Critical Metals in Manganese Nodules From The Cook Islands EEZ, Abundances and Distributions

Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116
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Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev
Critical metals in manganese nodules from the Cook Islands EEZ,

abundances and distributions
James R. Hein a,, Francesca Spinardi a, Nobuyuki Okamoto b, Kira Mizell a, Darryl Thorburn c, Akuila Tawake d
a
U.S. Geological Survey, PCMSC, 400 Natural Bridges Dr., Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
Sea-Floor Mineral Resources R&D Division, Metals Mining Technology Dept., JOGMEC, 2-10-1 Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001, Japan
Seabed Minerals Authority, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
d
SOPAC Division of the SPC, Private Mail Bag, GPO, Suva, Fiji
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 20 August 2014
Received in revised form 8 December 2014
Accepted 12 December 2014
Available online 8 January 2015
Keywords:
Manganese nodules
Cook Islands EEZ
Critical metals
Mn
Ti
Co
Ni
REY
a b s t r a c t
The Cook Islands (CIs) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) encompasses 1,977,000 km2 and includes the Penrhyn and
Samoa basins abyssal plains where manganese nodules ourish due to the availability of prolic nucleus material,
slow sedimentation rates, and strong bottom currents. A group of CIs nodules was analyzed for mineralogical and
chemical composition, which include many critical metals not before analyzed for CIs nodules. These nodules
have varying sizes and nuclei material; however all are composed predominantly of -MnO2 and X-ray amorphous iron oxyhydroxide. The mineralogy, Fe/Mn ratios, rare earth element contents, and slow growth rates
(mean 1.9 mm/106 years) reect formation primarily by hydrogenetic precipitation. The paucity of diagenetic
input can be explained by low primary productivity at the surface and resultant low organic matter content in
seaoor sediment, producing oxic seaoor and sub-seaoor environments. The nodules contain high mean contents of Co (0.41%), Ni (0.38%), Ti (1.20%), and total rare earth elements plus yttrium (REY; 0.167%), and also high
contents of Mo, Nb, V, W, and Zr.
Compiled data from a series of four cruises by the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Mining agency
of Japan from 1985 to 2000 were used to generate a map that denes the statistical distribution of nodule
abundance throughout the EEZ, except the Manihiki Plateau. The abundance distribution map shows a belt of
high nodule abundance (1945 kg/m2) that starts in the southeast corner of the EEZ, runs northwest, and also
bifurcates into a SW trending branch. Small, isolated areas contain abundances of nodules of up to 58 kg/m2.
Six ~20,000 km2 areas of particularly high abundance were chosen to represent potential exploration areas,
and maps for metal concentration were generated to visualize metal distribution and to extrapolate estimated
metal tonnages within the six sites and the EEZ as a whole. Grades for Mn, Cu, and Ni are low in CIs nodules in
areas of high abundance; however, Ti, Co, and REY show high contents where nodule abundances are high. Of
the six areas identied to represent a range of metal contents, one at the northern end of the N-S abundance
main belt optimizes the most metals and would yield the highest dry metric tons for Mn (61,002,292), Ni
(1,247,834), Mo (186,166), V (356,247), W (30,215), and Zr (195,323). When compared with the Clarion
Clipperton Zone, the CIs nodules show higher nodule abundances (N25 kg/m2 over ~ 123,844 km2), and are
more enriched in the green-tech, high-tech, and energy metals Co, Ti, Te, Nb, REY, Pt, and Zr. The CIs EEZ
shows a signicant resource potential for these critical metals due to their high prices, high demand, and the
high nodule abundance, which will allow for a smaller footprint for a 20-year mine site and therefore smaller
environmental impact.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
The Cook Islands (CIs), located in the central South Pacic, consist
of a northern group of six atolls and a southern group of nine islands.
Abbreviations: ECS, Extended Continental Shelf; EEZ, Exclusive Economic Zone; CIs,
Cook Islands; REE, Rare earth elements; REY, Rare earth elements plus yttrium
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jhein@usgs.gov (J.R. Hein).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.12.011
0169-1368/Published by Elsevier B.V.
Those 15 islands have a total land area of 240 km 2 , whereas the

200 nm (360 km) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the CIs totals
1,977,000 km2, making the CIs a very large marine nation with an
ocean/land ratio of 8238. The total population of Cook Islanders has varied between about 24,600 and 17,300 from 2007 to 2014, including
both residents and about a quarter of the population living outside the
CIs, mostly in New Zealand.
The EEZs adjacent to that of the CIs include French Polynesia to the
E-SE, Kiribati to the E-NE, Tokelau to the NW, American Samoa to the
west, and Niue to the SW (Fig. 1). International waters lie to the north
J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116
1650'0"W
50'0"S
1700'0"W
1600'0"W
1550'0"W
50'0"S
98
Kiribati
100'0"S
1:350,000,000
Tokelau
150'0"S
American
Samoa
200'0"S
Manihiki
Plateau
Niue
200'0"S
French
Polynesia
150'0"S
100'0"S
Cook Islands EEZ
250'0"S
250'0"S
Legend
Manihiki Plateau
EEZ boundaries
Samples From This Study
Samples From Other Studies
1700'0"W
0 100 200
1650'0"W
400
1600'0"W
600
1:12,000,000
Kilometers
800
1550'0"W
Fig. 1. Location map of the Cook Islands EEZ (inset) and a map showing sample locations analyzed for this study in blue and other samples used for this study in red from JICA/MMAJ (2001)
and Okamoto (2003).
and south of the CIs EEZ and also form a donut hole between the EEZs
of CIs, Kiribati, and French Polynesia. The CIs has a potential Extended
Continental Shelf (ECS) north of the northern EEZ boundary, which is
currently before the Commission on the Limits of the Continental
Shelf. The physiography of the CIs EEZ consists predominantly of the
Manihiki Plateau (NW quadrant) with associated small seamounts,
and parts of the Penrhyn Basin and Samoa Basin abyssal plains with associated abyssal hills and small seamounts.
The abyssal seabed sediments of the CIs EEZ consist predominantly
of zeolite-rich pelagic redbrown clays, but biogenic silica and carbonate increase in the sediment with decreasing latitude and at water
depths of less than about 4800 m. Carbonate mud/ooze dominates in
the far NE of the EEZ and in the potential ECS. The Manihiki Plateau is
blanketed by calcareous and siliceous mud/ooze. The abyssal plain
muds are composed of quartz, clay minerals, zeolites, volcanic glass,
iron and manganese oxides, phosphate debris, and minor biogenic carbonate and silica in places (Cronan et al., 2010).
Ferromanganese nodules (hereafter Mn nodules) from the CIs EEZ

are compositionally different from those in other nodule elds from
the global ocean. It has been known for some time that CIs nodules
have relatively high cobalt (Co) contents and low nickel (Ni), copper
(Cu), and manganese (Mn) contents (e.g. Cronan et al., 1991; Verlaan
et al., 2004; Hein and Petersen, 2013) compared to other nodule elds
(Hein et al., 2013). The concentrations of many critical and strategic
metals have not been analyzed previously for CIs nodules, so comparisons with other nodule elds have been limited. To address this, we
present here chemical and mineralogical analyses for a set of nodules
distributed throughout the CIs EEZ (Table 1; Appendix 1; Supplementary Table S.1) for a set of 67 elements, including all of the elements of
potential economic interest, such as the rare earth elements (REEs)
plus yttrium (REY), tellurium (Te), niobium (Nb), zirconium (Zr), tungsten (W), titanium (Ti), and others (Appendix 1). In addition, we
recalculate the tonnages of nodules and contained metals from various
nodule abundance regions (in square kilometers) determined by GIS

Table 1
Location of Cook Islands EEZ manganese nodules.
Sample number
Latitude
(S)
Longitude
(W)
Water depth
(m)
CK-76-1 STN-03 FFC-02A

CK-76-1 STN-03 FFG-06A
CK-76-1 STN-03 FFG-06B
CK-76-1 STN-04 FFC-04
CK-7-16 STN-06 FFG-09
CK-76-1 STN-08 FFG-11
CK-76-1 STN-10 FFG-13
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRT-B0-7
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRU-B0-13
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRU-L0-5
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14D
CK-76-1 STN-12 FFG-15
CK-78-2 STN-02 FFG-03
CK-78-2 STN-2 FFG-03
CK-78-2 STN-02 FFG-04
CK-78-2 STN-03 FFG-05
CK-78-2 STN-03 FFG-06
CK-78-2 STN-04 FFG-07
CK-78-2 STN-04 FFG-08
CK-78-2 STN-05 FFG-10
CK-78-2 STN-08 FFG-16
CK-80-1 STN-03 WGCM-03
CK-80-1 STN-04 WGCM4A
CK-80-1 STN-04 WGCM-4B
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01A
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B-MRT-B0-8
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B-MRU-B0-11
1021-G991
1021-G995
1021-G1001
1021-G1003
1021-G1004
U321A
U339 b 20 mm
U339 N 20 mm
U340
1633.20
1633.20
1633.20
1516.00
1440.00
1440.00
1404.90
1224.00
1224.00
1038.00
1504.80
1640.00
1640.00
1640.00
1640.00
1640.00
1640.00
1640.00
1758.00
1329.20
1329.20
1329.20
1329.20
1329.20
1259.20
1259.20
1230.10
1230.10
1201.00
1201.00
1201.00
1324.00
1324.00
1324.00
1324.00
1328.70
1328.70
1121.14
1121.14
1039.03
1039.03
0755.54
1012.30
1012.30
1012.30
2438.50
2225.10
2141.20
2329.10
2418.40
1023.40
1133.60
1133.60
1143.80
15917.50
15917.50
15917.50
15908.50
15906.00
15906.00
15859.00
15844.00
15844.00
15831.50
16050.00
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
16048.50
15724.80
15724.80
15724.80
15724.80
15724.80
15659.90
15659.90
15731.60
15731.60
15659.50
15659.50
15659.50
16510.20
16510.20
16510.20
16510.20
16645.00
16645.00
15431.09
15431.09
15520.02
15520.02
15623.10
15931.20
15931.20
15931.20
16402.40
16129.00
15957.10
16008.40
16004.50
16021.00
16515.00
16515.00
16538.40
5089
5093
5093
5134
5092
5092
5111
5310
5310
5286
4999
4793
4793
4793
4793
4793
4793
4793
4920
5200
5200
5200
5200
5200
5050
5050
5133
5133
5275
5275
5275
5440
5440
5440
5440
5350
5350
5540
5540
5520
5520
5220
5275
5275
5275
5416
4715
3970
4817
5070
5047
4219
4219
5253
ArcMap calculations. Several assessments of contained metal tonnages

for CIs EEZ nodules have been made (e.g. Clark et al., 1995; Kingan,
1998; JICA/MMAJ, 2001; Okamoto, 2003; Cronan, 2013; Hein and
Petersen, 2013). Most of those assessments considered only a few
metals, so here we present new estimates for the tonnages of 10
contained metals of economic interest as well as for total REY.
2. Samples and methods
Fifty-four samples and subsamples were analyzed from 27 sites.
Each sample was dried and ground to a b 75 m powder in an agate
mortar and pestle. The nodule nucleus was included in the bulk analysis
of each nodule sample. Element concentrations were determined by
several methods. The 10 major elements (Fe, Mn, Si, Al, Mg, K, Ca, Na,
99
P, Ti) were analyzed using X-ray uorescence spectroscopy on a

