Introduction to

Geometric Dimensioning &

Tolerancing (GD&T)
Dr. Melik Dlen

1956
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Middle East Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Ankara 06531, TURKEY

Outline
Definition and Background
+ /- Tolerancing vs. Geometric
Tolerancing
Features
Datums
Material Conditions Modifiers
Feature Control Frames

Major Categories of Tolerances

14 Tolerance Measurements

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Bonus Tolerance
Virtual Conditions
GD&T with Solidworks
Summary
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What is GD&T?

GD&T is a symbolic language used to specify the size, shape,

form, orientation, and location of features on a part.
Design tool for communicating design requirements.

Like other languages, GD&T uses special punctuation and

grammar rules.
Must be used properly in order to prevent misinterpretation.
Comparable to learning a new language!
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What is GD&T? (Contd)

GD&T has developed as a method to question and
measure the truth about the form, orientation,
and location of manufactured parts.
Considers the function of the part and how this part
functions with related parts.
Allows a drawing to contain a more defined feature
more accurately without increasing tolerances.

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Standards
Standards on GD&T come
from two organizations:
ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineering)
ISO (International Organization for
Standardization)

ASME Y14.5M and ISO

1101 are the written
standards.
Standards are nowhere complete.
Continuously evolving since WWII!

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When to Use GD&T?

Designers should specify tolerance for the parts
with GD&T when
Drawing delineation and interpretation need to be the
same,
Features are critical to function or interchangeability,
Automated manufacturing/inspection equipment is
utilized,
Functional gauging is required,
It is important to increase productivity.

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Dimensioning
Dimensioning can be divided into
three categories:
General dimensioning
Used since 1800s.
Limit dimensioning
Plus/minus dimensioning

Geometric dimensioning
Surface texture
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Plus/Minus Tolerancing
Plus/ Minus tolerancing, or limit
tolerancing is a two-dimensional system.
When the designer draws the part, using
CAD tools, the lines are straight, angles
are perfect, and the holes are perfectly
round.
When the part is produced in a
manufacturing process, there will be
errors.
The variations in the corners and surfaces
will be undetectable to the human eye.
They can be picked up using precise
measurements such as a Coordinate Measuring
Machine (CMM).

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Plus/Minus Tolerancing (Contd)

In a plus/minus tolerancing system, the datums are
implied and therefore, are open to interpretations.
Plus/minus tolerancing works well when individual
features are considered.
However, one can not understand the relationship between
individual features.

With the dawn of CAD systems and CMMs, it has become

increasingly important to describe parts in three
dimensions (i.e. solid geometric models), and plus/minus
tolerancing is simply not precise enough.

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Example - Dimensional Tolerancing

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Example Produced Part

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Example - GD&T Specs

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Example - Feature Control via GD&T

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Example
Consider the given Table.
Assume all four legs will be cut to
the length at the same time.

All surfaces have a degree of

waviness (smoothness).
The surface of a 2 by 4 is much
wavier (rough) than the surface of a
piece of glass.
As the table height is dimensioned,
the following table would pass
inspection.
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Example (Contd)
If top must be flatter, you could tighten the
tolerance to 1/32.
However, now the height is restricted to 26.97 to
27.03 meaning good tables would be rejected.

You can have both, by using GD&T.

The table height may any height between 26 and
28 inches.
The table top must be flat within 1/16. (1/32)
.06

.06

26

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.06

28

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Review of Terminology
Basic Dimension: Nominal dimension from which tolerances
are derived.
With Size: A feature said to be with size if it is associated
with a size dimension. It can be cylindrical or spherical or
possibly a set of two opposing parallel surfaces.
Without Size: A plane surface where no size dimensions are
indicated.
Feature Control Frames: Probably the most significant
symbol in any geometric tolerancing system. Provides the
instructions and requirements for its related feature.
Radius: Two types of radii can be applied. The radius (R)
distinguishes general applications. The controlled radius
(CR) defines radius shapes that require further restrictions.
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Terminology - Feature
Real, geometric shapes that
make up the physical
characteristics of a part.
May include one or more elements:
Holes, Screw threads, Profiles, Faces,
Slots

Can be individual or may be

interrelated.
Any feature can have many
imperfections and variations
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Material Condition Modifiers

Have tremendous impact on stated tolerance or
datum reference.
Can only be applied to features and datums that
specify size (holes, slots, pins, tabs). If applied to
features that are without size, they have no
impact.
There are three material condition modifiers:
Maximum material condition (MMC)
Least material condition (LMC)
Regardless of feature size (RFS)
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Maximum Material Condition M

M
.255

This is when part will weigh the most.

