfully complete this thesis work.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated

to my beloved ever caring parents
Mr. Biswanath Bhakta and
Mrs. Putul Bhakta

ABSTRACT
One of the crucial aspects of research in nano technology is precision control and
manipulation of devices at the nano scale i.e nano positioning. Nano technology is the science of
understanding matter and the control of matter at dimensions of 100 nm or less. Encompassing
nano scale science, engineering, and technology, nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring,
modeling, and manipulation of matter at this level of precision. An important aspect of research
in nanotechnology involves precision control and manipulation of devices and materials at a
nano scale, i.e., nanopositioning. Nano positioners are precision mechatronic systems designed to
move objects over a small range with a resolution down to a fraction of an atomic diameter. The
desired attributes of a nano positioner are extremely high resolution, accuracy, stability, and fast
response. The key to successful nanopositioning is accurate position sensing and feedback
control of the motion.
Piezo electric actuators (PZA) are capable of positioning with (sub) nanometer resolution,
large blocking force, high stiffness, and rapid response characteristics. Nevertheless, PZT
introduces nonlinearity into the actuation mainly due to its hysteresis property occurring at
voltage-driven strategy, which attenuates the positional accuracy of the manipulator if not
carefully treated. This research focuses on effective minimization of this hysteretic effect aimed
at improving tracking performance of the actuator.
One of the regular ways to overcome the nonlinearity is to model the hysteresis
mathematically first and then construct a hysteresis compensation scheme. There are a number of
hysteresis models are available in literature like Dahl model, Bouc-Wen model, Preisach model,
Maxwell model, Duhem model and PrandtlIshlinskii model. Amongst which the 2nd order Dahl
model is preferred over the others because hysteresis can be better expressed by this model as it
involves lesser number of parameters.
The piezo electric actuator is modeled as a second order system using its mechanical
equivalence having three major parameters i.e equivalent mass, damping ratio and stiffness

constant. Then the hysteresis model is introduced with the main plant which generates the
hysteresis force from the output displacement of the plant.
Consequently, several control algorithms have been developed to compensate the non
linearity. Some conventional control strategies like Feedforward control, feedforward with
feedback control and a few non linear control laws like Internal model control (IMC), Fuzzy
control are adopted. Feedforward control operates with the principle of inverse plant model. It is
an open loop system so to remove the shortcomings feedback controller is introduced with it. On
the other hand, IMC reflects the system non linerities more precisely by comparing the output
obtained from the actual plant model and nominal (mathematical) plant model. A number of
simulations are performed to validate the effectiveness of the controllers and finally some of the
controllers have been realized on hardware platform.
In this work, the controllers are developed in LABVIEW platform and Compact-Rio
processor is used to generate the control signals. This signal is fed to the Physik Instrumente
(PI) manufactured piezo amplifier and finally it actuates the PI based piezo actuator attached
with the micro-positioning stage. This micro/nano positioning stage has wide range of
applications like positioning of wafers, IC chip assembly line, biological cell operator, cell
tracking system etc.

Contents
Chapter One: 1. Introduction and Background
Fundamentals of Piezo-electricity ..............................................................................................01
Material properties .................................................................................................................... 02
Low voltages and high voltages Piezo-actuators....................................................................... 03
Mechanical considerations ........................................................................................................ 04
Stiffness ........................................................................................................................04
Load capacity and force generation ............................................................................ 04
Protection from mechanical damage ........................................................................... 04
Power requirement .................................................................................................................... 04
Basic design of Piezo-electric positioning elements ................................................................. 04
Stack design ................................................................................................................ 04
Laminar design .............................................................................................................05
Scanner tube design..................................................................................................... 06
Bender type actuator ................................................................................................... 07
Piezo-actuator with integrated lever motion amplifier ................................................ 07
PZT flexure nano-positioners ......................................................................................08
Advantages of Piezo-electric positioning system...................................................................... 08
Difficulties in Piezo-actuators ................................................................................................... 09
Creep ........................................................................................................................... 09
Non linear creep............................................................................................. 09
Linear creep ................................................................................................... 10
Non linear vs linear creep models ................................................................. 10
Hysteresis .................................................................................................................... 10
Hysteresis modeling ....................................................................................... 11
Modeling errors ........................................................................................................... 12
Parameter variation ......................................................................................... 12
Unmodeled dynamics .......................................................................................12
Vibrations .................................................................................................................... 12
Self heating ................................................................................................................. 13
i

Band width- precision- range tradeoff ........................................................................ 14

Present state of art of hysteresis compensation techniques ................................................... 14
Motivations ............................................................................................................................. 15
Thesis organization. ................................................................................................................ 16
Chapter Two: 2. System modeling and Identifications ............................................................. 17
Dynamic plant modeling ......................................................................................................... 17
Hysteresis modeling ................................................................................................................ 17
Preisach model .......................................................................................................................... 17
Prandtl- Ishlinsky hysteresis model .......................................................................................... 18
Bouc- Wen model ..................................................................................................................... 18
Dahl hysteresis model ............................................................................................................... 19
Nth order Dahl model ............................................................................................................... 19
2nd order Dahl model ................................................................................................................ 20
Model identification ................................................................................................................ 21
Particle Swarm Optimization.................................................................................................... 21
Model identification with PSO ................................................................................................. 22
Construction of Dahl hysteresis model ................................................................................... 23
Model comparison .................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter Three: 3. Design of Controllers ................................................................................... 25
Feedforward controller .............................................................................................................25
Feedforward with feedback compensation.............................................................................. 25
Internal Model Control approach ............................................................................................ 27
IMC background ....................................................................................................................... 27
The IMC strategy ...................................................................................................................... 28
Practical design of IMC ................................................................................................................ 30
Sensitivity and complementary sensitivity function ................................................................. 30
Modified Internal Model Control.............................................................................................31
Fuzzy logic control.................................................................................................................. 32
Fuzzy logic theory ................................................................................................................... 33
ii

Fuzzy relations........................................................................................................................ 34
A closed loop set point tracking system ................................................................................ 35
Design principle of Fuzzy logic controllers ............................................................................ 38
The Fuzzification module ......................................................................................................... 38
The Fuzzy logic rule base ......................................................................................................... 39
The Defuzzification module ............................................................................40
Chapter Four: 4. Simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK ...................................................... 41
Input reference signal.................................................................................................................... 42
Matlab models of the controller................................................................................................ 43
Feedforward model ................................................................................................................ 43
Feedforward with feedback model ..........................................................................................43
Internal Model Controller ...................................................................................................... 43
Two degree of freedom IMC controller ................................................................................. 44
Modified IMC controller .........................................................................................................44
Fuzzy logic controller ............................................................................................................ 45
Simulation results ..................................................................................................................... 46
Hysteresis plots ...................................................................................................................... 46
Tracking errors........................................................................................................................ 48
Deviation between i/p and o/p trajectories................................................................................ 48
Set point errors

49

Variation of plant parameters.................................................................................................... 51

Chapter Five: 5. Hardware modeling and Implementation ...................................................... 52
feedforward controller in TMS320c6713 DSK board .............................................................. 52
Overview of TMS320C6713 DSK ..........................................................................................52
TMS320C6713 features ......................................................................................................... 54
Code composer studio(CCS) ...................................................................................................55
Feedforward controller in CCS .............................................................................................. 55
Implementation....................................................................................................................... 56
Operating Piezo-electric stages with LabVIEW ....................................................................... 57
3

Hardware description ................................................................................................................ 57

Piezo-actuator (PI-P840) ........................................................................................................... 57
Piezo-amplifier module (PI E505.00) ....................................................................................... 58
Piezo-servo controller module (PI E509.S1) ............................................................................ 58
Digital piezo controller operation module (PI E 517.I3) .......................................................... 58
Piezo actuation stage (PI M-014) .............................................................................................. 59
Controller design in LabVIEW ................................................................................................. 59
Hardware interface with LabVIEW .......................................................................................... 60
NI CompactRIO .......................................................................................... 60
LabVIEW FPGA interface ........................................................................... 64
Proposed work flowchart ............................................................................. 66
Chapter Six: 6. Conclusion and Future scopes........................................................................... 68
Contribution of the present work .............................................................................................. 68
Future scopes ............................................................................................................................ 68
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 69
Appendix 1.Description of the Piezo actuator system from PI
Appendix 2. Description of the I/O modules of CRIO from NI

List of Figures:
Fig 1. Piezo-electric elementary cell.
Fig 2. Electric dipole in Weiss domain.
Fig 3. Direct and converse piezoelectric effect.
Fig 4. Electrical and mechanical structure of stack actuators.
Fig 5. Laminar design structure.
Fig 6. Scanner tube design.
Fig 7. Bimorph design.
Fig 8. Simple lever motion amplifier.
Fig 9. Basic parallelogram flexure guiding system.
Fig 10. Steady state I/O plots for phase lag creep model.
Fig 11. Hysteresis curve of an open loop piezo actuator for various peak voltages.
Fig 12. Piezo actuator model.
Fig 13. Schematic of piezo actuator.
Fig 14. Dahl hysteresis model.
Fig 15. Feedforward control.
Fig 16. Inverse Dahl model.
Fig 17. Plant with feedforward control.
Fig 18. Feedforward with feedback control.
Fig 19.open loop control strategy.
Fig 20. Schematic of IMC controller.
Fig 21. Conventional IMC structure.
Fig 22. Modified IMC structure.
Fig 23. A Fuzzification a is slightly greater than b.
Fig 24. A closed loop set point tracking system.
5

Fig 25. General structure of fuzzy logic controller.

Fig 26. Clustering and membership value of I/P variable.
Fig 27. Clustering and membership value of o/p variable.
Fig 28. Reference input trajectory.
Fig 29. Simulink model of feedforward controller.
Fig 30. Simulink model of feedforward with feedback controller.
Fig 31. Simulink model of IMC controller.
Fig 32. Simulink model of two degree of freedom IMC controller.
Fig 33. Simulink model of modified IMC controller.
Fig 34. Simulink model of fuzzy logic controller.
Fig 35.FIS file structure.
Fig 36. FIS editor for input and output variables.
Fig 37. Membership function for input and output variables.
Fig 38. Fuzzy rule editor panel.
Fig 39. Hysteresis plot for feedforward control.
Fig 40. Hysteresis plot for feedback control.
Fig 41. Hysteresis plot for IMC control.
Fig 42. Hysteresis plot for modified IMC control.
Fig 43. Set point tracking of feedforward control.
Fig 44. Set point tracking of feedforward with feedback control.
Fig 45. Set point tracking of conventional IMC control.
Fig 46. Set point tracking of modified IMC control.
Fig 47. Set point tracking of fuzzy logic control.
Fig 48. Tracking error of feedforward control.
Fig 49. Tracking error of feedforward with feedback control.
Fig 50. Tracking error of fuzzy logic control.
Fig 51. Tracking error of conventional IMC control.
6

Fig 52. Tracking error of modified IMC control.

Fig 53. Schematic diagram of TMS320C6713 DSK.
Fig 54. Code Composer Studio window.
Fig 55. Feedforward controller in DSK platform.
Fig 56. Feedforward controller in LabVIEW.
Fig 57. Dahl hysteresis model in LabVIEW.
Fig 58. Reconfigurable embedded system architecture.
Fig 59. Reconfigurable FPGA chassis.
Fig 60. Host to target configuration of CRIO.
Fig 61. CRIO devices with required I/O modules.
Fig 62. Window for selection of programming mode.
Fig 63. Analysis of performance in LabVIEW platform.
Fig 64. Proposed hardware setup.

vii

List of Tables
1.

Table 1. The Dahl model parameters adopted for the micro nano manipulator system.

2. Table 2. Controller performance comparison and the error values of peak to peak error
and RMS error.
3. Table 3. Controller performance under parameter variation (in terms of rms error).

viii

Chapter One
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACK GROUND

ano technology is the science of understanding matter and the control of matter at
dimensions of 100 nm or less. Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and
technology, nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring, modeling, and manipulation
of matter at this level of precision. An important aspect of research in nanotechnology involves
precision control and manipulation of devices and materials at a nanoscale, i.e., nanopositioning.
Nanopositioners are precision mechatronic systems designed to move objects over a small range
with a resolution down to a fraction of an atomic diameter. The desired attributes of a
nanopositioner are extremely high resolution, accuracy, stability, and fast response. The key to
successful nanopositioning is accurate position sensing and feedback control of the motion.
Most micro and nano manipulators employ a flexure-based mechanism and piezoelectric
actuators (PZTs) to deliver a submicron or sub nanometer resolution positioning. In addition to
vacuum compatibility, flexure mechanism eliminates clearance, backlash, friction, and
lubrication requirements for the device. As a type of linear actuator, PZT is capable of
positioning with (sub) nanometer resolution, large blocking force, high stiffness, and rapid
response characteristics.

Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity
The piezoelectric effect is often encountered in daily life. For example, in small butane
cigarette or gas grill lighters, a lever applies pressure to a piezoelectric crystal creating an electric
field strong enough to produce a spark to ignite the gas. Furthermore, alarm clocks often use a
piezoelectric element. When AC voltage is applied, the piezoelectric material moves at the
frequency of the applied voltage and the resulting sound is loud enough to wake even the
strongest sleeper. With high-reliability PZT materials a strain on the order of 1/1000 (0.1%) can
be achieved; this means that a 100 mm long PZT actuator can expand by 100 micrometers when
the maximum allowable field is applied.
The word "piezo" is derived from the Greek word for pressure. In 1880, Jacques and
Pierre Curie discovered that pressure applied to a quartz crystal creates an electrical charge in the
crystal; they called this phenomenon the piezo effect. Later they also verified that an electrical
field applied to the crystal would lead to a deformation of the material. This effect is referred to
as the inverse piezo effect. After the discovery it took several decades to utilize the piezoelectric
phenomenon. The first commercial applications were ultrasonic submarine detectors developed
during World War I and in the 1940s scientists discovered that barium titanate ceramics could
be made piezoelectric in an electric field.
As stated above, piezoelectric materials can be used to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy and vice versa. For nanopositioning, the precise motion which results when

an electric field is applied to a piezoelectric material is of great value. Actuators using this effect
first became available around 20 years ago and have changed the world of precision positioning.

Material Properties:
Since the piezo effect exhibited by natural materials such as quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle
salt, etc. is very small, polycrystalline ferroelectric ceramic materials such as BaTiO3 and Lead
Zirconate Titanate (PZT) have been developed with improved properties. Ferroelectric ceramics
become piezoelectric when poled. PZT ceramics are available in many variations and are still the
most widely used materials for actuator or sensor applications today. PZT crystallites are centrosymmetric cubic (isotropic) before poling and after poling exhibit tetragonal symmetry
(anisotropic structure) below the Curie temperature. Above this temperature they lose the
piezoelectric properties.

a.

b.
Fig 1Piezoelectric elementary cell; (a) before poling (b) after poling

Charge separation between the positive and negative ions is the reason for electric dipole
behavior. Groups of dipoles with parallel orientation are called Weiss domains. The Weiss
domains are randomly oriented in the raw PZT material, before the poling treatment has been
finished. For this purpose an electric field (> 2000 V/mm) is applied to the (heated) piezo
ceramics. With the field applied, the material expands along the axis of the field and contracts
perpendicular to that axis. The electric dipoles align and roughly stay in alignment upon cooling.
The material now has a remanent polarization (which can be degraded by exceeding the
mechanical, thermal and electrical limits of the material). As a result, there is a distortion that
causes growth in the Dimensions aligned with the field and a contraction along the axes normal
to the electric field.
When an electric voltage is applied to a poled piezoelectric material, the Weiss domains increase
their alignment proportional to the voltage. The result is a change of the Dimensions (expansion,
contraction) of the PZT material.