borate-fused disc; 32 minor elements were determined by either
4-acid digest followed by induction coupled plasma-atomic emission
spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and ICP-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS; Ag, As,
Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, In, Li, Pb, Rb, S, Sb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, Tl,
Zn), or lithium metaborate fusion and ICP-MS (Cs, Hf, Mo, Nb, Ni, U, V,
W, Zr, REY); platinum-group elements and gold were determined by
Ni-re assay and ICP-MS, Cl by specic-ion electrode, Hg by cold vapor
analysis, H2O by gravimetric analysis, and H2O+ by peneld-infrared.
Se and Te were determined by 4-acid digestion hydride generation
with a modied ow injection technique developed for high Mn samples and analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Duplicate
analyses were performed on 30% of the samples and the average precision was approximately 3% for all techniques.
Mineral composition was determined using a Philips X-ray diffractometer (XRD) with CuK radiation and graphite monochromator run
from 4 to 71 2 at 40 kV and 45 mA. Digital scan results were analyzed
using Philips X'pert High Score software to measure X-ray reections
and identify possible mineral compositions. The identication of minerals was constrained using the chemical composition.
Pearson product correlation coefcient matrices were calculated for
the chemical data, which is a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two variables. Statistical signicance is given at either
a 99% or 95% condence level (CL). Q-mode factor analysis was used
to identify common groups of elements referred to as factors. On the
basis of XRD mineralogy and element correlations, each factor was
assigned to represent a particular mineral or mineral group in the
samples and elements in that factor are then associated with or
contained within that mineral or group. This links the mineralogical
environmental conditions and geochemical sources. Q-mode factor analysis was performed using Matlab script provided by Pisias et al. (2013).
Each variable percentage was scaled to a percent of the maximum
value before these values were row-normalized and cosine-theta coefcients calculated. Factors were derived from orthogonal rotations of
principal component eigenvectors using the Varimax method (Klovan
and Imbrie, 1971). All communalities, an index of the efciency of a
reduced set of factors to account for the original variance, are 0.90.
The distribution of nodule abundance was determined using data
collected by the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Mining
Agency of Japan from 1985 to 2000. Station numbers, latitude, longitude, water depth (m), and nodule abundance (kg/m2) data from over
700 stations were compiled into a database and imported into ArcGIS
10.2 to create a distribution map using the Natural Neighbor method
(Sibson, 1981). To quantify the Natural Neighbor distribution, a second
interpolation transformed the map into a grid of cells, or pixels, each
with a specic size (x = y) and an integer value for abundance. Since
there are several stations where abundances are b 1.0 kg/m2, the values
were converted to g/m2 to ensure no lost data due to rounding. An associated attribute table containing abundance values and cell counts was
generated and exported for calculations. All calculations were completed using the attribute table data and the cell size of the distribution map.
The area encompassing a specic abundance belt (in km2) was determined by multiplying the cell size by the cell count. A default cell size
of 4327.18 m (18.7 km2) for the abundance map was generated by the
ArcGIS analysis. The resulting areas of each abundance value were
summed to determine the total area (km2) covered by the abundance
distribution map within the EEZ; a total nodule tonnage was determined by multiplying those areas by their respective abundance value
and summing. All calculations excluded the Manihiki plateau area due
to a decit of nodule abundance data for that region. Equations and
explanation of the variables are in Supplementary Materials.
Concentrations of some elements in CIs nodules were compiled from
Japanese analyses of nodules collected during their 19852000 cruises
(JICA/MMAJ, 2001; Okamoto, 2003), as well as data from Usui and
Mita (1994) and Landmesser et al. (1976), combined with the data presented here (Appendix 2) for archived nodules collected during several
100
cruises: C.I.G.M.F.V. RAVIKAI cruise of June 1976, MACHIAS cruise of November 1978, MACHIAS cruise of March 1980, and the MACHIAS cruise
of April 1980. Along with the location and nodule abundance data, element contents for Co, Cu, Mn, Mo, Nb, Ni, Sc, Ti, V, W, Zr, and the REY
were compiled into individual databases to create distribution maps
using ArcGIS. These maps were generated using the same methods as
the nodule abundance map. Maps were then compared and six
~ 20,000 km2 areas that show a variety of metal abundance combinations for different metals of economic interest were selected. That
~20,000 km2 area size was chosen because it is comparable to the size
of the area that would currently be economically mineable within a contract license in the ClarionClipperton Zone (CCZ) nodule belt.
Fig. 2. Photographs of example Cook Islands Mn nodules used in this study. Pictured scale bars for A, B, C, D, F, J, K, and L are in cm, and the grid dimensions for E, G, H, and I are 5 5 mm;
(A) 12 ellipsoidal nodules with smooth surfaces from free-fall grab CK-76-1 STN-12 FFG-15; (B) 14 poly-nucleate nodules with smooth surfaces (CK-78-2 STN-08 FFG-16); (C) Four
granular surface spheroidal nodules (CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14D); (D) Two at nodules with granular surfaces (CK-78-2 STN-07 FFG-14A); (E) Six poly-nucleate nodules with a
smooth-oxidized mm-thick surface layer missing in places on some samples (CK-78-2 STN-03 FFG-06); (F) Cross-section of a quarter of a nodule (CK-76-1 STN-07 FFG-10B) displaying
interior structure and older Mn nodule fragment as a nucleus. (G) Interior of nodule U339 (20 mm) showing a relatively large, altered volcaniclastic rock nucleus; (H) Interior of nodule
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14D with moderate-sized mudstone nucleus; (I) Interior of sample CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14D with older Mn nodule fragment as the nucleus; (J) Interior of sample
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14A with small mudstone nucleus; (K) Interior of large (~80 mm) nodule (CK-78-2 STN-05 FFG-09A) with small mudstone nucleus; (L) Interior of sample G995 with
mudstone nucleus and graybrown mud that coats fracture or growth surfaces in some nodules.
10
Table 2
Statistics for chemical composition of FeMn nodules, Cook Islands EEZ.
Mean
Median
St. dev4
Min4
Max4
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
49
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
49
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
28
18
19
11
19
19
19
19
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
16.2
16.9
1.02
8.03
3.42
1.42
0.90
1.99
1.76
0.34
1.28
27.7
12.7
11.8
0.23
150
1160
3.9
11
4.7
4166
3751
59
b0.38
2309
b10
13
0.78
51
295
91
3767
976
15
1829
36
12
b0.80
7.8
935
2.2
24
36
146
9.5
504
59
492
555
b36
6
5
2
7
232
17
18
173
991
40.9
160
34.7
8.53
36.1
6.09
34.9
141
7.18
19.1
3.02
19.8
2.98
1678
17.2
2.69
2.65
16.0
17.4
0.97
7.12
3.11
1.33
0.76
1.99
1.79
0.34
1.23
28.0
12.0
10.0
0.21
148
1201
4.0
12
4.2
4836
3933
21
b0.34
1877
b9.8
13
0.82
37
293
88
3228
918
12
1724
35
11
b0.76
6.8
973
2.0
25
30
146
9.6
518
60
479
550
b22
6
6
2
6
224
17
19
169
987
39.7
160
34.2
8.48
36.3
6.11
34.9
145
7.29
19.4
3.08
20.3
3.10
1683
16.2
2.78
2.73
2.76
3.56
0.34
2.43
0.92
0.29
0.37
0.37
0.24
0.06
0.34
3.15
4.46
4.36
0.11
29
210
0.77
3.2
1.9
3238
945
125
b0.27
1196
b5.4
2.8
0.25
38
93
22
1814
292
8.7
458
5.1
5.1
b0.19
4.3
156
0.89
8.9
18
41
2.1
90
18
92
79
b30
2
1
1
3
59
4
2
36.1
351
9.17
38.1
7.50
1.91
7.37
1.39
7.00
24.3
1.36
3.43
0.58
3.86
0.56
477.0
3.02
0.53
0.52
10.6
8.18
0.49
5.50
1.63
1.00
0.43
1.10
1.14
0.18
0.77
20.1
6.60
6.40
0.05
84
638
2.3
5.1
1.6
467
1705
1.1
b0.10
436
b0.10
8.0
0.33
5.4
102
51
1066
442
6.6
1003
21
5.9
b0.20
3.0
466
1.0
8.6
14
42
4.5
281
20
312
352
b5
2
2
1
2
141
8
12
87.8
420
20.9
79.3
17.5
4.06
18.0
2.90
17.4
68.6
3.47
9.27
1.39
8.86
1.42
771.6
13.1
1.50
1.47
22.0
23.9
2.03
16.8
6.49
2.23
2.47
3.46
2.37
0.53
2.11
33.4
21.0
20.6
0.46
247
1644
5.6
18
11
12,865
5408
644
1.6
5625
24
21
1.3
168
463
154
9257
1948
49
2881
48
30
1.22
28
1199
4.8
41
91
235
15
659
98
756
724
117
9
6
3
11
328
27
23
298
1993
74.7
323
63.9
16.5
65.4
11.4
62.4
212
12.0
29.8
4.68
32.5
4.46
3205
24.7
3.68
3.64
CeSN/CeSN*
Hydrogenetic
Number
Mixed
1
d
Hy
0.1
0.1
10
rot
he
l
ma
Diagenetic
10
100
Nd [mg/kg]
600
B
Hydrogenetic
CeSN/CeSN*
Fe wt.%
Mn
Fe/Mn
Si
Al
Mg
K
Ca
Na
P
Ti
LOI
H2O
H2O+
Ag ppm
As
Ba
Be
Bi
Cd
Cl
Co
Cr
Cs
Cu
Ga
Hf
In
Li
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sb
Sc
Se
Sn
Sr
Ta
Te
Th
Tl
U
V
W
Zn
Zr
Hg ppb
Au
Ir
Os
Pd
Pt
Rh
Ru
La ppm
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Y
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
REY1
%Heavy2
Cecn3
Cesn3
101
Mixed
Hy
dro
the
Diagenetic
0.1
0.4
1 YSN /HoSN
rm
al
Fig. 3. Data for Cook Islands nodules plot in the hydrogenetic elds in discrimination
graphs of (A) CeSN/CeSN ratio vs Nd and (B) CeSN/CeSN* ratio vs YSN/HoSN ratios; discrimination plots from Bau et al. (2014).
Concentrations of the 11 metals and REY and abundance data were

extracted from each of the six areas using the extract by mask tool
in ArcGIS. These data were used to calculate total dry tonnages of nodules, the number of possible 20-year mine sites in each area, and the
total tonnage of each metal. The number of mine sites in each area is
based on a production of 2.5 million dry metric tons of nodules per
year, 50 million dry tons for 20 years; dry tons were converted from
wet tons based on a mean of 27% moisture content (JICA/MMAJ,
2001). This choice of tonnage for a 20-year mine site falls within the
high end of the range of other estimates used (Yamazaki, 2008 and references therein). Total tons for the 11 metals and REY within each
area were calculated using attribute table data from the mine site abundance and element concentration maps. The default cell size for each element concentration map varies based on the ArcGIS's Natural
Neighbor analysis. Equations and the explanation of the variables are
in Supplementary Materials.
3. Results
3.1. Sample description
The nodules analyzed range from 8 to 80 mm in diameter. Surfaces
of the nodules range from black to dark-brown with granular to smooth
textures. The nodules show two or three distinct concentric black layers
Notes to Table 2
1
REY = sum of rare earth elements plus yttrium.
2
Percentage of the REY complement that are heavy REY (Eu through Lu).
3
Cecn is Ce anomaly normalized to chondrite values; Cesn is Ce anomaly normalized to
PAAS values.
4
St. dev is standard deviation; Min is minimum; Max is maximum.
102
(Fig. 2). Most samples contain a thin laminated top layer, while others
have an acicular top layer. The second layer can be acicular, mottled,
or massive, and may contain a pale-brown mud patina. The third
layer, if present, is acicular to porous, also with a pale-brown mud
patina (Fig. 2). Nodules contain a nucleus of sh bone, shark's tooth,
black dense older nodule fragment, gray, white, or pale-brown
volcaniclastic/pyroclastic mudstone that is commonly zeolite rich, or altered basalt fragment; some mudstone nuclei can be large (Fig. 2). One
group of nodules is polynucleate, while other groups are spherical to ellipsoidal (Fig. 2). Two pancake nodules, each with a large rock nucleus
(encrusted volcaniclastic mudstone) are 3154 mm thick. Both pancake
nodules (CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C and CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B) have

a botryoidal surface with a black granular micro-texture indicative of
recent growth. Surface textures indicate that the pancake nodule CK76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C was turned over at some point in its history.
The pancake nodules have the same three layers as the other nodules.
3.2. Mineralogy
The manganese phase of all nodules analyzed is predominantly
-MnO2, with lesser amounts of asbolane/buserite and birnessite. The
-MnO2 has a high crystallinity and shows four X-ray reections, rather
1800
Chondrite Normalized
1000
100
10
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm

U339>20mm
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14D
CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRT-B0-7
CK-78-2 STN-05 FFG-10
U340
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B-MRT-B0-8
CK-80-1 STN-04 WGCM-4B
CK-78 STN-02 FFG-04
CK-78-2 STN-08 FFG-16
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
CK-76-1 STN-10 FFG-13

CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRU-B0-13
CK-76-1 STN-04 FFC-04
CK-76-1 STN-08 FFG-11
CK-78-2 STN-03 FFG-5
CK-76-1 STN-03 FFC-02A
CK-7-16 STN-06 FFG-09
1021-G991
CK-78-2 STN-04 FFG-07
CK-78-2 STN-03 FFG-06
1021-G1001
CK-80-1 STN-04 WGCM4A
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

