Salvage of Heavy Construction Equipment by a Floating Ice Bridge

H. R. KIVISILD
Folrndation of Canada Engineering Corporation Limited, 805 8th Avenue, S . W., Calgary, Alberta T2P OM2

G. D. ROSE
Forrndarion of Cmrida Engineering Corporation Limited, 9731-51stArte. Ste 210, Edmonton, Alberta T6E4W8
AND

D. M. MASTERSON
Forrndation of Cannda Engineering Corporcltion Limited, 805 8th Avenrre, S . W . , Calgary, Albertci 72P OM2
Received May 27, 1974
Accepted July 30, 1974
During the summer of 1972, a barge load of heavy construction equipment under tow to the
James Bay Project on the eastern shore of James Bay became grounded on a shoal at the mouth of
the Fort George River, only a few miles from its intended destination. Federal Commerce and
Navigation Limited retained Foundation of Canada Engineering Corporation Limited (FENCO)
to study the feasibility of removing the heavy equipment from the barge by an overice crossing.
FENCO personnel visited the site in November and December, 1972, compiled the necessary
environmental data and designed a crossing consisting of ice built up by flooding. Following the
completion of the 100 ft wide (30.48 m) and 74 in. thick (1.88 m) bridge by Sainte-Marie
Construction, the ice bridge was instrumented and tested prior to and during the unloading
process. Parameters measured were thickness, width, temperature, ice soundness, and deflections. Tide readings were also taken.
Loads of 70 t and heavy trucks were removed with no problem. Deflections were very small and
cracking was confined to the tidal zone.
Durant I'Cte 1972, une barge chargee d'equipement lourd de construction destine au projet de la
Baie James sur la rive est de la Baie, s'est CchouCe sur un banc de sable B I'embouchure de la
rivikre Fort George, B seulement quelques milles de sa destination. Federal Commerce and
Navigation Limited a retenu les services de FENCO pour etudier la possibilite de decharger
I'equipement lourd de la barge par I'intermediaire d'un pont de glace. Le personnel de FENCO a
inspect6 le site en novembre et dicembre 1972, a rassemble les donnees nicessaires sur
I'environnement et a projete un passage constitue de glace accumulCe par inondation. A la suite
de I'achkvement d'un pont de 100 pi. de large (30.48 m) et 74 po. d'kpaisseur (1.88 m) par
Sainte-Marie Construction, le pont de glace a ete instrumente et teste avant et pendant les
operations de dkchargement de la barge. Les parametres mesures ont Bte I'epaisseur, la largeur,
la tempkrature, la qualit6 de la glace et les diflexions. Les niveaux de maree ont 6galement ete
relevks.
Des charges de 70 tonnes et des camions lourds ont ete d6charges sans problkme. Les
deflexions ont Bte trks petites et la fissuration a CtC limitee ii la zone de maree.
[Traduit par la Revue]

Introduction
During the first half of the month of January,
1973, an ice bridge was constructed on the
east coast of James Bav from Governors Island
in Riviere La Grande 'to a barge grounded on
a shoal 4400 f t ( 1341 m) from the shore (see
Fig. I ) . FENCO was retained by Federal
Commerce to advise on the feasibility of the
project and to prepare a report on the design
criteria and on the construction procedures required to build a bridge across which heavy
construction equipment could be transported
from the barge to James Bay construction sites
using recommended unloading procedures.
Can. Geotech. J . , 12.58 (1975)

Studies of the climatic conditions of the

James Bay estuary indicated that if certain
recommended construction procedures were
followed, enough ice could be built in the time
available to provide a bridge of adequate
strength, in spite of the 7 ft (2.1 m) high tides.
Design calculations using both elastic plate and
beam theory, along with previously gathered
field data on ice strengths, made possible the
tabulation of optimum road thicknesses and
widths for various load conditions.
The actual construction of the bridge OCcurred between December 29, 1972, and January 16, 1973. Water was applied in layers not

KIVISILD ET AL.: FLOATING ICE BRIDGE

0 I

mI

NO ice Build-up
Necessary In
/ ~ i d o i F l a t Zone

DEBARCADERE

JAMES BAY

.. -

-.

