1948

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 4, October 1996

esig

Krister Tykeson, Non-member

Sydkraft Konsult AB
205 09 Malmo, Sweden

Anders Nyman, Non-member

Hanna Carlsson, Non-member

Baltic Cable AB
205 09 Malmo, Sweden

Abstract--An essential element in HVdc electrode design is to

minimize all environmental stresses in order to meet and verify
conformance to the laws and regulations associated with the
concessions granted by the authorities. The environmental
disturbance caused in anode or cathode operation is more or less
entirely dependent on the materials used, the geographical
location and the electrode size. The electrode materials and the
related electrochemical process in the surrounding medium are
discussed in the paper in order to shed further light on the
chemical properties of different materials in an electrolyte
process. The geographical location of an electrode is described,
taking into account new aspects such as the impact of the earths
magnetic field and the interaction with existing HVdc electrodes.
The experiences described in this paper are based on the design,
tests and operation of the electrodes in the Baltic Cable HVdc
link [l] and other Scandinavian HVdc links.

1. INTRODUCTION

Permascand AB
840 10 Ljungaverk, Sweden

distribution onto the subelectrodes is regarded as very

favourable for minimizing the volume of contaminant
evolution. The properties of different materials are described
with regard to their suitability in anode or cathode operation.
Other aspects discussed are the impact of the earths
magnetic field on dc lines that follow geographical longitudes
or latitudes, and electrode interaction with HVdc electrodes
belonging to some other links.
Earlier experience shows the need for using advanced
calculation models for predicting the resulting voltage
distribution around the electrodes. In the Baltic Cable HVdc
project, the performance of the test electrodes together with a
sufficient number of theoretical models revealed excellent
scope for confirming the final voltage distribution at an early
stage of the project.
2. HVdc ELECTRODES

In HVdc transmission with monopolar operation or with

bipolar operation with a high unbalance current, the electrode
design is very important for avoiding disturbances. The aim in
all types of electrodes has so far been to achieve the lowest
possible earth resistance value in order to avoid high ohmic
losses and steep electrical gradients, since these could
otherwise give rise to problems of leakage current corrosion
of nearby buried metallic systems or objects.
As a new demand, the electrochemical process has been
assigned great importance when assessing the environmental
stresses. An environmental monitoring programme will
therefore be given close attention for at least the coming three
years in order to confirm the design safety of the Baltic Cable
anode. Good knowledge of the environment and of the
reactions at the electrode surfaces are important in achieving
the desired properties. As a result, a uniform current

96 W M 115-6 PWRD A paper recommended and approved by the IEEE

Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering
Society for presentation at the 1996 IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, January 2125, 1996, Baltimore, MD. Manuscript submitted July 17, 1995; made
available for printing December 15, 1995.

0885-8977/96/$05.00

2.1 Electrode types

Electrodes in existing HVdc transmission systems have so far
been classified into five types with regard to geographical
conditions.
Sea or shore (pond or buried types) electrodes are used in
transmission systems employing submarine cables. The main
objective is to put to use the good conductivity of sea water
and the absence of thermal stresses.
Land electrodes are usually run just below ground surface
and are used when sea water is not available. Special attention
must be given to the risk of unacceptable soil heating and
high power losses resulting from soil dry-out at high loads.
In conjunction with the start up of the Baltic Cable HVdc
project it was decided to install a deep-hole test electrode in
a good-conductivity layer at a depth of just below 200 m.
Following the first sucessful test a new deep-hole electrode
was installed at a depth of 550 m, adjacent to the converter
station on the Swedish side. The deep-hole electrode is
connected in parallel with the ordinary sea electrode, acting as
an anode and designed for a quarter of the rated current of the
Baltic Cable HVdc link [2]. This new electrode design could
conceivably be considered as an alternative in future HVdc
transmission projects. The main advantage envisaged is the
unrestricted location of the deep-hole electrode, e.g. close to
the converter station or at a location that minimizes
interference. In the case of other electrode types,

0 1996 IEEE

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TABLE 1
DESIGN ASPECTS FOR DIFFERENT ELECTRODES TYPES
Design aspects
Distance to converter station (km)
Interference
Mechanicd stresses

