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Solving problems is an indispensable exercise for mastering the theory underlying the
various branches of geophysics. Without this practice, students often nd it hard to
understand and relate theoretical concepts to their application in real-world situations.
This book is a collection of nearly 200 problems in geophysics, which are solved in
detail showing each step of their solution, the equations used and the assumptions made.
Simple gures are also included to help students understand how to reduce a problem to its
key elements. The book begins with an introduction to the equations most commonly used
in solving geophysical problems. The subsequent four chapters then present a series of
exercises for each of the main, classical areas of geophysics gravity, geomagnetism,
seismology and heat ow and geochronology. For each topic there are problems with
different degrees of difculty, from simple exercises that can be used in the most elementary courses, to more complex problems suitable for graduate-level students.
This handy book is the ideal adjunct to core course textbooks on geophysical theory. It is
a convenient source of additional homework and exam questions for instructors, and
provides students with step-by-step examples that can be used as a practice or revision aid.
Elisa Buforn is a Professor of geophysics at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)
where she teaches courses on geophysics, seismology, physics, and numerical methods.
Professor Buforns research focuses on source fracture processes, seismicity, and seismotectonics, and she is Editor in Chief of Fsica de la Tierra and on the Editorial Board of the
Journal of Seismology.
Carmen Pro is an Associate Professor at the University of Extremadura, Spain, where she has
taught geophysics and astronomy for over 20 years. She has participated in several
geophysical research projects and is involved in college management.
Agustn Udas is an Emeritus Professor at UCM and is the author of a large number of papers
about seismicity, seismotectonics, and the physics of seismic sources, as well as the
textbook Principles of Seismology (Cambridge University Press, 1999). He has held
positions as Editor in Chief of Fsica de la Tierra and the Journal of Seismology and as
Vice President of the European Seismological Commission.
CARMEN PRO
Universidad de Extremadura, Spain
AGUSTN UDAS
Universidad Complutense, Madrid
Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
Gravity
Geomagnetism
Seismology
Heat ow
Geochronology
2 Gravity
Terrestrial geoid and ellipsoid
Earths gravity eld and potential
Gravity anomalies. Isostasy
Tides
Gravity observations
3 Geomagnetism
Main eld
Magnetic anomalies
External magnetic eld
Main (internal), external, and anomalous magnetic elds
Paleomagnetism
4 Seismology
Elasticity
Wave propagation. Potentials and displacements
Reection and refraction
Ray theory. Constant and variable velocity
Ray theory. Spherical media
Surface waves
Focal parameters
page vii
1
1
4
6
10
11
13
13
25
53
95
116
121
121
142
156
174
201
208
208
211
224
243
277
307
324
335
335
345
352
Preface
This book presents a collection of 197 solved problems in geophysics. Our teaching
experience has shown us that there was a need for a work of this kind. Solving problems
is an indispensable exercise for understanding the theory contained in the various branches
of geophysics. Without this exercise, the student often nds it hard to understand and relate
the theoretical concepts with their application to practical cases. Although most teachers
present exercises and problems for their students during the course, the hours allotted to the
subject signicantly limit how many exercises can be worked through in class. Although
the students may try to solve other problems outside of class time, if there are no solutions
available this signicantly reduces the effectiveness of this type of study. It helps, therefore, both for the student and for the teacher who is explaining the subject if they have
problems whose solutions are given and whose steps can be followed in detail. Some
geophysics textbooks, for example, F.D. Stacey, Physics of the Earth; G.D. Garland,
Introduction to Geophysics; C.M. Fowler, The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global
Geophysics; and W. Lowrie, Fundamentals of Geophysics, contain example problems, and,
in the case of Staceys, Fowlers, and Lowries textbooks, their solutions are provided on
the website of Cambridge University Press. The main difference in the present text is the
type of problems and the detail with which the solutions are given, and in the much greater
number.
All the problems proposed in the book are solved in detail, showing each step of their
solution, the equations used, and the assumptions made, so that their solution can be
followed without consulting any other book. When necessary, and indeed quite often, we
also include gures that allow the problems to be more clearly understood. For a given
topic, there are problems with different degrees of difculty, from simple exercises that can
be used in the most elementary courses, to more complex problems with greater difculty
and more suitable for teaching at a more advanced level.