SCALE:

FIG. 1 .

-,-

lOOOOft

Location of barge and crossing.

greater than 1.5 in. (38 mm) thick by means

of pumps and in the 2 weeks a minimum of
58 in. (1.5 m) of ice was built up.
After completion of the construction, ice
strength tests were performed, thickness measurements were made and temperature profiles
and salinity samples of ice and water were
taken by FENCO personnel. The bridge was
closely inspected in the tidal crack zone and
was deemed safe for the purpose intended.
Levels taken at various times during unloading
on two days indicated a maximum vertical displacement due to tides of about 7 ft (2.1 m ) .
No serious damage to the bridge approaches
or delays in unloading resulted.

Special Problems
Tides
This area of James Bay is an estuary and is
subject to 7 ft (2.1 m) tidal fluctuations at

certain times of the month. Because of this, it

was feared that the ice, as it rose and fell with
the tides, would develop large cracks and shear
discontinuities near the shore and render approach to the bridge difficult or impossible.
Where tides exist in ice covered waters, there
is always a section of grounded ice at the shore
adjoined by a zone of tidal cracking (Fig. 2).
As the floating ice sheet responds to the semidiurnal tidal fluctuations, and the grounded
shore ice cannot, flexural cracks develop where
the two meet. These cracks are called tidal
cracks and can be seen, and heard, by a patient
observer, as the tide flows and ebbs. These
cracks can completely penetrate the ice sheet
and allow flooding of the grounded ice.
It was decided, partially on the basis of past
observation and partially through deduction
that, while this cracking due to tides should not
be taken lightly, there should be no serious

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 12, 1975

GROUNDED ICE

[ TIDAL CRACK
ZONE

ICE THICKENED
FROM FLOODING

FIG.2. Ice in the shore zone.

GROUNDED ICE

, . T I D A L CRACK
ZONE

5-

DISCONTINUITY

FLEXURAL
I?
/MECHANISM +
i

FIG.3. Tide crack mechanism.

impediment imposed by it on the use of the ice

bridge. If necessary, fill could be placed in the
affected area to facilitate travel.
It was reasoned that either a shear discontinuity could occur between the floating and
grounded ice or that some sort of a flexural
mechanism could result (Figs. 3a, b ) . Shear
discontinuities as shown in Fig. 3a are highly
unlikely since tidal cracking usually occurs over
a zone rather than at one location. It was thus
concluded that the flexural mechanism of Fig.
3b was more likely to occur and a study of the
geometry of a very simplified form of this
mechanism serves to illustrate the reasons behind the optimism regarding the effects of tidal
cracking.
As a worst case, suppose that the floating

ice sheet, attached to the shore ice at low tide

level, rises a distance A due to a full tidal surge
and causes two tension cracks connected by a
flexurally rigid block of ice of length 1 (Fig. 3c).
The crack opening is then

Dl

6 = : - Ah

1
If A = 7 f t ( 2 . 1 m )
h = 7 St (2.1 m)
1 = 50 St (15.2 m), a reasonable value to
assume as indicated by experience, then the
maximum crack width at the ice surface
would be about 1 ft (0.3 m ) , certainly nothing which is beyond repair. In actual fact,
the flexural mechanisms are more complex than
this, resulting in more hinges and narrower

KIVISILD ET AL.: FLOATING ICE BRIDGE

P R O B A B I L I T Y O F OCCURANCE

1.01

1.1 1.2

1.4

1.7 2

2.5 3

5 6

8 10

15 20

30

N
ONE C H A N C E I N I N ' T H A T T H E T H I C K N E S S
SHOWN WILL B E E Q U A L L E D OR E X C E E D E D
I N ANY ONE YEAR.