MMC for a shaft is the largest allowable size.
MMC of .250.005?

MMC for a hole is the smallest allowable size.

MMC of .250.005?
.250 + .005

.245

Permits greater possible tolerance as the

part feature sizes vary from their
calculated MMC
Ensures interchangeability
Used with interrelated features with
respect to location:
Size, such as, hole, slot, pin, etc.

.250 + .005

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Least Material Condition L L

.245

.250 + .005

This is when part will weigh

the least.
LMC for a shaft is the
smallest allowable size.
LMC of .250.005?

.255

LMC for a hole is the largest

allowable size.
LMC of .250.005?

.250 + .005

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Regardless of Feature Size

Requires that the condition of the
material NOT be considered.
This is used when the size feature does
not affect the specified tolerance.
Valid only when applied to features of
size, such as holes, slots, pins, etc.,
with an axis or center plane.
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Limits of Size
SIZE DIMENSION

WHAT DOES
THIS MEAN?
2.007
2.003

SIZE DIMENSION
ENVELOPE PRINCIPLE
MMC
(2.007)

LMC
(2.003)

A variation in form is
allowed between the
least material condition
(LMC) and the maximum
material condition
(MMC).
Envelope (Taylor)
Principle defines the size
and form relationships
between mating parts.

ENVELOPE OF SIZE

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Limits of Size (Contd)

MMC
LMC

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The actual size of the feature

at any cross section must be
within the size boundary.
No portion of the feature
may be outside a perfect
form barrier at maximum
material condition (MMC).

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Controlled Features
GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC CONTROLS
TYPE OF
FEATURE

TYPE OF
TOLERANCE

CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
FLATNESS

INDIVIDUAL
(No Datum
Reference)

FORM

STRAIGHTNESS
CIRCULARITY
CYLINDRICITY

INDIVIDUAL or
RELATED
FEATURES

PROFILE

LINE PROFILE
SURFACE PROFILE
PERPENDICULARITY

ORIENTATION
RELATED
FEATURES
(Datum
Reference
Required)

PARALLELISM
RUNOUT

CIRCULAR RUNOUT

TOTAL RUNOUT
CONCENTRICITY
LOCATION

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ANGULARITY

POSITION
SYMMETRY

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Some Common Symbols

.003 M

Feature Control Frame

Datum Reference Frame

Diametral (Cylindrical) Tolerance
Zone or Feature

.500

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Basic- or Exact Dimension

Least Material Condition (LMC)

Maximum Material Condition (MMC)

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Feature Control Frame

GEOMETRIC SYMBOL
TOLERANCE INFORMATION
DATUM REFERENCES

THE
RELATIVE TO
OF THE FEATURE
MUST BE WITHIN

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Example - Frame Control Frame

Reads as The (true) position of the
feature must be within a .01
diametric tolerance zone at
maximum material condition
relative to datums A, B (at
maximum material condition), and
C.

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Application of FCFs
May be attached to a side, end
or corner of the symbol box to
an extension line or could be
applied to a surface or an axis.
May be below or closely
adjacent to the dimension or
note pertaining to that feature.
.500.005

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Basic Dimension

1.000

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A theoretically exact size,

profile, orientation, or
location of a feature or
datum target, therefore, a
basic dimension is nontoleranced.
Most often used with
position, angularity, and
profile
Basic dimensions have a
rectangle surrounding it.
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Datum Reference Frame

GD&T positions every part within a Datum
Reference Frame (DRF).
The DRF is by far the most important
concept in the geometric tolerancing
system.
The skeleton, or frame of reference to
which all requirements are connected.
Understanding the DRF is critical in order to
grasp the concepts of position and profile.
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DRF (Contd)
Engineering, manufacturing,
and inspection all share a
common three planes
concept.
These three planes are:
Mutually perpendicular
(orthogonal)
Perfect in dimension and
orientation

This concept is called the

Datum Reference Frame.
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DRF (Contd)

This flat, granite surface plate

and the angle block sitting on
it, can represent two of the
three datum planes.

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The three main features of the DRF

are the planes, axes, and points.
The DRF consists of three imaginary
planes, similar to the X, Y, & Z axes
of the traditional coordinate
measuring system.
The planes exist only in theory and
make up a perfect, imaginary
structure that is mathematically
perfect.
All measurements originate from
the simulated datum planes.
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DRF (Contd)
The Datum Reference Frame will
accommodate both rectangular
and cylindrical parts.
A rectangular part fits into the
corners represented by the
intersection of the three datum
planes.
The datum planes are imaginary
and therefore perfect.
The parts will vary from these
planes, even though the variations
will not be visible to the naked eye.