The problems cover all parts of geophysics. The book begins with an Introduction
(Chapter 1) that includes the equations most used in solving the problems. The idea of
this chapter is not to develop the theory, but rather to simply give a list of the equations
most commonly used in solving the problems, at the same time as introducing the reader to
the nomenclature. The next four chapters correspond to the division of the problems into
the four thematic blocks that are classic in geophysics: gravity, geomagnetism, seismology,
and heat ow and geochronology. We have not included problems in geodynamics, since
this would depart too much from the approach we have taken, which is to facilitate
comprehension of the theory through its application to specic cases, sometimes cases
which are far from the real situation on Earth. Indeed, some of the problems may seem a bit
articial, but their function is to help the student practise with what has been seen in the
vii
viii
Preface
theory. Neither did we want to include specic problems of geophysical prospecting as this
would have considerably increased the length of the text, and moreover some of the topics
that would be covered in prospecting, such as gravimetric and geomagnetic anomalies, are
already included in other sections of this work.
Chapter 2 contains 68 problems in gravity divided into ve sections. The rst section is
dedicated to the terrestrial geoid and ellipsoid, proposing calculations of the parameters
that dene them in order to help better understand these reference surfaces. The second
corresponds to calculating the gravitational eld and potential for various models of the
Earth, including the existence of internal structures. Gravity anomalies are dealt with in the
third section, with a variety of problems to allow students to familiarize themselves with
the corrections to the observed gravity, with the concept of isostasy, and with the Airy and
Pratt hypotheses. The fourth section studies the phenomenon of the Earths tides and their
inuence on the gravitational eld. The last section is devoted to the observations of
gravity from measurements made with different types of gravimeters and the corrections
necessary in each case. We also include the application of these observations to the
accurate determination of different types of height.
Chapter 3 contains 42 problems in geomagnetism divided into ve sections. The rst is
devoted to the main (internal) eld generated by a tilted dipole at the centre of the Earth. It
includes straightforward problems that correspond to the calculation of the geomagnetic
coordinates of a point and the theoretical components of the magnetic eld. This section
also introduces the student to the use of the principal units used in geomagnetism. The
second considers the magnetic anomalies generated by different magnetized bodies and
their inuence on the internal eld. The third section is devoted to the external eld and its
variation with time. In the fourth section, we propose problems of greater complexity
involving the internal eld, the external eld, and anomalous magnetized bodies at the
same time. The last section is devoted to problems in paleomagnetism.
Chapter 4 contains 69 problems in seismology divided into seven sections. The rst
presents some simple exercises on the theory of elasticity. The second addresses the problem
of the propagation of seismic energy in the form of elastic waves, resolving the problems on
the basis of potentials, and calculating the components of their displacements. We study the
reection and refraction of seismic waves in the third section. The fourth is devoted to the
problem of wave propagation using the theory of ray paths in a plane medium of constant and
variable velocity of propagation. The fth studies the problem of the propagation of rays in a
spherical medium of either constant or variable propagation velocity, with the calculation of
the travel-time curves for both plane and spherical media. The sixth section contains
problems in the propagation of surface waves in layered media. The seventh section is
devoted to problems of calculating the focal parameters and the mechanism of earthquakes.
Chapter 5 includes 11 problems in heat ow with the propagation of heat in plane and
spherical media, and seven problems in geochronology involving the use of radioactive
elements for dating rocks.
Finally, we provide a bibliography of general textbooks on geophysics and of specic
textbooks for the topics of gravity, geomagnetism, and seismology. We have tried to
include only those most recent and commonly used textbooks which are likely to be found
in university libraries.
ix
Preface
In sum, the book is a university text for students of physics, geology, geophysics,
planetary sciences, and engineering at the undergraduate or Masters degree levels. It is
intended to be an aid to teaching the subjects of general geophysics, as well as the specic
topics of gravity, geomagnetism, seismology, and heat ow and geochronology contained
in university curricula.
The teaching experience of the authors in the universities of Barcelona, Extremadura,
and the Complutense of Madrid highlighted the need for a work of this kind. This text is
the result of the teaching work of its authors for over 20 years. Thanks are due to
the generations of students over those years who, with their comments, questions, and
suggestions, have really allowed this work to see the light. We are also especially grateful
to Prof. Greg McIntosh who provided us with some problems on paleomagnetism, to
Prof. Ana Negredo for her comments on heat ow and geochronology problems, and to
Dr R.A. Chatwin who worked on translating our text into English.