FIG.4. Summary of ice growth (values are maximum possible buildup under close
control)

cracks. Also, elastic bending of the floating ice

has been neglected here and this could result
in some stress relief in the tidal zone.
At any rate, it was decided that it should be
possible to maintain access to the bridge in
spite of the rather severe tides.

Ice Buildup Rates

Preliminary calculations indicated that the
naturally occurring ice in the estuary would
have to be artificially thickened in order that
the heavy loads on the barge could be safely
transported. An analysis of the local weather
data and previously established ice buildup
rates, (Kingery 1963, p. 283) given certain
weather conditions, led to the curves shown
in Fig. 4. These curves were produced by plotting the time-temperature product on probability paper for each 5-day interval of January
for each year. From them, it was concluded
that most certainly by the middle of January,
enough ice could be produced. As will be
shown later, actual progress verified this prediction.
Salinity
Since the area under question is an estuary,
it could possibly have been salty or at least
subject to influxes of salt water. Brine pockets
will develop in frozen sea water if the ice be-

comes too warm. When rapid artificial buildup

is under progress, the lower layers of ice can
often approach the melting point. Sea water
ice in this temperature range, where brine
drainage has not been possible, contains large
slushy brine pockets which have no strength.
Thus, in the event that the estuary was salty,
careful control and inspection was necessary
during and after construction to make sure
that these pockets were not too abundant.

Stress Analysis and Design

Stress analysis of the ice bridge was carried
out on the basis of the loading diagram shown
in Fig. 5. It was assumed that a crawler tractor,
of weight 1/3 of the total load, PT,was pulling
a trailer with its load equally distributed between the front and rear axles. Total loads of
20, 40, 60, and 80 t were considered. Maximum flexural stresses were checked considering
the bridge as: (a) an infinite beam on an
elastic foundation with both longitudinal and
transverse bending; ( b ) an infinite plate on an
elastic foundation. The ice was assumed in all
cases to be elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic.
In the event that the bridge should crack under
loading, stress calculations were carried out
assuming that complete loss of flexural strength
occurred behind the front axle of the float,

CAN. GEOTECH. J.
CRAWLER
LOAD P,/Q

P/3

VOL.

12, 1975

ON FRONT

~A~XLE

,P

TOTAL

LOAD

FIG. 5. Assumed ice loading configuration.

leaving a semi-infinite beam on an elastic

foundation loaded by 2/3 of the total load.
The formulas used in the calculation can be
listed as:
( a ) Infinite beam on an elastic foundation
subjected to concentrated loading (Den Hartog
1952).
[2]

Deflection

6 =-ePB -ex(cos BX

2k

[3]

Moment

+ sin BX)

Max. Stress

PZ/2

The maximum torsional stress, assuming

elastic behavior,

[71

0.968(h2)w

for w 3 2.5h

(e) Stresses in the beam after cracking

(loss of flexural strength) (Den Hartog 1952).
In this case

183 Moment

[9] Shear

= P e C p x sin

PX

~ e - * ~ ( c oPX
s - sin BX)

where P is assumed equal to 2PY7/3.The maximum moment, and hence maximum flexural
stress, occurs when
c os sin p X )
[lo] V = 0 = P ~ a ~ ~ (/3X
since P # 0 and dX
-+ 0 only as X + a then
cos j?X
and

sin BX
7T

/?X = -

(c) Transverse bending of the ice bridge

under a line load acting along the bridge center
line (Hetenyi 1958).