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DRF (Contd)
The most important concept to understand
is that when the part is placed into an
inspection apparatus, it must make contact
with its planes in the order specified by the
feature control frame.
Primary, then secondary, then tertiary!

This is the only way to assure uniformity in

the measurement of different parts.
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DRF (Contd)
A cylindrical part rests on the flat
surface of the primary plane and
the center of the cylinder aligns
with the vertical datum axis
created by the intersection of
the planes.
In this case, it becomes very
important to be able to establish
the exact center of the part,
whether it is the center of a solid
surface, or the center of a hole.
Cylindrical parts are more
difficult to measure.
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Implied Datums
The order of precedence in the
selection and establishment of
datums is very important.
The picture shows a part with
four holes, located from the
edges with basic dimensions.
The datums are not called out in
the feature control frame, but
they are implied by the
dimensions and by the edges
from which those dimensions
originate. Thus, we imply that
these edges are the datums.
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Implied Datums (Contd)

Problems with implied datums:
We do not know the order in which they are
used.
We know the parts are not perfect.
None of the edges are perfectly square.
The 90o corners will not be perpendicular.
In theory, even if the corners were out of
perpendicularity by only .0001, the part would still
rock back and forth in the theoretically perfect
datum reference frame.
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Order of Datums
GD&T instructions designate which feature of the
part will be the primary, secondary, or tertiary
datum references.
These first, second and third datum features
reflect an order of importance when relating to
other features that dont touch the planes
directly.
Datum orders are important because the same
part can be inspected in several different ways,
each giving a different measurement.
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Order of Datum (Contd)

Creating a Datum Reference
Frame and an order of
importance is mandatory in
order to achieve
interchangeable parts.
Improper positioning could
result in measurement errors
unless the preferred
positioning in the inspection
fixture is indicated in the
drawing.
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Order of Datums (Contd)

The primary datum feature
must have at least three points
of contact with the part and
contacts the fixture first.
The secondary has two points
of contact and the tertiary has
three points of contact with
the part.
This process correctly mirrors
the datum reference frame
and positions the part the way
it will be fitted and used.
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Application of Datums
Datums are ideal features (points,
lines, circles, planes spheres,
cylinders, cones) on the object that
are used as references from which
other measurements are made.

1.000

Used in designing, tooling,

manufacturing, inspecting, and
assembling components and subassemblies.
Not every GD&T feature requires a
datum!

Datums are imaginary. They are

assumed to be exact for the purpose
of computation or reference.
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Datum (Contd)

Features are identified with respect to a datum.

Always start with the letter A
Do not use letters I, O, or Q
May use double letters AA, BB, etc.
This information is located in the feature control
frame.
Datums on a drawing of a part are represented
using the symbol shown below.
.003 M
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A
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Placement of Datums
.500.005

.500.005

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Feature sizes, such as

holes
Sometimes a feature
has a GD&T and is also
a datum
.500.005

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Inspection via CMM

COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE
BRIDGE DESIGN

PROBE

GRANITE
SURFACE
PLATE

DATUM
REFERENCE
FRAME
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Form Features
Individual features
No datum (reference) is required.

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Flatness

Straightness

Circularity

Cylindricity
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Flatness
Flatness is a three-dimensional
version of straightness tolerance.
Requires a surface to be within two
imaginary (perfectly flat & parallel)
planes.
Only the surface of the part (not the
entire thickness) is referenced to the
planes.
Most often used on rectangular or
square parts.
If used as a primary datum, flatness must
be specified in the drawing.

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Verification of Flatness

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Straightness
Straightness is a two-dimensional
tolerance.
Edge must remain within two
imaginary parallel lines to meet
straightness tolerance.
Distance between lines is
determined by size of specified
tolerance.
Most rectangular parts have a straightness
tolerance.
Edge or center axis of a cylinder may have a
straightness tolerance.
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Circularity
Circularity (or roundness) is a
two-dimensional tolerance.
Demands that any two-dimensional
cross-section of a round feature
must stay within the tolerance zone
created by two concentric circles.
Most often used on cylinders.
Also applies to cones and spheres.

Most inspectors check multiple

cross-sections.
Each section must meet the tolerance on
its own.

