Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Combustion Engines
Michele Manno
Department of Industrial Engineering
University of Rome Tor Vergata
Last update: May 15th, 2014
Contents
1. General remarks and engine classification
2. Main operating parameters
3. Air intake
4. Supercharging and turbocharging
5. Fuel metering in spark ignition engines
6. Fuel injection in compression ignition engines
7. Operating characteristics and performance maps
8. Load matching: torque and rotational speed requirements
9. Pollutant formation and control
Image sources:
(left) M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005.
(right) J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGrawHill, New York, 1988.
=2
=
=
=(
= /
Rotational speed
=2
Crank angle
=2
)/
=2
Image source: R. Stone, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012
= /
0.8 - 1.2
3.0 - 4.0
8 - 12
12 - 24
8 - 15 m/s
1.8
1.6
1.4
up /
up
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
R = 3.0
R = 3.5
R = 4.0
0
45
90
[deg]
135
180
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Air filter
Carburetor
Engine head
Exhaust pipe
Cylinder block
Piston
Alternator
Connecting rod
9. Crankshaft
10.Sump
11.Oil pump
12.Camshaft
13.Pushrod
14.Coil ignition
15.Spark plug
16.Exhaust valve
17.Rocker arm
10
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Engine head
Piston
Cylinder block
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Sump
7. Oil pump
8. Oil filter
9. Injection pump
10.Glow plug
11.Injector
12.Camshaft
12
13
14
Operating parameters
Ideal thermodynamic cycles
Constant-volume
Otto
Thermodynamic processes
1-2 Adiabatic compression
2-3 Heat input:
Otto: constant volume
Diesel: constant pressure
Sabath: mixed (isochoric 2-3, isobaric 3-3)
Constant-pressure
Diesel
Limited-pressure
Sabath
/
/
/
15
Operating parameters
Ideal cycle analysis
Heat input:
=
Rejected heat:
=
Cycle efficiency:
=1
16
Operating parameters
Ideal cycle efficiency
Sabath cycle efficiency:
=1
1
1
1+
0.9
Otto
Diesel
0.8
=1
0.7
0.6
=1
1
1
id
0.3
0.2
heats
0.1
k = 1.4
b = 2.0
8
12
16
rv
20
24
increases
17
Operating parameters
Fuel/air cycle efficiency
In order to take into account the real
thermodynamic behavior of the working fluid,
a fuel/air cycle is defined. Its characteristics are:
air and combustion products are perfect gases,
with specific heat ( , ) and specific heat
ratio dependent on temperature;
the combustion process is complete and
instantaneous;
18
Operating parameters
Air/fuel cycle vs real thermodynamic cycle
Further differences between air/fuel cycle and real cycle are due to:
Finite combustion time: the combustion process usually lasts at least 50 crank angle degrees
Incomplete combustion and chemical dissociation
Heat transfer between burned gases and cylinder walls and between air and intake manifold
Crevice effects and leakage
Exhaust blowdown loss due to anticipated opening of exhaust valve
Pressure losses at intake and exhaust valves: in naturally aspirated engines, this means in
particular that work must be done by the piston on the gas during the intake and the exhaust
processes (pumping work)
Finite valve opening and closing time
The real working cycle is defined as indicated cycle (see the following slide), so an
indicated thermodynamic efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the actual work output and the
work output of a corresponding fuel/air cycle:
=
19
Operating parameters
Indicated cycle
The real working cycle and engine performance are
measured with a dynamometer: the engine is clamped on
a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer
rotor, which is coupled to the stator by electromagnetic,
hydraulic or mechanical (friction) means.
The force required to balance the stator gives the
engine torque:
=
20
Operating parameters
Real (indicated) cycle
Pressure vs. crank angle (-) diagram
BDC
TDC
BDC
IVO
Exhaust
Intake
EVO
Expansion
IVC
EVC
Compression
TDC
Indicated cycle
(pressure vs cylinder volume diagram, -)
Left: indicated cycle of a 4S, SI engine
Right: indicated cycle of a 4S, CI engine
21
Operating parameters
Indicated cycle
Indicated work per cycle (per cylinder)
=
= =
Indicated cycle power output
= = / = /
Mechanical efficiency
=
=
=
/
=
/
fmep is here defined to include work spent to
drive accessories
Mechanical balance in terms of power
=
Mechanical balance in terms of effective
pressures:
=
=
22
Operating parameters
Overall fuel conversion efficiency and specific consumption
Overall fuel conversion efficiency must take into account energy losses due to friction and work
necessary to drive accessories, so it is defined in terms of brake power:
=
It is therefore the product of indicated fuel conversion efficiency and mechanical efficiency:
= =
The specific fuel consumption is, by definition, the fuel mass flow rate that must be burned in the
engine to obtain a unit power output: thus, it is given by the inverse of the product of fuel conversion
efficiency and heating value. It is usually expressed in [g/kWh]:
=
23
Operating parameters
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an engines induction process, and is
defined as the mass of air that effectively flows into the intake system divided by the mass of air
that would fill a volume equal to the displacement at inlet air conditions (inlet air density ):
=
=
In naturally aspirated engines volumetric efficiency is lower than 1 because of pressure losses in the
intake system (distributed losses in the intake manifold and concentrated losses in the intake valve).