Sea

>IO
possible
sea bed currents, ice
none
II

Shore (pond)
>10
possible
high waves, ice
none

the distance to the converter station or to other substations

should be at least 3 km in order to avoid dc excitation of
power transformers.
Tests at different water salinities [3] revealed that fish do
not appear to react to electric field strengths of 2 V/m or
below. According to an IEC standard [4], the limit value on
land depends on the resistance of the human body exposed to
the electric field. The dc current which passes through the
body and which usually gives no harmful physiological
effects is stated in the standard to be 25 mA at a body
impedance of 1800 !2.
Summarizing the five conceivable HVdc electrode design
alternatives, the design aspects given in Table 1 should be
taken into account in a risk analysis. Conditions which
appear to be very difficult, such as high soil resistivities, can
also be handled, for instance, by using several electrodes
distributed within the necessary distance from the converter
station, which results in an acceptable voltage distribution.
2.2 Materials for electrodes

A number of materials may be suitable for the electrodes of

HVdc installations. In practice, anodes of the same materials
as those used for cathodic protection by means of impressed
current can also be employed for HVdc systems. The choice
for cathodes is less obvious, but materials that are used for
soil installations may be useful. By selecting an electrode
material and current load combination that is appropriate to
the environment, the preferred electrode reactions will
dominate, and the stability and selectivity will be good. The
following materials have frequently been used for anodes and
cathodes:
Anodes: Carbodgraphite, magnetite, high-silicon iron
alloys, and coated titanium alloys.
Cathodes: Carbodgraphite, and copper
2.2.1 Carbodgraphite
Graphite usually has better mechanical and electrical
properties than carbon, and is a better electrode material. In
view of the low practical current densities of around 10 Aim2
for carbon and graphite anodes in sea water and around 3
A/m2 in brackish water, a modified structure must be used.
Part of the structure is then made of graphite which acts
simultaneously as current feeder and electrode, but being

Shore (buried)

Land

>IO

>10

possible
high waves, tide, ice
dry-our

possible
high winds
dv-out

Deep hole
0
possible
high pressure
dry-out

surrounded by coke, the electrode area will be large. This type

of anode is usually very stable as long as the main anodic
reaction results in the evolution of chlorine (ClJ. The wear
rate in sea water will therefore be low, even at fairly high
current densities, but will increase as the salinity decreases.
The normal current density for impregnated carbodgraphite
electrodes is 1 1 - 30 A/m2 in sea water and 8 A/m2 in brackish
water. Rapid anode wear imay be expected in an environment
in which there is little chloride, and current densities in excess
of the critical level may impede the transfer of chloride to the
surface. The evolution of oxygen (0,)at the surface will lead
to the formation of carbon dioxide and will consequently
cause disintegration of the structure. Carbon/graphite
electrodes are also tolerant of current reversal and withstarids
well the environmental changes during reversal.
2.2.2 Magnetite
Magnetite anodes are produced by various casting techniques
and, because of the various additives used, the material is best
represented by the formula Fe, O,, where x is in the range of
2 - 3. The conductivity is usually fairly low and is highly
dependent on the relationship between the Fe2+and Fe3 ions
in the matrix. Moreover, the magnetite anode usually displays
a strong anisotropic wear rate, and the conductivity depends
on the shape of the anode: and the casting procedure used for
producing it. This restricts the production procedure that can
be used to ensure the most suitable electrode design. The
material is also fairly brittle and is liable to crack when
subjected to temperature variations. The normal current
density is around 70 Nm? in sea water.
This anode has high selectivity for oxygen evolution, as the
overvoltage for chlorine evolution is markedly higher than the
overvoltage for oxygen evolution. This is due to the changes
in structure accompanying the oxidation of Fe to Fe3 ions.
Magnetite can withstand current reversals for short times,
provided that the current density is low. The material is not
stable in a reducing environment which arise at sufficient large
cathodic current densities i.e. at least 10 A/m2.
2.2.3 High-silicon iron alloys
These are iron-based alloys with silicon contents as high as