P, - cosh /3w - cos Pw

48 sinh pw + sin /3w
(d) Eccentric loading (Timoshenko 195 1) .
Calculations were carried out assuming that the
bridge was loaded 20 ft (6.1 m) off center to
try and ascertain whether torsional stresses
could be critical.
Under a concentrated load P, the torque is
[5]

P pX(cos/3X - sin PX)

M = ~ e
It was considered, for the purpose of calculation, that the beam is subjected to two
concentrated loads, one equal to 2PT/3 at
x = 0 and one equal to P7./3 at 30 ft (9.1 m).
The stresses and deflections from the two concentrated loads were then superimposed to give
the maximum values.
( b ) Maximum tensile bending stress under
a concentrated load for an infinite plate on an
elastic foundation (Timoshenko 1940).
[4]

[6]

Max. Moment

Substituting this into the equation for the bending moments, we get

M,,,

C11-I

o r M,,,

=-

= --

enI4sin (n/4)

0.3224 P/B

P
1.9344 -T
Bwh

maximum stress

Now
[12]

Thus

a,,,

KIVISILD ET AL.: FLOATING ICE BRIDGE

IOm

20m

3 0m

WIDTH OF ICE BRIDGE ( ft )

CURVES ARE FOR FRESH WATER ICE,
2 0 0 PS.1. BENDING STRENGTH AND A
FACTOR OF SAFETY OF 3 . 0
CRACKED CONDITION F S 1.0

FIG.6 . Bearing capacity of ice bridge.

Calculations of maximum tensile and torsional stresses were carried out on the computer using the above formulas and imposing
a factor of safety of 3.0 against tension failure
in the ice. The design curves of Fig. 6 were
compiled. Transverse beam or torsional stresses
were always well below the critical limit.
The two governing formulas were those describing the stress in an infinite beam and an
infinite plate. The curves slope downward to
the right, indicating, as would be expected, that
less ice thickness is required for wide beams.
The curves eventually became horizontal, indicating that as the beam width increases indefinitely it begins to act as a plate and a
further increase of flooded area is of no use.
Thus, making use of both beam and plate
theory, it was possible to arrive at the optimum
width of structure. The actual width of the
bridge was 100 ft (30.5 m ) .
It must be admitted that calculations based
on extreme fibre elastic stresses yield a lowerbound solution to the problem of the strength
of structures such as this, especially since ultimate strength behavior and compressive membrane action result in actual load capacities
considerably higher than elastic analysis predicts. However, because safety for personnel
and cargo was considered of prime importance,
elastic analysis was considered the wisest approach to the problem.

Rate of Travel and Spacing of Vehicles

In the interest of safety it was recommended
that vehicle spacing as outlined by the U.S.
Navy Cold Region Engineering Department in
manual NAVFAC Dm 9 be followed. According to this, 180 ft (54.9 m) clearance should be
maintained between two trailing vehicles and
290 ft (88.4 m ) between vehicles in a train.
In addition, vehicles travelling over the
bridge were cautioned to move according to
Fig. 7 (after Nevel 1970). Vehicle speeds in
excess of 10 mph were discouraged and, to
minimize creep effects, it was recommended
that parking of heavy loads on the floating ice
bridge be avoided. Comments on the necessity
of these precautions will be made later.
Construction of the Ice Bridge
Construction of the bridge was carried out
by Sainte-Marie Construction between December 29, 1972 and January 16, 1973. Water
was flooded in layers not greater than 1.5 in.
(38 mm) by means of pumps and was then
allowed to freeze before another layer was
applied. Work proceeded in shifts on a round
the clock basis. In the time period, an average
of 58 in. (1.5 m) of ice was frozen. Two
lengths of bridge were built (Fig. I ) , one
4400 ft (1341 m ) in length and the other 620 ft
(189 m ) long. The ice on the tidal flats was

CAN. GEOTECH.

20

J. VOL. 12, 1975

40

60

100

80

ICE T H I C K N E S S (Inches)

FIG.7.

Recommended maximum speed of vehicle travel.

grounded and needed no thickening. The portable nature of the pumps used for the flooding
made them ideal for the continuous flooding
operation, as they could be moved up and
down the ice bridge as required. Spare pumps
were kept in a heated building so that no time
need be lost from freezing and breakdown.
The bridge was kept lighted by sodium vapor
lights mounted on poles cut from the surrounding bush. These lights were operated by a
generator placed at one end of the bridge. On
the whole the operation was very efficient.