CK-76-1 STN-12 FFG-15
U339<20mm
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B-MRU-B0-11
1021-G995
1021-G1003
U321A
1021-G1004
CK-78-2 STN-04 FFG-08
CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01A
50
PAAS Normalized
10
1
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Fig. 4. Chondrite-normalized and PAAS-normalized rare earth element plots for bulk CIs nodules showing large positive Ce anomalies and large negative Y anomalies, characteristic of
hydrogenetic precipitation.
than the two reections commonly found for most marine

hydrogenetic manganese oxides. Asbolane and buserite cannot always
be distinguished by XRD and where ambiguity exists, they are listed
together in Supplementary Table S.1. The presence of 10 and 7
phyllomanganates indicates that a small component of elements in
the nodules was supplied from sediment pore uids, but the dominant
-MnO2 in all samples indicates that the main source of metals was ambient seawater. The iron phase is X-ray amorphous for most samples,
but minor goethite was detected in two samples (Supplementary
Table S.1). Detrital quartz, plagioclase, and K-feldspar occur in most
samples as well as authigenic phillipsite; clay minerals, especially
nontronite, were detected in some samples, but it is likely that small
amounts of smectite-group minerals occur in most samples, which
with phillipsite are common alteration products of volcanic glass. The
magnesium-rich clay mineral sepiolite found in many samples may
also derive from alteration of volcanogenic material.
1700'0"W
103
3.3. Chemical composition

Iron and Mn average 16.2% and 16.9% respectively for our dataset,
and Fe/Mn ratios vary from 0.49 to 2.0 with an average of 1.0
(Table 2, Appendix 1), reecting predominantly hydrogenetic precipitation. Hydrogenetic precipitation is veried by the CIs REY nodule data plotting in the hydrogenetic eld on the discrimination
diagrams of Bau et al. (2014); (Fig. 3). The aluminosilicate fraction
(quartz, feldspars, phillipsite, clay minerals) varies by a factor of
three, as represented by Si (5.5016.8%); but the Si/Al ratio varies
only from 1.8 to 3.4, indicating little change in the types of minerals
and ratios of aluminosilicate minerals, only in the combined quantity
of those minerals, which generally reects the type and size of the
nucleus.
The metals traditionally considered of greatest economic potential
are Co, Ni, and Cu, which average in our dataset 0.38%, 0.38%, and
1650'0"W
1600'0"W
1550'0"W
Kiribati
100'0"S
100'0"S
200'0"S
200'0"S
French
Polynesia
150'0"S
150'0"S
Manihiki
Plateau
Legend
Manihiki Plateau
0.00 - 6.00
EEZ boundaries
6.00 - 12.2
Area A
12.2 - 19.0
Area B
19.0 - 25.2
Area C
25.2 - 31.0
Area D
31.0 - 38.2
Area E
38.2 - 45.0
Area F
45.0 - 58.2
1700'0"W
1650'0"W
250'0"S
250'0"S
Cook Islands EEZ Abundance (kg/m)
0 100 200
400
1600'0"W
600
1:12,000,000
Kilometers
800
1550'0"W
Fig. 5. Nodule abundance (kg/m2) distribution map for Cook Islands based on data from Okamoto (2003) and JICA/MMAJ (2001); colored rectangles represent the locations of six areas
that show a range of metal combinations of potential economic interest (see Figs. 6, 7, and supplementary Figs. S.1, S.2).
1650'0"W
1600'0"W
1700'0"W
1550'0"W
Kiribati
100'0"S
50'0"S
1700'0"W
interest, but the other metals have been evaluated for economic potential (Tables 2, 3). In addition, Ti is higher in CIs nodules (average 1.28%)
than in nodules found elsewhere (0.16%0.42%; Hein et al., 2013; Hein
and Koschinsky, 2014; see also Glasby et al., 1978) and Ti is also of economic interest. Finally, Sc, while occurring in the nodules only at the
1650'0"W
1600'0"W
1550'0"W
Kiribati
Manihiki
Plateau
50'0"S
0.23% respectively. However, recent studies indicate that several other

critical metals in Mn nodules and FeMn crusts may be of economic interest, including Bi, Li, Mo, Nb, Te, Th, Tl, V, W, Zr, Pt, and the REY (Hein
et al., 2013; Hein and Koschinsky, 2014). Of those critical metals, Bi, Li,
and Th have concentrations too low in CIs nodules to be of economic
100'0"S
104
Manihiki
Plateau
French
Polynesia
French
Polynesia
150'0"S
150'0"S
910 - 2,400
Mn (wt%)
2,400 - 2,850
1-7
2,850 - 3,300
7 - 10
3,300 - 3,750
10 - 13
3,750 - 4,200
6,000 - 7,300
0 100 200
400
1:12,000,000
19 - 22
Kilometers
800
22 - 29
600
1:12,000,000
0 100 200
400
600
Kiribati
Manihiki
Plateau
Manihiki
Plateau
150'0"S
French
Polynesia
Legend
Legend
Ni (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
652 - 3,000
513 - 1,200
3,000 - 4,000
1,200 - 1,800
4,000 - 5,000
1,800 - 2,400
5,000 - 6,000
2,400 - 2,900
6,000 - 7,000
2,900 - 3,700
7,000 - 8,000
3,700 - 4,600
8,000 - 9,000
4,600 - 5,700
9,000 - 10,000
5,700 - 7,000
10,000 - 12,000
1:12,000,000
12,000 - 14,400
Kilometers
800
1700'0"W
French
Polynesia
200'0"S
200'0"S
100'0"S
100'0"S
Kiribati
250'0"S
Kilometers
800
0 100 200
1650'0"W
400
1600'0"W
600
1550'0"W
50'0"S
17 - 19
5,100 - 5,550
1:12,000,000
7,000 - 8,500
8,500 - 11,200
1700'0"W
150'0"S
250'0"S
15 - 17
4,650 - 5,100
250'0"S
13 - 15
4,200 - 4,650
5,550 - 6,000
50'0"S
200'0"S
Legend
Co (ppm)
0 100 200
1650'0"W
400
1600'0"W
600
250'0"S
200'0"S
Legend
Kilometers
800
1550'0"W
Fig. 6. Metal concentration distribution maps for (A) Co (ppm), (B) Mn (wt.%), (C) Ni (ppm), and (D) Cu (ppm) from Cook Islands nodules; colored rectangles are labeled in Fig. 5, and data
within each rectangle are quantied in Table 3; concentration maps for Mo, W, Nb, Zr, V, and Sc are in supplementary Figs. S.1, S.2.
Earth's crustal average, may still be of economic interest because of its

high global metal market price and the ease of extraction of metals
from the ferromanganese (oxyhydr)oxide matrix (Hein et al., 2013).
Like Ti, total REY contents (average 0.168%; maximum 0.321%) in CIs
nodules are signicantly higher than in nodules found elsewhere in
the global ocean (0.040%0.104%; Hein et al., 2013; Hein and
Koschinsky, 2014; see also Glasby et al. (1978)). The CIs REY data plotted relative to chondrites (Anders and Grevesse, 1989) show light REY
enrichments, positive Ce anomalies, and negative Eu and Y anomalies,
and plotted relative to Post Archean Australian Shale (PAAS;
McLennan, 1989) show the same Ce and Y anomalies and very small enrichments in middle and heavy REY (Fig. 4). The upper bounding sample
(CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRU-L5-13) is the inner layer of a pancake
nodule and has a relatively high Fe content and associated elements, including the highest As, Bi, Pb, and Th contents, whereas the lower bound
sample (CK-78-2 STN-07 FFG-14A) has a high Fe/Mn ratio and the
highest aluminosilicate component (Fig. 4).
105
with water depth. Latitude also has positive correlations with Th, Nb,
Ti, Fe, Be, the light REEs, Ce anomaly (Ce*), Bi, Co, and V and negative
correlations with Na, Cu, Mo, S, K, Mn, Ni, and Tl.
Q-mode factor analysis identies four factors that we interpret to
represent the Fe, Mn, aluminosilicate, and biogenic (predominately
phosphate) components, which account for 96% of the sample variance, 53%, 29%, 12%, and 2% respectively. The Fe phase shows the following associated elements listed by decreasing factor scores: Te, Co,
Bi, V, Fe, Ce, U, Pb, Th, Zr, Nb, Lu, Tm, Ba, La, Yb, Er, Pr, Ho, Tb, Ti, Sm, Y,
Sb, Gd, Eu, and Dy; the Mn phase shows: Cu, Mo, Mn, Ni, Zn, Li, Tl, W;
the aluminosilicate minerals contain: Sc, Si, Al, Cr, K, Mg, Fe; and the
biogenic, chiey phosphate sh debris and shark's teeth, includes: Ti,
Ca, P, Zr, Mg, Nb, Cl, Na. Although Mn shows positive correlations
with the heavy REY, factor analyses places the REY only in the Fe
factor.
3.5. Growth rates

3.4. Statistical analyses of chemical data
1700'0"W
1650'0"W
1600'0"W
Nodule growth rates were determined using the empirical equation of Manheim and Lane-Bostwick (1988): GR = 0.68/(Con )1.67,
where Con = Co(50/Fe + Mn), with Co, Fe, and Mn in wt.%. The
growth rate variability is small for the CIs nodules, 1.04.2 mm/Ma,
mean 1.9 mm/Ma, which is in the same range as most hydrogenetic
FeMn crusts (Hein et al., 2000). The oxide portion on one pancake
nodule was divided into two layers and the younger layer grew at a
faster rate than the older layer, 1.95 mm/Ma compared to 1.4 mm/
Ma. That change in growth rate would have occurred about 2.6 Ma
ago, near the PliocenePleistocene boundary. A nodule's radius divided by its growth rate produces ages for the initiation of the
growth of large nodules of early to middle Miocene, about 1814 Ma.
1550'0"W
1700'0"W
1650'0"W
1600'0"W
1550'0"W
B
Kiribati
100'0"S
Kiribati
100'0"S
50'0"S
50'0"S
Manganese correlates at the 99% CL with Mo, W, Tl, Zn, Ni, Cu, Li and
the ve heaviest REEs (HoLu) plus Y; whereas Fe at the same CL correlates with Th, Ti, Nb, all REY, Pb, Bi, Zr, Te, V, Co, and P. Elements also vary
with both latitude and water depth, which are partially coupled because
water depth increases to the north; some correlations common to both
spatial parameters may have a causal relation with both latitude and
water depth or with only one. Aluminum, Li, Cu, Rb, Ni, and Si have positive correlations with water depth and Ti, Ca, P, all REY, Co, Fe, Nb, Pb,
Te, Th, and Zr have negative correlations with water depth. Lead and
Zr also have positive correlations with latitude and therefore must
relate to some process that varies with latitude and is not associated
Manihiki
Plateau
Manihiki
Plateau
French
Polynesia
French
Polynesia
150'0"S
150'0"S
Legend
Legend
0.50 - 0.75
REY (ppm)
0.75 - 0.90
862 - 1,300
0.90 - 1.05
1,300 - 1,450
1.05 - 1.20
1,450 - 1,600
1.20 - 1.35
1,600 - 1,750
1.35 - 1.50
1,750 - 1,900
1.50 - 1.65
1,900 - 2,050
1:12,000,000
1.65 - 1.80
1.80 - 2.10
1700'0"W
200'0"S
0.33 - 0.50
0 100 200
1650'0"W
400
1600'0"W
600
Kilometers
800
1550'0"W
1:12,000,000
2,050 - 2,200
2,200 - 2,400
1700'0"W
0 100 200
1650'0"W
400
1600'0"W
600
250'0"S
250'0"S
200'0"S
Ti (wt%)
Kilometers
800
1550'0"W
Fig. 7. Metal concentration distribution maps for (A) Ti (wt.%) and (B) REY (ppm) from Cook Islands nodules; colored rectangles are labeled in Fig. 5, and data within each rectangle are
quantied in Table 3.
106
3.6. Distribution of critical elements in the CIs EEZ