Typical maximum values are in the range 8090% for SI engines, and somewhat higher in CI
engines (because there are no throttling losses, which in some measure are always present in SI
engines even at full load).
In supercharged and turbocharged engines inlet air density is higher than the ambient value, so
volumetric efficiency is higher than 1 (and for this reason it is not totally appropriate to talk about
efficiency in this case).
Inlet air mass flow rate can be expressed as follows:
= /
24
Operating parameters
Air/fuel ratio, torque and power output
An obviously important parameter for the
combustion process is the air/fuel ratio :
Power output:
= 1, = 1
> 1, < 1
/ =
/
25
Operating parameters
Thermal energy balance
Fundamental energy balance equation:
= = + + + +
Heat flux absorbed by refrigerating fluid and lubrication oil:
= +
Heat flux rejected as sensible heat in the exhaust gases:
, ( )
Other forms of heat dissipation ( ):
o incomplete combustion;
o radiation.
Spark Ignition Engines
20 30%
28 40%
16 33%
15 37%
30 50%
24 40%
4 20%
4 12%
26
Operating parameters
Influence of rotational speed on efficiencies
Taking into account indicated thermodynamic efficiency , if rotational speed increases the
working cycle gets shorter, so:
leaks of working fluid and heat transfer between fluid and engine walls both decrease
27
Operating parameters
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in SI engines
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Air/fuel ratio
Image source (bottom): G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
28
(because = 1 / and ).
Equivalence ratio
Operating parameters
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in CI engines
Since CI engines work exclusively with lean mixtures
( 0,7), increasing air/fuel ratios is always beneficial
with reference to dissociation and incomplete
combustion, so the indicated thermodynamic
efficiency increases.
The different combustion mechanism makes the effects
related to reaction speeds much less important.
Only with extremely lean mixtures the indicated
thermodynamic efficiency drops significantly.
29
Operating parameters
Typical design and operating data for internal combustion engines
Source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
30
Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram
Intake Valve
Intake valve opens (IVO) before TDC in order to have the valve completely open when the
induction stroke begins, so as to maximize air induction into the cylinder.
Intake valve close (IVC) after BDC in order to take advantage of kinetic energy of exhaust gases in
the intake manifold, so as to achieve a good air induction, thanks to inertial effects, even after BDC.
Image sources:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(right) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
31
Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram
Exhaust Valve
Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC) after TDC in order to take advantage of the inertia of the exhaust
gases, which draw even more fresh air into the cylinder thanks to the overlap period (time while
intake and exhaust valve are simultaneously open).
Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO) before BDC so as to discharge initially the burned gases due to the
pressure difference between the cylinder and the exhaust system (blowdown); after BDC the
cylinder is scavenged by the piston as it moves toward TDC (displacement process).
Advanced EVO allows to reduce pumping work (pressure decreases in the cylinder) but it also
reduces the power stroke, so an optimum value exists as a compromise between these effects.
Image sources:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(right) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
32
Air intake
Intake and exhaust valves
Volumetric efficiency increases as the cross-section
available to induced air and to exhaust gases
increases.
The influence of intake cross-section is much more
pronounced than that of the exhaust cross-section, by
a factor equal to (because it affects the fluid filling
the whole cylinder, and not only the dead volume).
In order to increase intake and exhaust cross-sections,
it is obviously better to adopt multivalve systems
rather than increasing the size of a single valve.
Therefore the following systems are commonly used:
o
33
Air intake
Phenomena influencing gas exchange processes
In naturally aspirated engines, the volumetric efficiency is
lower than 1 because of several phenomena taking place
in the gas exchange process. The most important are:
Intake
Exhaust
Pressure [kPa]
Volumes
34
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects
Fuel vapor (and also water vapor) reduces the air partial pressure
below the mixture pressure. If is the mixture pressure (at the
beginning of the compression stroke), then = , + , + ,
(a -> air, f -> fuel, w -> water). Partial pressure of air is given by:
,
= 1+
35
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency increases with ambient
temperature (according to a power 0,5),
because less heat is exchanged between
mixture and walls. In any case, the mass of
induced air decreases as ambient
temperature increases:
=
1
1
= 1 0,5
= 302,4 K
0,5
= 363 K
36
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: influence of rotational speed
Volumetric losses due to charge heating
decrease as (and therefore ) increases
because the time available for heat exchange
between fluid and engine walls also decreases.