The text is an extension of the Spanish edition published by Pearson (Madrid, 2010).
Introduction
Gravity
As a rst approximation the Earths gravity is given by that of a rotating sphere. The
gravitational potential of a sphere of mass M is:
V
GM
r
where r is the position vector (Fig. A) and G the universal gravitational constant.
If the sphere is rotating with angular velocity o the centrifugal potential at a point on the
surface is given by
1
F o2 r2 sin2 y
2
where y is the angle that r forms with the axis of rotation.
The gravity potential is their sum U V F.
The value of the acceleration due to gravity (the gravity force) is given by the gradient
of the potential:
g rU
The radial component of the gravity force is given by
gr
GM
ro2 sin2 y
r2
a3 o2
GM
Introduction
North Pole
P
q
r
a
Equator
Fig. A
C A
a2 M
where C and A are the moments of inertia about the axis of rotation and an equatorial axis.
The attening of the ellipsoid (the shape of the Earth to a rst-order approximation) of
equatorial and polar radius a and c is:
a
c
a
In terms of J2 and m,
3
m
a J2
2
2
The dynamic ellipticity is
H
A
C
gp
ge
ge
where gp and ge are the normal values of gravity at the pole and the equator, respectively.
Gravity
y is
The geocentric latitude of a point is the angle between the equator and the radius vector of
the point. The geodetic latitude is dened as the angle between the equatorial plane and the
normal to the ellipsoid surface at a point. Astronomical latitude is the angle between the
equatorial plane and the observed vertical at a point.
The normal or theoretical gravity at a point of geocentric latitude referred to the
GRS1980 reference ellipsoid is
g 9:780327 1 0:0053024 sin2
0:0000059 sin2 2 m s
The effect of the Sun and Moon on the Earth is to produce the phenomenon of the tides.
If one considers more generally the tidal effect due to an astronomical body of mass M at a
distance R from the centre of the Earth, one must add the corresponding potential, which, in
the rst-order approximation, is given by
c
GMr2
3cos2 #
2R3
where r is the geocentric radius vector of the point, and # is the angle the position vector r
forms with the distance vector R.
Gravity anomalies, dened as Dg g g, are the effects of the existence of anomalous
masses inside the Earth. The gravity anomaly along the Z (vertical) axis at a point distance
x along the horizontal axis produced by a sphere of radius R, density contrast Dr, and
buried at a depth d, is given by
gx; z
@Va
GM z d
h
i3=2
@z
x2 z d2
where Va is the potential produced by the anomalous spherical mass DM 4/3pR3 Dr.
For problems in two dimensions, one uses the anomaly produced by an innite horizontal cylinder at depth d, perpendicular to the plane under consideration. The anomalous
potential is given by
0
1
and the anomaly by
1
B
C
Va 2pGra2 ln@qA
x2 z d2
gx; z
@Va 2pGra2 z d
@z
x2 z d2
To correct for the height above sea level at which measurements are made, one uses the
concepts of the free-air and Bouguer anomalies. The free-air anomaly is
gFA g
g 3:086h
Introduction
where g is the observed gravity, h the height in metres, and the anomaly is obtained in
gu (gravity units) mm s 2.
The Bouguer anomaly is
g B g
g 3:086
0:419rh
rc
rM
rc
where rc and rM are the densities of the crust and mantle, and h is the height of the
mountain. For an ocean zone, with water density ra, the anti-root is
t0
rc
rM
ra 0
h
ra
r0
h
r
Dh 0
where D is the level of compensation, h the height of the mountain, and r0 the density at
sea level. For an oceanic zone of depth h0 :
r0 D ra h0
D h0
0
r r r0
r0
The isostatic correction can be calculated using a cylinder of radius a and height b, whose
base is located at a distance c beneath the point, and with density contrast Dr:
q p
I
a2 c 2
C 2pGr b a2 c b2
For mountainous zones, with the Airy hypothesis: b t, c h H t (H crustal
thickness, h height of the point); and with the Pratt hypothesis: b D, c D h.