Results of the Field Investigations

Salinity Measurements
Ice from cores taken at two stations was
analyzed chemically and the total salinity was
determined. At each station, one sample of the
natural ice and one of built-up ice were
analyzed. A sample of water taken directly
from one of the pumps was also tested. The
results are listed in Table 1 and indicate that
the water and ice were fresh and that there
was no danger of forming large brine pockets
within the bridge.
Ice Strength Tests
Unconfined and confined compressive
strengths and elastic modulus of the ice, basic
engineering parameters, were determined for
the built-up ice by means of in situ plate jacking tests performed near the island end of the
bridge. These tests have been developed for
arctic use and have proved to give reliable
results and are relatively easy to execute.
The average unconfined compressive strength

TABLE
1. Results of salinity tests
-.

Salinity (%,)
Station*
2
18

+ 66
+ 23

Natural
ice

Built-up
ice

Pump water

0.018
0.009

0.122
0.444

0.333
0.333

'All chainages are given in feet using standard surveying

notation. Origin o f chainage, 0
00, is shown in Fig. 1.

of the ice was found to be 624 p.s.i. (4.3 X lo6

N/m2).
The confined compressive strength of the ice
as given here is determined by loading a circular area of the ice sheet to failure using a
hydraulic jack, similarly as is commonly done
in soil and rock tests. The strength obtained was
1920 p.s.i. (1 3.2 x lo6 N/m2). Deformations
were measured during the confined compressive
strength tests (Fig. 8 ) and, using theory developed for the load deformation relationship
during such tests in rock, the elastic modulus
of the built-up ice was determined to be about
1.2 x 106 p.s.i. (8.3 x lo9 N/m2), a value
comparing very well with those determined for
naturally formed fresh water ice.

Visual Examinations
Ice cores were taken at various stations along
the bridge using a SIPRE ice core auger. In all
cases the built-up ice was sound and of good
quality. From examination of the cores it was
easy to determine the natural-built-up ice interface as the natural ice was clear while the
built-up ice was cloudy because of sediments
trapped during freezing. As a result, it was

KIVISILD ET

FIG. 8.

AL.: FLOATING

Results of 5 in. (127 mm) diameter plate bearing tests.

possible to determine, since core recovery was

good, the exact thicknesses of both natural and
built-up ice. The results are listed in Table 2.
The ice cores showed clearly visible layers
with no evidence of brine pockets and full cohesion between layers. Individual layers were
an average of 1.5 in. (38 mm) thick. The
absence of brine pockets was encouraging and,
since the ice was fairly warm, indicated that the
estuary was fresh at the time of flooding.
Bridge Level Profiles
Levels were taken along the full length of the
bridge and also across the bridge out onto the
parent ice at several stations. In all cases the
results indicated that the bridge was floating
TABLE
2. Results of ice coring

Total ice thickness

Chainane

in.

65

ICE BRIDGE

Natural ice
thickness
in.

mm

isostatically (Fig. 9 ) and was not supported in

any way by the shore or the surrounding natural
ice. Since no large cracks or discontinuities of
any sort were noticed at the edges of the bridge,
it was concluded that the surcharging of the
parent ice had been gradual enough to allow
the large plastic deformations imposed by the
settling of the bridge to isostatic level.
Tide Measurements
Tide measurements were recorded at intervals of 0.5 to 1 h for January 21, 1973 by
taking levels from a bench mark established on
shore. Levels were taken at stations 1
21,l
2 66, and 4 05, shots being taken both on
top of the ice and on top of the water through
66. The results are
a hole in the ice at 2
plotted in Fig. 10. Comparing the shots on the
ice and the water at 2 66, we are once again
reassured that the bridge was floating and
responding exactly to tidal fluctuations. The
21 seems to have been
bridge at station 1
somewhat out of phase with locations further
out, possibly because of interference from shore

+
+

'All chainages are given in feet using standard

00, is
surveying notation. Origin of chainage, 0
shown in Fig. 1.