The effect of friction, both at the intake and at
2
Image source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
37
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: effect of valve timing
EVO point
(degrees before BDC)
Pressure [MPa]
TDC
BDC
Cylinder volume
Volumetric efficiency
[rpm]
IVC point
(degrees after BDC)
38
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: inertial effect
The pressure in the inlet manifold varies during each cylinders
intake process due to the piston velocity variation, and the unsteady
gas-flow effects that result from these geometric variation.
At higher engine speeds, the inertia of the gas as the intake valve is
closing increases the pressure in the inlet port and continues the
charging process as the piston slows down around BDC and starts
the compression stroke. The inlet valve is closed some 40 to 60
after BDC, in part to take advantage of this ram phenomenon.
Frequency ratio 0 /
39
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: wave effects (tuning)
Pressure oscillations due to wave propagation in the
intake system influence the gas exchange process.
Pressure [MPa]
Resulting pressure
Reflected
wave
TDC
BDC
LIVC
EIVO
Without reflection
40
Air intake
Supercharging and turbocharging: layouts
a) Mechanical supercharging
b) Turbocharging
c) Engine-driven compressor and turbocharger
d) Two-stage turbocharging
e) Turbocharging with turbocompounding
f) Turbocharger with intercooler
C Compressor
E Engine
I
Intercooler
T Turbine
Image source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988
41
Air intake
Supercharging: Roots compressor (positive displacement)
Image source:
(right) R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011
(left) P.W.Wetzel, J.P.Trudeau, New supercharger for downsized Engines, MTZ worldwide, February 2013
42
Air intake
Turbocharger
Image source: E. Chebli et al., Development of an exhaust-gas turbocharger for HD Daimler CV engines, MTZ Worldwide, February 2013
43
Air intake
Turbocharging with intercooler
44
Air intake
Turbocharging
pressure
Adiabatic expansion
TDC
BDC
Volume
In a constant pressure system, each cylinder discharges to an exhaust manifold that is large enough
to dampen pressure oscillations; kinetic energy is then lost while exhaust gases expand to pressure
(2-3 process), with an increase in total enthalpy and temperature
Image source: G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
45
Air intake
Supercharging vs. turbocharging
For positive displacement compressors, pressure ratio is almost independent on the engines
rotational speed: therefore, good performances can be achieved even at low rotational speeds and
when accelerating from low speeds.
The turbocharger on the other hand provides increasing pressure ratios as the engine speed
increases: inlet pressure may be either insufficient at low speeds or too high at high speeds.
The turbocharger is more reliable; installation and maintenance are easier.
The turbocharger weighs less and is smaller than a supercharger, other things being equal
(in particular, for the same pressure ratio and air flow rate).
Pressure ratio is approximately up to 3 for a turbocharger and up to 2 for a Roots compressor.
Mechanically driven
Torque
Turbo
Naturally Aspirated
Time [s]
46
Air intake
Turbocharging: applications
Spark Ignition engines:
o The degree of supercharging in SI engines is mainly limited by the knock: supercharging reduces
ignition delay which increases the knocking tendency.
o Before the advent of direct injection systems, turbocharging required a decrease of the
compression ratio in order to reduce the risk of knocking -> higher specific fuel consumption.
o With the advent of direct injection systems and the availability of better fuels (higher octane
numbers), turbocharging could be more easily adopted, because fuel vaporization, together with a
wide use of charge cooling, allows to avoid the need to reduce compression ratios.
Compression Ignition engines:
o Since in CI engines there is no risk of knocking, supercharging is limited only by the maximum
permissible mechanical and thermal loads. Indeed, supercharging has even a positive influence on
the combustion process.
o Therefore, turbocharging is extensively used in CI engines, and it makes their performance reach
the same level of naturally aspirated SI engines.
47
Air intake
Turbocharging: exhaust gas by-pass valve
Turbocharger
Exhaust gas
Fresh air
Turbine
Discharge
Inlet
Engine
Bypass valve
48
Air intake
Turbocharging: variable geometry turbine
As an alternative, in order to achieve
good performances on a wide range
of rotational speeds, a variablegeometry turbine can be used, which
is equipped with variable-pitch nozzle
blades.
49
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Mixture homogeneity
The air/fuel mixture must be homogeneous, in
order to burn fuel rapidly and completely.
Air/fuel ratio
The metering system must provide the
appropriate quantity of fuel, so as to obtain the
required air/fuel ratio for every operating point.
Equivalence ratio
Fuel volatility
Fuel must be premixed with air, before the
spark starts the combustion process.
Air/fuel ratio
50
1. Air filter
2. Carburetor
3. Throttle valve
4. Intake manifold
5. Fuel tank
6. Fuel filter
7. Cam
8. Diaphragm pump
51
Pressure
equalizing
passage
Float
chamber
Fuel discharge
nozzle
Venturi
throat
Throttle
plate
Calibrated
orifice
Float chamber
The fuel level is maintained at a constant
height in a float chamber: a pressure
equalizing passage makes the pressure inside
the float chamber equal to air pressure at the
Venturi inlet. Thus, hydrostatic pressure on the
calibrated orifice depends only on the flow rate
of air.