Fig 2 Electric dipoles in Weiss domains; (1) unpoled ferroelectric cermic, (2) during and (3) after poling (piezoelectric ceramic)

Fig 3 direct and converse piezo-electric effect, a. direct effect b. converse effect

Low voltage and High voltage Piezo-actuators

Two main types of piezo actuators are available: low voltage (multilayer) devices
requiring about 100 volts for full motion and high voltage devices requiring about 1000 volts for
full extension. Modern piezo ceramics capable of greater motion replace the natural material
used by the Curies, in both types of devices. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) based ceramic
materials are most often used today. Actuators made of this ceramic are often referred to as PZT
actuators. The maximum electrical field PZT ceramics can withstand is on the order of 1 to 2
kV/mm. In order to keep the operating voltage within practical limits, PZT actuators consist of
thin layers of electroactive ceramic material electrically connected in parallel. The net positive
displacement is the sum of the strain of the individual layers. The thickness of the individual
layer determines the maximum operating voltage for the actuator. High voltage piezo actuators
are constructed from 0.5 to 1.0 mm layers while low voltage piezo actuators are monolithic
(diffusion bonded) multilayer designs constructed from 20 to 100 m layers. Both types of piezo
actuators can be used for many applications: Low voltage actuators facilitate drive electronics
design, high voltage types operate to higher temperatures (150 C compared to 80 C). Due to
manufacturing technology high voltage ceramics can be designed with larger cross-sections for
higher load applications (up to several tons) than low voltage ceramics.
3

Mechanical Considerations
Stiffness
In a first approximation, a piezo actuator can be regarded as a spring/mass system. The
stiffness or spring constant of a piezo actuator depends on the Young's Modulus of the ceramic
(approximately 25 % that of steel), the cross section and length of the active material and a
number of other nonlinear parameters.
Load capacity and Force generation
PZT ceramics can withstand high pushing forces and carry loads to several tons. Even when
fully loaded, the PZT will not lose any travel as long as the maximum load capacity is not
exceeded. Load capacity and force generation must be distinguished. The maximum force
(blocked force) a piezo can generate is determined by the product of the stiffness and the total
travel. A piezo actuator (as most other actuators) pushing against a spring load will not reach its
nominal displacement. The reduction in displacement is dependent on the ratio of the piezo
stiffness to the spring stiffness. As the spring stiffness increases, the displacement decreases and
the generated force increases.
Protection from Mechanical Damage
Since PZT ceramics are brittle and cannot withstand high pulling or shear forces, the
mechanical actuator design must isolate these undesirable forces from the ceramic. For example,
spring preloads can be integrated in the mechanical actuator assembly to compress the ceramic
inside and increase the ceramics pulling capabilities for dynamic push/pull applications.

Power Requirement
Piezo actuators operate as capacitive loads. Since the current leakage rate of the ceramic
material is very low (resistance >> 10 M ), piezo actuators consume almost no energy in a
static application and therefore produce virtually no heat. In dynamic applications the power
consumption increases linearly with frequency and actuator capacitance. High-load actuators
with larger ceramic cross sections have higher capacitance than small actuators. For example, a
typical medium load LVPZT actuator with a motion range of 15 microns and 10 kg load capacity
requires only five watts to be driven at 1000 Hz while a high load actuator capable of carrying a
few tons may require hundreds of watts for the same frequency.

Basic Designs of Piezoelectric Positioning Elements

Stack design
The active part of the positioning element consists of a stack of ceramic disks separated by
thin metallic electrodes. Maximum operating voltage is proportional to the thickness of the disks.
PI stack actuators are manufactured with layers from 0.02 to 1 mm thickness. Stack elements can
withstand high pressure and show the highest stiffness of all piezo actuator designs. Since the
ceramics cannot withstand large pulling forces, spring preloaded actuators are available. Stack

models can be used for static and dynamic operation. Displacement of a PZT stack actuator can
be estimated by the following equation

L d33*n * U

(i)

Where,
d33 = strain coefficient (field and deflection in polarization direction) [m/V], n = number of
ceramic layers, U = operating voltage [V]

a.

b.
Fig 4 a. Electrical design of stack Translator. b. Mechanical structure

Laminar Design (Contraction Type Actuator)

The active material in the laminar actuators consists of thin ceramic strips. The
displacement of these actuators is perpendicular to the direction of polarization and electric field.
When the volt-age is increased the strip contracts the piezo strain coefficient d31 (negative!)
describes the relative change in length. It is on the order of 50% of d33. The maximum travel is a
function of the length of the strips, while the number of strips arranged in parallel determines the
stiffness and the stability of the element.
Displacement of a PZT contraction actuator can be estimated by the following
Equation

L d31*L * U/d

(ii)

Where,
d31 = strain coefficient (deflection normal to polarization direction) [m/V]
L = length of the PZT ceramics [m]
U = operating voltage [V]
d = thickness of one ceramic layer [m]

Fig 5. Laminar design

Scanner tube design

Tube actuators are not designed to withstand large forces. Application examples are
scanning microscopy, ink jet printers etc. The scan range of a scanner tube is defined by the
equation
x ( 2 2 .d31.U.L2)/(.ID.d)
(iii)
Where,
x = scan range in X and Y (for symmetrical electrodes) [m]
d31 = strain coefficient (deflection normal to polarization direction) [m/V]
U = operating voltage [V]
L = length [m]
ID = inner diameter [m]
d = wall thickness [m]

Fig 6 Scanner tube.

Bender Type Actuators (Bimorph and Multimorph Design)

A PZT bimorph operates similarly to a bimetallic strip in a thermostat. When ceramic is
energized the metal substrate is deflected with a motion proportional to the applied volt-age.
Bimorph actuators providing motion up to 1000 m are available and greater travel range is
possible. Apart from the classical strip form, bimorph disk actuators are available, where the
center arches when a voltage is supplied.

Fig 7 Bimorph design

Instead of a PZT/metal combination PZT/PZT combinations are possible where

individual PZT layers are operated in opposite mode (contraction/expansion). Two basic versions
are available: the two electrode bimorph (serial bimorph) and the three electrode bimorph
(parallel bimorph). In the serial type, one of the two ceramic plates is always operated opposite
to the direction of polarization. To avoid depolarization the maximum electric field is limited to a
few hundred volts per millimeter. Serial bimorph benders are widely used as force sensors.

Piezo Actuators with Integrated Lever Motion Amplifier

Piezo actuators or positioning stages can be designed in a way that a lever motion amplifier is
integrated into the system, increasing the PZT displacement by a factor of typically 2 to 20. To
maintain sub-nanometer resolution with the increased travel range, the leverage system must be
stiff, backlash- and friction-free which is why ball or roller bearings cannot be used. PI employs
a proprietary Finite Element Analysis (FEA) computer program to design PZT Flexure Nano
Positioners with or without integrated lever motion amplifiers.

Fig 8 Simple lever motion amplifier

PZT Flexure Nano Positioners

Flexure positioners are far superior to traditional positioners (a ball bearing, crossed roller
bearings, dovetails etc.) in terms of resolution, straightness and flatness. Inherent friction and
stiction in these traditional designs limit applications to those requiring repeatability on the order
of 0.5 to 0.1 m. A flexure is a frictionless, stictionless device based on the elastic deformation
(flexing) of a solid material. Sliding and rolling are entirely eliminated. In addition to absence of
internal friction, flexure devices exhibit high stiffness and load capacity. Flexures are also less
sensitive to shock and vibration than other guiding systems.
Basic parallelogram flexure actuators show a second-order cross coupling (parasitic motion)
between axes. This movement is called arcuate motion (travel is in an arc motion). It can lead to
small out-of-plane errors on the order of 0.1% of the distance traveled (The error can be
estimated by the following equation:
H ( L/2)2 /2H
(iv)
Where,
H = Lateral run out (out-of-plane error) [m]
L = Distance traveled [m]
H = Length of the flexures [m]
The amplification r (transmission ratio) is given by (a+b)/a.

Fig 9. Basic parallelogram flexure guiding system with motion amplification

Advantages of Piezoelectric Positioning Systems

1. Unlimited Resolution: A piezoelectric actuator (PZT) can produce extremely fine
position changes down to the sub nanometer range. The smallest changes in operating
voltage are converted into smooth movements. Motion is not influenced by stiction/ friction
or threshold voltages.

2. Large Force Generation: PZTs can generate a force of several 10,000 N. PI offers units
that can bear loads up to several tons and position within a range of more than 100 m with
sub nanometer resolution
3. Fast Expansion: Piezo actuators offer the fastest response time available (microsecond
time constants). Acceleration rates of more than 10,000 g's can be obtained.
4. No Magnetic Fields: The piezo effect is related to electrical fields. PZT actuators don't
produce magnetic fields nor are they affected by magnetic fields. They are especially well
suited for applications where magnetic fields cannot be tolerated.
5. Low Power Consumption: The piezo effect directly converts electrical energy into
motion only absorbing electrical energy during movement. Static operation, even holding
heavy loads, does not consume power.
6. No Wear and Tear: A piezo actuator has neither gears nor rotating shafts. Its
displacement is based on solid state dynamics and shows no wear and tear. PI has conducted
endurance tests on PZTs in which no change in performance was observed after several
billion cycles.
7. Vacuum and Clean Room Compatible: Piezo actuators are ceramic elements that do
not need any lubricants and show no wear and abrasion. This makes them clean room
compatible and ideally suited for Ultra High Vacuum applications.
8. Operation at Cryogenic Temperatures: The piezo effect is based on electric fields and
functions down to almost zero Kelvin (with reduced specifications).

Difficulties in Piezo actuators

Creep
Creep is an undesirable property common with piezoelectric actuators. It can result in
significant loss in precision when positioning is required over extended periods of time. In
particular, during slow operation of SPMs, creep can result in significant distortions in the image
generated. Piezoelectric creep is related to the effect of the applied voltage on the remnant
polarization of the piezoceramic actuator. If the operating voltage of a piezoelectric actuator is
increased, the remnant polarization continues to increase. This manifests itself in a slow creep
after the voltage change is complete. A negative step change in the applied voltage would have
the opposite effect.

Nonlinear Creep Model

A number of approaches have been proposed to deal with this phenomenon. One approach is
based on the approximate description of the creep effect by the following nonlinear equation

(1)
9

Here, t0 represents the time at which the creep effect is apparent, y0 is the value of the
actuator displacement at time t0, and the creep rate, is a fixed value, that can be identified
by observing the step response of the actuator.

Linear Creep Model

The linear model captures the low-frequency response of a piezoelectric actuator using creep
models applied in mechanics. In particular, the creep effect can be modeled as a series
connection of a number of springs and dampers

(2)
Where,
k0 models the elastic behavior of the actuator at low frequencies, ki is the spring constant,
and ci is the damping constant. It has been shown that a model order of three, i.e. N=3, would
capture the creep effect with reasonable accuracy

Nonlinear Versus Linear Creep Models

A challenge with the nonlinear creep model (1) is its dependence on the choice of the
time-parameter t0 used to fit the model. For example, the creep rate tends to depend on the
choice of the time-parameter t0. Additionally, for any fixed t0, the model is not valid as time t
becomes smallthe output y becomes unbounded as t 0 . Similarly, the output becomes
unbounded as time becomes large, i.e. t . These modeling difficulties can be alleviated by
using a linear creep model (2).

Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the main form of nonlinearity in piezoelectric transducers. The original meaning
of the word refers to lagging behind or coming after.However, it must not be confused with
phase lag, which is not nonlinearity and is present in many linear systems. Hysteresis is based
on crystalline polarization effects and molecular friction. The absolute displacement generated
by an open loop PZT depends on the applied electric field and the piezo gain which is related to
the remanent polarization. Since the remanent polarization and therefore the piezo gain is
affected by the electric field applied to the piezo, its deflection depends on whether it was
previously operated at a higher or a lower voltage (and some other effects).
Hysteresis is typically on the order of 10 to 15 % of the commanded motion. E.g. if the drive
voltage of a 50 m piezo actuator is changed by 10 %, ( 5 m motion) the position repeatability
is still on the order of only 1 % full travel or better than 1 m. Classical motor driven lead screw
positioners will hardly beat this repeatability.
10

Fig 10 Steady state, I/O plots corresponding to phase lag from creep model G in (5): (top plot) input
sin(0.4.pi.t); and (bottom plot) input sin(2.pi.t)is higher frequency.

Fig 11 Hysteresis curves of an open loop piezo actuator for various peak voltages

Hysteresis Modeling
One regular way to overcome the nonlinearity is to model the hysteresis first and then
construct a feedforward compensation scheme. A number of hysteresis models are available in
the literature, such as the Preisach model, Maxwell model, Duhem model, PrandtlIshlinskii
model, and BoucWen model, etc. The schematic of the piezo actuator model is shown in Fig 10

11

Fig 12 Piezo actuator model

Modeling Errors
The system performance (controller design) should be robust to the presence of modeling
errors due to parameter variations and unmodeled dynamics.

Parameter Variations:
A major difficulty in modeling piezoelectric-actuator dynamics is that parameters (such as the
applied-voltage to induced-strain constant and the external load) are not known accurately.
Therefore, it is challenging to develop a priori accurate models for controller design. Even when
the parameters are known, they can change over relatively long time intervals because of aging
effects. More-over, piezoelectric parameters are very sensitive to variations in temperature.
Therefore, experimental modeling and parameter identification are important aspects of the
controller design, thus making robust, adaptive, and learning techniques well suited for the control
of piezoelectric-actuator-based systems.

Unmodeled Dynamics:
When designing controllers for the vibrational dynamics of piezoelectric actuators, highfrequency vibrational modes are often neglected to obtain a simplified model (for controller
design). However, the high-frequency vibrational modes can affect the stability of the closed-loop
system as well as impose limitations on the achievable performance of the closed-loop system.
Therefore, the spillover effects on these unmodeled modes should be considered in the controller
design.

Vibrations
In the high speed application of piezo actuators, vibration is one of the major constraints.
Vibrations induced when the positioning bandwidth is increased relative to the first resonant mode
of the piezoelectric actuator and become significant at approximately 1/10th of this frequency. The
degradation of the positional accuracy is comparatively low at lower operating frequency. As a
result to eliminate the non linearity like vibration, the operating bandwidth has to be bound much
smaller than the first resonating frequency of the piezo electric actuator.

12

To appreciate the complications that can arise during high speed nanopositioning applications,
note that in SPM a probe is moved over the sample in a raster pattern. To achieve this specific
movement of the probe, a slowly increasing ramp signal is applied to the x-electrode of a
piezoelectric tube scanner, while the y-electrode is driven by a fast triangular waveform. When
the frequency of this latter waveform is high, the lateral movement of the tube is distorted.