An abundance map in kg/m2 of Mn nodules in the CIs EEZ shows a
high abundance belt tending about N-S in the eastern part of the EEZ,
which bifurcates, with a SW trending branch in the southern half of
the EEZ (Fig. 5). Nodule abundance is very low through the NE sector
of the EEZ. Very high nodule abundances of N 25 kg/m2 cover a huge
area, about 123,844 km2, which contains 3.61 billion wet tons of nodules. High Co contents in the nodules follow the SW branch and the
northern part of the N-S main belt, with concentrations in places of
over 0.7% Co (Fig. 6A). Manganese contents in the nodules are high in
the NE sector where nodule abundances are low, and show only moderate concentrations in areas where nodules are high in Co (Fig. 6B). Nickel and Cu contents are also very high in the northern part of the NE
sector, up to 1.4% Ni and 1.1% Cu, where nodule abundances are low,
and both are relatively low through the SW branch and the main belt
of nodule abundance (Fig. 6C, D; see also Okamoto (2003)). Titanium
and REY are high in nodules in the area of the intersection of the main
belt and SW branch of nodule abundance and Ti is also high at the
southern margin of the EEZ (Fig. 7A, B). Molybdenum and W have
their highest contents in nodules located east of the Manihiki Plateau,
whereas Nb and Zr have highest contents in the south-central EEZ. Vanadium has a poorly constrained, small high in the NE sector, and a
moderate high at the intersection of the main belt and the SW branch
of nodule abundance. Scandium shows two high areas, one adjacent
to the SW ank of the Manihiki Plateau and the other at the SW margin
of the EEZ. The western half of the EEZ shows average or higher Sc contents and the area east of the Manihiki Plateau shows below average
Table 3
Nodule and contained metal dry tons in six areas (Fig. 5) from the Cook Islands EEZ.
Area A
Area B
Area C
Area D
Area E
Area F
Area (km2)
Nodules (dry tons)
Number of 20 year mine sites1
Area of each 20 year mine site (km2)
Area mined per year (km2)
20,316
3.50 108
7.0
2902
145
19,324
3.57 108
7.1
2705
135
20,541
1.53 108
3.1
6706
335
20,372
2.50 108
5.0
4067
203
20,466
2.82 108
5.6
3626
181
20,297
1.51 108
3.0
6716
336
Contained metal (dry tons)

Mn
Ti
Co
Ni
Cu
REY
V
Zr
Mo
Nb
W
61,002,292
4,144,400
1,475,753
1,247,834
840,845
678,866
356,247
195,323
186,166
30,275
30,215
56,029,138
3,584,071
1,903,653
920,785
495,346
765,405
200,872
222,313
99,555
36,913
23,152
23,635,308
2,350,609
709,664
406,459
233,802
333,792
90,365
96,380
44,284
14,816
9943
34,824,492
4,173,565
1,169,238
711,700
405,518
538,398
142,908
169,275
60,717
30,561
15,700
37,984,935
3,614,946
1,401,147
770,433
441,505
388,373
135,346
189,150
75,224
34,740
16,074
20,992,979
1,951,593
521,300
342,848
378,646
164,835
68,178
90,486
28,714
15,453
5446
Contained metal: dry tons per 20 year mine site1

Mn
8,714,094
Ti
592,022
Co
210,809
Ni
178,251
Cu
120,114
REY
96,975
V
50,889
Zr
27,902
Mo
26,594
Nb
4325
W
4316
7,842,554
501,672
266,460
128,885
69,335
107,136
28,117
31,118
13,935
5167
3241
7,716,215
767,403
231,684
132,697
76,329
108,973
29,501
31,465
14,457
4837
3246
6,951,462
833,103
233,396
142,065
80,947
107,472
28,527
33,790
12,120
6100
3134
6,729,847
640,465
248,243
136,499
78,222
68,809
23,979
33,512
13,328
6155
2848
6,946,586
645,783
172,499
113,449
125,294
54,544
22,560
29,942
9501
5113
1802
Contained metal: dry tons in 1 year of production1

Mn
435,705
Ti
29,601
Co
10,540
Ni
8913
Cu
6006
REY
4849
V
2544
Zr
1395
Mo
1330
Nb
216
W
216
392,128
25,084
13,323
6444
3467
5357
1406
1556
697
258
162
385,811
38,370
11,584
6635
3816
5449
1475
1573
723
242
162
347,573
41,655
11,670
7103
4047
5374
1426
1689
606
305
157
336,492
32,023
12,412
6825
3911
3440
1199
1676
666
308
142
347,329
32,289
8625
5672
6265
2727
1128
1497
475
256
90
Percentage produced in 1 year of 2013 global production

Mn
2.7%
Ti
16%
Co
9.6%
Ni
0.42%
Cu
0.04%
REY
5.1%
V
4.0%
Zr
0.10%
Mo
0.53%
Nb
0.31%
W
0.30%
1
2.5%
13%
12%
0.31%
0.02%
5.6%
2.2%
0.11%
0.28%
0.37%
0.22%
Based on 50 106 dry tons for a 20-year mine site, 2.5 106 dry tons per year.
2.4%
21%
11%
0.32%
0.02%
5.7%
2.3%
0.11%
0.29%
0.35%
0.22%
2.2%
22%
11%
0.34%
0.02%
5.6%
2.3%
0.12%
0.24%
0.44%
0.21%
2.1%
17%
11%
0.32%
0.02%
3.6%
1.9%
0.12%
0.27%
0.45%
0.20%
2.2%
17%
7.8%
0.27%
0.04%
2.9%
1.8%
0.11%
0.19%
0.37%
0.12%
107
Fig. 8. Example seaoor images of Cook Islands nodule eld taken on the 2000 Japanese Cruise (JICA/MMAJ, 2001; Okamoto, 2003); (A) Photograph 0030, 4913 m; nodule area with 19 kg/m2
and an average nodule size 5 cm; (B) Photograph 0325, 4946 m, with nodule abundance 20 kg/m2 and average size of 5 cm; (C) Photograph 0447, 5009 m, with nodule abundance 25 kg/m2 and
average size of 4 cm; (D) Photograph 0482, 5009 m, with nodule abundance 30 kg/m2 and average size of 4 cm; each bar scale represents 10 cm.
contents. Maps for Mo, W, Nb, Zr, V, and Sc are in the supplementary
Figs. S.1, S.2.
3.7. Metal tonnages of selected areas of the CIs EEZ
The CIs EEZ contains about 12.1 billion wet tons of Mn nodules, excluding the Manihiki Plateau, which does not contain nodule abundances high enough to be of potential economic interest. Six areas (A
F) were chosen to represent a range of possible resource scenarios within the high nodule abundance zones of the CIs EEZ (Fig. 5). Each of those
six areas is about 20,000 km2 as described above and each would support 37 20-year mine sites. The area of each CIs 20-year mine site
varies from 2705 to 6716 km2, which translates into 135336 km2
mined per year (Table 3). The dry tonnage of contained metal mined
per year varies from a high of 435,705 tons of Mn (Area A) to the lowest
high of 216 tons for W (also Area A). Dry tonnage of contained REY
production per year would have a high for Area C, 5449 tons and nearly
as high in Areas D and B, and a low for Area F, 2727 tons (Table 3).
Of the contained metals considered, Area A contains the highest dry
tonnages of Mn, Ni, Cu, V, Mo, and W, Area B for Co, REY, Zr, and Nb,
and Area D for Ti (Table 3). This distribution changes somewhat when
each area is divided into 20-year mine sites, in which case the highest
Cu would be in a mine site in Area F, REY in Areas C and B, and Zr
and Nb in Areas D and E. Contained metals mined per year would be
highest for Mn, Ni, Cu (and Area F), V, Mo, and W in Area A, Co in Area
B, REY is about the same in Areas BD, Ti in Area D, and Zr and Nb
in Areas D and E. These data show that through detailed exploration
high-grade, high-tonnage productive mine sites for the metals of interest can be identied.
Projections of the percentage of annual global production of a metal
produced from a CIs mine site is important to consider because a significant increase in supply will decrease the price in the global metal market. The percentage of the global production for the metals considered
would be the highest for Ti, 1322% and next for Co, 7.812%, and
quite low for all the others (Table 3).
It should be emphasized that these calculations and evaluations are
for contained dry metal, which will not be the same as the produced
metal. Ore tonnage will decrease, for example, during collection based
on the efciency of the mining equipment and grade will decrease depending on the efciency of the extractive metallurgy. Other operations
during the extraction, transport, and processing will decrease availability, grade, or tonnage. Considerations for biological reserve and refuge
areas within the EEZ will also reduce the potentially minable area.
Table 4
Value (in USD) of contained metals in one dry ton of Cook Islands EEZ, nodules compared
to CCZ nodules for select metals1.
Manganese
REY3
Cobalt
Titanium
Nickel
Scandium
Copper
Niobium
Platinum
Molybdenum
Vanadium4
Tungsten
Tellurium
Zirconium4
Total
Price of metal
($/ton)2
Mean content CIs

nodules (g/ton)
Value in 1 ton
CIs nodules
($)
Value in 1 ton
CCZ nodules
($)
2889
14,426,804
29,604
8720
17,140
5,000,000
7657
140,000
54,294,362
26,990
13,176
62,120
115,000
3307
160,898
1665
4113
11,999
3805
12
2262
90
0.21
295
508
64
24
524
465
263
122
105
65
61
17
13
11
8
7
4
3
2
1111
820
176
62
28
223
53
82
3
7
16
6
4
b1
1
1447
1
Italics, not included in the total, but may in the future be economic should global metal
prices increase or efcacious metal extraction be developed, especially for Pt.
2
3-year average for Co, Cu, Mo, Mn, Ni, V, Pt, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Tb, Dy, Y; 1.5-year
average for W, Nb, and Te; 6 month average for Ti, Zr, Gd; Ti, Zr, Gd from metal-pages.com;
Mo, Co, Ni, Cu from LME.com; Mn, Nb, Te, V, W, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Tb, Dy, Y from
asianmetal.com; Pt from platinum.matthey.com; spot quote for Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu from
stanfordmaterials.com; Sc quotes from $3 to $15 million found, arbitrarily chose $5
million; price converted using exchange rate 1 rmb/kg to $0.16/kg for Nb, Ti, W, and Zr;
all N99% metal except for Mn (97.9%), Ti (99%), W (99.95%) metal.
3
Value for REY based on sum of value for each individual rare earth to account for
concentration variance and price differences.
4
Only oxide quotes found for V and Zr: V2O5 (98%), ZrO (98.5%).
108
Cook Islands Mean / CCZ Mean
10
1.0
Te
Nb
Ti
Cr
Ce
Pb
Fe
Th
U
As
REY
Pt
Zr
Co
P
La
Y
Lu
Al
Sr
Yb
Tm
Ho
Er
Bi
Si
Dy
Pr
Tb
Ca
Nd
Sc
Gd
V
Eu
Sm
W
K
Na
Sb
Mg
Tl
Mn
Mo
Li
Zn
Ba
Cd
Ni
Cu
0.1
Fig. 9. Element enrichment diagram for mean composition of Cook Islands nodules relative to mean composition of ClarionClipperton Zone nodules from Hein et al. (2013); element
ratios greater than 1 are enriched in the Cook Islands nodules and those below 1 are enriched in ClarionClipperton Zone nodules.
4. Discussion
4.1. Processes that control nodule and element abundances
The CIs EEZ has the highest concentration of nodules per square meter
over the largest area in comparison to any other nodule eld (Fig. 8AD).
Three things are generally required for the formation of Mn nodules, very
slow rates of sedimentation, source of material to form a nucleus around
which the oxide layers accrete, and a mechanism of turning the nodules
so that they do not become buried. This latter criterion is important because even though the sedimentation rates are low, they are still
1000+ times faster than the growth rates of the nodules. Without turning, the nodules would eventually be buried, however, the CIs nodule
eld offers no conclusive evidence as to the mechanism for turning, as
is also true for all other nodule elds. The interaction of biota with nodules (collisions) is the most often proposed mechanism for keeping nodules at the seaoor; Okamoto (2003) describes the benthic macrofauna
and traces in the CIs nodule eld.
Sediment in the CIs EEZ provides an abundant source of nuclei material shed from the Manihiki Plateau, small seamounts, and abundant
shark's teeth and sh debris. Shark's teeth not only occur as nuclei,
but are so abundant that they are also embedded in the oxide layers,
and were found in nearly all the nodules analyzed here. This abundance
of nucleus material combined with the slow sedimentation rates, subdued topography, and a branch of the Antarctic Bottom Water owing
through the CIs EEZ together support the growth of abundant nodules.
Cook Islands EEZ nodules form predominantly by hydrogenetic precipitation of Mn oxide and Fe oxyhydroxide from ambient bottom waters as indicated by their slow growth rates, chemical and
mineralogical compositions, and by REY discrimination plots (Fig. 3).
The chemical composition of the nodules varies throughout the CIs
EEZ due to such factors as water depth, latitude, Fe/Mn ratios and resultant elements associated with each phase, and highly variable, and in
places, very high contents of the aluminosilicate plus silica components.
Water depth and latitude controls reect changes in primary productivity, which within the CIs EEZ increases to the north toward the equatorial region. Higher primary productivity increases the depth of the
calcite compensation depth (CCD), which signicantly inuences nodule composition (e.g. Cronan et al., 1991; Verlaan et al., 2004). The
CCD is the depth at which the rate of supply and the rate of dissolution
of biogenic calcite are equal and therefore no biogenic calcite accumulates on the seaoor. Above the CCD, biogenic calcite increases sedimentation rates and decreases the relative abundance of organic matter in
the sediment. This affects the contents of the diagenetic associated
metals in the nodules, which is a minor component in CIs nodules, except those forming in the far north of the EEZ. The highest-grade Cu
NiMn nodules typically form near but generally below the CCD in
areas of high primary productivity (Cronan, 2006; Verlaan et al.,