14.5%, some carbon and manganese, and sometimes also some

molybdenum andor chromium. These hard, brittle alloys are

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1950

sensitive to mechanical and thermal shocks. This restricts the

manufacturing process and the final shape of the electrode.
The normal current density for this material is around 25 A/m2
in both sea water and brackish water. High-silicon iron cannot
withstand current reversal, since this may cause the SiO, layer
on the surface to burst.
High-silicon iron alloys are good anode materials for lowchloride applications, such as in fresh water containing less
than 200 ppm of Cl, but they suffer from pitting corrosion at
higher chloride levels and at elevated temperatures. This also
dictates the principal use of this material for oxygen evolution
in low-chloride applications.
2.2.4 Coated titanium anodes
Many anode types consist of titanium structures that are
coated with a 5 - 20 pm layer of electrocatalyst which is
usually a noble metal oxide or a mixture of several such
oxides. These are generally known as Mixed Metal Oxide
(MMO) anodes, and normally at a current density of 2.5 - 8
A/mZ. The design enables the good chemical stability of
titanium in strongly oxidizing, chloride-rich solutions to be put
to use as a mechanical support and current feeder.
The anode wear rate, various anodic reactions and anode
stability are properties that can be modified by modifying the
composition of the electrocatalyst. Thus, it might also be
possible to change the selectivity for oxygen and chlorine
evolution by varying the coating recipe.
The great advantage of MMO anodes is that the most
suitable anode can be manufactured for a given application
once the environment has been specified. These anodes also
have a distinct advantage in the way they are manufactured,
which gives optimum flexibility for the design of the final
electrode configuration.
An example of this flexibility is an anode system in which
the anode is built up around a widely expanded, thin titanium
mesh which is coated with a specified mix of platinum metal
oxide and valve metal oxide that favours oxygen evolution and
in which the anode is placed on the sea bed.
If this catalyst is combined with a design with a very large
projected area, the residual chlorine evolved will not appear as
a gas but will form a hypochlorite (OClJ directly as follows:
Cl,(g)

+ H,O

HOCl cs H'

c)

HCl + HOCl

-t OC1'

(1)
(2)

The hypochlorite on a widely spaced anode is much less

harmful, since the buffering capacity of the carbonate in
normal sea water and brackish water will not be exceeded,
because of the low concentration of C1, near the anode. At a
pH of around 8, the equilibrium state is displaced to the right
and leaves a very low partial pressure of chlorine which, in
turn, leads to a very low degree of the undesirable substitution
reactions which occur when C1, is evolved in other designs in

which rods and other non-spaced electrode configurations are

used. Hypochlorite is incapable of reacting with compounds
that can form dioxin or other highly chlorinated organic
compounds. Monochlorinated hydrocarbons, which are
naturally degradable, are formed when hypochlorite reacts
with organic substances in the water. Very low electrical
losses are another consequence of using electrodes with large
projected areas.
Due to its design, the MMO anode is less well suited for
operation under current reversal conditions. The maximum
cathodic current density must not exceed the value at which an
excess of hydrogen atoms will be present in the coating, and
the total change in the reverse direction should not be capable
of reducing a significant amount of the oxides.
Platinized anodes are usually sensitive to current ripple and
should not be operated at the very low current densities at
which platinum may be dissolved in saline solutions.
2.3 Electrochemical processes
The reactions at the anode in sea water and brackish water are
as follows [ 5 ] :

2 H,O

+ 4 H" + O,(g) + 4 e- ,

2 C1- -+ Cl,(g) + 2 e- ,

Eo (vs H,/Pt)

1.23 V (3)

Eo (vs H,/Pt)

1.36 V (4)

The reaction at the cathode is as follows:

2 H,O + 2 e- -+ 2 OH- + H,(g), Eo (vs H,/Pt)

-0.83 V (5)