66

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 12, 1975

(a)

SECTION

BUILT-UP

(b)

ICE

PROFILE

FIG. 9. Final section and profile of floating ice bridge.

TIME

(h)

FIG.10. Tidal readings for January 21, 1973.

ice & this point. At any rate, it was concluded

from theseAmeasureme&sthat the 7 ft (2.1 m)
maximum predicted tide was reasonable.
While these readings were being taken, a
large tidal crack opened up near station 1 31.
This crack was the widest one noticed, about
4 in. (10.2 cm) wide at the ice surface, but
did not interfere with unloading operations.

Temperature Profiles
her mist or probes were inserted at station
18 23 at various depths in the ice as shown
in Fig. 11. A hole was drilled in the ice at this
station, the probes were attached to a weighted
cord, let down into the hole and then the hole
was filled with water. A period of 2 or 3 days
was allowed to elapse so that the hole tempera-

KIVISILD ET AL.: FLOATING ICE BRIDGE

(OP
OF ICE AFTER
FLOODING ON J A N . 1 7 / 7 3

THEORETICAL
f (Carslaw 8 Jaeger 1959)

! -20

FIG. 11.

-18

-16

Measured

-14

-12
-10
-8
TEMPERATURE (OC)

-6

-4

-2

temperature p r o f i l e s at s t a t i o n 18

ture could reach equilibrium with the surrounding ice and then temperature readings were
commenced. Readings were taken from January
17 to January 19 when the probe leads were
damaged beyond repair by construction work.
The results are plotted in Fig. 11.
Three sets of readings were taken on January
17, one in the morning before the last flooding
and two in the afternoon after flooding
was completed. The high reading for probe
number two can only be explained on the basis
of a pocket of still unfrozen water in that
particular area. It apparently rectified itself on
following days, as the profiles show.
As can be seen from the profiles, the flooding
on January 17 had a profound effect on the

I
0

+ 23.

temperature of the ice in the foot below the

top of the ice.
It is unfortunate that we did not have more
probes because the temperature profile before
and after flooding in the top foot would most
surely have looked more like the theoretical
curve. It is doubtful if the temperature disturbances, at least so soon after flooding, would
extend down farther than a few inches. The
c d d ambient then tends to bring the temperature curve back towards its original position.
The destruction of the probe leads made it
impossible to determine whether the original
profile was eventually restored.
What is of importance here is the fact that
the ice just below the surface layer was quite

68

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 12, 1975

FIG.12. Ice crusher crossing.

warm and obviously, from the temperaturc profiles taken, the rapid flooding and buildup rate
was having considerable effect on the mean
tempcrature of the ice mass. Newly applied
laycrs of ice plus heat influx from the warm
water beneath prevent the majority of the ice
mass from attaining temperatures much below
the freezing point. This can be critical if the
water used for flooding is sea water as the ice
formed therefrom has a high salinity, as much
as 20 ; i r , and when warm has a very high brine
content. Since this brine is detrimental to ice
strengths, it is very important to keep a close
watch on temperatures as flooding and freezing
with sea water proceeds, especially if the resulting structure is to be of a permanent nature.

Unloading the Barge

The equipment was unloaded from the barge
between January 15 and 27, 1973. The heaviest
load to cross at one time was the rock crusher
pulled by a grader; the combined weight of the
two being approximately 70 t (Fig. 12). This
equipment crossed the bridge when the tidal
fluctuations were at the highest and no difficulties were experienced in the tidal crack zone.
Attempts were made, while the equipment was
crossing, to measure deflections using a surveyor's level but they were too small to be
detected in this manner.

Type 769 B 35-t trucks with a tare weight of

approximately 29 t were used to remove drums
of fuel and other miscellaneous items from the
barge. The trucks were often loaded with 30
drums of fuel (for a total weight 33.5 t ) and,
after a few crossings at low speeds, were observed finally to be crossing the bridge at speeds
up to 20 m.p.h. (32 km/h) and on occasion
pass other trucks returning to the barge. These
rates of travel were not observed to have any
detrimental cffect on the bridge.