Throttle valve
It controls air flow rate, and as a consequence
power output, acting on volumetric efficiency.
52
53
o Multipoint port injection: a fuel injector is used for each cylinder; fuel is injected into the intake
port of each cylinder
54
3. Intake valve
55
1. Fuel tank
11.Throttle switch
2. Fuel pump
3. Fuel filter
4. Pressure regulator
14.Lambda sensor
6. Ignition coil
7. HT distributor
8. Spark plug
18.Battery
9. Injector
10.Throttle valve
20.HVAC switch
56
HDEV5
HDEV4.1
Source: A. Heinstein et al., High-pressure Direct Injection Systems for Gasoline Engines , MTZ Worldwide, March 2013
57
58
59
[cm3]
n [rpm]
Indirect
injection
Direct
injection
3498
3498
10,7
12,2
[bar]
45
200
[kW]
200
215
[rpm]
6000
6400
[bar]
11,4
11,5
[kW/l]
57,2
61,5
[Nm]
350
365
[bar]
12,6
13,1
[Nm/l]
100,0
104,3
[g/kWh]
240
235
(part load)
[g/kWh]
360
290
60
Power
o pollutant emission
rps
o mechanical stresses
o thermal stresses
Rotational speed n
rpm
61
Direct injection
Reduction of heat losses (no heat exchange
with the prechamber walls) -> increase in fuel
efficiency
62
63
Closed injector
Electrical
connection
High pressure
fuel inlet
High pressure
fuel inlet
Solenoid
actuator
Solenoid
actuator
Two-way valve
Two-way valve
Injector valve
open
Solenoid energized
Fuel pressure is relieved above
the valve control plunger
Balance of forces: Fa > Fc+Fe
Nozzle open
Injector valve
closed
64
Source: D. Schppe et al., Servo-Driven Piezo Common Rail Diesel Injection System, MTZ Worldwide, March 2012
65
66
Cursor 11 Euro VI engine series, used for commercial truck propulsion (FPT Industrial)
67
68
Power
Fuel specific consumption
Torque
69
70
n [rpm]
71
72
Year
2001
2006
2002
2002
2005
2006
2007
[cm3]
1998
1598
1796
1796
1390
1798
2979
Supercharging
Turbo
Turbo
Mech.
Mech.
Mech. + Turbo
Turbo
2 Turbo in //
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
8,8
8,8
8,7
10,5
10,0
9,4
10,2
120
120
150
200
Injection
[bar]
[kW]
140
132
141
125
125
118
225
/ [kW/l]
70
82,6
78,5
69,6
89,9
65,6
75,5
[rpm]
5400
5500
5800
5300
6000
5000
5800
[Nm]
250
230
260
250
240
250
400
/ [Nm/l]
125,1
144
144,8
139,1
172,7
139
134,3
(max) [bar]
15,7
18,1
18,2
17,5
21,7
17,4
16,8
(min) [g/kWh]
239
< 250
< 235
Design characteristics and performance of some SI 4S supercharged engines for automotive applications, built by European companies from 2001 to 2007
Source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011
73
10
11
12
13
Year
1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2004
2004
2004
2005
2005
2005
2005
2006
[cm3]
3900
1995
2148
3936
2460
2967
2497
1991
1493
2993
2987
4134
3996
Turbocharging
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Turbo
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
2
Turbo,
series
Turbo
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Injection
CR
I gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
CR
III gen.
CR
III gen.
CR
III gen.
18
17
18
17,3
17,1
17
18
18
16,5
18
16,5
17
[bar]
1350
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
n. of injections
1 pilot
up to
5
2 pilot
2 pilot
>1
2 pilot
2 pilot
2+1+2
[kW]
175
110
110
202
128
171
130
103
70
200
165
240
231
/ [kW/l]
44,9
55,1
51,2
51,3
52,0
57,6
52,1
51,7
46,9
66,8
55,2
58,1
57,8
( ) [rpm]
4000
4000
4200
3750
3500
4000
4200
4000
4400
3800
3750
3600
[Nm]
560
330
340
650
400
450
400
300
210
560
510
650
730
/ [Nm/l]
143,6
165,4
158,3
165,1
162,6
151,7
160,2
150,7
140,7
187,1
170,7
157,2
182,7
( ) [rpm]
17502500
2000
2000
18002500
2000
14003250
2000
16003000
18002800
2000
16002800
16003500
2200
[bar]
18,0
20,8
19,9
20,8
20,4
19,1
20,1
18,9
17,7
23,5
21,5
19,8
23,0
[g/kWh]
207
202
205
198
202
202
206
208
18
202
Design characteristics and performance of some CI 4S turbocharged engines for automotive applications, built by European companies from 1999 to 2006
Source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011
74
Fuel
[cm3]
Turbocharging
10
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
LPG
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
1368
1368
1368
1368
1742
1368
1598
1956
1956
1956
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Multiair*
Multiair*
Air inlet
Injection
MPFI
MPFI
MPFI
MPFI
DI
MPFI
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
9,8
9,8
9,8
9,8
9,25
9,8
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
1600
1600
1600
1600
[bar]
[kW]
77
88
125
125
173
88
77
103
125
125
/ [kW/l]
56,3
64,3
91,4
91,4
99,3
64,3
48,2
52,7
63,9
63,9
( ) [rpm]
5000
5000
5500
5500
5500
5000
4000
3750
4000
4000
[Nm]
206
206
250
250
340
206
320
350
350
350
/ [Nm/l]
150,6
150,6
182,7
182,7
195,2
150,6
200,3
178,9
178,9
178,9
( ) [rpm]
1750
1750
2500
2500
1900
1750
1750
1500
1750
1750
[bar]
18,9
18,9
23,0
23,0
24,5
18,9
25,2
22,5
22,5
22,5
75
bmep
bmep
76
Load matching
Typical applications
1.