Self Heating
Self-heat generation is a phenomenon which occurs in PEAs when they are continuously
driven at high frequency under high electric field. Substantial temperature rise is observed in
which may affect the performance and durability of the actuator. Moreover, the hysteresis
behavior may change due to temperature variation which affects the phenomenological model
and feedforward control of the actuator. Also, due to temperature variation, the model parameter
such as piezoelectric capacitance is also affected. It is reported that the self-heating phenomenon
is a function of frequency, electric field and effective volume of the actuator. It is shown that a
temperature rise increases the current in the actuator. Self-heat generation results from losses
such as mechanical damping and dielectric losses. At high frequencies close to resonance, it is
thought that the mechanical losses play a major role in heat generation while at frequencies
lower than the resonance frequency, the dielectric losses contribute most to heat generation. The
dielectric loss is caused by the ferroelectric hysteresis loss which primarily occurs due to domain
switching. A theoretical model is developed to model the self-heating phenomenon which is
based on the law of energy conservation. The model assumes that rate of heat generation is
proportional to the frequency and the hysteresis loss per driving cycle per unit volume; u. also
studied the geometric changes in different actuators. They conclude that the steady-state
temperature rise is a linear function of ratio of effective actuator volume to surface area. They
also show that hysteresis varies with temperature. However, the temperature effect on the
hysteresis loss is not considered in their model. The self-heating model is extended which
includes a heat sink attached to the actuator in order to reduce the actuator temperature due to
self-heat generation. Instead of the loss term, u, displacement hysteresis, Df (an equivalent
parameter to u calculated from the strain-electric field hysteresis) is introduced in the model. The
model predicts the self-heating phenomenon in the presence of a heat sink and concludes that the
self-heating temperature increase is reduced by 39% by the introduction of the heat-sink.
However, the model does not account for the mechanical losses due to friction between the heat
sink and the actuator. A different temperature prediction model is proposed where it is shown
that temperature change due to self-heating increases the current flow. The change in the current
measurement is used to measure the change in temperature.
it is shown that the temperature rise due to self-heating in non resonant applications is a function
of driving frequency, f, electric field, E and effective volume to surface area ratio

ve

. A model to

predict the temperature is shown in Equation

13

T T0 =

ufve
k A
[1 exp( T t)]
kT A
v.c

(3)

where, u is the loss of the sample per driving cycle per unit volume, kT is the overall heat
transfer coefficient, is the density of the PZT material, v is the actuator volume and t is the
time.

Bandwidth-Precision-Range Tradeoffs
Controller design has to consider tradeoffs between the bandwidth, precision, and range
of a piezoelectric actuator. Positioning precision depends inversely on the bandwidth, not only
because of the difficulty in controlling higher frequency modes of the piezoelectric actuator
(which leads to a loss in precision), but also because the sensor noise tends to be proportional to
the bandwidth. Moreover, precision also depends inversely on the positioning range because of
quantization noise in digital controller implementations. For example, analog-to-digital
conversion (when using analog sensors such as thermal and capacitive sensors) as well as digitalto-analog conversion (for actuation) introduce noise, which adversely affects the controller
performance. The bandwidth tends to be inversely dependent on the range because the first
vibrational resonance of the piezoelectric actuator tends to be higher for a smaller actuator. Note
that vibrations tend to degrade positioning accuracy as the main frequency content of the input
becomes close to the first resonance frequency of the system. One approach to reduce vibrationinduced error is to choose system inputs that avoid exciting the piezoelectric positioners
vibrational dynamics. Specifically, vibrations can be decreased by limiting the input frequency
content to well below the system resonance (low-speed operation). Alternatively, to enable
higher-speed operation, the first resonance frequency of the system can be increased by
optimizing the geometry of the piezoelectric positioner (to make it stiffer). This optimization,
however, usually results in a smaller (or stiffer) piezoelectric positioner, which also tends to have
a smaller maximum positioning range. Therefore, the tradeoffs are between the maximum range
and the achievable bandwidth of the piezoelectric positioner

Present state of art of Hysteresis compensation techniques

There are several novel control strategies that has been proposed in different literatures,
which includes robust control, sliding mode control, adaptive control and dither based control.
Sliding mode control (SMC) is a nonlinear control approach that drives the systems state
trajectory upon a specified sliding surface and maintains the trajectory on this surface for the
subsequent time. SMC with feedforward compensation is reported in [1].The feedforward
controller eliminates hysteresis nonlinear term but it is not enough to eliminate the nonlinearities
completely. Practical hysteresis effect is different from the estimated hysteresis effect. Sliding
mode controller adds efficiency to have robustness for the remaining nonlinearity and fast
response which a feedforward controller cannot have. SMC design using the Extended Kalman
14

filter is reported in [2]. Sliding mode control with perturbation estimation (SMCPE) is employed
for a precise tracking control of a piezo-driven micro positioning stage. EKF is employed to
estimate the states of the nonlinear system including both the velocity and hysteresis term. The
estimated states are then used by the designed SMCPE controller to obtain the tracking control
voltage for the piezo actuator. [3] describes the adaptive PI based SMC. However Conventional
SMC creates some undesired oscillations in the control signal. Besides, the design of the
boundary layer technique of SMC requires the prior knowledge of bounds on system
uncertainties and disturbances. Adaptive PI control is used in place of the discontinuous control
term for the SMC. The main utility of this approach is to suppress the chattering which is not
desirable in practical situation. Dither controller is described in [4,5] where, Dithering is a
process of intentionally adding artificially generated noise to an otherwise uncorrupted signal to
improve the performance of an end overall system. The notion of stochastic resonance for
nanopositioning is studied to determine the optimal dither level for efficient plant performance.
Dither mechanism is devised to determine a suitable voltage and displacement dither variance
that matches the minimum tracking error level. The optimal control for hysteresis compensation
is highlighted in [6], where Optimal control is attractive as it aims to minimize some cost
functional like energy consumption or final time. Adaptive inverse control with hysteresis
operator is presented in [7] where the inverse hysteretic observer are identified during operation
by a stable adaption law and transformed to the controller parameter. As a result maximum non
linearity error by hysteresis is lowered about one order of magnitude. Antiwindup strategy and
repetitive control is reported in [8].Due to the limits of voltage applied to the PZT, a saturation
function is added to restrict the signal of controller output between the two input extremes.
However, the interaction of integration and saturation may cause the phenomenon of windup for
the PID controller. Here the back calculation Antiwindup scheme is employed. It is observed that
an additional feedback loop is added in the system, which is formed by generating a voltage error
between the actual input signal (v) to the PZT and the controller output. On the other hand the
repetitive control has the major advantage that it gives the control input using the error signal
information in the previous period. Thus, the control signal can be adjusted repetitively by the
RC for the tracking of a periodic reference motion.

Motivation
For compensating the non linear effect in terms of hysteresis, it is very important to
develop the hysteresis model accurately. Dahl model is preferred over the other models
because to establish the non linear hysteretic system, Dahl model is very accurate and
inverse Dahl model can be constructed to develop the feedforward controller. Secondly,
non symmetric hysteresis loop can be better described by Dahl model than Bouc-Wen
model with same numbers of model parameters. In the above study, it is found that Dahl
hysteresis model is rarely used for controller design purpose. So this particular model is
mainly focused in this work to achieve better elimination of hysteresis and positional
accuracy.
15

 Fine positional accuracy is very much essential in the applications like positioning of
wafers, scanning probe microscopy, biological cell operators, IC chip assembly line etc.
Therefore, the set point tracking performance and the noise rejection should be very high.
Internal model control approach with Dahl hysteresis model gives satisfactory
performance under the constraints like process and measurement noise, plant parameter
uncertainty and temperature effect etc.

Thesis organization
The work carried out in this thesis has been organized into six chapters. The present chapter
introduces the general aspects of nano positioning and prevalent control approaches. It also
presents a brief state-of-art survey on this area of research and sets the motivation behind the
present work.
Chapter two presents the system modeling and identification of model parameters for
developing a piezoelectric actuator with its mechanical equivalence. It also highlights the
construction of Dahl hysteresis model and comparison of the same with other existing models.
Chapter three presents the approaches of controller design. Several controllers have been
implemented like Feedforward control, feedback control, Internal model control, Fuzzy control
etc.
In Chapter four, the controllers performance is verified in Matlab/Simulink platform. The
performance is examined with comparison of the following parameters like are under hysteresis
curve, set point tracking error, peak to peak error and r.m.s error. This model also verified under
the plant parameter variation.
Chapter five primarily contains the hardware implementation of some of the controllers. The
feedforward controller is developed on TMS320C6713 DSP platform. It also contains the
operation and control of PI based piezo actuator with LabVIEW model.
Chapter six concludes the work with proposed work to be done in future.

16

Chapter Two
2. System modeling and Identification
Dynamic Plant Modeling
In the current research, instead of investigating the individual PZT actuator, the entire
micro manipulator system including the components of mechanical amplifiers, compound
parallelogram flexures, and PZT actuators is studied. Considering the mechanical part as linear
and of second order, and the nonlinearity arising from the PZT actuator, the dynamic model of
whole system with nonlinear hysteresis can be established as follows:[8]

M.x + D.x + K.x = T.u Fh

(4)

Where, the parameters M, D, K, and x represent the equivalent mass, damping coefficient,
stiffness, and x-axis displacement of the XY micromanipulator, respectively. In addition, T is the
piezo-electric coefficient, u denotes the input voltage, and Fh indicates the hysteretic effect of the
system in terms of force.
Traditionally, the system model of can be identified by finding the model parameters
through the experiments. Specifically, dividing by M, the left hand side equation can be obtained
as a linear second-order system in the form

x + 2. .n .x + n2 = T .u Fh
M
M
Where,

(5)

n the natural frequency of oscillation and is the damping ratio of the second order

system.

Hysteresis Modeling
Smart material-based actuators which are widely used for industrial applications
exhibit strong hysteresis property under increasing and decreasing inputs. The hysteresis
properties of smart actuators are known to cause inaccuracies and oscillations in the system
responses that may even lead to instability of the closed loop system. To describe hysteresis
phenomenon in smart actuators, a number of hysteresis models have been utilized, which can be
roughly classified into 1. Physics based models and 2. Phenomenological models. Some of the
most popular hysteresis models are Preisach model, Prandtl-ishlinski model, Bouc-Wen model
and Dahl model.

Preisach Model
Preisach hysteresis model, which is the most well-known phenomological based-operator
model, has been formulated to characterize hysteresis phenomenon in smart actuators. In this
17

model, hysteresis is modeled as a cumulative effect (density function) of all possible delayed relay
elements which are parameterized by a pair of threshold variables.
The output of the Preisach model can be calculated by a double integral defined over the
Preisach triangle

y(t) =

( , ) ( , , x(t))d.d

(6)

Where, ( , ) is the distribution function determined from measurements, and ( , , x(t)) is

the characteristics of one elementary hysteron. The variables
of the rectangular hysteron.

and

are called switching fields

Prandtl-Ishlinskii Hysteresis Model

Another popular phenomenological hysteresis model is the PrandtlIshlinskii model. This
model is a superposition of elementary play or stop operators, which are parameterized by a single
threshold variable. PI model is a subset of the Preisach model and is defined in terms of an
integral of play operator or stop operator with a density function determining the shape of the
hysteresis.
The Prandtl-Ishlinskii model utilizes the play operator F [v](t) r to describe relationship
between output yp and input v
R

y p = q.v + p(r)Fr [v](t)dr

(7)

Where, p(r) is a density function, satisfying p(r) 0 , which is generally identified from
experimental data. q is a positive constant.

c-Wen Model
the Bouc-Wen hysteresis model can also be employed to describe the plant dynamics in a
simple manner.

mx + bx + kx = k (d .u h)
n 1
h = .d .u u h h
.u . h

(8)

Where, the parameters m, b, k, and x represent the mass, damping coefficient, stiffness,
and x-axis displacement of the XY micromanipulator, respectively, d is the piezoelectric
coefficient, u denotes the input voltage, and h indicates the hysteretic loop in terms of
displacement, whose magnitude and shape are determined by the parameters , , and the
order n, where n governs the smoothness of the transition from elastic to plastic response. For the
elastic structure and material, n=1 is usually assigned.

18

Hysteresis Model
In this work, Dahl hysteresis model is used as it describes the system non linearity more
accurately.
The classical Dahl model is expressed as

Fx
=1 ( )

sgn( )
dt

(9)

= sgn[ ]

(10)

Fc
dF(x)
dx

dx

Now, dt>0 implies sgn(dx/dt)= sgn(dx). This derivation uses the standard simplification of
Dahls model setting i=1 to simplify calculations.
For positive displacement, dx>0 Dahls model is a first order ordinary differential equation in x.

dF(x)
F(x)
= (1
)
dx
Fc

(11)

Where, Fc is the steady state value of F(x).

For negative displacement, dx<0 Dahls model becomes

dF(x)
F(x)
= (1+
)
dx
Fc

(12)

Now, -Fc is the steady state value for F(x).

N-th order Dahls model

Consider the n-th order linear differential equation in x

y(n) (x) + k =1 ak y(nk ) (x) = k=0 bk u(mk ) (x)

n1

(13)

Which is stable in forward integration with m<n

A state space equation of the model is more useful for computational and simulation
purposes. Converting the transfer function to standard controllable state space form, the hysteresis
model becomes the following in the displacement domain

dq

= A.q + B.u

(14)

y =C.q +[0].u

(15)

dt

19


Where, q

is an intermediate state variable.

0.

.
0
.

; B = .

A=
.

sgn(dx) n an

.
.

sgn(dx)a1

.

1

sgn( dx ) n b m

dx ) n 1 b m 1
sgn(

C = sgn( dx ) n m b 0

The hysteresis model also has a time domain representation multiplying by dx/dt

dq dq dx
dt = dx . dt

(16)

dq
dx
dx
=
Aq
+
Bu
dt
dt
dt

(17)

y = Cq +[0].u

(18)

Second order Dahls model

It has been shown that the hysteretic force term Fh can be predicted accurately by the secondorder. The differential equation for second order Dahls model

d 2F
dt

+ sgn(dx)a dF
1

dt

+ a F = sgn(dx)b
2

dx
dt

+b u

(19)

Time domain state space representation of the equation

q ( x)
q = 1
q 2 ( x)

dq
dx
dx
= Aq
+ Bu
Where,

(20)

(21)

dt

dt

F
20

(22)

C.q

21

 0
A=
a2

0
; B =
1
sgn( dx ).a1
1

C = [b1 sgn(dx)b0 ]
Where, the hysteresis model parameters can be derived based on the following formulas
2
peakn1
a = ln(
)
peak
1
n
T
2
2
2

1
+
a2 =
T 2
b1 = Gdc .a2

b0 = s0
nth

overshoot with respect

T denotes the period of the damped oscillation, peakn represents the
to the steady state values, Gdc denotes the D.C gain and S0 denotes the initial slope respectively.
The overall plant model with Dahl hysteresis model can be expressed in Fig 13

Fig 13 Schematic of the piezo actuator

Model Identification
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method
PSO is a stochastic global optimization method which is based on simulation of social
behavior. As in GA and ES, PSO exploits a population of potential solutions to probe the search
space. In contrast to the aforementioned methods in PSO no operators inspired by natural
evolution are applied to extract a new generation of candidate solutions. Instead of mutation PSO
relies on the exchange of information between individuals, called particles, of the population,
called swarm. In effect, each particle adjusts its trajectory towards its own previous best position,
and towards the best previous position attained by any member of its neighborhood. In the global
variant of PSO, the whole swarm is considered as the neighborhood. Thus, global sharing of
information takes place and particles profit from the discoveries and previous experience of all
other companions during the search for promising regions of the landscape. To visualize the
operation of the method consider the case of the single{objective minimization case; promising
regions in this case possess lower function values compared to others, visited previously.
22

Initially, let us define the notation adopted in this paper: assuming that the search space is
D{dimensional, the i-th particle of the swarm is represented by a D{dimensional vector Xi = (xi1;
xi2; : : : ; xiD) and the best particle of the swarm, i.e. the particle with the lowest function value, is
denoted by index g. The best previous position (i.e. the position corresponding to the best
function value) of the i-th particle is recorded and represented as Pi = (pi1; pi2; : : : ; piD), and the
position change (velocity) of the i-th particle is Vi = (vi1; vi2; : : : ; viD).
The particles are manipulated according to the following equations (the superscripts
denote the iteration)
k+1

Vi

= (w.Vi +ci ri1 ( pi xi ) +c2ri2 ( pg xi ))

x ik +1 = x ik + Vi k +1

(23)

(24)