Conclusions
Elastic platc and beam theory with a factor
of safety of 3.0 in the uncracked condition and
1.0 in thc cracked condition were used to design the bridge. A safe structure 100 ft wide
(30.5 m) and 74 in. thick (1.9 m ) which supported well the loads of up to 70 t imposed
upon it was built. Principle flexural stress, as
opposed to transverse beam or torsional
stresses, werc found t o govern the design.
Actual construction of the bridge proceeded
quickly and 58 in. (1.5 m) of built-up ice was
produced in a period of two weeks. The ice was
built-up by the flooding and freezing in layers
not greater than 1.5 in. (38 mm). Strength
tests and visual examination of cores showed
the ice to be of good quality with an average

KIVISILD ET AL.: FLOATING ICE BRIDGE

unconfined compressive strength of 624 p.s.i.

(4.3 X 1 0 W / m " and an elastic modulus of
1.2 x 10".s.i.
(8.9 X loDN/m2).
The water in the estuary where the bridge
was located was found to be of very low
salinity and thus no brine problems were encountered in the natural or built-up ice.
In spite of 7 ft (2.1 m) of tide, the bridge
behaved well in the tidal crack zone and there
was no impediment to the unloading although it
took place during the time of maximum fluctuations at both high and low tide.
Profile and section levels showed the bridge
to be completely isostatic with no discontinuities
noticeable at its junction with the parent ice.
Limitations imposed on the rate of travel for
the 33.5 t trucks were found to be unnecessary
at the stress levels encountered as they were
observed to cross the bridge at speeds of 20
m.p.h. (32 km/h) and also met other trucks
while crossing.

Acknowledgments
The authors are very pleased to have had the
opportunity to work on this project with Federal Commerce and Navigation Limited. They
also appreciate the initiative shown by Eastern
Canada Towing Limited and the aid given by
F. S. Minniken of the Salvage Association.
Special thanks is extended to Ste. Marie Construction for the help and cooperation shown
FENCO personnel during the inspection of the
bridge and the gathering of field data.
DENHARTOG,
J. P. 1952. Advanced strength of materials.
McGraw-Hill, Toronto, Ont.
HETENYI,M. 1958. Beams on elastic foundation. Univ.
Mich. Press, Ann Arbor, Mich.

69

NEVEL,DONALDE: 1970. Moving loads on a floating ice

sheet. U.S. Army, Cold Reg. Res. Eng. Lab.,
Hanover, New Hampshire, Res. Rep. 261.
S. 1940. Theory of plates and shells.
TIMOSHENKO,
McGraw-Hill, Toronto, Ont.
1951. Theory of elasticity. McGraw-Hill, Toronto,
Ont.
CARSLAW,
H . S., and JAEGAR,J. C. 1959. Conduction of
heat in solids. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, Engl.
W. D. 1963. Ice and snow. M.I.T. Press, CamKINGERY,
bridge, Mass.

Appendix - List of Symbols

h = ice thickness ft (m)
E = elastic modulus of ice
= lo6 p.s.i. (6.9 x lo9 N/m2)
p = Poisson's ratio of ice
= 0.3
a = stress p.s.i. (N/m2)
a, = ultimate tensile strength of ice
= 200 p.s.i. (1.4 x lo6 N/m2)
k = subgrade modulus
= 62.4 lb/ft3 (2450 N/m3)
I = moment of inertia ft4 (m4)
P , = total load lb (N)
P = value of concentrated load Ib (N)
X = distance from load along beam ft (m)
b =
- 0.675 h for c < 1.724 h
c = radius of loaded area ft (m)

Jm
rr

x tire pressure

P, = load per unit width of beam lb/ft (N/m)

= PT/40
T = torque ft-lb (N-m)
Z = eccentricity of loading ft (m)
w = width of beam ft (m)
M = bending momentlunit width ft-lb (N-m)
V = shear lb (N)