Hydrogen and hydroxide (OH- ions) will be evolved at the

cathode. The OH' ions evolved will achieve equilibrium with
the carbonate buffer in sea or brackish water, and the effect of
the pH will therefore be reduced.
Oxygen evolution is the preferred reaction at the anode,
since it requires less energy than the chlorine-evolving
reaction. MMO anodes offer the opportunity for controlling
the reactions on the surface by choosing a specific catalytic
coating that has the right selectivity for the application
involved. If an MMO anode coating is selected for which
oxygen evolution selectivity is favoured and if the current
densities used are typical of the values for sea electrodes, the
selectivity for chlorine evolution will be between 5% and 30%
(molar basis), and the selectivity for oxygen evolution will be
in the range between 70% and 95%. At current densities up to
10 A/mZ,the selectivity is proportional to the current density.
Example: The total nominal current for the Baltic Cable is
1364 A, and the projected anode area is 800 m2. Since the
anode consists of titanium mesh, the effective area is 170 m2.
The average current density is 8 A/mZ. The selectivity for
chlorine evolution is 30%, and the selectivity for oxygen
evolution is 70%. According to Faraday's Law:
n

(T I) / (z F)

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(6)

1951

where T

Operating time (s)

Total current (A)
z = Stoichiometric number of electrons transferred
for the anodic reaction
F = Faraday constant (96485 C/mol)
n = Products evolved (molis)

The total evolution of products is 0.22 x lo6 mol/year, which

is 7.0 x los3 mol/s. Of this, 30% is hypochlorite, and the
molar weight is 70.9 x 10 kg/mol. This leads to a chlorine
evolution rate of 0.15 x lo- kg/s (4700 kg/year). The oxygen
evolved is 78 x 10 kg/s (2500 kg/year).
The chlorination rate normally used for drinking water is
0.3 - 1.O g Cl,/m. The amount of chlorine evolved at the total
current is 13 kg/day, which corresponds to the amount of
chlorine added to 26 000 m3 of drinking water. This is the
amount of water consumed daily by a community of 65 000
people. The concentration of hypochlorite in a 1 m layer
above rhe anode will be 0.7 g Cl,/m3, assuming that the layer
of water is replaced once an hour, see Fig. 1. Hydrogen ions
will be produced, and the existing carbonate in the water will
buffer the decrease in pH.
If magnetite without a spaced anode area is used, with the
same total current as in the Baltic Cable link and with a
normal current density of around 70 Aim, chlorine evolution
will be around 50% of the total chemical evolution. This leads
to chlorine being evolved at a rate of 0.25 x 10 kg/s (7800
kg/year) and oxygen at a rate of 5.6 x
kg/s (1800
kg/year). Gaseous chlorine is produced in this case, since the
pH is below the value at which carbonate has its buffer
region. Due to the small area of the magnetite anode, the
chlorine concentration will be higher than in MMO anodes.
Chlorine will react with organic materials such as humic acids
in sea or brackish water to form highly chlorinated organic
compounds.
Ways and means are available for overcoming the
sensitivity of MMO electrodes to current reversal as compared
to the standard coke solution. Such electrodes with enhanced
reversal capacity are currently in the course of development.

3. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

3.1 Influence of the magnetic field

A static electromagnetic field is formed at right angles tio a
conductor carrying a direct current. The field strength
decreases proportionately with the distance from the
conductor. The induced magnetic field will have a variable
influence on the earths magnetic field, see Fig. 2.
Earths undisturbed m,agnetic field follows longitude lines
in a direction from south to north. If disturbed by some other
field, the vectorial sum of the fields will deviate more or less
from the direction of the longitude lines. This has an influence
on magnetic compasses, for example.
In view of the possible influence on the earths magnetic
field, the determination of the locations of the two electrode
effects of the anode and cathode in a monopolar HVdc scheme
in which ground return is used may be essential. Two
examples are given below to illustrate the scope available for
influencing the effect on the earths magnetic field.
Example 1: dc line running along the latitude lines
In this case, the inducedrnagnetic field around the dc line will
either increase or decrease the amplitude of the earths
magnetic field. If the current in the dc line flows from east to
west, the amplitude will increase, but if the current flows in
the opposite direction, either the amplitude will decrease or,
if the amplitude of the disturbing field is too high, the
resulting magnetic field will be phase-shifted through I80
degrees. To minimize the risk of disturbances to magnetic
compasses, the current in the dc line should flow from east to
west.
Example 2: dc line running along the longitude lines
The direction of current flow is not crucial in this case, since
the earths magnetic field will be affected whichever direction
is chosen. The resulting magnetic field will be in the range of
either 0 90 degrees or 270 - 360 degrees. From the magnetic
field viewpoint, the locaiion of the anode and cathode can(be
selected with total freedom.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Procent of total current

Figure 1. Chlorine concentration, Baltic Cable anode.