Where, i = 1; 2; : : :;N, and N is the size of the population; is a constriction factor which is
used to control and constrict velocities; w is the inertia weight; c1 and c2 are two positive
constants, called the cognitive and social parameter respectively; ri1 and ri2 are random numbers
uniformly distributed within the range [0; 1]. Eq. (23) is used to determine the i-th particle's new
velocity, at each iteration, while Eq. (24) provides the new position of the i-th particle, adding its
new velocity, to its current position. The performance of each particle is measured according to a
fitness function, which is problem {dependent. In optimization problems, the fitness function is
usually identical with the objective function under consideration.
The role of the inertia weight w is considered important for the PSO's convergence
behavior. The inertia weight is employed to control the impact of the previous history of
velocities on the current velocity. Thus, the parameter w regulates the tradeoff between the
global (wide ranging) and the local (nearby) exploration abilities of the swarm. A large inertia
weight facilitates exploration (searching new areas), while a small one tends to facilitate
exploitation, i.e. fine tuning the current search area. A proper value for the inertia weight w
provides balance between the global and local exploration ability of the swarm, and, thus results
in better solutions. Experimental results imply that it is preferable to initially set the inertia to a
large value, to promote global exploration of the search space, and gradually decrease it to obtain
refined solutions. The initial population can be generated either randomly or by using a Sobol
sequence generator, which ensures that the D-dimensional vectors will be uniformly distributed
within the search space.

el Identification with PSO

The fitness function for minimization is chosen as

f (M , D, K ,T ) =

(x
n

* 2

xi )

(25)

i=1

23

i.e., r.m.s of the Dahl model output x i deviations with respect to the experimental results xi,
where n denotes the total number of samples.
The optimization problem is stated below:
Minimize: f(M,D,K,T) represented by Eq. (25) Variables to be optimized: M, D, K, T Subject to:
M

[0.1, 0.2], D[1000, 5000], K[10000, 50000], and T [0.01,0.1]

In order to apply PSO for the model identification, several fundamental parameters are
required to be assigned at first. In the current four-dimensional optimization problem, a particle
can be described by Xi=(xi1 ,xi2 ,xi3 ,xi4) with the particle velocity Vi =(vi1 ,vi2 ,vi3 ,vi4), which
corresponds to a set of the system dynamic parameters (M,D,K,T). In the n th generation, there
are N particles popn=(X1 , X2 ,_,XN), where the population size N is set to be 10 for the current
problem. The inertia weight w determines the impact of previous velocities on the current
velocity, and its initial and final values are selected as 0.9 and 0.4, respectively, where 500
epoches are allowed to take from the initial value to the final one linearly. In addition, the local
and global acceleration constants are assigned as c1=2.0 and c2=2.0, respectively. As far as the
termination criterion is concerned, three items are set. One criterion is the maximum number of
iterations (2000) for the optimization procedure, another one is the minimum global error
gradient (106), which is the error between two neighboring gBest, and the third one is the
maximum number of iterations without error change, which is chosen as 500.

Construction of Dahl Hysteresis Model

Now, with four dynamic parameters M, D, K, and T obtained from PSO method and four
hysteresis parameters a1, a2, b1, and b0 obtained based on the above conventional approach, the
whole system can be determined finally. A block diagram of the dynamic system is illustrated in
Fig 13. Where, the details of the Dahl hysteresis model are shown in Fig.14. Based on the block
diagrams, the system model can be easily implemented with MATLAB/SIMULINK software.

Fig 14. Dahl Hysteresis model

24

Parameters
M
D
K
T
a1
a2
b1
b0

values
0.1828
2.5973 x103
2.6065 x 104
0.0468
121.9874
1.1773 x106
1.8485 x106
0

unit
Kg
N.s/m
N/m
c/m
-

Table 1. The Dahl model parameters adopted for the micro nano manipulator system

Model Comparison
As simpler hysteresis models, both BoucWen and Dahl models can describe the system
with the same number of parameters (eight). For the purpose of comparison, a BoucWen
hysteresis model of the system as identified by the PSO approach. It can be observed that the
Dahl model represents the system more accurately with a better generalization property. From
this point of view, the Dahl model is more superior to the BoucWen model in dealing with non
symmetric hysteresis.

25

Chapter Three
3.

Design of Controllers

he objective of motion control is to force the output platform of the micromanipulator to

track a given position trajectory. Once the trajectory is assigned, the determination of the
input voltage applied to the PZT is the target of the controller design. These controllers
are designed based on the voltage driven strategies.

Feedforward Control
Feed-forward is a term describing an element or pathway within a control system which
passes a controlling signal from a source in its external environment, often a command signal
from an external operator, to a load elsewhere in its external environment. A control system
which has only feed-forward behavior responds to its control signal in a pre-defined way without
responding to how the load reacts; it is in contrast with a system that also has feedback, which
adjusts the output to take account of how it affects the load, and how the load itself may vary
unpredictably; the load is considered to belong to the external environment of the system. In a
feed-forward system, the control variable adjustment is not error-based. Instead it is based on
knowledge about the process in the form of a mathematical model of the process and knowledge
about or measurements of the process disturbances. The characteristics of feedforward control
are Future oriented, Limiting activities in advance and prevent the problems before they arise.
The basic idea of feedforward controller is shown in Fig 15.

Fig 15 Feedforward Control

Here we have considered the plant that takes voltage signal as input and produces some
positional output. Our target is to obtain a controller which can perform the reverse action that of
the plant i.e. to generate a voltage signal taking a positional data. We can develop the inverse
Dahl model as the feedforward controller. Therefore what ever the set point is provided to the
inverse model, it will produce the voltage and accordingly the plant is forced to follow the path.
The operating principle of the feedforward control can be expressed by the Eq. 26
26

FF

= 1 (M x d + D x d + Kx
T
F

+ Fh

(26)

)
x

d is
Where, U FF is the output voltage from controller, h is the hysteresis force and
the desired trajectory. Instead of designing a Dahl model-based hysteresis observer as in the
feedforward controller is developed in DSK. This simplifies the controller implementation
process by eliminating the requirement of the velocity observer design. Here the hysteresis force
can be obtained from the Dahl model. Feedforward controller is basically is the inverse transfer
function for the plant along with the hysteresis model. A block schematic of the controller has
been shown in Fig 16. The overall model operated by feedforward controller is shown in Fig 17.

Fig 16 Inverse Dahl Model

Fig 17Plant with Feedforward control

Feedforward with Feedback Compensation

There are some drawbacks of feedforward control like it requires infinitely accurate
mathematical models, requires infinitely accurate measurements and estimation of the current
situation. As it is an open loop system, no corrective measure cannot be taken in feedback if
27

there is any set point error occurs. Due to the existence of errors for the identified model output
with respect to experimental results, the hysteresis effect cannot be totally compensated by the
feedforward voltage computed by Eq.26. Therefore, an additional feedback control is adopted to
compensate for the model imperfection and other disturbances of the system. Here PID controller
is used as a feedback control.
P-I-D controller has the optimum control dynamics including zero steady state error, fast
response (short rise time), no oscillations and higher stability. The necessity of using a derivative
gain component in addition to the PI controller is to eliminate the overshoot and the oscillations
occurring in the output response of the system. One of the main advantages of the P-I-D
controller is that it can be used with higher order processes including more than single energy
storage. The feedback control input can be written as

FB

(t ) = K p [ e (t ) +

e ( ) d

+ T de (t )

Ti

dt

(27)

Where,
t is the time variable. The tracking error is defined as e(t)= xd(t) x(t) with x denoting the
measured position. Kp is the proportional gain. Ti is the integral time constant. Td is the
derivative time constant.
By adopting an incremental PID algorithm, the overall control signal is given in a discredited
form (Fig 18)

Fig 18. Block diagram of the FF plus feedback FB control scheme

Internal Model Control (IMC) Approach

Background
In process control applications, model based control systems are often used to track set
points and reject low disturbances. The internal model control (IMC) philosophy relies on the
internal model principle which states that if any control system contains within it, implicitly or
explicitly, some representation of the process to be controlled then a perfect control is easily
achieved. In particular, if the control scheme has been developed based on the exact model of the
process then perfect control is theoretically possible.
28

Fig 19 Open loop control strategy

For above open loop control system:

Output = Gc . Gp . Set-point (multiplication of all three parameters)
Gc = controller of process
Gp = actual process or plant
Gp* = model of the actual process or plant
A controller Gc is used to control the process Gp. Suppose Gp* is the model of Gp then by
setting:
Gc =inverse of Gp* (inverse of model of the actual process)
And if
Gp = Gp* (the model is the exact representation of the actual process)
Now it is clear that for these two conditions the output will always be equal to the set
point. It show that if we have complete knowledge about the process (as encapsulated in the
process model) being controlled, we can achieve perfect control. This ideal control performance
is achieved without feedback which signifies that feedback control is necessary only when
knowledge about the process is inaccurate or incomplete.
Although the IMC design procedure is identical to the open loop control design
procedure, the implementation of IMC results in a feedback system. Thus, IMC is able to
compensate for disturbances and model uncertainty while open loop control is not. Also IMC
must be detuned to assure stability if there is model uncertainty.

Strategy
In practice, process model mismatch is common; the process model may not be invertible
and the system is often affected by unknown disturbances. Thus the above open loop control
arrangement will not be able to maintain output at set-point. Nevertheless, it forms the basis for
the development of a control strategy that has a potential to achieve perfect control. This strategy
is known as Internal Model Control and the structure is depicted in Fig 20.
In this diagram, d(s) is an unknown disturbance affecting the system. The manipulated
input U(s) is introduced to both the process and its model. The process output, Y(s) is compared
with the output of the model, resulting in a signal d (s) . That is,
~
d (s) = [G p (s) G p (s)]U (s) + d (s)

(28)

29

Fig 20. Schematic of the IMC

If, d(s) is zero for example, then d (s) is measure of the difference in behavior between
~
the process and its model. If Gp (s) = Gp (s), then d (s) is equal to the unknown disturbance.
~
Thus d (s) may be regarded as the information that is missing in the model, G p (s) and
can therefore be used to improve control. This is done by subtracting d (s) from the set-point
R(s), which is very similar to affecting a set-point trim. The resulting control signal is given by,

~
U (s) = [R(s) d (s)]G c (s) = {R(s) [G p (s) Gp (s)]U (s) d (s)}Gc (s)
Thus,

Since,

U (s) =

(29)

[R(s) d (s)]Gc (s)

~
1 + [G p (s) G p (s)]G c (s)

(30)

Y (s) = Gp (s)U (s) + d(s)

(31)

The closed loop transfer function for the IMC scheme is therefore

Y (s) =

[R(s) d (s)]Gc (s)Gp (s)

+ d (s)
~
1 +[G p (s) G p (s)]Gc (s)

Or,

~
Gc (s)G p (s)R(s) + [1 Gc (s) G (s)]d (s)
p
Y (s) =
(32)
~
1 + [G p (s) G p (s)]Gc (s)
~
~
1
From this closed loop expression, we can see that if Gc (s) = G p (s) , and if Gp (s) = G (s),
p

30

then perfect set point tracking and disturbance rejection is achieved. Theoretically, even if
~
~
1
G p (s) G p (s), perfect disturbance rejection can still be realized provided Gc (s) = G p (s) , .
Additionally, to improve robustness, the effects of the process model mismatch should be
minimized. Since discrepancies between process and model behavior usually occur at the high
frequency end of the systems frequency response, a low-pass filter Gf(s) is usually added to
attenuate the effects of process model mismatch. Thus the internal model controllers usually
designed as the inverse of the process model in series with a low-pass filter, i.e.

GIMC (s) = Gc (s)Gf (s) . The order of the filter is usually chosen such that Gc(s)Gf(s) is proper,
to prevent excessive differential control action. The resulting closed loop then becomes

~
G IMC (s)G p (s) R (s) + [1 G IMC (s) (s)]d (s)
Gp
Y (s) =
~
1 + [G p (s) G p (s)]G IMC (s)

(33)

tical Design of IMC

Designing an internal model control is relatively easy. Given a model of the process,
~
~
G p (s) , first G p (s) is factorized~ into invertible
~
~and non-invertible components, i.e.
(S ) = + (s). (s)
(34)
GP
Gp
Gp
~
The non-invertible component, G p (s) , contains terms which if inverted, will lead to instability
and realisability problems, e.g. terms containing positive zeros and time-delays. Next, set
~ + 1 and then G (s) = Gc (s)Gf (s) , where Gf(s) is a low pass function of
Gc (s) = G
IMC
p (s)
appropriate order.

Sensitivity and Complementary Sensitivity functions for IMC

Sensitivity functions of IMC are calculated to compare it with the conventional feedback
control.

E(s)

Y (s)

(s) = R(s) d (s) = d (s)

~
For IMC, since Y (s) = G IMC (s)G p (s) R (s) + [1 G IMC (s)G p (s)]d (s)
~
1 + [G p (s) G p (s)]G IMC (s)
~
1 G IMC (s)G (s)
Y (s)
p
=
(s) =
~
d (s) 1 + G IMC (s)[G p (s) G p (s)]
~
Further, supposing that Gp (s) = Gp (s), then
~ (s) = 1 G (s) ~ (s) and (s) = G (s) ~ (s)

Gp
Gp
imc
imc

(35)

31

Therefore, in the IMC strategy, the controllers appear linearly in the respective functions.
Comparing this with the corresponding functions for the conventional control scheme,
Gc (s)G p (s)
1
(s) =
and (s) =
(36)
G c (s)G p (s) + 1
Gc (s)G p (s) + 1
Since the sensitivity function determines performance whilst the complementary sensitivity
function determines robustness, this implies that (compared to the conventional control scheme)
the IMC provides a much easier framework for the design of the robust control systems.

Modified Internal Model Control

In this approach the IMC controller C(s) has been replaced by a negative feedback closed loop
combination of C(s) and Gm(s). From the perfect set point tracking point of view, this model is
found to be more efficient in the presence of process and measurement noise.
Consider the conventional control model in Fig 21.

Fig 21 Conventional IMC structure

The output obtained from the fig 21 can be expressed as

Y(s) =

(1C(s)Gm (s))D(s)
G(s)C(s)R(s)
G(s)C(s)N(s)
+

1+ C(s)(G(s) Gm (s)) 1+ C(s)(G(s) Gm (s)) 1+ C(s)(G(s) Gm (s))

(37)
Here we are considering both external noise input and measurement noises are present
and they have non zero values. If Gm(s)=G(s) and C(s)=1/Gm(s), N(s)=D(s) 0 from Eqn.37.
we are having

Y(s) =R(s)N(s).

From the present modification the IMC controller becomes

C(s) =
Now

substituting

C(s)

Y (s) = ( R (s) + D (s) N (s)) / 2

by

C(s)
= C(s) / 2
1+ C(s)Gm (s)

C(s
)

in

the

Eq.

37

the

output

becomes

32

As, D(s) = N(s) , then

Y(s) = R(s)/ 2

(38)

It is observed from the Eqn. 38 that the output trajectory has become half of the input. So if the
input trajectory is chosen double of the required reference, there will be a perfect set-point
tracking as the external noise is sufficiently removed. The proposed controller is shown in Fig. 22.