2.
Load requiring torque output increasing as the square of the rotational speed ):
the engine is thus matched to a fluid machine such as compressors, pumps, aeronautical or
marine propellers, etc.
In this case the engine speed at design operating conditions should be as close as possible to the
optimal one for the external load, in order to reduce the size of the gearbox, or if possible avoid
altogether its use. For large marine 2S CI engines, engine speed has even been reduced down to
12 s-1, so as to couple directly the engine to the propeller.
3.
Load requiring a wide range of operating conditions, both in terms of speed and torque.
It is for example the case of ground propulsion.
77
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance
/#0865
/#0%4
$QTGOO5VTQMGOO
1RGTCVKQPOQFG
'PIKPGURGGF
TRO
(TGSWGPE[
*\
'NGEVT)GP5GVRQYGT
M9
$QTGOO5VTQMGOO
'PIKPGURGGF
TRO
.
.
8
8
8
(TGSWGPE[
'NGEVTIGPUGVRQYGT
*\
M9
'NGEVT)GP5GVJGCVTCVGCVNQCF
'NGEVT)GP5GVJGCVTCVGCVNQCF
9QTNF$CPM
.WDGQKNEQPUWORVKQP
M,M9J
MIJ
9QTNF$CPM
M,M9J
9QTNF$CPM
OI01Z"
M,M9J
.WDGQKNEQPUWORVKQP
MIJ
0QOKPCNIGPGTCVQTGHEKGPE[
0QOKPCNIGPGTCVQTGHEKGPE[.V[RG8V[RG
/#0)
/#085
$QTGOO5VTQMGOO
8
$QTGOO5VTQMGOO
'PIKPGURGGF
TRO
'PIKPGURGGF
TRO
(TGSWGPE[
*\
(TGSWGPE[
*\
'NGEVT)GP5GVRQYGT
M9
'NGEVT)GP5GVRQYGT
M9
'NGEVT)GP5GVJGCVTCVGCVNQCF
8
8
'NGEVT)GP5GVJGCVTCVGCVNQCF
'NGEVTKECNQRVKOKUGF9$6#.WHV
M,M9J
.WDGQKNEQPUWORVKQP
MIJ
0QOKPCNIGPGTCVQTGHEKGPE[/GVJCPGPQ
.KSWKFHWGN
9$
M,M9J
.WDGQKNEQPUWORVKQP
MIJ
0QOKPCNIGPGTCVQTGHEKGPE[
78
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
18V48/60TS engine
Operation mode
Performance data
Unit
kW
1050
1100
1150
1200
kW
18,900
19,800
20,700
21,600
kW
18,428
19,305
20,183
21,060
g/kWh
171
172
174
177
kJ/kWh
7,305
7,350
7,430
7,560
Heat Rate
acc. to ISO 3046, without pumps,
mech. Power output, +5% tolerance
Dimensions (mm)
mg/Nm3
1850
1740
1580
1480
bar
23.2/22.6
24.3/23.7
25.4/24.7
26.5/25.8
g/kWh
0,60
0,60
0,60
0,60
9625
5410
24510
9023
4694
407
407
407
407
407
79
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
With generator (genset)
Without generator
GenSet dimensions
A
mm
7,470
8,530
7,055
8,315
9,575
mm
4,328
4,328
4,376
4,376
4,376
mm
11,795
12,858
11,431
12,691
13,951
6L32/44CR
7L32/44CR
mm
2,676
2,676
4,200
4,260
4,260
mm
4,975
4,975
5,000
5,200
5,200
Dry mass
84
97
117
144
172
Engine type
No. of cyl.
L
mm
L1
mm
W
mm
H
mm
Weight
t
6,312
5,265
6,924
5,877
2,174
4,163
39.5
2,359
4,369
8L32/44CR
7,454
6,407
2,359
4,369
44.5
49.5
9L32/44CR
7,984
6,937
2,359
4,369
53.5
10L32/44CR
10
8,603
7,556
2,359
4,369
58.0
Engine type
No. of cyl.