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Cylindricity
Cylindricity specifies the roundness
of a cylinder along its entire length.
All cross-sections of the cylinder must
be measured together, so cylindricity
tolerance is only applied to cylinders.

The thickness of the wall of a pipe represents

the cylindricity tolerance zone.

Circularity and cylindricity cannot

be checked by measuring various
diameters with a micrometer.
Part must be rotated in a highprecision spindle.
Best method would be to use a CMM.

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Cylindricity (Contd)

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Examples of Form Features

Flatness as stated on drawing:
The flatness of the feature must
be within 0.06 tolerance zone.

.003

0.500 .005

.003

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Straightness applied to a flat

surface: The straightness of the
feature must be within 0.003
tolerance zone.

0.500 .005

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Examples (Contd)
.003

0.500

0.505

0.500
0.505
1.010
0.990

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.030

Straightness applied to the

surface of a diameter: The
straightness of the feature must
be within .003 tolerance zone.

Straightness of an axis at MMC:

The derived median line
straightness of the feature
must be within a diametric
zone of .030 at MMC.
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Features Requiring Reference

Unlike form features, the
followings necessitate datum
reference:
Orientation
Perpendicularity, Angularity, Paralellism

Profile
Line (Curve), Surface

Run-out
Circular Run-out, Total Run-out

Location
Position, Concentricity, Symmetry
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Perpendicularity
Perpendicularity is the condition of a surface,
center plane, or axis at a right angle (90) to a
datum plane or axis.

The perpendicularity of this

surface must be within a
.005 tolerance zone relative
to datum A.
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The tolerance zone is the space

between the 2 parallel lines. They are
perpendicular to the datum plane
and spaced .005 apart.
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Example - Perpendicularity

This means the hole (i.e. its axis)

must be perpendicular within a
diametrical tolerance zone of
.010 relative to datum A

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Angularity
Angularity is a three-dimensional
tolerance.
Shape of the tolerance zone
depends on the feature:
If applied to flat surface, tolerance
zone becomes two imaginary planes,
parallel to ideal angle.
If applied to a hole, it is referenced
to an imaginary cylinder existing
around the ideal angle and center
of the hole must stay within that
cylinder.
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Parallelism
It is the condition of a surface or center plane
equidistant at all points from a datum plane, or
an axis.
The distance between the parallel lines, or
surfaces, is specified by the geometric tolerance.

0.01

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Line (Curve) Profile

A profile is an outline of the part
feature in one of the datum planes.
They control orientation, location, size
and form.

The two versions of profile

tolerance.
Both can be used to control features
such as cones, curves, flat or irregular
surfaces, or cylinders.

The profile of a line is a twodimensional tolerance.

It requires the profile of a feature to fall
within two imaginary parallel lines that
follow the profile of the feature.
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Profile of a Surface
Profile of a Surface is threedimensional version of the
line profile.
Often applied to complex and
curved contour surfaces such
as aircraft and automobile
exterior parts.
The tolerance specifies that
the surface must remain
within two three-dimensional
shapes.
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Circular Runout
Circular and Total Runout are threedimensional and apply only to cylindrical
parts.
Both tolerances reference a cylindrical
feature to a center datum-axis, and
simultaneously control the location, form
and orientation of the feature.

Circular runout can only be inspected

when a part is rotated.
Calibrated instrument is placed against the
surface of the rotating part to detect the
highest and lowest points.
The surface must remain within two
imaginary circles, having their centers
located on the center axis.

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Total Runout
Total Runout is similar to circular
runout except that it involves
tolerance control along the entire
length of, and between, two
imaginary cylinders, not just at
cross sections.
By default, parts that meet total
runout tolerance automatically satisfy
all of the circular runout tolerances.
Runout tolerances, especially total
runout, are very demanding and
present costly barriers to
manufacturing and inspection.
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Position Tolerance
Position is one of most common location tolerances:
A three-dimensional, related tolerance.
Ideal, exact location of feature is called true position.
Actual location of a feature is compared to the ideal true
position.
Usually involves more than one datum to determine where
true position should be.
Has nothing to do with size, shape, or angle, but rather
where it is.

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Position Tolerance (Contd)

A position tolerance is the total permissible variation in
the location of a feature about its exact true position.
For cylindrical features, the position tolerance zone is
typically a cylinder within which the axis of the feature
must lie.
For other features, the center plane of the feature must
fit in the space between two parallel planes.
The exact position of the feature is located with basic
dimensions.
The position tolerance is typically associated with the size
tolerance of the feature.
Datums are required.
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Position (Contd)
In the case of holes, the tolerance
involves the center axis of the hole and
must be within the imaginary cylinder
around the intended true position of
the hole.
If toleranced feature is rectangular,
the zone involves two imaginary
planes at a specified distance from the
ideal true position.
Position tolerance is easy to inspect
and is often done with just a functional
gage (go / no-go gage).