Fig 22 Modified IMC controller

Fuzzy Logic Controller

Control systems theory, or what is called modern control systems theory today, can be
traced back to the age of World War II, or even earlier, when the design, analysis, and synthesis
of servomechanisms were essential in the manufacturing of electromechanical systems. The
development of control systems theory has since gone through an evolutionary process, starting
from some basic, simplistic, frequency-domain analysis for single-input single output (SISO)
linear control systems, and generalized to a mathematically sophisticated modern theory of
multi-input multi-output (MIMO) linear or nonlinear systems described by differential and/or
difference equations.
It is believed that the advances of space technology in the 1950s completely changed the
spirit and orientation of the classical control systems theory: the challenges posed by the high
accuracy and extreme complexity of the space systems, such as space vehicles and structures,
stimulated and promoted the existing control theory very strongly, developing it to such a high
mathematical level that can use many new concepts like state-space and optimal controls. The
theory is still rapidly growing today; it employs many advanced mathematics such as differential
geometry, operation theory, and functional analysis, and connects to many theoretical and
applied sciences like artificial intelligence, computer science, and various types of engineering.
This modern control systems theory, referred to as conventional or classical control systems
theory, has been extensively developed. The theory is now relatively complete for linear control
systems, and has taken the lead in modern technology and industrial applications where control
and automation are fundamental. The theory has its solid foundation built on contemporary
mathematical sciences and electrical engineering, as was just mentioned. As a result, it can
33

provide rigorous analysis and often perfect solutions when a system is defined in precise
mathematical terms. In addition to these advances, adaptive and robust as well as nonlinear
systems control theories have also seen very rapid development in the last two decades, which
have significantly extended the potential power and applicable range of the linear control
systems theory in practice.
Conventional mathematics and control theory exclude vagueness and contradictory
conditions. As a consequence, conventional control systems theory does not attempt to study any
formulation, analysis, and control of what has been called fuzzy systems, which may be vague,
incomplete, linguistically described, or even inconsistent. Fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic play a
central role in the investigation of controlling such systems. The main contribution of fuzzy
control theory, a new alternative and branch of control systems theory that uses fuzzy logic, is its
ability to handle many practical problems that cannot be adequately managed by conventional
control techniques. At the same time, the results of fuzzy control theory are consistent with the
existing classical ones when the system under control reduces from fuzzy to nonfuzzy. In other
words, many well-known classical results can be extended in some natural way to the fuzzy
setting. In the last three chapters, we have seen many such examples: the interval arithmetic is
consistent with the classical arithmetic when an interval becomes a point; the fuzzy logic is
consistent with the classical logic when the multi-valued inference becomes two-valued; and the
fuzzy Lyapunov stability and fuzzy controllability (and observability) become the classical ones
when the fuzzy control systems become nonfuzzy.
Basically, the aim of fuzzy control systems theory is to extend the existing successful
conventional control systems techniques and methods as much as possible, and to develop many
new and special-purposed ones, for a much larger class of complex, complicated, and illmodeled systems fuzzy systems. This theory is developed for solving real-world problems. The
fuzzy modeling techniques, fuzzy logic inference and decision-making, and fuzzy control
methods to be studied in the following chapters, should all work for real-world problems if
they are developed correctly and appropriately. The real-world problems exist in the first place.
Fuzzy logic, fuzzy set theory, fuzzy modeling, fuzzy control methods, etc. are all man-made and
subjectively introduced to the scene. If this fuzzy interpretation is correct and if the fuzzy theory
works, then one should be able to solve the real-world problems after the fuzzy operations have
been completed in the fuzzy environment and then the entire process is finally returned to the
original real world setting. This is what is called the Fuzzification fuzzy operation
defuzzification routine in the fuzzy control systems theory.

uzzy Logic theory

Fuzzy logic is a logic. Logic refers to the study of methods and principles of human
reasoning. Classical logic, as common practice, deals with propositions (e.g., conclusions or
decisions) that are either true or false. Each proposition has an opposite. This classical logic,
34

therefore, deals with combinations of variables that represent propositions. As each variable
stands for a hypothetical proposition, any combination of them eventually assumes a truth value
(either true or false), but never is in between or both (i.e., is not true and false at the same time).
The main content of classical logic is the study of rules that allow new logical variables to be
produced as functions of certain existing variables. Suppose that n logical variables, x1, ..., xn ,
are given, say
x1 is true;
x2 is false;
xn is false.
Then a new logical variable, y, can be defined by a rule as a function of x1, ..., xn that has
a particular truth value (again, either true or false). One example of a rule is the following:
Rule: IFx1 is true AND x2 is false AND ... AND xn is false
THEN y is false.
Because one, and only one truth value (either true or false) is assumed by a logical
function of a (finite) number of logical variables (hypothetical propositions), the classical logic is
also called a two-valued logic. The fundamental assumption upon which the classical logic is
based is that every proposition is either true or false. This principle has been questioned by many
philosophers, ever since Aristotle (in his treatise On Interpretation). It is now well understood
and well accepted that many propositions are both partially true and partially false. To describe
such partial truth values by some new rules, in a way to extend and generalize the two-valued
logic, multi valued logics were proposed and developed. As the first attempt, several threevalued logics have now been well established, with their own rationale. It is common in these
logics to introduce a neither in between true and false. It has turned out that three-valued
logics are successful both logically and mathematically. Motivated by the useful three-valued
logics, n-valued logics were developed in the 1930s. In particular, the n-valued logic of
Lukasiewicz even allows n = . It has lately been understood that there exists an isomorphism
between the two-valued logic and the crisp set theory, and, similarly, there is an isomorphism
between the Lukasiewicz logic and the fuzzy set theory. In fact, the isomorphism for the former
is the standard characteristic function
Y=XA(x) = 1 if x A
=0
if x A
(39)
This can be interpreted as
Y= true
if x is true
= false if x is false
(40)
and the latter is a fuzzy membership function.

uzzy Relations
Let S be a universe set, and A and B be subsets of S. Similar to the Cartesian products, A
X B denotes a product set in the universe set S X S. A fuzzy relation is a relation between
elements of A and elements of B, described by a membership function

B.

AXB (a,b), a A and b

35

Fig 23. The fuzzy relation a is slightly larger than b on [0,1]X[0,1].

A simple example of a fuzzy relation is the following. Let S = R and A = B = [0,1]

Define a membership function AXB(a,b) for the relation a is slightly larger than b by
ab
0
AXB (a, b) = ( a b )
a b
e
This is shown in Fig 23. Then, A, B, and

R.

AXB together define a fuzzy relation between a A and b B.

Closed loop Set point Tracking System

We consider the typical continuous-time, closed-loop, set-point tracking system shown in
Figure 23.

Fig 24 A typical closed loop set point tracking system

In this figure, we assume that the plant is a conventional (crisp) one, which is given but
its mathematical model may not be known, and that all the signals (r, e, and y) are crisp. The
36

closed-loop set-point tracking control problem is to design the controller such that the output
signal of the controlled plant, y, can track the given reference signal r.
e(t) := r(t) y(t)

0 (t ).

If the mathematical formula of the plant is unknown, for instance whether the system is
linear or non linear is not known (and, if it is linear, the order is unknown; if it is nonlinear, the
kind of non linearity is not known), One may think of designing a conventional controller and try
to answer this question at this point, to appreciate the ease of fuzzy logic controller design to be
studied below.
First, the general structure of a fuzzy logic controller (FLC), or fuzzy controller (FC) for
short, consists of three basic portions: the Fuzzification unit at the input terminal, the inference
engine built on the fuzzy logic control rule base in the core, and the defuzzification unit at the
output terminal, as shown in Figure 25.

Fig 25. General structure of a fuzzy logic controller.

The Fuzzification module transforms the physical values of the current process signal, the
error signal in Figure 4.5 which is input to the fuzzy logic controller, into a normalized fuzzy
subset consisting of a subset (interval) for the range of the input values and an associate
membership function describing the degrees of the confidence of the input belonging to this
range. The purpose of this Fuzzification step is to make the input physical signal compatible with
the fuzzy control rule base in the core of the controller. Here, between the physical input signal
and the fuzzy subset within the Fuzzification unit, a pre-processing unit mapping the physical
signal to some point wise and crisp real values (that the fuzzy subset can accept) may be needed,
depending on the nature of the underlying process. Generally speaking, a universal fuzzy logic
controller for the closed-loop set-point tracking system shown in Figure 24 is unlikely possible.
Hence, the fuzzy subset, both the subset and the membership function, has to be selected by the
designer according to the particular application at hand. In other words, depending on the nature
and characteristics of the given plant and reference signal, the FLC has to be designed to fit to
the need, so as to make the closed-loop fuzzy control system work for that particular application.
This situation is just like the design of a conventional controller for a specifically given system,
where there is no universal controller in practical design.
The role of the inference engine in the FLC is key to make the controller work and
work effectively. The job of the engine is to create the control actions, in fuzzy terms,
37

according to the information provided by the Fuzzification module and the set-point tracking
requirement (and perhaps other control performance requirements as well).
A typical fuzzy logic IF-THEN rule base performing the inference is expressed in the
general form
R1:
IF controller input e1 is E11 AND ... AND
Controller input en is E1n
THEN controller output u1 is U1.
M
Rm:
IF controller input e1 is Em1 AND ... AND
Controller input en is Emn
THEN controller output um is Um.
The fuzzy subsets E11, ...,Em1 share the same subset E1 and the same membership
function E1 defined on E1, and fuzzy subsets E1n, ..., Emn share the same subset En and the
same membership function En defined on En. In general, m rules produce m controller outputs,
u1, ..., um, belonging to m fuzzy subsets, U1, ..., Um, in which, of course, some of them may
overlap. The establishment of this rule base depends heavily on the designers work experience,
knowledge about the physical plant, analysis and design skills, etc., and is, hence, more or less
subjective. Thus, a good design can make the controller work; a better design can make it work
more effectively. This situation is just like conventional design: any specific design is not unique
in general. Yet, there are some general criteria and some routine steps for the designer to follow
in a real design, which will be discussed in more detail later. Here, basically, what have to be
determined are the choices of the controllers input and output variables and the IF-THEN rules.
The defuzzification module is the connection between the control rule base and the
physical plant to be controlled, which plays the role of a transformer mapping the controller
outputs (generated by the control rule base in fuzzy terms) back to the crisp values that the plant
can accept. Hence, in a sense the defuzzification module is the inverse of the Fuzzification
module. The controller outputs u1, ..., um, generated by the rule base above, are fuzzy signals
belonging to the fuzzy subsets U1, ..., Um, respectively. The job of the defuzzification module is
to convert these fuzzy controller outputs to a point wise and crisp real signal, u, and then send it
to the physical plant as a control action for tracking. Between the defuzzification step and the
physical plant, a post-processing unit mapping the point wise signal u to a physical signal (that
the plant can accept) may be needed, depending again on the nature of the underlying process.
What has to be determined in this stage is essentially a defuzzification formula. There are several
commonly used, logically meaningful, and practically effective defuzzification formulas
available, which are by nature weighted average formulas in various forms.
The Centre of Gravity formula
38

(41)
Its continuous time form is

(42)
The Centre of Sums formula

(43)
Its continuous time form is

(44)
The Mean of Maxima formula

(45)
Its continuous time form is

(46)

Design Principle of Fuzzy Logic Controllers

Fuzzification Module
It transforms the physical values (position, voltage, degree, etc.) of the process signal, the
error signal shown in Figure 24 which is an input to the fuzzy logic controller, into a normalized

39

fuzzy subset consisting of a subset (interval) for the range of the input values and a normalized
membership function describing the degree of confidence of the input belonging to this range.
In the context of controller of nano positioning system, the input variable is positional
error (p) between desired and obtained trajectory and the output variable is control voltage (v)
for the plant. The crisp set if input variable (p) is classified into 5 categories- 1. Positive large
(PL), 2. Positive med (PM), 3. Zero (Z), 4.Negative med (NM), 5. Negative large (NL).
The membership function of the input variable is expressed as Fig 26.

Fig 26. Clustering and membership value of input variable

The membership function for the output variable i.e. controller voltage (v) is shown in Fig 27.
The o/p variable can be classified into 5 groups such as 1. Positive (+ve), 2. Med positive
(+med ve), 3. Zero (Z), 4. Med negative (-med ve), 5. Negative (-ve).

Fig 27. Clustering and membership value of output variable

Fuzzy Logic Rule Base

Designing a good fuzzy logic rule base is key to obtaining a satisfactory controller for a
particular application. Classical analysis and control strategies should be incorporated in the
establishment of a rule base. In this design the rule base is scripted as
IF p is NL THEN v is -ve
IF p is NM THEN v is -med ve
IF p is Z THEN v is Z

40

IF p is PM THEN v is +med ve
IF p is PL THEN v is +ve

Defuzzification Module
The defuzzification module is in a sense the reverse of the Fuzzification module: it
converts all the fuzzy terms created by the rule base of the controller to crisp terms (numerical
values) and then sends them to the physical system (plant, process), so as to execute the control
of the system. Here the Centre of Gravity formula of defuzzification has been used.

41

Chapter Four
Simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK

42

These proposed controllers are simulated in MATLAB/SIMULINK platform and their

performances are studied for the comparative study.

Input Reference Signal

The effectiveness of the proposed control strategies are verified using a rectified sinusoidal
signal of amplitude 100um and frequency 1Hz shown in fig 28.
MATLAB codes for the input
clc
clear all
t=0:.01:10
n=length(t)
for i=0:n-1
y(i+1)= 100e-6*sin(2*pi*i/200);
if (y(i+1)<0)
y(i+1)=-y(i+1);
end
end
for j=1:n
ab1(j,1)=t(j);
ab1(j,2)=y(j);
end
ab1
plot(t,y,'-'),grid on

Fig 28 Reference input trajectory

43

MATLAB model of the controllers

Feedforward control

Fig29. Simulink model of Feedforward controller

Feedforward and Feedback control

Fig 30 Simulink model of closed loop control

Internal Model control

Fig 31 Simulink model of IMC

44

Two degree of freedom IMC

Fig 32 Simulink model of two degree freedom IMC

Modified IMC structure

Fig 33 Simulink model of modified IMC

45

4.2.6. Fuzzy logic controller

Fig 34. Fuzzy controller model

Fig 35. FIS file structure

Fig 36. FIS editor for i/p and o/p

Fig 37. Membership function editor for input and output variables

46

Fig 38 Fuzzy rule editor panel

Simulation Results
eresis Plots of the different controllers
In the following plot, the output voltage of the controller is plotted in the X axis and the
output trajectory from the plant is plotted in Y axis. These curves indicate the non-linear
behavior of the plant. The decrease in area under the hysteresis curve denotes the more amount
of hysteresis is compensated.

Fig 39 Feedforward controller.

47

Fig 40 Feedforward+ feedback controller

Fig 41 Internal model controller

Fig 42 Modified IM

48

Tracking errors
Deviations between input and output trajectories
Here the blur lines indicate the input trajectories and the green lines denote the output path.
Along Y axis position is plotted in meter and along X axis time is plotted in second.

Fig 43 Set point tracking of Feedforward controller

Fig 44 Set point tracking of Feedforward+ Feedback controller

Fig 45 Set point tracking of conventional IMC

49

Fig 46 Set point tracking of modified IMC structure

Fig 47 Set point tracking of Fuzzy control

Set point errors

Now the difference of the input and output trajectory is plotted. Here Positional difference is
plotted in Y axis and time in second is plotted along X axis

Fig 48 Tracking error of Feedforward controller

50

Fig 49 Tracking error of Feedforward+ Feedback controller

Fig 50 Tracking error of Fuzzy controller

Fig 51 Tracking error of the conventional IMC

Fig 52 Tracking error of the modified IMC structure

51

The error values are tabulated in the form of peak to peak error and RMS error
Controllers

Peak to peak
value (m)

RMS value
(m)

Percentage
error(P-P)

Cumulative percentage
error(rms value)

Feedforward control

20 x10 7

6 x10 7

2%

Feedforward with
feedback control

15 x10 7

5.85 x10 7

1.5%

2.5%

Fuzzy control

13x107

5.82x107

1.3%

0.51%

Internal model control

12 x10 7

5.8 x10 7

1.2%

0.34%

2 degree of freedom IMC

15 x10 8

5.82 x10 8

0.15%

89%

Modified IMC

7 x10 8

1.36 x10 8

0.7%

76%

4.4 Variations of the plant parameters

Now the uncertainty is introduced in the plant in the form of the plant parameter variation. Till
now we have considered that the nominal plant model Gm(s) and the plant model G(s) are exact.
But in the practical situation, it is also to be considered that they may not be exact. Therefore the
dynamic plant parameters like equivalent mass (M), damping factor (D) and the stiffness (K) are
varied for 2 % from the prescribed value. The performance of the controllers in the form of
peak to peak error and the RMS error are tabulated for the comparison.
Table 3 R.M.S error under parameter variation
R.M.S error under parameter

Control strategies

variation ( 2%)(m)

Feedforward control

1.821x10-6

Feedforward+ Feedback control

1.79x10-6

4.67x10-7

Fuzzy control
Conventional
control

Internal

model

Modified internal model control

4.056x10-7
7.17x10-7
51

Chapter Five
5.