2004). The paucity of diagenetic input to the CIs nodules, which
would otherwise promote high contents of Cu, Ni, and Mn, also controls
the high Co and Fe contents in the CIs nodules. This is clearly seen in the
high Fe/Mn ratios in CIs nodules (mean of 1) relative to digeneticcomponent-rich CCZ nodules (mean of 0.2; Hein et al., 2013). So, even
though most CIs nodules form near or below the CCD, surface-water primary productivity is low resulting in low organic matter content in the
bottom sediments (Verlaan et al., 2004). Thus, the diagenetic reactions
that are a rich source for Mn, Cu, and Ni are not occurring and therefore
do not dilute the metals coming directly from seawater. Cobalt, Ti, and
the other elements with seawater as their predominant source then become the dominant minor metals of economic interest. The combination of slow growth rates (mean 1.9 mm/106 years) for the nodules
and slow sedimentation rates (15 mm/103 years; Verlaan et al.,
2004) augment these processes that enrich the CIs nodules in Co, Ti,
REY, and other hydrogenetic elements.
4.2. Comparison with CCZ nodule abundance and chemical composition
The CCZ is considered the area of greatest potential for the mining of
Mn nodules, predominantly for Ni, Cu, and Mn. There are currently 15
exploration licenses with the International Seabed Authority in that
area. Ore production of CCZ nodules and CIs EEZ nodules would provide
Table 5
Nodule abundance estimates (dry tons) and tonnages of contained metals, Cook Islands
EEZ compared to CCZ nodules and global terrestrial reserves.
Nodules (T)
Manganese3
Titanium
Nickel
Cobalt
Copper
REY
Zirconium
Vanadium
Molybdenum
Niobium
Tungsten
Tellurium
1
All CIs nodules

(1,133,075 km2)
CIs nodules N
25 kg/m2
(123,844 km2)
CCZ
nodules1
(3,830,000 km2)
Terrestrial
reserves2
8.86 109
1.38 109
108 106
37.4 106
35.3 106
22.7 106
15.0 106
5.23 106
4.44 106
2.34 106
0.850 106
0.494 106
21.3 104
2.63 109
0.411 109
32.0 106
11.1 106
10.5 106
6.74 106
4.45 106
1.55 106
1.13 106
0.694 106
0.253 106
0.147 106
6.32 104
21.1 109
5.99 109
67.0 106
274 106
44.0 106
226 106
1.72 106
6.00 106
9.40 106
12.0 106
0.460 106
1.30 106
0.760 104
0.630 109
420 106
75.0 106
7.50 106
680 106
93.5 106
0.036 106
14.0 106
11.0 106
4.00 106
3.20 106
2.40 104
From Hein et al. (2013).

From U.S. Geological Survey (2013).
Dry metal tonnages calculated using element distribution maps (Figs. 57, SM), except
tellurium which was determined using total nodule tonnage and average Te content in
Table 4.
2
3
different commodities. CCZ nodules are a potential ore for NiCuMn