L
mm
L1
mm
W
mm
H
mm
Weight
t
12V32/44CR
12
7,195
5,795
3,100
4,039
70
14V32/44CR
14
7,970
6,425
3,100
4,262
79
16V32/44CR
16
8,600
7,055
3,100
4,262
87
18V32/44CR
18
9,230
7,685
3,100
4,262
96
20V32/44CR
20
9,860
8,315
3,100
4,262
104
V-engine V32/44CR
All weights and dimensions are for guidance only and apply to dry engines without flywheel. Masses include built-on lube oil automatic filter, fuel oil filter and electronic equipment.
Minimum centreline distance for twin engine installation: 2,500 mm (L32/44CR), 4,000 mm (V32/44CR). More information available upon request.
80
Load matching
Power generation: plant layout
81
Load matching
Power generation
Facilities of 80 MW or more, operating or under construction
Name
Location
Aratu, Salvador
Brazil
Capacity MW
Fuel
Year1
Configuration
E/G supplier
1056
Diesel
U/C
IPP3
Jordon
573
Tri-fuel
2014
38 x 50DF
Wrtsil
Quisqueya I+II
Dominican Republic
430
2013
12 x 18V50DF + 12 x 18V50DF
Wrtsil
Boyuk Shor
Azerbaijan
384
Nat gas
2013
21 x SG
Wrtsil
Suape II
Brazil
382.5
HFO
2011
17 x 46F
Wrtsil
Geramar I+II
Brazil
331.8
HFO
2010
38 x 20V32
Wrtsil
Sangachal
Baku, Azerbaijan
306.8
2012
18 x 16.6 MW 50DF
Wrtsil
Coloane, Macau
China
271.4 CC
HFO, diesel
1978-97
Aliaga Alosbi-II2
Izmir, Turkey
270.6 CC
2007
4 x 18V46, 28 x 20V34SG,
2 x 13.5 MW steam
Pavana III
Honduras
267.2
Oil
2004
16 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Estonia
250
2013-4
27 x W20V34DF
Wrtsil
Choloma
Honduras
250
HFO
2004-5
14 x 18V48/60
IPP4
Jordan
240
2014
16 x 50DF
Wrtsil
Bauang La Union
Philippines
241.5
HFO
1994
21 x 16ZA40S
Sulzer, Alstom
USA
231
Nat gas
2002, 2006
USA
225
Nat gas
2014
12 x 50SG
Port-Est
Reunion
222
HFO
2010
12 x 18V48/60
220
Nat gas
2015
12 x 50SG
Wartsila
11 x 18V48/60
24 x 20V34SG
Wrtsil
24 x 20V34SG
Wrtsil
Atlas
Pakistan
220
Furnace oil
2009
Kribi
Cameroon
216
Nat gas/LFO
2013
Pearsall, Texas
USA
202.5
Nat gas
2010
Linhares
Brazil
204
Nat gas
2010
Pesangarran, Bali
Indonesia
200
2014-5
12 x 50DF
Wrtsil
Nishat
Pakistan
200
HFO
2010
11 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Nishat Chunian
Pakistan
200
HFO
2010
11 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Vasavi
India
200
HFO
1998
4 x 12K90MC-S
Wrtsil
Pakistan
200 CC
HFO
2010
Sasolburg
South Africa
175
Nat gas
2012
18 x W20V34SG
Wrtsil
Viana
Brazil
175
HFO
2009
20 x 20V32
Wrtsil
Mexico
173
Diesel oil
2005-13
4 units, CC plant
Eklutna, Arkansas
USA
171
2014
10 x W18V50DF
Wrtsil
Cear
Brazil
168
HFO
2010
8 x 20V46F
Wrtsil
Clifton Pier
Bahamas
165
HFO
1963
Campina Grande
Brazil
164
HFO
2010
20 x 20V32
Wrtsil
King Salmon
California
163
2010
10 x 18V50DF
Wrtsil
162
Nat gas
2014
18 x 34SG
Wrtsil
Planta Arizona
Guatemala
160
HFO, LFO
2003
10 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Sapugaskanda
Sri Lanka
160
HFO
1984
16 x 10 MW
Attock
Pakistan
160
HFO
2008
9 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Source: extract from The largest recip-based power plants worldwide, Modern Power Systems, February 2014, pp. 18-21.