Figure 2 . Interference of the earths magnetic field

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1952

TABLE 2.
THEORETICAL AND MEASURED VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION FOR THE BALTIC CABLE ANODE
Distance from the
electrode (km)
0.5

VRUsck
(V)
44.2
22.1

2
3
4
5
6

11.1

7.37
5.52
4.42
3.68
0.74

30

VOhlmvl"
(VI
30.1
19.3
11.4
8.3
6.5
5.1
4.5

It would be difficult to generalize on the direction of current

flow which is preferable in dc lines running in some direction
between the above two examples. In some cases, the main
direction of the whole dc line may provide scope for
optimizing the location selected for the anode or cathode at
one end. In other cases, only a short stretch of the dc line may
be critical from the disturbance aspect, such as in the vicinity
of shipping lanes. In such a case, the location of the anode
and cathode at either end of the HVdc link may also be
crucial.

The resistance of the Baltic Cable anode is estimated to be 35

mR, which gives an electrode potential of 47.7 V at nominal
dc current. The location of the electrode according to the
shore line is given in Fig. 3.
Three different theoretical methods have been compared for
estimating the voltage distribution normal to the shore line for
the Baltic Cable anode.
The Rusck formula for predicting the voltage distribution
for shore or sea electrodes is considered to be conservative in
view of the inhomogeneities in the earth's resistivity [3], [6].
The following assumptions were made for the Baltic Cable
project:
Ordinary Electrode

1500m

\1100m

Figure 3. Location of the Baltic Cable anode

'Measured

(VI
10.0

(VI
3.83
2.39
1.94
1.56
1.17
0.96
0.83
0.42

2.20
1.70
1.50
132

1.15
1.04
0.40

0.8

Nominal dc current, I,,

1364 A, Resistivity of water,

e,,= 0.8 Qm, Resistivity of soil, e, = 200 Qm, Slope angle of

the sea, c1 = 0.7".
The topography of the sea bed is such that the water is 6 m
deep at a distance of 500 m from the shore, and the maximum
water depth of 40 m is at 12.5 km from the shore. The
potential at a point located at a distance x meter from the
anode gives a conservative distribution with the best
correspondence at distances >30 km as follows:

v,=

3.2 Voltage distribution analysis

Test Electrode

VFEM

22100lx

(7)

Another way of modelling a sea electrode has been described

by Uhlmann [7] as the electrode feeding point, including the
sea bed contour, mirrored n times in accordance with the
following formula:

A calculation using a = 0.7" and n = 260 was performed and

produced the results given in Table 2.
The third calculation method was based on the finite
element method (FEM). A three-dimensional model was
created with different resistivity layers, based on extensive
geological knowledge. The actual area was modelled within a
distance of 100 km around the electrode. The results agree
very well with the final measured values except the nearest
kilometer to the electrode, as shown in Table 2. At a distance
between 500 and 1000 m from the electrode the potential
difference was measured by Cu/CuSO, reference electrodes to
1.44 V and calculated by FEM to 7.8 V (5.4 times higher).
The measuring direction y of the final voltage distribution is
given in Fig. 3.
The various theoretical calculations presented above
represent possible methods of predicting the voltage
distribution. Based on experience, the best way of confirming
the calculations is by employing a test electrode. The electrical
influence can then be analyzed by feeding direct currents to
the test electrode. For potential measurements, the earth should
be located at a distance of at least 10 times the measurement
distance, in order to avoid the negative influence of the earth.
At the beginning of the Baltic Cable project, a small MMO