Mo(Co, Li), whereas the CIs potential ore would be MnREYCo
Ti(Ni, Sc) (Cronan, 2013; Hein and Petersen, 2013; Hein et al., 2013;
Table 4). The elements of potential economic interest most enriched in
CIs nodules relative to CCZ nodules are Te, Nb, Ti, Ce, REY, Pt, Zr, and
Co, whereas those most enriched in CCZ nodules are Cu, Ni, Li, Mo, and
Mn (Fig. 9). Of the four metals with the largest global markets, Mn, Cu,
Ni, and Ti, three are more enriched in the CCZ nodules, whereas most of
the critical high-tech, green-tech, and energy application metals are
more enriched in the CIs nodules, with the exception of Li.
Another signicant difference is the vast area with high abundances
(N25 kg/m2) of nodules in the CIs EEZ compared to the CCZ, which
roughly averages about 56 kg/m2 with an upper bound of 44 kg/m2
(ISA, 2010), which compares to an average for the CIs EEZ of 14.4 kg/
m2 based on our Natural Neighbor ArcGIS analysis. This is an environmentally signicant observation because a much smaller extraction
area would be needed to supply the nodules for a 20-year mine site in
the Cook Islands EEZ.
4.3. Resource and mining considerations
Cobalt and many of the other critical metals discussed here are currently produced as byproducts from the mining of land-based primary
ores, such as from Cu, Fe, and Ni ores (Mudd et al., 2013). It is the demand for the focus metal that drives the production of the byproduct
metal, which raises concerns about stable supplies for many byproduct
metals. High-tech, green-tech, energy, and military applications have
increased the demand for many of these byproduct metals and marine
sources can augment the land-based supplies. Land-based supplies are
not depleted and they will continue to supply the bulk of these resources for quite a long time, but advantages exist for deep-ocean mining that are driving this new industry forward to supplement the supply
of byproduct metals from land-based production (Hein et al., 2013). For
example, high grades, large tonnages, seabed exposures with little or no
overburden to remove, moveable mining platforms so seabed infrastructure is minimal and can be relocated, no remote villages to move,
no personnel at the mine site to be in danger; perhaps in addition,
more easily processed ores for crusts and nodules and lower start-up
costs, which taken together provide attractive incentives. Recent research in hydrometallurgy shows that selected metals or all metals in
crusts and nodules can easily be put into solution and then selectively
recovered (Pawel Plucinski, University of Bath, UK, oral presentation,
Southampton, UK, February 2014). A pilot study to extract metals
from marine ferromanganese oxides using hydrometallurgy was performed by Direct Nickel Ltd. (www.directnickel.com), which yielded recoveries for Ni, Co, Cu, Fe, and Mn of 98.9%, 92.2%, 99.6%, 90.8%, and
84.1% respectively (Malnic, 2008). Further breakthroughs in hydrometallurgy will be a key for the economic development of Mn nodules and
crusts.
On the other hand, because deep-ocean mineral deposits have not
yet been mined, the uncertainty of operations in a new environment
is an important concern, and creates the perception of greater environmental issues than those associated with land-based mines. Transport
to processing plants can also be long distance, 3200 km from the central
CIs EEZ to New Zealand and 5700 km to Australia (Hein and Petersen,
2013). The same would apply to the CCZ nodules, in which case the distance from the central area of the CCZ to Baja California (Mexico) would
be about 3000 km, and a processing plant would need to be built there.
However, once loaded at the mine site in the CIs EEZ, the ore transport
costs are not high on a per kilometer basis and if a processing plant
were built in Mexico to process CCZ nodules, the 7000 km distance
should not be prohibitive.
An additional advantage for the CIs EEZ specically is that the seabed
mud is stiffer and is not covered by a semi-liquid (soupy) seaoor layer,
which is common in the CCZ and other nodule elds (Fig. 8AD; see also
109
Okamoto (2003)). The predominantly red and brown clay of the CIs EEZ
occurs throughout the high nodule abundance areas. Further, the red
clays are indicative of oxic seaoor and sub-seaoor environments
that, coupled with the low organic matter contents of the sediments, diminish redox reactions that can potentially release toxic elements and
adsorb nutrients when the seabed is impacted during nodule extraction.
These advantages, combined with the smaller areas that would need to
be mined because of the high nodule abundances, may reduce the environmental impacts in the CIs EEZ compared to elsewhere.
4.4. Value of contained metals
The value of the contained metal in one ton of CIs EEZ nodules is
about $1111 USD (mean price over the last three years) based on Mn,
REY, Co, Ti, Ni, Sc, Cu, and Nb (Table 4). The results of such an estimate can vary signicantly depending on the commodity priced. For example, much of the Mn on the market is sold as ferromanganese rather
than Mn metal as priced in Table 4. We used metal prices for the chemical form that would most likely be extracted, although a favored extraction process has yet to be established. For the same contained metals,
the value of one ton of CCZ nodules would be $1447, although if Mo,
which is more enriched in CCZ nodules, were switched for Nb, the
value would be $1460 USD. It is unlikely that one processer would extract all the metals listed, but down-stream processing could recover
many of the important critical elements.
The CIs nodules have signicantly more Mn, Co, Zr, and Te than the
global terrestrial reserves (Table 5); this is true even if only the high tonnage belt (N 25 kg/m2) is considered (Table 5). In addition, the CIs nodules contain about 50% of the terrestrial reserves of Ni, 32% of V, 26% of
Ti, and 1521% of REY, Mo, Nb, and W (Table 5). In addition, the complement of heavy REY of the total REY content averages 17% (maximum
24%; Table 2), which contrasts signicantly with the b 1% heavy REY in
the large land-based carbonatite-hosted REY deposits (Hein et al.,
2013)it is the heavy REY that are most needed for high-tech applications. These large accumulations of metals in the CIs EEZ offer a secure
supply of these critical commodities.
5. Summary
CIs Mn nodules form through hydrogenetic precipitation with little
contribution from sediment pore waters (diagenetic contribution).
The abyssal plain environment, along with water depth, latitude, primary productivity, sedimentation rates, abundance of nucleus material,
and a mechanism for turning nodules are key to the unprecedented
high nodule abundance and the unique suite of metals found in high
concentration in these nodules. Although these nodules have relatively
low contents of Ni (0.38%), Cu (0.23%), Li (0.005%), and Mn (16.9%)
compared to the CCZ nodules, they possess high concentrations of
other critical metals such as Co (0.38%), Ti (1.28%), and REY (0.168%).
The CIs EEZ covers 1,977,000 km2 and contains the highest concentration of nodules per square meter over the largest area of any nodule
eld in the global ocean, with 123,844 km2 showing N25 kg/m2 nodule
abundance yielding about 3.6 billion wet tons. This high nodule abundance is a great environmental advantage because smaller areas
would be required to supply a potential 20-year mine site, resulting in
lower environmental impact. The data presented here indicate that
the CIs EEZ is potentially a world-class metal resource.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.12.011.
Acknowledgments
We thank David Cronan, Imperial College London, Tracey Conrad,
USGS, and an anonymous reviewer for their suggestions that improved
this paper.
110
Appendix 1
Table A.1
Hygroscopic water-normalized (0% H2O) chemical composition of Cook Islands EEZ manganese nodules.
CK-76-1
STN-03
FFC-02A
CK-76-1
STN-03
FFG-06A
CK-76-1
STN-03
FFG-06B
CK-76-1 CK-76-1
STN-04 STN-05
FFG-04 FFG-08A
CK-7-16
STN-06
FFG-09
Nodule
CK-76-1
STN-07
FFG-10A
CK-76-1
STN-07
FFG-10B
CK-76-1
STN-08
FFG-11
CK-76-1
STN-10
FFG-13
CK-76-1
STN-11
FFG-14A
CK-76-1
STN-11
FFG-14B
CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRT-B0-7
CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-B0-13
CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-L0-5
CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-L5-13
Sample type
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
PC Nod
PC Nod
PC Nod
PC Nod
Description
B-1:294
B-1:35
B-3:22-25
B-1:27
B-1:40
B-2:16-23 B-4:22-28
B-2:24-29
B-0.13:43
B-1:47
B-1:35
B-1:30
B-1:25
B:0-7
B:0-13
L:0-5
L:5-13
Fe wt.%
Mn
Fe/Mn
Si
Al
Mg
K
Ca
Na
P
Ti
LOI
H2OH2O+
Ag ppm
As
Ba
Be
Bi
Cd
Cl
Co
Cr
Cs
Cu
Ga
Hf
In
Li
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sb
19.6
15.6
1.26
6.69
2.79
1.16
0.60
1.93
1.61
0.35
1.72
26.6
9.90
14.8
0.18
180
1210
4.2
14
3.5
710
4473
18
0.22
1243
5.9
16
0.94
22
238
112
2020
1354
8.5
1554
39
19.7
17.9
1.10
7.16
3.09
1.26
0.71
2.11
1.84
0.37
1.76
30.7
20.3
7.50
0.30
161
1368
3.6
14
3.3
7829
4956
29
0.38
1443
9.4
14
0.99
21
300
110
2723
1197
11
2384
35
20.4
16.8
1.21
7.19
3.13
1.33
0.68
2.04
1.80
0.38
1.86
30.1
19.4
8.60
0.33
165
1290
3.7
15
3.5
7630
4529
26
0.37
1613
9.7
16
1.0
26
251
124
2742
1278
11
2233
37
19.4
17.7
1.10
7.03
3.11
1.31
0.64
2.03
1.76
0.36
1.70
30.1
18.2
8.60
0.33
164
1357
4.2
13
3.9
7176
4694
23
0.37
1834
10
16
0.97
32
293
119
3227
1198
10
2200
36
17.0
17.8
0.96
5.87
2.49
1.15
0.59
1.91
1.62
0.31
1.29
30.4
10.8
18.2
0.13
163
1300
4.3
13
3.8
729
4608
4.5
0.22
1570
6.1
12
0.93
25
277
90
2960
1188
7.8
1570
36
16.6
17.4
0.95
6.86
3.01
1.27
0.63
2.16
1.61
0.43
1.40
27.7
10.1
15.6
0.18
147
1224
4.0
12
5.0
645
3949
20
0.22
2214
7.8
12
0.83
40
255
90
3526
1110
7.9
1446
35
16.9
18.2
0.93
6.42
2.93
1.29
0.64
1.90
1.63
0.33
1.24
27.7
10.5
15.5
0.18
172
1080
3.6
13
4.6
715
4480
6.7
0.22
1888
6.7
13
0.84
34
292
95
3229
1229
8.2
1564
37
16.3
18.4
0.88
6.47
2.57
1.18
0.72
1.98
1.67
0.31
1.14
30.3
11.8
17.4
0.15
178
1644
4.8
15
4.1
760
5408
11
0.23
1712
6.8
11
1.1
28
359
93
3152
1293
11
1927
40
17.4
20.4
0.85
6.70
2.81
1.22
0.70
2.20
1.90
0.35
1.17
31.7
19.7
8.30
0.29
171
1357
4.0
14
3.8
7808
4869
17
0.37
1818
10
11
0.90
22
390
83
3362
1161
11
2864
33
19.4
17.9
1.08
6.65
2.84
1.25
0.72
2.02
1.78
0.38
1.57
31.6
19.2
8.10
0.33
172
1423
4.3
14
3.7
7079
5173
20
0.37
1572
9.8
15
1.1
26
323
114
3082
1287
12
2351
38
21.1
16.8
1.26
7.32
2.98
1.27
0.70
2.13
1.84
0.41
1.80
28.8
18.2
7.90
0.32
172
1296
4.3
15
3.3
8178
4866
32
0.49
1333
9.2
16
1.1
20
249
125
2482
1345
12
2323
42
20.6
16.3
1.27
7.14
2.83
1.24
0.69
2.06
1.77
0.38
1.79
29.7
18.1
8.00
0.38
177
1294
4.3
15
3.5
7387
4835
35
0.37
1343
9.2
17
1.1
18
249
127
2527
1355
11
2198
43
17.4
14.3
1.22
7.68
3.14
1.09
0.79
2.11
1.81
0.35
1.63
28.8
10.5
17.2
0.12
145
1263
4.6
11
2.9
849
3642
28
0.22
1486
5.5
10
0.87
13
230
69
1877
1094
10
1564
31
20.2
15.1
1.33
6.16
2.20
1.09
0.55
1.94
1.71
0.37
1.55
29.9
11.9
18.4
0.17
209
1237
4.4
16
2.8
953
4813
20
0.23
1079
5.4
16
1.1
10
272
115
1691
1510
7.9
1589
47
22.0
14.5
1.52
5.50
1.63
1.00
0.43
1.84
1.57
0.41
1.57
27.5
7.40
16.4
0.13
185
1231
4.3
15
2.5
918
3877
14
0.22
685
3.9
13
1.3
5.4
281
91
1695
1339
8.9
1512
38
19.1
15.3
1.25
6.98
2.60
1.02
0.74
1.90
1.90
0.36
1.43
29.1
12.2
18.0
0.21
247
1298
4.6
18
2.5
945
4442
17
0.23
994
3.6
21
1.1
8.0
245
129
1720
1948
6.6
1595
48
17.4
17.9
0.97
7.78
3.50
1.38
0.81
2.09
1.86
0.38
1.47
30.1
17.7
8.60
0.30
145
1187
3.4
11
4.3
7108
3827
23
0.36
2260
9.8
15
0.80
41
286
101
3840
959
13
2187
32
CK-76-1
STN-05
FFG-08B
9.1
0.89
11
1000
3.9
35
55
141
13
58
608
446
603
117
188
1321
44.6
193
38.2
9.89
39.7
7.06
39.5
149
7.90
20.4
3.17
22.4
3.11
2086
14.5
3.38
3.33
12
1.0
7.3
1080
3.6
36
51
130
11
600
65
479
595
9
6
3
10
211
16
23
213
1481
51.4
189
43.4
10.4
43.8
7.69
41.9
163
8.62
22.8
3.76
23.3
3.61
2307
14.3
3.31
3.26
12
0.99
6.8
1066
3.7
31
52
125
11
587
53
504
658
207
1390
50.5
186
41.7
10.0
42.8
7.48
40.9
161
8.51
22.5
3.60
23.7
3.60
2199
14.7
3.19
3.13
12
0.98
6.7
1062
3.2
32
45
150
11
615
64
490
637
207
1320
49.5
183
42.1
10.1
41.1
7.47
40.6
158
8.42
21.9
3.57
23.0
3.57
2119
15.0
3.06
3.01
8.0
0.45
6.2
983
2.8
37
39
198
12
80
575
433
496
47
6
6
5
242
21
20
167
1155
38.3
166
32.4
8.30
34.6
6.15
34.1
132
7.03
17.8
2.87
20.3
2.89
1825
14.6
3.36
3.33
8.2
0.67
7.6
960
2.8
29
31
199
11
61
515
494
523
47
151
907
34.3
148
28.1
7.58
31.3
5.57
30.6
131
6.52
16.9
2.74
19.0
2.67
1522
16.7
2.93
2.91
12
0.73
5.6
991
2.4
25
30
149
10
535
57
495
611
9
5
2
11
196
15
17
180
984
43.7
160
35.8
8.82
38.2
6.52
36.6
162
7.78
20.4
3.41
21.7
3.27
1712
18.0
2.60
2.56
7.9
0.89
12
951
2.4
30
39
193
12
68
568
432
522
49
156
989
36.1
159
30.5
7.98
33.0
5.73
31.7
134
6.60
17.4
2.84
19.6
2.69
1632
16.0
3.07
3.04
9.4
0.34
11
1179
2.9
41
40
235
12
98
654
518
500
85
4
6
5
327
27
18
173
1315
40.0
172
33.9
8.49
35.9
6.11
34.9
141
7.22
18.8
3.04
20.7
2.89
2014
13.8
3.68
3.64
12
0.75
6.0
1199
2.0
33
38
169
11
574
80
469
545
6
6
1
7
214
17
20
199
1245
48.3
178
40.2
9.78
41.0
7.25
40.3
156
8.28
22.7
3.61
23.0
3.80
2027
15.6
2.98
2.93
13
0.62
6.4
1105
1.9
34
59
137
11
624
69
490
613
7
6
2
11
205
17
20
230
1510
55.8
209
46.4
10.8
45.2
7.90
42.5
171
8.81
22.8
3.85
23.8
3.65
2391
14.2
3.13
3.07
14
0.98
7.0
1084
3.2
33
64
112
11
594
56
467
675
221
1504
55.0
203
44.1
10.7
43.9
7.78
43.9
167
8.67
22.7
3.73
23.0
3.57
2362
14.2
3.21
3.14
14
1.2
7.0
1089
3.2
32
63
121
11
601
60
487
678
223
1502
55.3
204
44.7
10.8
45.7
8.13
44.0
170
8.82
22.8
3.58
23.2
3.63
2370
14.4
3.18
3.12
9.6
0.56
15
943
3.3
27
34
168
12
53
522
413
446
57
2
5
5
146
14
18
169
962
40.3
173
34.4
8.94
36.5
6.55
36.3
144
7.45
19.1
3.04
21.8
2.94
1665
17.2
2.73
2.69
9.2
0.91
12
1023
3.1
36
72
121
13
64
659
411
620
58
215
1464
52.0
226
43.6
11.3
44.8
7.99
43.5
157
8.63
21.9
3.43
23.7
3.35
2326
14.0
3.25
3.20
8.1
0.86
7.5
1078
3.0
31
53
110
13
72
609
404
544
94
205
1307
50.5
218
42.9
11.0
44.5
7.84
43.4
158
8.76
22.1
3.56
25.1
3.44
2151
15.2
3.02
2.96
7.9
0.68
28
1008
4.2
32
91
134
15
57
650
390
703
18
2
148
16
16
298
1993
74.7
323
63.9
16.5
65.4
11.4
62.4
212
12.0
29.8
4.68
32.5
4.46
3205
14.1
3.14
3.08
Sc
Se
Sn
Sr
Ta
Te
Th
Tl
U
V
W
Zn
Zr
Hg ppb
Au
Ir
Os
Pd
Pt
Rh
Ru
La ppm
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Y
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
REY1
%Heavy2
Cecn3
Cesn3
1
REY = sum of rare earth elements plus yttrium.

Percentage of the REY complement that are heavy REY (Eu through Lu + Y).
Cecn is Ce anomaly normalized to chondrite values; Cesn is Ce anomaly normalized to PAAS values.
4
B is bulk, L is layer; rst number is number of nodules analyzed and the second and third numbers are maximum diameter of nodule or range of maximum diameter of nodules; Un is unknown because nodules were fragmented; PC Nod is pancake
nodule; MRT is the most recent top and MRU is the most recent underside for pancake nodules
2
3
111
112
Table A.1 (continued)