Hardware Modeling and Implementation

Feedforward Controller in TMS320C6713 DSK

ue to the simple structure and being open loop control system, the feedforward
controller can be implemented in hardware platform. Based on the inverse Dahl
model we have developed a hardware platform of the controller using Digital
signal processor TMS320C6713 DSK board. The feedforward control is
programmed in Code Composer Studio and then the control signal for the piezo
actuators is generated form DSK Board. The advantage of using DSK is to obtain faster
processing speed, floating point operations and flexible programming.

verview of TMS320C6713 DSK

The C6713 DSK builds on TI's industry-leading line of low cost, easy-to-use
DSP Starter Kit (DSK) development boards. The high-performance board features the
TMS320C6713 floating-point DSP Capable of performing 1350 million floating-point
operations per second (MFLOPS), the C6713 DSP makes the C6713 DSK the most
powerful DSK development board. The DSK is USB port interfaced platform that allows to
efficiently develop and test applications for the C6713. The DSK consists of a C6713-based
printed circuit board that will serve as a hardware reference design for TIs customers products.
With extensive host PC and target DSP software support, including bundled TI tools, the DSK
provides ease-of-use and capabilities that are attractive to DSP engineers.
The C6713 DSK has a TMS320C6713 DSP onboard that allows full-speed verification of
code with Code Composer Studio. The C6713 DSK provides:
A USB Interface
SDRAM and ROM
An analog interface circuit for Data conversion (AIC)
An I/O port
Embedded JTAG emulation support.
Connectors on the C6713 DSK provide DSP external memory interface (EMIF)
and peripheral signals that enable its functionality to be expanded with custom or third party
daughter boards. The DSK provides a C6713 hardware reference design that can assist
you in the development of your own C6713-based products. In addition to providing a reference
for interfacing the DSP to various types of memories and peripherals, the design also
addresses power, clock, JTAG, and parallel peripheral interfaces.
The C6713 DSK includes a stereo codec. This analog interface circuit (AIC) has the
following characteristics:
High-Performance Stereo Codec
52

 90-dB SNR Multibit Sigma-Delta ADC (A-weighted at 48 kHz)

100-dB SNR Multibit Sigma-Delta DAC (A-weighted at48 kHz)
1.42 V 3.6 V Core Digital Supply: Compatible With TI C54x DSP Core Voltages
2.7 V 3.6 V Buffer and Analog Supply: Compatible Both TI C54x DSP Buffer
Voltages
8-kHz 96-kHz Sampling-Frequency Support
Software Control Via TI McBSP-Compatible Multiprotocol Serial Port
I 2 C-Compatible and SPI-Compatible Serial-Port Protocols
Glue less Interface to TI McBSP s
Audio-Data Input/ Output Via TI McBSP-Compatible Programmable Audio Interface
I 2 S-Compatible Interface Requiring Only One McBSP for both ADC and DAC
Standard I 2 S, MSB, or LSB Justified-Data Transfers
16/20/24/32-Bit Word Lengths.
The C6713DSK has the following features:
The 6713 DSK is a low-cost standalone development platform that enables customers to
evaluate and develop applications for the TI C67XX DSP family. The DSK also serves as a
hardware reference design for the TMS320C6713 DSP. Schematics, logic equations and
application notes are available to ease hardware development and reduce time to market. The
DSK uses the 32-bit EMIF for the SDRAM (CE0) and daughter card expansion interface (CE2
and CE3). The Flash is attached to CE1 of the EMIF in 8-bit mode. An on-board AIC23 codec
allows the DSP to transmit and receive analog signals. McBSP0 is used for the codec control
interface and McBSP1 is used for data. Analog audio I/O is done through four 3.5mm audio
jacks that correspond to microphone input, line input, line output and headphone output. The
codec can select the microphone or the line input as the active input. The analog output is driven
to both the line out (fixed gain) and headphone (adjustable gain) connectors. McBSP1can be rerouted to the expansion connectors in software.
A programmable logic device called a CPLD is used to implement glue logic that ties the
board components together. The CPLD has a register based user interface that lets the user
configure the board by reading and writing to the CPLD registers. The registers reside at the
midpoint of CE1.
The DSK includes 4 LEDs and 4 DIP switches as a simple way to provide the user with
interactive feedback. Both are accessed by reading and writing to the CPLD registers. An
included 5V external power supply is used to power the board. On-board voltage regulators
provide the 1.26V DSP core voltage, 3.3Vdigital and 3.3V analog voltages. A voltage supervisor
monitors the internally generated voltage, and will hold the board in reset until the supplies are
within operating specifications and the reset button is released. If desired, JP1 and JP2 can be
used as power test points for the core and I/O power supplies.
Code Composer communicates with the DSK through an embedded JTAG emulator with
a USB host interface. The DSK can also be used with an external emulator through the external
JTAG connector.
53

S320C6713 DSP Features

Highest-Performance Floating-Point Digital Signal Processor (DSP):
Eight 32-Bit Instructions/Cycle
32/64-Bit Data Word
300-, 225-, 200-MHz (GDP), and 225-, 200-, 167-MHz (PYP) Clock Rates
3.3-, 4.4-, 5-, 6-Instruction Cycle Times
2400/1800, 1800/1350, 1600/1200, and 1336/1000 MIPS/MFLOPS
Rich Peripheral Set, Optimized for Audio
Highly Optimized C/C++ Compiler
Extended Temperature Devices Available.
Advanced Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) TMS320C67x DSP Core
Eight Independent Functional Units:

Two ALUs (Fixed-Point)

Four ALUs (Floating- and Fixed-Point)

Two Multipliers (Floating- and Fixed-Point)

Load-Store Architecture With 32 32-Bit General-Purpose Registers

Instruction Packing Reduces Code Size
All Instructions Conditional
Instruction Set Features
Native Instructions for IEEE 754
Single- and Double-Precision
Byte-Addressable (8-, 16-, 32-Bit Data)
8-Bit Overflow Protection
Saturation; Bit-Field Extract, Set, Clear; Bit-Counting; Normalization

Fig 53 Schematic diagram of the DSK Board

54

Composer Studio
Code Composer is the DSP industry's first fully integrated development environment
(IDE) with DSP specific functionality. With a familiar environment liked MS-based C++ TM,
Code Composer lets you edit, build, debug, profile and manage projects from a single
unified environment. Other unique features include graphical
signal
analysis,
injection/extraction of data signals via file I/O, multi-processor debugging, automated
testing and customization via a C-interpretive scripting language and much more.
CODE COMPOSER FEATURES INCLUDE:
IDE
Debug IDE
Advanced watch windows
Integrated editor
File I/O, Probe Points, and graphical algorithm scope probes
Advanced graphical signal analysis
Interactive profiling
Automated testing and customization via scripting
Visual project management system
Compile in the background while editing and debugging
Multi-processor debugging
Help on the target DSP

Feedforward controller in Code composer studio

The following algorithm is followed to develop the controller

xd

= 104.sin(t )
4

Desired trajectory equation xd is chosen. Here

x d and xd are computed by numerical differentiation method. Here we use 5 point

formula for numerical differentiation.
f '(x) =

f '' (x) =

f (x 2h) 8 f (x h) + 8 f (x + h) f (x + 2h)
+ O(h4 )
12h

f (x + 2h) +16 f (x + h) 30 f (x) +16 f (x h) f (x 2h)

12h2

(47)

+ O(h4)

(48)

O(h4) Denotes the truncation error proportional to h . So the smaller is h chosen, the
error will be small as well.
the differential equations are solved for the intermediate state variables q1 and q 2
They can be expressed in the form:
55

dq1
= q2 ( x)
dx

(49)

dq2 = a q (x) sgn(dx)a q (x) + u

2 1
1 2
dx
Now differentiating Eq.(49) with respect to x and substituting the value of

dq
d 2 q1
sgn(dx) 1 + a q = u
+ a1
2 1
dx2
dx
The solution of

dq2

(50)
we are getting

dx

(51)

q1(x) can be taken in the form

q1 ( x ) = e mx ( k1 . cos nx + k 2 .sin nx )

(52)

k 1 and k 2 are the two arbitrary constants and m in are the roots of complementary equation

respectively.

Implementation

Fig. 54 Code composer studio window

56

Fig 55 Feedforward controller on DSK platform

Operating PI piezo-electric stages with LABVIEW

dware Description
Piezo Actuator Model
no. PI-P-840 P-841
The P-840 and P-841 series translators are high-resolution linear actuators for static and
dynamic applications. They provide sub-millisecond response and sub nanometer resolution.
Design: These translators are equipped with highly reliable multilayer piezo
ceramic stacks protected by a non-magnetic stainless steel case with internal
spring preload. The preload makes them ideal for dynamic applications and for
tensile loads as well.
Ceramic insulated piezo actuators: The highest possible reliability is assured by
employing the award-winning PICMA multilayer piezo actuators. PICMA
actuators are the only actuators on the market with a ceramic insulation which
makes them resistant to ambient humidity and leakage current failures. They are
thus far superior to conventional actuators in liability and lifetime.

57

Optimum UHV compatibility: the lack of polymer insulation and high Curie
temperature make for optimal ultra high vacuum compatibility (no out gassing/
high beak out temperature, up to 150 o c)
Mounting: Mounting is at the foot, with push/pull forces of less than 5 N, the
actuator can be held by clamping the case. The versions with ball tip decouple
torque and off-center forces from the piezoceramic to provide magnetic coupling,
the P-176.20 magnetic adapter can be screwed into the top piece (only for
versions without ball tip.
High Accuracy in Closed-Loop Operation: the standard model P-840 is
designed for open-loop positioning. Version P-841 with integrated high-resolution
strain gauge position sensors provides high precision for closed loop operation.

Piezo amplifier module

Model no. PI-E 505.00
The E-505 piezo amplifier module is designed to work in the E-500 Controller system. It
features a low-noise, high-power amplifier for low voltage piezo actuators and positioners, that
can output and sink a peak current of up to 2000 mA in the -30 to 130 V voltage range. The E505 units are designed to provide high-resolution operation of piezo actuators and positioning
systems in voltage-controlled mode (open-loop) and optionally in position-controlled mode
(closed loop). For switching applications the E-505.10 version provides a peak
outputcurrentofupto10A.Technical data (Appendix I)

Piezo servo controller module

Model no. E 509.S1
The E-509 module is both a signal conditioner for high-resolution capacitive and SGS
displacement sensors and a servo controller for closed-loop piezo nanopositioning mechanics. It
Compensates for the drift and hysteresis inherent in PZT materials and quickly adjusts the
operating voltage on the PZT as soon as a change in force or load occurs. Single and multichannel versions for strain gauge and capacitive sensors are available. for piezo operation. Both
P and I parameters as well as the control bandwidth can be set internally. The integrated notch
filters (adjustable for each axis) improve the stability and allow high-bandwidth operation closer
to the piezomechanics' resonant frequency. Closed-loop piezo mechanics from PI can provide
positioning accuracy and repeatability down to the nanometer range and below. Technical data
(Appendix I)

Digital Piezo Controller Operation Module

Model no. PI-E-517.I3
The E-517 is a microprocessor controlled interface and display module for the E-500
piezo controller system (see p. 2-142). It is equipped with low-noise, 24-bit D/A converters and
can be controlled through four digital interfaces: TCP/IP, USB, RS-232 and IEEE 488 (GPIB).

58

Alternatively, stand-alone operation is possible by uploading macro command sequences to the

internal non-volatile memory. For manual control a trackball interface is provided. An LCD
display indicates position or operating voltages of the individual channels / axes. The integrated
wave generator can output periodic motion profiles. In addition to sine and triangle waves,
arbitrary, user defined motion profiles can be created and stored. (Appendix I)

Piezo actuation stage

Model no. PI M-014
M-014 ultra-high-precision magnetically coupled stages use the force of integrated
magnets to preload the bearing. This magnetic preload result in extremely uniform and smooth
motion with minimum friction. Unlike conventional stages, where two bearings with limited
parallelism guide the carriage (inducing run out and rotational errors) in M-014 stages, only one
of the two linear bearings has a guiding function (V-groove) while the second bearing is for
support only (U-groove).
For both the manual and motorized version, closed-loop and open-loop PZT drives are
available. They provide 5 nm minimum incremental motion over a travel range of 45 m and
allow for dynamic operation such as scanning and tracking. The closed-loop PZT drive provides
repeatability of 90 nm. All stages can be cross stacked and combined with the M-053.10
(manual versions) and M-053.20 (motorized versions) Z-axis mounting bracket to provide
multi-axis motion. Vertical use of the M-014 is only permitted with loads less than 0.5 kg. For
vertical positioning with loads in excess of 0.5 kg we recommend M-126 stages and the 125.90
Z-axis mounting bracket.

roller design in LabVIEW

Fig 56. Feedforward control in LabVIEW

59

Fig 57. Dahl hysteresis model in LabVIEW

dware interface with LabVIEW

NI- CompactRIO
Architecture: CompactRIO is a rugged, reconfigurable embedded system containing
three components: a processor running a real-time operating system (RTOS), a
reconfigurable FPGA, and interchangeable industrial I/O modules. The real-time
processor offers reliable, predictable behavior and excels at floating-point math and
analysis, while the FPGA excels at smaller tasks that require high-speed logic and precise
timing. Often CompactRIO applications incorporate a human machine interface (HMI),
which provides the operator with a graphical user interface (GUI) for monitoring the
systems state and setting operating parameters.

LabVIEW: LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment used by thousands of

engineers and scientists to develop sophisticated control systems using graphical icons
and wires that resemble a flowchart. It offers integration with thousands of
hardwaredevices and provides hundreds of built-in libraries for advanced control,
analysis, and data visualizationall for creating user-defined systems more quickly. The
LabVIEW platform is scalable across multiple targets and OSs, and, in the case of
CompactRIO
60

Fig 58. Reconfigurable embedded system architecture

LabVIEW can be used to access and integrate all of the components of the LabVIEW
reconfigurable I/O (RIO) architecture.

Real time controller: The real-time controller contains a processor that reliably and
deterministically executes LabVIEW Real-Time applications and offers multi rate
control, execution tracing, onboard data logging, and communication with peripherals.
Additional options include redundant 9 VDC to 30 VDC supply inputs, a real-time clock,
hardware watchdog timers, dual Ethernet ports, up to 2 GB of data storage, and built-in
USB and RS232 support. An RTOS is able to reliably execute programs with specific
timing requirements, which is important for many science and engineering projects.