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1953

test electrode was installed at a distance of 500 m off the

south coast of Sweden, as given in Fig. 3. The test electrode
was supplied at 100 A dc from a rectifier, and the earth was
located at a distance of 16.5 km. At a distance between 500
and 1100 m from the test electrode, the potential difference
obtained by FEM was 7 V along the coast which is 2.2 times
higher than the test results measured by thin copper bars. The
same distance was also measured with the ordinary sea
electrode. The values then obtained with FEM were 4.3times
higher then the test results measured by Cu/CuSO, reference
electrodes.
The FEM result given in Table 2 confirm the scope
available for obtaining valuable voltage distribution
information right back at the beginning of a new HVdc
project. If necessary, it would then be possible to correct
unacceptable interference at an early stage.
Comparison between six Scandinavian HVdc electrodes
now in operation demonstrates the strong link between the
resistivity of the top layer of the earth and the resulting
potential distribution, as shown in Fig. 4.
Some leakage current corrosion problems have been reported
around the electrodes represented by curves A, B and D which
give the highest potential values. These problems have been
effectively tackled by applying known corrective methods [3].
Mapping and analysis have been carried out for the Baltic
Cable electrode surroundings. New features mapped include
gas pipelines, electric power and telecommunications
networks, water supply networks, fishing equipment, etc.
No protective steps have so far been considered necessary
other than for the gas pipelines in Sweden. The main pipelines
run at a distance of between 10 and 180 km from the anode.
In view of the very strict corrosion potential requirements for
the pipes, some insulating joints will have to be provided
and/or the cathodic protection may have to be improved by
providing earthed sacrificial zinc anodes.

3.3 Current sharing

-C

lid

A. Gotland (anode)
I,
B. Konti-Skan (cathode) I,
C. Konti-Skan (anode) I,
D. Fenno-Skan (anode) I,
E. Baltic Cable (anode) I,
F. Baltic Cable (cathode) I,

(9)

=
=
=
=
=
=

700 A
1000 A
1000 A
1280 A
1364 A
1364 A

e , = 1.0 Rm
e,"= 0.3 Rm
e, = 0.27 Rm
e, = 1.6 Rm
e, = 0.8
e, = 0.8 Rm

Q. = 3000

fh
Ch
Q. =
2 fh
e, = 3000 fhn

e.

= 3000

e. =
e, =

200 f2m
150 f2m

Figure 4. Voltage distribution at different Scandinavian electrodes

where d = distance fromi a given subelectrode to all other
subelectrodes.
In the case of 40 subellectrodes arranged in a straight line
and equally spaced x apart, the resistance & of the centre
units No. 20 and 21 will then be:

& 2 (l/x + 1 / 2+~ ...........+ 1119~)+ 1120~= 7.15h (110)

The resistance & of the end subelectrodes No. 1 and 40 will
then be:

&

Scandinavian anodes and cathodes (on bipolar operation)

consist of several subelectrodes in order to meet the following
demands:
- The electrode must have an operating redundancy of several
subelectrode units to safeguard against faults such as material
loss, mechanical stresses, cable insulation damage, etc.
- The subelectrodes must be distributed over a sufficiently
wide area to maintain the electrical field strength limit.
Environmental analysis shows the great benefit of the
current being distributed as evenly as possible onto the
subelectrodes, thus minimizing the discharge of contaminants
to the surrounding medium.
It has been shown [8] that each subelectrode resistance Re,
according to the capacitive coupling between the
subelectrodes, is equivalent to:

R,

Voltage distribution (vl

(I/x + 112~+..........+ 1139~)= 4.251~

(1 1)

This gives R, = 0.59Rawhich indicates that the currents

flowing through the end electrodes are correspondingly higher.
In order to achieve uniform current sharing, the
subelectrodes of the Baltic Cable anode were arranged in a
configuration with different spacing and end hooks which gave
& = l.lRaas shown in Fig. 5 . Measurement of the final
current distribution revealed that the maximum current sharing
variation was within _+ 8% in relation to the theoretical
average dc current for each subelectrode.