CK-76-1
STN-12
FFG-15
CK-78-2
STN-01
FFG-02A
CK-78-2
STN-01
FFG-02B
CK-78-2
STN-02
FFG-03
CK-78-2
STN-2
FFG-03B
CK-78
STN-02
FFG-04
CK-78-2 CK-78-2
STN-03 STN-03
FFG-05 FFG-06
CK-78-2
STN-04
FFG-07
CK-78-2
STN-04
FFG-08
CK-78-2
STN-05
FFG-09A
CK-78-2
STN-05
FFG-09B
CK-78-2 CK-78-2
STN-05 STN-07
FFG-10 FFG-13A
CK-78-2
STN-07
FFG-13B
CK-78-2
STN-07
FFG-14A
CK-78-2 CK-78-2
STN-08
STN-7
FFG-14B FFG-15B
Nodule
Nodule
Nodules
Nodules
Nodules
Nodules
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Description B-2:27-22 B-12:10-25 B-7:10-21 B-1/4:60 B-8:10-18 B-5:28-11 B-8:19-25 B ~ 6:Un B-4:33-16 B-5:16-29 B-7:29-10 B-1:65
B-4:23-28 B ~ 4:Un B-2:20-31 B-5:~18-20 B-2:18-33 B ~ 7:Un B-11:20-13
Fe wt.%
Mn
Fe/Mn
Si
Al
Mg
K
Ca
Na
P
Ti
LOI
H2OH2O+
Ag ppm
As
Ba
Be
Bi
Cd
Cl
Co
Cr
Cs
Cu
Ga
Hf
In
Li
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb
16.8
17.5
0.96
7.98
3.44
1.41
1.03
2.21
1.83
0.50
1.33
27.4
15.1
7.70
0.45
160
1284
4.2
11
4.7
6396
3922
33
0.24
2497
12
16
0.84
44
329
120
4594
931
19.8
15.6
1.28
6.85
2.79
1.20
0.67
1.96
1.70
0.37
1.69
27.6
11.9
16.3
0.16
176
1192
4.2
15
3.4
783
4449
23
0.34
1317
5.8
17
1.1
19
241
119
2406
1396
20.4
16.1
1.27
7.37
3.09
1.45
0.70
1.92
1.74
0.36
1.95
28.6
17.5
8.50
0.36
170
1321
4.1
15
3.7
7467
4824
32
0.48
1867
10
18
1.1
36
239
154
3188
1358
14.7
21.1
0.70
7.07
3.49
1.57
0.76
2.18
1.88
0.35
1.14
28.7
16.7
8.60
0.26
131
1297
3.4
11
6.2
6867
3806
19
0.36
3445
12
12
0.67
80
373
84
5654
866
15.2
19.6
0.78
8.22
3.30
1.31
0.91
2.17
2.01
0.33
1.05
30.9
18.7
7.70
0.26
134
1378
3.9
13
4.2
8155
4034
17
0.37
2571
10
11
0.98
33
370
84
4071
847
14.0
22.3
0.63
6.34
3.30
1.80
0.73
2.24
1.80
0.39
1.07
26.7
13.7
8.80
0.25
131
1251
3.0
9.9
7.1
6014
3407
19
0.35
4137
13
12
0.54
107
417
83
6941
899
13.6
19.8
0.69
5.96
2.97
1.60
0.63
1.97
1.64
0.32
1.01
27.9
6.60
15.3
0.16
133
1124
3.4
8.9
6.9
621
3597
36
0.21
3458
9.2
13
0.49
90
391
76
4593
806
12.9
23.9
0.54
6.45
3.45
2.07
0.74
2.12
1.83
0.32
0.98
27.8
15.9
8.30
0.19
118
1272
2.6
8.2
8.6
5826
2794
21
0.36
5113
15
9.5
0.48
134
449
73
8537
751
16.1
20.9
0.77
6.52
3.08
1.44
0.73
2.20
1.82
0.38
1.18
31.1
19.0
7.20
0.36
154
1370
4.4
12
5.4
6963
4111
21
b0.1
3086
12
12
0.77
51
374
89
5173
856
13.9
19.4
0.71
6.07
3.09
1.59
0.69
2.16
1.66
0.44
1.05
26.8
6.80
14.8
0.10
124
1031
3.2
8.9
6.7
655
3369
14
0.21
3208
8.3
14
0.55
77
355
83
4324
770
12.0
23.3
0.51
6.95
3.58
2.03
0.97
2.12
2.05
0.34
0.84
28.0
15.2
7.90
0.21
131
1215
2.8
8.1
11
6533
2583
20
0.12
5625
21
9.4
0.42
136
436
60
9257
712
11.3
23.2
0.49
6.35
3.44
2.11
0.84
2.19
1.81
0.39
0.81
23.5
7.20
11.0
0.10
119
1131
2.6
6.7
10
560
2909
14
0.22
5593
14
9.7
0.33
150
463
58
7231
724
16.2
19.9
0.81
7.73
2.99
1.33
0.86
2.12
1.93
0.33
1.13
32.1
20.8
7.10
0.28
163
1465
4.9
14
4.4
7816
4141
16
0.25
2146
15
11
1.0
29
408
90
4331
848
15.1
14.8
1.02
8.59
3.71
1.29
1.03
1.89
1.62
0.33
1.22
26.1
6.90
15.0
0.08
146
1059
3.7
9.6
3.9
623
3824
52
0.32
1944
7.2
15
0.72
37
298
97
2793
905
16.7
11.1
1.51
12.5
4.93
1.59
1.71
1.28
1.54
0.27
1.35
22.0
11.0
7.50
0.46
131
828
3.3
7.5
3.7
5011
2742
342
0.79
1663
12
15
0.63
58
146
92
2899
742
17.9
8.83
2.03
13.8
5.27
1.62
1.28
1.12
1.52
0.25
1.33
21.9
11.4
7.00
0.44
130
756
3.4
7.4
2.7
4628
2393
426
1.13
1298
12
15
0.56
52
103
89
1986
743
13.4
8.30
1.62
16.8
6.49
1.63
2.47
1.10
1.48
0.18
0.86
20.5
12.0
6.40
0.26
84
638
2.3
5.1
2.8
3761
1705
644
1.59
1580
12
8.0
0.43
76
116
51
2466
442
14.8
10.1
1.46
14.6
5.95
1.73
1.54
1.24
1.55
0.23
1.02
23.2
13.4
7.20
0.31
103
702
2.7
6.1
3.4
4342
2079
498
1.27
1744
12
9.2
0.47
73
133
60
2806
562
14.7
12.6
1.16
11.6
5.10
1.49
1.35
2.03
2.06
0.32
1.64
20.1
7.90
9.90
0.12
109
777
3.3
5.7
5.2
467
1933
52
0.43
2465
8.9
15
0.40
88
132
88
2693
592
Sample
type
CK-76-1
STN-11
FFG-14D
9.1
1476
44
9.2
0.91
7.4
1019
3.3
34
60
143
12
56
583
455
614
50
190
1283
44.3
191
36.9
9.61
38.7
6.99
37.7
149
7.60
19.8
3.11
22.1
3.11
2041
14.6
3.27
3.23
13
2061
45
14
0.73
13
1017
3.8
30
69
106
10
608
53
509
724
7
6
2
6
232
17
19
213
1491
51.4
189
41.9
10.1
41.7
7.09
38.8
145
7.55
20.5
3.30
21.2
3.30
2286
13.1
3.34
3.28
11
2881
36
11
0.48
4.6
1023
1.7
21
19
166
9.5
490
72
711
561
160
778
36.3
136
29.9
7.64
32.2
5.65
32.2
144
6.94
18.6
3.18
20.0
3.09
1413
19.4
2.38
2.36
14
2460
36
12
b0.2
5.5
1005
1.8
34
21
173
8.6
520
76
481
528
6
5
1
7
284
17
20
165
1065
39.4
144
32.3
7.58
33.5
5.78
32.3
145
7.07
18.9
3.05
19.8
3.15
1722
16.0
3.10
3.05
11
2317
35
10
0.70
5.7
970
1.4
17
19
181
9.5
492
76
637
561
5
6
1
6
307
21
19
161
703
37.4
140
30.6
7.91
33.6
5.79
34.6
146
7.16
19.0
3.17
20.3
3.34
1354
20.8
2.12
2.09
8.5
1713
35
6.7
0.86
7.5
905
1.5
17
18
173
9.6
77
439
551
496
19
147
651
32.4
132
28.4
7.27
31.4
5.15
31.3
127
6.53
17.9
2.78
18.7
2.63
1241
20.2
2.19
2.18
11
2259
36
9.0
0.71
4.6
898
1.3
14
15
184
8.4
473
80
721
510
5
6
2
6
328
24
19
140
583
32.2
122
27.5
6.59
30.1
5.12
29.0
130
6.11
16.6
2.84
17.2
2.77
1151
21.4
2.02
2.00
12
2469
37
11
0.99
21
1062
1.9
24
24
184
10
538
70
567
612
194
930
43.0
159
34.7
8.57
39.3
6.21
37.7
157
7.77
20.9
3.48
22.6
3.47
1667
18.4
2.37
2.35
8.6
1609
35
6.5
0.86
3.0
817
1.3
19
18
182
9.5
60
425
520
515
15
155
661
33.5
137
29.3
7.67
33.6
5.38
32.7
135
6.73
18.8
2.96
19.2
2.74
1281
20.7
2.13
2.12
15
2123
39
9.8
1.1
10
975
1.2
10
15
210
8.0
479
71
756
476
157
528
36.2
137
30.4
7.64
31.8
5.25
32.8
140
6.82
18.2
2.83
18.5
2.87
1156
23.1
1.64
1.62
11
1616
34
5.9
0.86
5.1
883
1.0
11
14
223
8.8
71
419
730
430
46
142
471
31.1
128
27.9
7.22
32.0
5.10
30.8
129
6.52
17.8
2.77
18.0
2.53
1052
23.9
1.64
1.63
14
2399
41
14
0.76
7.3
1141
2.0
38
24
167
9.2
566
78
481
577
6
4
3
6
303
16
18
196
1152
43.6
162
35.2
7.98
36.0
5.85
35.0
150
7.35
19.8
3.09
20.2
3.07
1876
15.4
2.90
2.88
18
2120
42
13
0.94
6.9
934
2.0
21
34
140
9.5
581
60
498
700
7
6
2
6
272
18
20
210
1059
47.6
176
38.4
8.69
39.7
6.12
38.2
160
7.62
20.5
3.13
20.5
3.20
1838
16.7
2.47
2.45
14
1504
36
9.9
0.86
4.5
859
1.8
22
32
135
9.2
53
444
406
539
29
2
5
4
214
16
16
163
853
36.6
149
32.0
8.06
33.8
5.56
32.4
125
6.64
17.6
2.78
17.7
2.53
1486
16.9
2.56
2.54
32
1461
33
22
1.0
5.2
681
2.0
15
44
75
6.7
425
28
447
578
144
803
35.3
130
29.6
6.82
29.8
4.70
28.1
104
5.46
15.2
2.17
14.5
2.19
1356
15.7
2.65
2.60
39
1242
32
28
0.68
5.9
633
2.1
14
48
55
6.3
391
20
432
565
126
764
32.1
117
26.3
6.46
26.4
4.11
24.2
85.3
4.79
12.5
1.83
11.9
1.92
1246
14.4
2.83
2.77
49
1136
21
30
0.68
3.0
466
1.1
11
20
63
4.5
281
20
380
352
87.8
431
20.9
79.3
17.5
4.06
18.0
2.90
17.4
68.6
3.47
9.27
1.39
8.86
1.42
772
17.5
2.35
2.32
41
1270
26
27
0.58
3.7
567
1.4
13
27
73
5.8
323
24
433
433
109
547
26.4
100
23.0
5.25
22.6
3.64
22.2
83.6
4.35
11.5
1.73
11.3
1.84
974
17.2
2.39
2.35
20
1086
32
11
0.76
16
708
2.4
10
22
98
7.7
24
358
423
516
64
127
420
30.3
125
27.5
6.92
30.5
4.86
29.3
124
5.92
16.6
2.58
16.5
2.38
969
24.7
1.59
1.56
Rb
S
Sb
Sc
Se
Sn
Sr
Ta
Te
Th
Tl
U
V
W
Zn
Zr
Hg ppb
Au
Ir
Os
Pd
Pt
Rh
Ru
La ppm
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Y
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
REY1
%Heavy2
Cecn3
Cesn3
113
114
Table A.1 (continued)

CK-80-1
STN-03
WGCM-03
CK-80-1
STN-03
WGCM-13
CK-80-2
CK-80-1
CK-80-1
CK-80-1
STN-17
STN-10
STN-04
STN-04
WGCM-04A WGCM-04B WGCM-08 WG-01A
Nodule
CK-80-2 STN17 WG-01BMRT-B0-8
CK-80-2 STN- 102117 WG-01B- G991