82
Load matching
Diesel Combined Cycle (DCC)
&%%4GHGTGPEG#VNCU2QYGT
*GCVDCNCPEGQHC&%%RTQEGUU
Chimney
'PIKPGRTQEGUU
HWGNGPGTI[
%CDNGVTCHQNQUUGU
#WZKNKCT[RQYGT
'ZJCWUVICUJGCV
'NGEVTKECNRQYGT
'NGEVTKECNRQYGT
'NGEVTKECNRQYGTVQITKF
6TCPUHQTOGT
UVCVKQP
4CFKCVKQPKPEN
IGPGTCVQTNQUUGU
Steam turbine
Gearbox
Condensate tank
Condensate pump
.6EQQNKPIYCVGT
LP steam
LP steam drum
HP steam drum
*6EQQNKPIYCVGT
HP steam
Alternator
*6EQQNKPIYCVGT
Silencer
5VGCO
RTQEGUU
.QUUGU
HT cooling water
ed water tank
'ZJCWUVICUJGCV
To radiator
#WZKNKCT[UVGCO
Engine
From radiator
Condensate pre-heater
4GEQQNKPI
4GHGTGPEG2TQLGEV
'ZCORNGHQTC&%%RQYGTRNCPV
CP[QVJGTGPIKPGEQPIWTCVKQPKURQUUKDNG
0QCPFGPIKPGV[RG
5KPINGE[ENGPGVRNCPVQWVRWV
5KPINGE[ENGPGVGHEKGPE[
5VGCOVWTDKPGIGPUGVRQYGT
&%%PGVRNCPVQWVRWV
&%%PGVRNCPVGHEKGPE[
9CVGTEQQNGFEQPFGPUGT
8
M9
M9
M9
%WUVQOGT
#VNCU2QYGT
#RRNKECVKQP
$CUGNQCFRQYGTRNCPV&KGUGN%QODKPGF%[ENG
.QECVKQP
.CJQTG2CMKUVCP
0QCPFGPIKPGV[RG
8 UVGCOVWTDKPG
2NCPVQWVRWV
/9
(WGN
*(1
%QOOKUUKQPKPI
&GEGODGT
1RGTCVKQP
/CKPVGPCPEG
1/EQPVTCEVHQT[GCTU
83
Load matching
Combined Heat and Power generation (CHP)
*QVYCVGTIGPGTCVKQPHQTFKHHGTGPVCRRNKECVKQPU
'PGTI[QYFKCITCOHQTJQVYCVGTCRRNKECVKQPU
Fuel Input 100%
%#%
*6*GCV
4GEQXGT[
%#%
&KUVTKEV
*GCVKPI
0GVYQTM
Electricity to
Grid 45.5%
Low temperature
heat 5%
Losses 9.2%
9*4$
High temperature
heat 39.5%
$[RCUU
Plant auxiliaries,
trafo losses
0.8%
'NGEVTKEKV[
Electrical
output 46.3%
%JKOPG[
Heat to heat
consumers 44.5%
$CEMWR
%QQNGT*6
.WDG1KN*GCV
4GEQXGT[
&KUVTKEV*GCVKPI9CVGT
'PIKPG.WDG1KN
'PIKPG,CEMGV
%#%
'PIKPG'ZJCWUV)CU
$CEMWR%QQNKPI
$CEMWR
%QQNGT
.WDG1KN
84
Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance
Key Performance Data
Ins
Performance Data
J920
(50Hz / 1,000 rpm)
J920
(60Hz / 900 rpm)
Electrical Output
9,500 kW
8,550 kW
En
Ge
48.7%
Heat Rate
7,392 kJ/kWh
7,392 kJ/kWh
Thermal Output
8,100 kWth
7,300 kWth
Total Efficiency
90%
90%
TC
Installed Dimensions
Engine
Length
Width
Height
Weight
8.4 m
2.9 m
3.3 m
87 t
Generator
5.2 m
2.5 m
2.9 m
54 t
TCA Module
3m
6.4 m
3.4 m
36 t
85
Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance
technical data
Configuration
Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Displacement/cylinder (lit)
Speed (rpm)
Mean piston speed (m/s)
V 60
190
220
6.24
1,500 (50 Hz); 1,500 with gearbox (60 Hz)
11 (1,500 1/min)
Generator set, cogeneration system,
containerized package
Scope of supply
Applicable gas types
Engine type
No. of cylinders
Total displacement (lit)
J612 GS
12
74.9
J616 GS
16
99.8
J620 GS
20
124.8
J624 GS*
24
149.7
Dimensions l x w x h (mm)1
Containerized package
Generator set
Cogeneration system
Generator set
Cogeneration system
J616 GS
26,000
26,500
J620 GS
30,700
31,300
J624 GS*
49,900
49,500
500 mg/m
3
N
250 mg/m3N
1,500 rpm | 50 Hz
1,500 rpm | 60 Hz
Type
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
612
616
620
624*
612
616
620
624*
2,004
2,679
3,352
4,313
2,004
2,679
3,352
4,313
44.8
44.9
44.9
46.1
43.5
43.6
43.7
44.3
1,883
2,510
3,110
3,931
1,932
2,575
3,211
4,101
42.0
42.0
41.7
41.6
42.0
41.9
41.8
42.1
86.8
86.9
86.6
87.7
85.5
85.6
85.5
86.4
1,984
2,652
3,319
44.3
44.4
44.5
1.902
2.535
3.141
42.5
42.5
42.1
86.8
86.9
86.6
1,984
2,652
3,319
43.1
43.2
43.2
1.952
2.601
3.244
42.4
42.4
42.3
85.5
85.6
85.5
Type
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
612
616
620
612
616
620
1,818
2,433
3,044
1,818
2,433
3,044
42.8
42.9
43.0
42.3
42.4
42.5
1,787
2,385
2,982
1,805
2,405
3,008
42.1
42.1
42.1
42.0
42.0
42.0
84.9
85.0
85.1
84.3
84.4
84.5
1,800
2,408
3,013
1,800
2,408
3,013
42.4
42.5
42.6
41.9
42.0
42.1
1,805
2,409
3,012
1,823
2,429
3,038
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.4
42.4
42.4
84.8
85.0
85.1
84.3
84.4
84.5
Biogas
NOx <
500 mg/m3N
250mg/m3N
1,500 rpm | 50 Hz
1,500 rpm | 60 Hz
1) Electrical output based on ISO standard output and standard reference conditions according to ISO 3046/I-1991 and p.f. = 1.0 according to VDE 0530 REM with respective tolerance;
minimum methane number 80 for natural gas
All data according to full load and subject to technical development and modification.