Reconfigurable I/O FPGA: The reconfigurable I/O FPGA chassis is the center of
the embedded system architecture. It is directly connected to the I/O for highperformance access to the I/O circuitry of each module and timing, triggering, and
synchronization. Because each module is connected directly to the FPGA rather than
through a bus, you experience almost no control latency for system response compared to
other controller architectures. By default, this FPGA automatically communicates with
I/O modules and provides deterministic I/O to the real-time processor. Out of the box, the
FPGA enables programs on the real-time controller to access I/O with less than 500 ns of
jitter between loops. You can also directly program this FPGA to further customize the
system. Because of the FPGA speed, this chassis is frequently used to create controller
systems that incorporate high-speed buffered I/O, fast control loops, or custom signal
filtering. For instance, using the FPGA, a single chassis can execute more than 20 analog
proportional integral derivative (PID) control loops simultaneously at a rate of 100 kHz.
61

Additionally, because the FPGA runs all code in hardware, it provides the highest
reliability and determinism, which is ideal for hardware-based interlocks, custom timing
and triggering, or the elimination of custom circuitry normally required with nonstandard
sensors and buses.

Fig 59. Reconfigurable FPGA chassis

I/O Modules: I/O modules contain isolation, conversion circuitry, signal conditioning,
and built-in connectivity for direct connection to industrial sensors/actuators. By offering
a variety of wiring options and integrating the connector junction box into the modules,
the CompactRIO system significantly reduces space requirements and field-wiring costs.
You can choose from more than 70 NI C Series I/O modules for CompactRIO to connect
to almost any sensor or actuator. Module types include thermocouple inputs; 10 V
simultaneous sampling, 24-bit analog I/O; 24 V industrial digital I/O with up to 1 A
current drive; differential/TTL digital inputs; 24-bit IEPE accelerometer inputs; strain
measurements; RTD measurements; analog outputs; power measurements; controller area
network (CAN) connectivity; and secure digital (SD) cards for logging. Additionally, you
can build your own modules or purchase modules from third-party vendors. With the NI
cRIO-9951 CompactRIO Module Development Kit, you can develop custom modules to
meet applicationspecific needs. The kit provides access to the low-level electrical
CompactRIO embedded system architecture for designing specialized I/O,
communication, and control modules. It includes LabVIEW FPGA libraries to interface
with the custom module circuitry. In this current research, two I/O modules are being
employed, they are NI-9205 32 channel 16 bit analog input modules and NI-9263 4
channel 16 bit analog voltage output modules.

NI-9205: It 32 single-ended or 16 differential analog input channels,

1 digital input channel, and 1 digital output channel. ADC resolution is
16 bit, analog bandwidth is 370 kHz and CMRR (DC to 60 Hz) is
100dB.

62

 NI-9263: Number of channels are 4 analog output channels, DAC

resolution is 16 bits, Type of DAC is String type, Power-on output
state Channels off, Startup voltage is 0 V and Power-down voltage is
0 V.

System configuration: The simplest embedded system consists of a single controller

running in a headless configuration. This configuration is used in applications that do
not need an HMI except for maintenance or diagnostic purposes. However, most control
and monitoring applications require an HMI to display data to the operator or allow the
operator to send commands to the embedded system. A common configuration is 1:1, or
1 host to 1 target, as shown in Figure 49. The HMI communicates to the CompactRIO
hardware over Ethernet through either a direct connection, hub, or wireless router.

Fig 60 Host to target configuration

63

Fig 61 CRIO with I/O modules

LabVIEW FPGA interface

With the LabVIEW FPGA Interface mode, you can unlock the real power of
CompactRIO by customizing the FPGA personality in addition to programming the real-time
processor. This helps you achieve performance that typically requires custom hardware. Using
LabVIEW FPGA, you can implement custom timing and triggering, offload signal processing
and analysis, create custom protocols, and access I/O at its maximum rate. When communicating
data between an FPGA VI and Real-Time VI, you have the option to stream data at very high
rates using DMA FIFOs, or to communicate single-point data using controls and indicators.
The advantages of using FPGA interface mode:
Maximum Performance and Reliability: When control application is compiled for
an FPGA device, the result is a highly optimized silicon implementation that provides
true parallel processing with the performance and reliability benefits of dedicated
hardware circuitry. Because there is no OS on the FPGA chip, the code is
implemented in a way that ensures maximum performance and reliability.
High-Speed Waveform Acquisition/Generation (>500 Hz): The RIO Scan
Interface is optimized for control loops running at less than 500 Hz, but many C
Series I/O modules are capable of acquiring and generating at much higher rates. If
you need to take full advantage of these module features and acquire or generate at
speeds higher than 500 Hz, you can use LabVIEW FPGA to acquire at a user-defined
rate tailored to your application.

64

 Custom Triggering/Timing/Synchronization: With the reconfigurable FPGA,

simple, advanced, or otherwise custom implementations of triggers, timing schemes
can be created, and I/O or chassis synchronization. These can be as elaborate as
triggering a custom CAN message based on the rise of an analog acquisition
exceeding a threshold or as simple as acquiring input values on the rising edge of an
external clock source.
Highest Performance Control: Not only the FPGA can be used for high-speed
acquisition and generation, but many control algorithms can be implemented on the
FPGA. You can use single-point I/O with multichannel, tunable PID or other control
algorithms to implement deterministic control with loop rates beyond 1 MHz. For
example, the PID control algorithm that is included with the LabVIEW FPGA
Module executes in just 300 ns (0.000000300 seconds).
Hardware-Based Analysis/Generation and Co-processing: Many sensors output
more data than can be reasonably processed on the real-time processor alone. You can
use the FPGA as a valuable coprocessor to analyze or generate complex signals while
freeing the processor for other critical threads. This type of FPGA-based coprocessing is commonly used in applications such as, encoding/decoding sensors,
signal processing and analysis, sensor simulation and hardware-in-loop simulation.

Fig 62. Selection of programming mode

Fig 63. Analysis from LabVIEW platform

65

Proposed work flowchart

ontroller designed in LabVIEW

Interfacing CRIO with FPGA interface module

Control effort from CRIO fed to Piezo servo

controller

The control signal is fed to Piezo amplifier.

The amplifier output is fed to Piezoactuator and the

movement is observed from the sensor output data

The proposed work plan consists of the following phases as mentioned above. The
controller is designed in LabVIEW. The desired trajectory is fed to the Feedforward controller
and it produces the output voltage based on this (Fig 63). The C-RIO module is connected with
the host system running LabVIEW via FPGA scan interface which operates from the output
taken from the A/O module of C-RIO. This control output after feeding through the servo
controller system is applied to piezo amplifier module. The piezo actuator operates from the
output of the amplifier. The feedback from the sensor can be analyzed which in case of the
feedback controller needs be fed to the servo controller.
The schematic of the proposed hardware setup is shown in Fig 64.

66

Fig 64. Complete hardware setup

67

Chapter Six
6. Conclusion and Future Scopes
Contribution of the present work
The present research deals with nano positioning using Piezo-electric actuators. It is
chosen due to its high blocking force, large stiffness constant etc. The most important difficulty
working with piezoelectric material is its hysteretic property which attenuates the positional
precision. Our focus has been concentrated on compensating the hysteresis by the design of
suitable control strategies. The mathematical model of the plant is developed incorporating the
hysteresis in it. Dahl hysteresis model is considered as one of the most effective approach to
describe hysteresis. Basic feedforward control, feedback control and finally some novel control
like Internal model control and Fuzzy logic controller has been developed as a part of the
controller design segment. The effectiveness of these algorithms have been verified by rigorous
simulations Matlab/Simulink platform involving some model uncertainty and external
disturbance. Finally some of the controllers have been realized on hardware platform. The
Feedforward model has been built on TMS320C6713 DSK platform initially. Consequently the
control algorithms have to be ported for actual hardware implementation with PI based piezo
actuator stage and our proposed methodology includes the further workflow to cascade the PI
actuator system with LabVIEW running over PC where our controller would be placed.

Future Scopes
This work can extended by designing Kalman filter based Linear Gaussian Regulator
(LQG) which is a good Adaptive method for precise set point tracking.
H Optimal control can be also an efficient set point tracking control for piezo actuator.
Sliding mode control can be incorporated with feedforward compensation for better
positional accuracy.
Controller with perturbation estimation strategies also can be done where no specific
hysteresis model is required.
For model less control, neural network control can be developed for compensating
hysteresis of piezo electric actuator.

68

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Nanopositioning IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, VOL. 15, NO. 5,
September 2007.
21. Shen, J.-C., Jywe, W.-Y., Chiang, H.-K., and Shu, Y.-L., 2008,Precision Tracking
Control of Piezoelcetric-Actuated System, Precis. Eng.,32(2),pp 71-78.
22. Choi,G. S., Lim, Y. A., and Choi, G. H., 2002, Tracking Position Control of Piezoelectric
Actuators for Periodic Reference Inputs, Mechatronics,12(5),pp. 669-684.
23. Theory and Applications of Piezo Actuators and PZT NanoPositioning Systems. Physik
Instumente (PI) material.
24. Daniel Helmick and William Messner, Department of Mechanical Engineering Higher
Order Modeling of Hysteresis in Disk Drive Actuators 42nd IEEE conference on Decision
and Control, Macau Hawaii USA dec03.
25. Hoi-Wai Chow and Norbert C. Cheung, Disturbance and Response Time Improvement
of Submicrometer Precision Linear Motion System by Using Modified Disturbance
Compensator and Internal Model Reference Control IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 1, JANUARY2013.
26. DSP Applications Using C and the TMS320C6x D, Rulph Chassaing Copyright 2002
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBNs: 0-471-20754-3 (Hardback); 0-471-22112-0 (Electronic).
70

27. TMS320C6713 DSK USER MANUAL, Cranes Software International Limited(TISolutions).

28. Pavel Krejci, Klaus Kuhnen, Inverse Control of Systems with Hysteresis and Creep
Germany.
29. Lih-Chang Lin, Bor-Yih Chang, Biing-Der Liaw, Stable Adaptive Fuzzy Control with
Hysteresis Observer for Three-Axis Micro/Nano Motion Stages Intelligent Control and
Automation, 2012, 3, 390-403, doi:10.4236/ica.2012.34043 Published Online November
2012.
30. TMS320C67X/C67X+DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide. TEXAS
INSTRUMENTS, literature no. SPRU733A, Nov 2006.

71

Appendix I

Piezo Nano Positioning

P-840 P-841 Preloaded Piezo Actuators

Optional with Integrated Position Sensor
Ordering Information
Preloaded Piezo Actuator, 1000/50 N
0

No Sensor

1 SGS Sensor

P-84

(V)

1 15 m Travel Range

0 without Ball Tip

2 30 m Travel Range

B with Ball Tip

3 45 m Travel Range
4 60 m Travel Range
6 90 m Travel Range

Physik Instrumente (PI) GmbH & Co. KG 2008. Subject to change without notice. All data are superseded by any new release.
The newest release for data sheets is available for download at www.pi.ws. R1 10/07/07.0

P-840, P-841 piezo translators (DIP switch for size comparison)

Outstanding Lifetime Due to PICMA Piezo Ceramic Stacks

Travel Range to 90 m
Compact Case
Pushing Forces to 1000 N
Pulling Forces to 50 N
Sub-Millisecond Response, Sub-Nanometer Resolution
Versions: with Ball Tip, Vacuum Versions

V: Vacuum Compatible to 10-6 hPa

Optimum UHV Compatibility

Minimum Outgassing
The lack of polymer insulation
and the high Curie temperature
make for optimal ultra-highvacuum compatibility (no outgassing / high bakeout temperatures, up to 150 C).
Mounting

The P-840 and P-841 series

translators are high-resolution
linear actuators for static and
dynamic applications. They
provide sub-millisecond response and sub-nanometer resolution.

Application Examples

Static and dynamic

Precision positioning

Disc-drive-testing

Adaptronics

Smart structures

Active vibration control

Switches

Laser tuning

Patch-Clamp

Nanotechnology

Design
These translators are equipped
with highly reliable multilayer
piezo ceramic stacks protected
by a non-magnetic stainless
steel case with internal spring
preload. The preload makes
them ideal for dynamic applications and for tensile loads as
well.

Mounting is at the foot, with

push/pull forces of less than
5 N, the actuator can be held by
clamping the case. The versions with ball tip decouple
torque and off-center forces
from the piezoceramic.
To provide magnetic coupling,
the P-176.20 magnetic adapter
can be screwed into the top
piece (only for versions without
ball tip).

Read details in Mounting and

Handling Guidelines (p. 1-67).
High Accuracy in Closed-Loop
Operation
The standard model P-840 is
designed for open-loop positioning. Version P-841 with integrated high-resolution strain
gauge position sensors provides high precision for closedloop operation (further details
see p. 2-199).
Piezo Drivers, Controllers &
Amplifiers
High-resolution amplifiers and
servo-control electronics, both
digital and analog, are described in the Piezo Drivers /
Servo Controllers (see p. 2-99)
section.

Ceramic Insulated Piezo Actuators Provide Long Lifetime

The highest possible reliability
is assured by employing the
award-winning PICMA multilayer piezo actuators. PICMA
actuators are the only actuators
on the market with a ceramiconly insulation, which makes
them resistant to ambient humidity and leakage-current failures. They are thus far superior
to conventional actuators in reliability and lifetime.

P-840, P-841 dimensions in

mm. Length L: See table

Piezo Nano Positioning

Linear Actuators & Motors

PiezoWalk Motors / Actuators
PILine Ultrasonic Motors
DC-Servo & Stepper Actuators
Piezo Actuators & Components
Response of a
P-841.10 to a
3 nm peak-topeak square
wave control
input signal,
measured with
servo-control
bandwidth set
to 240 Hz and
2 msec setting
time.

Guided / Preloaded Actuators

Unpackaged Stack Actuators
Patches / Benders/ Tubes / Shear..

Nanopositioning/ Piezoelectrics
Nanometrology
Micropositioning

Technical Data
Model

P-841.1
P-840.1

P-841.2
P-840.2

P-841.3
P-840.3

P-841.4
P-840.4

P-841.6
P-840.6

Units

Open-loop travel @ 0 to 100 V

Closed-loop travel

15
15 /

30
30 /

45
45 /

60
60 /

90
90 /

m 20 %
m

Integrated feedback sensor*

SGS /

SGS /

SGS /

SGS /

SGS /

Closed-loop / open-loop resolution**

0.3 / 0.15

0.6 / 0.3

0.9 / 0.45

1.2 / 0.6

1.8 / 0.9

nm

Static large-signal stiffness***

57

27

19

15

10

N/m 20 %

Pushing forces to 1000 N

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

Pulling forces to 50 N

50

50

50

50

50

Max. torque limit (on tip)

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

Nm

Electrical capacitance

1.5

3.0

4.5

6.0

9.0

F 20 %

Dynamic operating current coefficient (DOCC)

12.5

12.5

12.5

12.5

12.5

A / (Hz m)

Unloaded resonant frequency fo

18

14

10

8.5

kHz 20 %

Operating temperature

-20 to +80

-20 to +80

-20 to +80

-20 to +80

-20 to +80

Mass without cables

20

28

46

54

62

g 5 %

Material: case, end pieces

N-S

N-S

N-S

N-S

N-S

Length L

32

50

68

86

122

mm 0.3

*Closed-loop models can attain linearity up to 0.15 % and are shipped with performance reports.
**Resolution of piezo actuators is not limited by stiction or friction. Value given is noise equivalent motion with E-503 amplifier. (p. 2-146)
***Dynamic small-signal stiffness is ~ 30 % higher.
Voltage connection: LEMO FFA.00.250. Coaxial cable, RG 178, 1 m.
Sensor connector: LEMO FFA.0S.304. Coaxial cable, 1 m.
Recommended amplifiers / controllers
Single-channel: E-610 servo-controller / amplifier (p. 2-110), E-625 servo-controller, bench-top (p. 2-114), E-621 controller module (p. 2-160)
Modular piezo controller system E-500 (p. 2-142) with amplifier module E-505 (high-power) (p. 2-147) and E-509 controller (p. 2-152) (optional)
Multi-channel: modular piezo controller system E-500 (p. 2-142) with amplifier module E-503 (three channels) (p. 2-146) or E-505 (1 per axis, high-power) (p. 2-147)
and E-509 controller (p. 2-152) (optional)

Index

Piezo Nano Positioning

E-505 Piezo Amplifier Module

High Power, E-500 Piezo Controller System
tors and positioning systems
in voltage-controlled mode
(open-loop) and optionally in position-controlled mode (closedloop).
For switching applications the
E-505.10 version provides a peak
output current of up to 10 A.
E-505.00 is a highperformance amplifier
module for the piezo
servo-controller system E-500

Physik Instrumente (PI) GmbH & Co. KG 2008. Subject to change without notice. All data are superseded by any new release.
The newest release for data sheets is available for download at www.pi.ws. R1 11/04/15.0

For frequency response with

selected capacitive loads, see
graph below.