Figure 5 . Baltic Cable anolde size and configuration

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1954

3.4 Electrode interaction

Out of the five dc links currently in operation in Scandinavia,

two are monopolar, two are bipoles and one is a bipole with
a high unbalance current through the electrodes. A further
monopolar link will be commissioned in 1995. Several new
links between Scandinavia and Europe are highly probable
within a period of ten years.
If a new monopolar link is built within a distance of 100 200 km from existing dc links, it can be shown by FEM
calculations that the existing voltage distribution at the latter
will be markedly influenced by the electric field from the new
electrodes. Calculation of the influence of the Kontek HVdc
link revealed that the potentials from the Baltic Cable anode
increased by up to 80% in the southern part of Sweden. The
Baltic Cable and Kontek anodes are located at a distance of
about 50 km from each other. When both electrodes act as
anodes or cathodes, interaction and strengthening of the
electric field will occur, except in the area along a straight line
between the two electrodes, as shown in Fig. 6. As opposed
to this, one anode and one cathode close to each other give
rise to a decreasing field, except in the same straight-line area
between the two electrodes in which the field is strengthened.

4. CONCLUSIONS
HVdc electrode interference can be minimized and acceptable
results can be achieved by including environmental aspects
into the electrode design. By selecting the correct combination
of electrode material and current load with regard to the
environment, the preferred electrode reactions will dominate
and the stability and selectivity will be good. The chlorine and
oxygen evolution process is dependent on the properties of the
surrounding medium, and the electrode size determines the
aggressiveness of the contaminants.
Detailed planning of the geographical run improves the
scope available for minimizing the total environmental impact.

REFERENCES
A Nyman, B Ekenstierna "Baltic HVdc Interconnection", CIGRE
SC14 colloquium Paper 6.3, 1993.
D Karlsson, J-0 Sjddin, S Nyberg, L Eriksson, "Deephole
ground electrode for HVdc transmission", Paper SPT PE 02-040301, IEEEKTH Stockholm Power Tech Conference, June 1995.
A Nyman, M Kuussaari, M Nielsen,
"Calculation and
measurements of the stray current effects of monopolar HVdc
systems", ClGRE paper 36-03, 1988 Session.
IEC Publication 479-1, "Effects of current on human beings and
livestock". third edition 1994-09.
C.M.A Bretf A.M.0 Brett, "Electrochemistry : Principal methodes
and applications", Oxford University Press, second edition, 1994.
U Jonsson, M Kuussaari, S Orivuori, A Nyman,
"Experiences of the mitigation of corrosion of buried
metal structures in the surroundings of monopolar
HVdc electrodes", CIGRE paper 36-201, 1992 Session.

E Uhlmann,
"Power transmission by
Springerverlag, Berlifleidelberg 1975.

direct current",

D.G Dell, "The Benmore land electrode" NZ Engineering, May 15

1965.

BIOGRAPHIES
Krister Tykeson was born in Asmundtorp, Sweden in 1956 and received his
M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from the Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg in 1982. After working as researcher at the
university for a short period, he joined Sydkraft AB, where he was engaged
on substation design and developmen4 insulation coordination and EMTP
simulation studies In 1991, he joined the High Voltage Equipment and
Network Analysis Department at Sydkraft Konsult AB, and has been working
for the past four years on HVdc electrode design and interference studies in
the Baltic Cable HVdc project and other HVdc projects now in the course of
construction. Non-member of IEEE

Anders Nyman was born in Karlskrona, Sweden in 1957 and received his
M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from the Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm in 1982. Between 1982 and 1985, he was engaged on
ac and dc filter design at the Capacitor Department of ABB Cable in
Stockholm. In 1985, he joined Vattenfall (Swedish State Power Board) to
work in the entire HVdc field related to converter and electrode installations
for the Gotland 3, Konti-Skan 2 and Fenno-Skan HVdc links. Since 1991, he
has held the post of Project Manager for the converter and electrode stations
in the Baltic Cable HVdc project. Non-member of IEEE.

Hanna Carlsson was born in Gothenburg, Sweden in 1969 and received her
M.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering from the Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg in 1993. She joined Permascand AB in 1994 to
work on the design of HVdc transmission electrodes such as sea, shore and
deep-hole electrodes. She also served as Project Manager for the production
of the sea electrode (anode) for the Kontek HVdc link. Non-member of IEEE.

Figure 6. Interaction on the voltage distribution with t w o anodes

(equipotential lines)

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