86
Load matching
Ground propulsion: ideal performance characteristics
In order to make the best use of the power available on the
whole operating range, the ideal performance map requires:
o constant power output
Image source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
87
Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance
Vehicle resistance is caused fundamentally by
4 phenomena:
1. tire rolling resistance ( cos )
= + + = +
Engine power output thus depends on vehicle
speed according to the following equation:
= +
Image source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
88
Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance
Aerodynamic resistance (drag)
=
High pressure
Rolling resistance
=
+
Low pressure
P
Moving direction
Moving direction
Moving direction
r
rd
Vehicle Type
Px
z
Open convertible
0.50.7
Van body
0.50.7
(a)
Ponton body
0.40.55
FIGURE 2.2
Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface
0.30.4
0.20.25
0.23
0.150.20
(b)
0.81.5
0.60.7
0.30.4
0.60.7
Conditions
0.013
0.02
0.025
0.05
0.10.35
0.0060.01
0.0010.002
Source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
89
Load matching
Ground propulsion: specific consumption at constant speed
Top chart shows that with a given power
output (corresponding to a given vehicle
speed), the fuel consumption is usually
lower at low engine speed than at high
speed.
The bottom chart shows the operating
points of an engine at constant vehicle
speed, with the highest gear and the second
highest gear.
The engine has a much lower operating
efficiency in low gear than in high gear.
Therefore, the fuel economy of a vehicle
can be improved with more gear
transmission or continuous variable
transmission.
Image source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
90
NO forms in high-temperature
burned gas
CO present at high T
or with fuel-rich mixtures
Outflow of HC
from crevices;
some HC
burns
Deposits
absorb HC
Oil layers
desorb HC
Piston
scrapes HC
off walls
Entrainment of
HC from wall into
bulk gas
Unburned mixture
forced into
crevices
COMPRESSION
Deposits desorb HC
COMBUSTION
EXPANSION
EXHAUST
91
Lean
mixture
Fuel
consumption
Nitrogen
oxides
Rich
mixture
Unburned
hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide
Air/fuel ratio
92
Idle
Acceleration
Constant speed
Deceleration
CO2 [%]
9,5
10,5
12,5
9,5
CO [%]
2,0
2,0
0,4
2,0
4000
2500
2000
20000
100
1500
1000
100
HC [ppm as C1]
NOx [ppm as NO]
93
Air intake
Recirculation
valve switch
Control unit
EGR
Recirculation
valve
Oxygen
sensor
Fuel
pump
Fresh mixture
Exhaust gas
Three-way
catalytic converter
Exhaust
94
1. air intake; 2. electronic control unit; 3. oxygen sensor; 4. three-way catalytic converter; 5. silencer;
6.pollutant inlet; 7. honeycomb ceramic monolith; 8. reactor casing; 9. exhaust gas outlet; 10. schematic of the catalysis process
Image source: G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
95
Operating
range
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Air/fuel ratio
Air
Air
Platinum
electrodes
Ceramic
Exh.
gas
Cathode
Anode
Zirconia
Exhaust
gas
96
Injection tail
Injector
hole
Image source:
G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996 (top)
J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988 (bottom)
97
Idle
Acceleration
Constant speed
Deceleration
CO2 [%]
1,0*
11,0
7,0
--
CO [%]
0,4
0,2
0,04
--
1000
600
400
1000
100
2500
1000
100
HC [ppm as C1]
NOx [ppm as NO]
98
Exhaust gas
inlet
Exhaust gas
outlet
Burner
Exhaust
gas
1st step:
soot
deposits
2nd step:
regeneration
starts
3rd step:
flame
propagation
Clean filter
99