Ordering Information
E-505.00
Piezo Amplifier Module, 2 A,
-30 to 130 V, 1 Channel
E-505.10
Piezo Amplifier Module for
Switching Applications, 10 A,
-30 to 130 V, 1 Channel
E-505.00S
Offset Voltage Supply for Tip/Tilt
Systems, One Fixed Voltage of
+100 V

Up to 10 A Peak Current
Output Voltage Range -30 to 130 V
Module for E-500 Piezo Controller Rack
Prepared for Position Servo-Control Upgrade (optional)
Prepared for Interfaces / Display Modules (optional)

The E-505 piezo amplifier module is designed to work in the

E-500 Controller system (see p.
2-142). It features a low-noise,
high-power amplifier for lowvoltage piezo actuators and po-

sitioners, that can output and

sink a peak current of up to
2000 mA in the -30 to 130 V voltage range. The E-505 units are
designed to provide high-resolution operation of piezo actua-

E-505: operating limits

with various PZT loads
(open-loop), capacitance is measured in F

Technical Data
Model
Function

E-505.00
Power amplifier

E-505.10
Power Amplifier for
Switching Applications*

E-505.00S
Offset Voltage Supply
for Tip/Tilt Systems

Modular Design for Flexibility:

Optional Servo Controller
Upgrade
Up to three E-505 amplifier modules can be installed in one
E-500 chassis. The flexible, modular design of the E-500 piezo
servo-controller system allows
easy installation of an optional
E.509 sensor- / servo-controller
module for closed-loop operation. The output voltage is then
set by the servo-control loop.
Closed-loop piezo mechanics
from PI can provide positioning
accuracy and repeatability down
to the nanometer range and
below.

Channels

Amplifier
Control input voltage range

-2 to +12 V

-2 to +12 V

Output voltage

-30 to +130 V

-30 to +130 V

100 V

Peak current

2 A (<3 ms)

10 A (<200 s)

2 A (<5 ms)

Average current

215 mA

215 mA

300 mA

Current limitation

Short-circuit-proof

Short-circuit-proof

Short-circuit-proof

Noise, 0 to 100 kHz

0.6 mVrms

1.0 mVrms

<0.7 mVrms

Voltage gain

10 0.1

10 0.1

Input impedance

1 M / 1 nF

1 M / 1 nF

Piezo connector

LEMO ERA.00.250.CTL

LEMO ERA.00.250.CTL

LEMO ERA.00.250.CTL

Analog input

BNC

BNC

DC-Offset

10-turn pot., adds 0 to

10 V to Control In

10-turn pot., adds 0 to

10 V to Control In

Operating temperature range

+5 to +50 C

+5 to +50 C

+5 to +50 C

Overheat protection

Deactivation at +85 C

Deactivation at +85 C

Deactivation at +85 C

Dimensions

14HP/3U

14HP/3U

14HP/3U

Mass

0.9 kg

0.9 kg

0.9 kg

Operating Voltage

E-500 System

E-500 System

E-500 System

Max. power consumption

55 W

55 W

55 W

Interfaces and operation

Miscellaneous

* For piezo actuators with special high-current layout

Piezo Nano Positioning

E-509 Signal Conditioner / Piezo Servo Module

3-Channel Servo-Controller Module for E-500 Piezo Controller System
Ordering Information
E-509.C1A
Sensor / Piezo Servo-Control
Module, Capacitive Sensor,
1 Channel
E-509.C2A
Sensor / Piezo Servo-Control
Module, Capacitive Sensors,
2 Channels
E-509.C3A
Sensor / Piezo Servo-Control
Module, Capacitive Sensors,
3 Channels
E-509.S1
Sensor / Piezo Servo-Control
Module, SGS Sensor, 1 Channel

E-509 3-channel servo-controller module for

nanopositioning systems with strain gauge sensors

Position Servo-Control for Piezo Mechanics with SGS or

Physik Instrumente (PI) GmbH & Co. KG 2008. Subject to change without notice. All data are superseded by any new release.
The newest release for data sheets is available for download at www.pi.ws. Cat120E Inspirations2009 08/10.18

Capacitive Sensors
1-, 2- and 3-Channel Versions
Improves Linearity
Eliminates Drift and Hysteresis
Notch Filter for Higher Bandwidth
Increases Piezo Stiffness
ILS Circuitry Maximizes Capacitive Sensor Linearity
Plug-In Module for E-500 System
Prepared for Interfaces / Display Modules (optional)

The E-509 module is both a signal conditioner for high-resolution capacitive and SGS displacement sensors and a servocontroller for closed-loop piezo
nanopositioning mechanics. It
compensates for the drift and
hysteresis inherent in PZT
materials and quickly adjusts
the operating voltage on the
PZT as soon as a change in
force or load occurs. Singleand multi-channel versions for
strain gauge and capacitive
sensors are available.
Nanometer-Precise Piezo
Positioning
The proportional-integral (P-I)
algorithm used by the E-509
servo-controller is optimized
2-152

for piezo operation. Both P and

I parameters as well as the control bandwidth can be set internally. The integrated notch filters (adjustable for each axis)
improve the stability and allow
high-bandwidth operation closer to the piezomechanics' resonant frequency. Closed-loop
piezo mechanics from PI can
provide positioning accuracy
and repeatability down to the
nanometer range and below.
Two Types of Sensors
PI employs proprietary position
sensors for fast response and
optimum
positioning
resolution and stability in the nanometer range and below. For
high-end applications, capaci-

E-509.S3
Sensor / Piezo Servo-Control
Module, SGS-Sensors, 3 Channels
Ask about custom designs!

tance sensors provide direct

and non-contact position feedback (direct metrology). Strain
gauge sensors (SGS) are available for cost-effective applications.
For PISeca single-plate highresolution capacitive sensors
(see p. 3-8), the E-509.E3 or
E-509.E03 versions are available (see p. 3-12).

Piezo Nano Positioning

Linear Actuators & Motors

Nanopositioning / Piezoelectrics
Piezo Flexure Stages /
High-Speed Scanning Systems
Linear
Vertical & Tip/Tilt
2- and 3-Axis
6-Axis

Fast Steering Mirrors /

Active Optics
Piezo Drivers /
Servo Controllers
Single-Channel
Multi-Channel
Modular
Accessories

The E-509 controller module installed in an E-501 9-inch chassis together

with E-516 digital interface and E-503 three-channel amplifier modules

Piezoelectrics in Positioning

Nanometrology

Technical Data
Model

E-509.C1A/E-509.C2A/E-509.C3A

E-509.S1/E-509.S3

Function

Signal conditioner & servo-controller

for piezo mechanics

Signal conditioner & servo-controller

for piezo mechanics

Micropositioning

Channels

1/2/3

1/3

Index

Servo characteristics

P-I (analog), notch filter

P-I (analog), notch filter

Sensor type

Capacitive

SGS

Sensor channels

1 / 2 /3

1/3

Sensor bandwidth

0.3 to 3 kHz (selectable with jumper);

up to 10 kHz on request

0.3; 1; 3 kHz

Noise factor

0.115 ppm/Hz

Thermal drift

<0.3 mV / C

<3 mV / C

Linearity

<0.05 %

<0.2 %

Sensor connection

LEMO EPL.00.250.NTD

LEMO ERA.0S.304.CLL

Sensor monitor output

010 V

010 V

Sensor monitor socket

LEMO 6-pin FGG.0B.306.CLAD56

BNC (1-ch.) / 3-pin. LEMO (3-ch.)

Supported functionality

ILS (Integrated Linearization System)

ILS (Integrated Linearization System)

Display

Overflow LED

Overflow LED

Operating temperature range

+5 to +50 C

+5 to +50 C

Dimensions

7HP/3U

7HP/3U

Mass

0.35 kg

0.35 kg

Operating Voltage

E-500 System

E-500 System

Max. power consumption

4 to 8 W

4 to 8 W

Sensor

Interfaces and operation

Miscellaneous

2-153

Piezo Nano Positioning

E-517 Digital Piezo Controller Operation Module

Wave Generator, Data Recorder, Display, Multiple Interfaces, for E-500 System
Ordering Information
E-517.i1
Interface / Display Module,
24 Bit D/A, TCP/IP, USB, RS-232,
Single Channel
E-517.i3
Interface / Display Module,
24 Bit D/A, TCP/IP, USB, RS-232,
3 Channels
Ask about custom designs!

The E-517 piezo display and D/A

converter module, provides USB and
TCP/IP connectivity

Physik Instrumente (PI) GmbH & Co. KG 2008. Subject to change without notice. All data are superseded by any new release.
The newest release for data sheets is available for download at www.pi.ws. Cat120E Inspirations2009 08/10.18

Low-Noise 24-bit D/A Converter

Sample Rate 25 kHz
TCP/IP, USB, IEEE 488 and RS-232 Interfaces
6-Digit Display for Voltage and Position
1- & 3-Channel Versions
Wave Generator with Programmable Trigger-I/O
Module for E-500 Piezo Controller Rack

The E-517 is a microprocessor

controlled interface and display
module for the E-500 piezo controller system (see p. 2-142). It
is equipped with low-noise, 24bit D/A converters and can be

2-156

controlled through four digital

interfaces: TCP/IP, USB, RS-232
and IEEE 488 (GPIB).
Alternatively, stand-alone operation is possible by uploading

macro command sequences to

the internal non-volatile memory. For manual control a trackball interface is provided. An
LCD display indicates position
or operating voltages of the
individual channels / axes.
Wave Generator
The integrated wave generator
can output periodic motion
profiles. In addition to sine and
triangle waves, arbitrary, userdefined motion profiles can be
created and stored.
Extensive Software Support
The controllers are delivered
with Windows operating software. Comprehensive DLLs
and LabVIEW drivers are
available for automated control.

Piezo Nano Positioning

Linear Actuators & Motors

Technical Data
Model
Function

E-517.i1
Digital operation module

E-517.i3
Digital operation module

Channels

Processor

DSP 60 MHz

DSP 60 MHz

Sampling rate, sensor

25 kHz, 8-times oversampling

25 kHz, 8-times oversampling

Linear

Thermal drift

Stability: 0.2 mV

Stability: 0.2 mV

Linearity @ nominal range

0.01 %

0.01 %

Vertical & Tip/Tilt

Resolution

DAC: 24 bit, 12 V
ADC: 18 bit, sampling

DAC: 24 bit, 12 V
ADC: 18 bit, sampling

Interfaces and operation

Interfaces/communication

Ethernet (TCP/IP), USB, RS-232, IEEE 488

Ethernet (TCP/IP), USB, RS-232, IEEE 488

1 trigger input
1 trigger output
5V
MDR14 connector

3 trigger inputs
3 trigger outputs
5V
MDR14 connector

Command set

PI General Command Set (GCS)

PI General Command Set (GCS)

User software

PIMikroMove

PIMikroMove

Software drivers

Lab VIEW drivers,

Windows and Linux Libraries (DLL)

Lab VIEW drivers,

Windows and Linux Libraries (DLL)

Supported functionality

Wave generator, data recorder,

macro programming

Wave generator, data recorder,

macro programming

Display

LCD display for monitor signals

(position and voltage),
states and trackball menus

LCD display for monitor signals

(position and voltage),
states and trackball menus

Manual control

Operation via trackball

Operation via trackball

+5 to +50 C

+5 to +50 C

I/O ports

Miscellaneous
Operating temperature range

Nanopositioning / Piezoelectrics
Piezo Flexure Stages /
High-Speed Scanning Systems

2- and 3-Axis
6-Axis

Fast Steering Mirrors /

Active Optics
Piezo Drivers /
Servo Controllers
Single-Channel
Multi-Channel
Modular
Accessories

Piezoelectrics in Positioning

Nanometrology
Micropositioning
Index

Dimensions

21HP / 3U

21HP / 3U

Mass

0.37 kg

0.37 kg

Operating voltage

E-500 system

E-500 system

2-157

Appendix II

SPECIFICATIONS of NI 9205
32-Channel, 200 mV to 10 V, 16-Bit Analog Input Module

Fig 65. NI 9205 Terminal and Pin Assignments

Fig 66. Input Circuitry for One Analog Channel on the NI 9205

This module supports a low-power sleep mode. Support for sleep mode at the system level
depends on the chassis that the module is plugged into. Refer to the chassis manual for
information about support for sleep mode. If the chassis supports sleep mode, refer to the
software help for information about enabling sleep mode.

Specifications
The following specifications are typical for the range -40 to 70 C unless otherwise noted. All
voltages are relative to COM unless otherwise noted.

Analog Input Characteristics

Number of channels.......................... 32 single-ended or 16 differential analog input channels, 1
digital input channel, and 1 digital output channel
ADC resolution.................................16 bits
DNL .................................................. No missing codes guaranteed.
Conversion time
R Series Expansion chassis ........ 4.50 s (222 kS/s)
All other chassis ......................... 4.00 s (250 kS/s)
Input coupling...................................DC
Nominal input ranges........................10 V, 5 V, 1 V, 0.2 V
Minimum over range
(for 10 V range) ................................ 4%
Maximum working voltage for analog inputs
(signal + common mode) .................. Each channel must remain within 10.4 V of common.
Power Requirements
Power consumption from chassis
Active mode ...............................625 mW max
Sleep mode .................................15 mW
Thermal dissipation (at 70 C)
Active mode ...............................625 mW max
Sleep mode .................................15 mW

Fig 67. Typica! AI+ to AI- CMRR graph

SPECIFICATIONS of NI 9263
4-Channel, 10 V, 16-Bit Analog Voltage Output Module

Fig 68. NI 9263 Termina! Assignments

Fig 69. Output Circuitry for One Channe! of the NI 9263

This module supports a low-power sleep mode. Support for sleep mode at the system level
depends on the chassis that the module is plugged into. Refer to the chassis manual for
information about support for sleep mode. If the chassis supports sleep mode, refer to the
software help for information about enabling sleep mode.

Fig 70. Connecting load with NI 9263

Specifications
The following specifications are typical for the range -40 to 70 C unless otherwise noted. All
voltages are relative to COM unless otherwise noted.
Output Characteristics
Number of channels.......................... 4 analog output channels
DAC resolution .................................16 bits
Type of DAC..................................... String
Power-on output state ....................... Channels off
Startup voltage .................................. 0 V
Power-down voltage ......................... 0 V
Output voltage range
Nominal...................................... 10 V
Minimum.................................... 10.4 V
Typical........................................ 10.7 V
Maximum ...................................11 V
Current drive ..................................... 1 mA per channel max
Output impedance ............................ 20.
Power Requirements
Power consumption from chassis
Active mode (at -40 C).............500 mW max
Sleep mode .................................25W max
Thermal dissipation (at 70 C)
Active mode ............................... 750 mW max
Sleep mode .................................25W max
Stability
Gain drift .................................... 14 ppm/C
Offset drift .................................. 110V/C