MRU-B0-11
1021G995
1021G1001
1021G1003
1021G1004
U321A
U339 b
20 mm
U339 N
20 mm
U340
Sample type
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
PC Nod
PC Nod
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Nodule
Description
B-14:10-20
B-2:~28-30
B ~ 3:~33-15
B-5:12-23
B ~ 9:~8-20 B-1:48
B-2:32- ~ 20
B:8
B:11
B-1:28
B-1:31
B-1:42
B-1:32
B-1:38
B-1:30
B-4:15-19 B-1:30
B-1:37
Fe wt.%
Mn
Fe/Mn
Si
Al
Mg
K
Ca
Na
P
Ti
LOI
H2OH2O+
Ag ppm
As
Ba
Be
Bi
Cd
Cl
Co
Cr
Cs
Cu
Ga
Hf
In
Li
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
14.1
13.7
1.03
11.2
5.07
1.57
1.28
2.46
2.06
0.47
1.52
23.7
11.8
7.9
0.37
111
925
3.2
6.3
6.2
4660
1871
71
0.34
3345
13
11
0.45
103
137
79
3776
586
26
17.0
19.9
0.85
7.10
3.06
1.24
0.83
2.74
1.92
0.33
1.05
33.0
21.0
7.40
0.38
166
1380
4.9
13
4.4
7772
3962
11
b0.1
2506
11
13
0.95
32
385
87
3962
999
14
15.8
18.7
0.85
6.77
2.94
1.22
0.80
1.86
1.79
0.30
0.99
26.4
8.20
13.7
0.09
155
1176
4.2
13
4.6
730
3943
1.1
0.22
2342
3.9
15
0.84
35
414
87
3214
1046
12
11.4
21.7
0.52
7.89
4.20
2.09
1.18
1.71
2.12
0.29
0.77
28.3
15.9
7.90
0.23
124
1189
2.9
8.0
9.7
7004
2699
14
0.24
5482
20
9.5
0.45
168
422
65
8609
684
19
12.7
19.2
0.66
9.68
4.24
1.73
1.26
1.73
2.13
0.29
0.81
29.2
17.9
7.00
0.21
133
1158
3.5
9.6
6.8
7296
2801
19
0.37
3666
18
9.7
0.57
91
395
69
6577
716
21
13.8
17.7
0.78
7.71
3.67
1.36
0.84
1.87
1.79
0.28
0.94
26.9
7.80
15.3
0.09
126
1011
3.9
11
5.7
662
3623
5.4
0.22
2527
5.5
12
0.74
57
330
74
3449
893
13
14.3
17.4
0.82
7.39
2.95
1.14
0.77
1.96
1.80
0.28
0.91
29.2
7.60
17.3
0.12
134
1169
4.7
10
4.1
736
3766
8.7
0.32
2078
5.1
11
0.75
32
356
63
2749
882
11
16.2
18.8
0.86
7.58
2.94
1.22
0.85
1.96
1.91
0.31
0.95
24.5
8.70
12.2
0.05
153
1391
4.9
13
3.4
811
4009
19
0.33
1774
3.8
13
1.10
27
398
82
2705
1023
12
19.0
13.8
1.38
7.45
3.57
1.21
0.73
1.52
1.24
0.34
1.32
27.5
10.3
16.3
191
971
5.6
13
4.8
5753
3489
17
0.56
1672
19
1.1
51
213
108
2832
992
13
16.3
14.7
1.11
6.36
2.92
1.25
0.62
1.80
1.14
0.34
1.28
31.4
8.90
20.6
178
1008
5.4
14
4.4
5280
4391
24
0.66
1570
18
0.92
37
239
120
3282
1041
12
16.3
8.18
15.2
15.5
0.98
6.86
3.21
1.29
0.66
1.72
1.21
0.32
1.10
33.4
10.0
19.9
173
996
5.0
12
5.1
5822
4533
16
0.56
1778
20
0.84
51
277
107
4078
949
13
13.7
18.7
0.73
6.17
3.10
1.43
0.59
1.94
1.27
0.31
1.00
30.5
9.90
17.6
166
1110
5.0
12
6.7
5727
4528
13
0.44
2220
24
0.78
78
340
82
4795
968
10
13.1
16.3
0.80
8.77
3.88
1.45
1.18
1.90
1.95
0.35
0.90
26.4
8.30
13.7
0.16
128
1073
3.6
7.8
5.2
687
2694
24
0.22
2683
5.9
9.8
0.56
68
322
71
4329
735
18
17.4
17.0
1.02
7.01
2.65
1.35
0.80
2.64
1.79
0.53
1.44
25.2
8.60
12.3
0.20
146
1225
4.3
11
3.6
842
4267
60
0.22
1849
b0.1
14
0.75
22
232
85
3304
897
12
10.6
16.2
0.65
12.9
4.74
1.85
1.73
1.45
2.37
0.21
0.82
25.1
13.9
7.10
0.21
101
947
2.8
6.8
6.8
6039
2056
29
0.46
4065
21
9.3
0.48
85
308
56
6725
515
29
1.99
11.27
3.62
2.23
0.97
3.46
1.51
0.32
2.11
23.0
7.50
12.5
126
701
3.2
7.1
1.6
12865
3395
144
0.54
436
17
0.39
16
102
108
1066
638
17
16.5
13.6
15.7
14.5
1.05
0.94
6.96
11.34
2.48
4.53
1.18
1.35
0.92
1.73
2.04
2.01
1.77
2.29
0.37
0.39
1.37
1.04
29.9
23.1
8.70
9.70
17.5
10.1
0.18
0.17
150
125
1117
947
4.3
3.2
10
6.9
2.9
4.3
734
642
4140
2326
37
28
0.33
0.33
1588
2237
0.11
5.3
12
10
0.71
0.45
13
50
256
268
74
76
2694
3488
826
703
14
26
CK-78-2
STN-08
FFG-16
1701
33
14
0.68
6.6
823
2.1
8.6
22
113
7.0
385
26
552
524
133
421
32.7
125
27.7
6.75
29.4
4.64
29.0
128
5.96
15.9
2.43
16.6
2.46
979
24.6
1.50
1.47
2532
38
12
0.89
6.7
1081
1.7
27
29
165
9.9
558
71
486
624
6
6
3
9
237
18
20
196
1061
45.3
166
37.0
8.56
38.0
6.11
38.2
147
7.53
20.8
3.39
21.5
3.38
1799
16.4
2.63
2.60
1852
35
8.2
0.87
9.4
991
1.7
25
29
178
11
73
526
420
578
9
3
6
3
224
17
19
182
979
41.3
166
36.8
8.99
38.7
6.27
37.8
144
7.86
21.6
3.43
22.5
3.16
1699
17.3
2.63
2.61
1902
39
11
0.83
4.3
818
1.1
12
16
164
6.9
460
76
698
490
140
554
33.1
126
28.9
6.58
28.8
4.72
28.9
132
6.18
16.5
2.54
16.9
2.68
1128
21.8
1.90
1.88
1949
38
13
0.97
5.4
865
1.4
17
18
141
6.7
459
68
566
505
146
719
34.6
128
28.3
6.39
29.7
4.76
29.5
128
5.97
16.6
2.53
16.9
2.73
1299
18.7
2.36
2.33
1510
31
16
0.70
6.9
708
1.3
10
17
142
5.5
367
48
515
423
7
2
10
141
8
12
118
521
28.2
105
23.9
5.80
24.0
3.88
22.9
93.4
4.75
13.0
1.99
12.9
2.10
982
18.8
2.11
2.08
1735
34
7.6
0.76
5.9
854
1.5
22
26
180
9.3
55
407
479
482
12
139
850
31.0
127
27.4
6.84
30.0
4.90
29.4
124
6.01
17.0
2.70
17.9
2.53
1415
17.0
3.01
2.99
1840
29
6.9
0.65
5.5
1005
1.8
27
27
162
9.7
60
442
437
403
13
4
5
5
180
15
17
155
948
35.9
145
31.9
7.81
33.1
5.50
32.4
121
6.76
18.3
2.78
18.2
2.62
1564
15.9
2.97
2.93
2191
31
7.7
0.55
7.4
1117
1.6
31
29
172
11
83
515
440
558
11
192
1271
45.2
183
40.0
9.78
41.7
6.78
39.9
146
8.30
22.6
3.47
22.6
3.24
2034
14.9
3.19
3.15
1003
34
16
0.78
7.1
769
2.0
15
70
97
8.5
531
40
650
22
173
1215
45.9
172
40.5
9.69
39.4
7.05
38.0
149
8.16
21.1
3.36
21.2
3.32
1947
15.4
3.23
3.14
1207
35
15
0.77
6.9
804
2.4
23
43
137
8.7
523
48
625
72
186
1120
46.3
172
39.7
9.31
37.5
6.53
36.1
147
7.84
20.5
3.26
20.4
3.26
1855
15.7
2.84
2.78
1405
27
19
0.65
8.0
836
4.8
16
39
42
6.2
390
21
546
148
728
35.7
133
29.2
7.32
28.0
4.61
25.2
105
5.31
13.5
2.06
12.8
1.94
1280
16.1
2.35
2.31
1222
36
16
0.67
6.2
774
1.9
27
45
133
8.1
520
54
604
22
177
1167
44.1
163
37.1
8.96
36.6
6.46
34.9
152
7.72
19.9
3.24
20.2
3.20
1881
15.6
3.11
3.05
1221
34
13
0.44
6.1
860
1.3
24
39
189
7.8
493
67
484
16
153
1032
38.0
141
32.1
7.84
31.5
5.48
30.2
130
6.69
17.6
2.80
17.6
2.76
1649
15.3
3.18
3.12
1636
30
11
0.76
5.6
833
1.5
17
21
158
8.2
56
414
484
531
5
169
739
35.9
146
33.7
8.47
37.6
6.12
36.3
171
7.50
21.2
3.08
20.2
3.18
1439
21.9
2.19
2.19
2079
34
11
0.66
9.1
1073
1.9
29
24
154
10
50
457
473
616
b5
209
993
43.8
175
38.8
9.61
42.8
6.65
38.0
154
7.74
22.5
3.38
21.1
3.33
1769
17.5
2.39
2.39
1972
34
10
0.99
7.6
1084
2.3
27
24
133
11
49
447
433
553
b5
204
1001
44.7
181
38.9
9.97
42.6
6.70
37.3
142
7.68
21.9
3.13
20.4
3.21
1764
16.7
2.43
2.42
1550
29
11
0.89
5.3
803
1.7
16
25
122
8.1
44
405
416
540
11
159
660
36.8
148
35.7
8.52
36.5
6.08
35.5
159
7.23
20.4
2.93
18.9
2.89
1339
22.3
2.01
1.99
S
Sb
Sc
Se
Sn
Sr
Ta
Te
Th
Tl
U
V
W
Zn
Zr
Hg ppb
Au
Ir
Os
Pd
Pt
Rh
Ru
La ppm
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Y
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
REY1
%Heavy2
Cecn3
Cesn3
115
116
Appendix 2
Table A2
Average contents for compiled data for nodules from the Cook Islands EEZ.
Compiled mean1
This study
Fe wt.%
Mn
Si
Al
Mg
K
Ca
Na
Ti
As ppm
Co
Cu
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb
Th
U
V
W
Zn
Zr
REY
Pt ppb
1
Mean
Mean
16.2
16.9
8.03
3.42
1.42
0.90
1.99
1.76
1.28
150
3751
2309
295
91
3767
976
36
9.5
504
59
492
555
1678
232
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
19
16.1
16.1
7.30
3.01
1.34
0.89
1.95
1.84
1.20
147
4113
2262
295
90
3805
897
37
10
508
64
545
524
1665
210
1158
1158
209
209
204
209
209
209
74
69
1158
1158
79
67
1145
202
67
67
61
67
222
75
59
32
Data from Japanese cruises in 1985, 1986, 1990, 2000 (JICA/MMAJ, 2001), n = 5 to 956; this study, n = 54, 19 for Pt; Landmesser et al. (1976), n = 13; Usui and Mita (1994), n = 135.
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Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

Critical metals in manganese nodules from the Cook Islands EEZ,

Those 15 islands have a total land area of 240 km 2 , whereas the

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Cook Islands EEZ

Ferromanganese nodules (hereafter Mn nodules) from the CIs EEZ

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

CK-76-1 STN-03 FFC-02A

ArcMap calculations. Several assessments of contained metal tonnages

P, Ti) were analyzed using X-ray uorescence spectroscopy on a

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Concentrations of the 11 metals and REY and abundance data were

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

nodules (CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C and CK-80-2 STN-17 WG-01B) have

CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14C-MRU-L5-13

CK-76-1 STN-10 FFG-13

CK-76-1 STN-11 FFG-14B

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

than the two reections commonly found for most marine

3.3. Chemical composition

Cook Islands EEZ Abundance (kg/m)

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

0.23% respectively. However, recent studies indicate that several other

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Earth's crustal average, may still be of economic interest because of its

3.5. Growth rates

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3.6. Distribution of critical elements in the CIs EEZ

Contained metal (dry tons)

Contained metal: dry tons per 20 year mine site1

Contained metal: dry tons in 1 year of production1

Percentage produced in 1 year of 2013 global production

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Mean content CIs

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Cook Islands Mean / CCZ Mean

areas of high primary productivity (Cronan, 2006; Verlaan et al.,

All CIs nodules

From Hein et al. (2013).

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different commodities. CCZ nodules are a potential ore for NiCuMn

CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRT-B0-7

CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-B0-13

CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-L0-5

CK-76-1 STN11 FFG-14CMRU-L5-13

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J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

REY = sum of rare earth elements plus yttrium.

Table A.1 (continued)

B-4:23-28 B ~ 4:Un B-2:20-31 B-5:~18-20 B-2:18-33 B ~ 7:Un B-11:20-13

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J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

Table A.1 (continued)

CK-80-2 STN17 WG-01BMRT-B0-8

CK-80-2 STN- 102117 WG-01B- G991

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J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

J.R. Hein et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 68 (2015) 97116

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