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Concentricity
Concentricity is a threedimensional tolerance.
It relates a feature to one
or multiple datums.
Difficult to measure!
The shaft is measured in
multiple diameters to
ensure that they share a
common center-axis.

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Symmetry
Symmetry is much like
concentricity.
Difference is that it controls
rectangular features and involves
two imaginary flat planes, much like
parallelism.
Both symmetry and concentricity
are difficult to measure and
increase costs of inspection.
When a certain characteristic, such
as balance, is important, these
tolerances are very effective.

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Example - Symmetry

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Issues in Position Tolerancing

2.000

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.750

Consider the following hole

dimensioned with coordinate
dimensions.
The tolerance zone for the
location of the hole is as
shown.
There exist several problems:
Two points, equidistant from
true position may not be
accepted.
Total tolerance diagonally is
.014, which may be more than
was intended.
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Issues (Contd)
Consider the same hole, but add GD&T.
Now, the actual center of the hole (axis) must lie in
the round tolerance zone. The same tolerance is
applied, regardless of the direction.

MMC = .500 - .003 = .497

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Bonus Tolerance
.010

This means that the tolerance is .010

if the hole size is the MMC size, or
.497. If the hole is bigger, we get a
bonus tolerance equal to the
difference between the MMC size and
the actual size.

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Material condition
modifiers give
inspectors a
powerful method of
checking shafts and
holes that fit
together.
Both MMC and LMC
modifiers allow for
bonus tolerance.
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Example - Bonus Tolerance

This system makes sense:
the larger the hole is, the
more it can deviate from
true position and still fit
in the mating condition!

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Actual Hole Size

Bonus Tolerance

of Tol. Zone

.497 (MMC)

.010

.499 (.499 - .497 = .002)

.002 (.010 + .002 = .012)

.012

.500 (.500 - .497 = .003)

.003 (.010 + .003 = .013)

.013

.502

.005

.015

.503 (LMC)

.006

.016

.504

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Virtual Condition
Depending upon its intended purpose, a
feature may be controlled by multiple
geometric tolerances.
The combined effects of these factors
determine the clearances between mating
parts and they establish gage feature sizes.
The collective effect of these factors is called
virtual condition.
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Example - Virtual Condition

The size tolerance for the pin

(.250 .002) along with the location
and perpendicularity tolerances are listed
in the Feature Control Frame.

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Regardless of its position (or

angle) the pin must lie within
the .002 boundary.
Tolerance for perpendicularity
allows a margin of .005.
If the part were produced at
MMC to .252 and it deviated
from perpendicularity by .005,
the total virtual size of the pin
would be.257 in relation to
datum A.

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Example (Contd)
Position tolerance of .010
combined with the size
tolerance of .002 would
produce a virtual size of .262 in
relation to datums A, B and C.
This means that an inspection
gage would have to have a hole
of .262 to allow for the
combined tolerances
Therefore, three inspections
would be necessary in order to
check for size, perpendicularity,
and location.
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Exercise - Virtual Sizes

.192

.186

.387

.379

Calculate the virtual sizes for the indicated features.

(Answers are in red!)
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Now, Its Your Turn!

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GD&T with SolidWorks

Among other things,
the dimension expert
(DimXpert) tool allows
its users to work with
GD&T:
This feature has been
added to the SW after
2008.

Lots videos are

available on Youtube.
Check it out!
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Summary
GD&T is an international design (and drafting)
standard.
Uses consistent approach and compact symbols
to define and control the features of
manufactured parts.
Is derived from the two separate standards of
ASME Y14.5M and ISO 1101.
Helps inspectors improve their methods by
emphasizing fit, form, and function.
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Summary (Contd)
Compares the physical, imperfect features of a
part to its perfect, imaginary form specified in the
design drawing.
Controls flatness, straightness, circularity,
cylindricity, and four form tolerances that
independently control a feature.
Other tolerances, such as location, runout, and
orientation must be referenced to another datum.

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Summary (Contd)
The profile tolerances can define a feature
independently.
A related datum can further define the orientation
and location.
A series of internationally recognized symbols are
organized into a feature control frame.
The control frame specifies the type of geometric
tolerance, the material condition modifier, and
any datums that relate to the feature.
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