Geomagnetism
To a rst approximation, the internal magnetic eld of the Earth can be approximated by a
centred dipole inclined at 11.5 to the axis of rotation. The potential created by a magnetic
dipole at a point distant r from its centre and forming an angle y with the axis of the dipole is
F
Cm cos y
r2
Geomagnetism
GNP
90 fB
l lB
180 l
90 f
GMNP
q = 90 f
Fig. B
@F
2Cm cos y
@r
r3
1 @F
2Cm sin y
r @y
r3
In the centred dipole approximation for the Earths magnetic eld, the geomagnetic
coordinates (f*, l*) of a point (y 90
f*) in terms of its geographic coordinates
(f, l) and those of the Geomagnetic North Pole (GMNP) (fB, lB) can be calculated using
the expressions of spherical trigonometry (Fig. B):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl
sin l
sinl
lB
lB cos f
cos f
The vertical and horizontal components of the eld, the geomagnetic constant B0, and the
total eld are given by:
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
Cm
B0 3
a
q
p
F H 2 Z 2 B0 1 3sin2 f
The units used for the components of the magnetic eld are the tesla T and the nanotesla
nT 10 9 T. The NS (X*) and EW (Y*) components are
X H cos D
Y H sin D
and the declination and inclination are given by
Introduction
cos fB sinl
cos f
tan I 2 tan f
sin D
lB
Cmcosy
Cmz d
h
i3=2
r2
x2 z d2
The vertical (z) and the horizontal (x) components of the magnetic anomaly at the surface
(z 0) produced by a vertical magnetic dipole at depth d are:
Z
X
Cm2d 2
x2
x2 d 2 5=2
3Cmxd
x2 d 2 5=2
The Earth is affected by an external magnetic eld produced mainly by the activity of the
Sun. This eld is variable in time, with distinct periods of variation. The most noticeable is
the diurnal variation (Sq) with a maximum at 12 noon local time. The most important nonperiodic variations are the so-called magnetic storms.
Seismology
Earthquakes produce elastic waves which propagate through the interior and along the
surface of the Earth. Using the plane-wave approximation, the displacements of the
internal P- and S-waves (uiP and uiS) can be obtained from a scalar potential and a vector
potential:
ui ui P ui S ri r cj
i
A exp ika gj xj at
cj Bj exp ikb gj xj bt
where A and Bj are the amplitudes, xj the coordinates of the observation point, ka and kb the
wavenumbers, gj are the direction cosines dened from the azimuth az and angle of
incidence i of the ray as:
Seismology
g1 sin i cos az
g2 sin i sin az
g3 cos i
and a and b are the P- and S-wave velocities of propagation, respectively, dened from
the Lam coefcients (l and shear modulus m) and the density r:
s
l 2m
vP a
r
r
m
vS b
r
Units used are: displacement amplitudes (u) in m; potential amplitudes (A, Bi) in 10
wavenumber (k) in km 1; and wave velocity (a, b) in km s 1.
Poissons ratio is dened in terms of the Lam coefcients as
s
m 2;
l
2 l m
uSH
uSV
where uSH is the amplitude of the SH component, and uSV that of the SV component. SH
and SV are the horizontal and vertical components of the S-wave on the wavefront plane.
The coefcients of reection V and transmission W are given by the respective
ratios between the amplitudes of the reected or transmitted potentials and the incident
potential:
A
A0
A0
W
A0
V
where A0 is the amplitude of the incident wave potential, A that of the reected potential,
and A0 of the transmitted potential.
Snells law for plane media is expressed as
p
sin i
v
r sin i
v
where p is the ray parameter, i the angle of incidence, v the propagation velocity of the
medium, and r the position vector along the ray.
Introduction
In the case of plane media with propagation velocity varying with depth v(z), the
epicentral distance and the travel time of a ray for a surface focus are given by
h
pdz
x 2 p
2 p2
0
h
2 dz
t 2 p
2 p2
0
where v 1 and h is the depth of maximum penetration of the ray. The variation of the
epicentral distance x with the ray parameter p is given by
dx
dp
where
2
p 2
B0 20 p2
B
dB
dz
pdz
2 p2
0 B2
1 dv
v dz
In spherical media with velocity varying with depth v(r), the epicentral distance,
trajectory along the ray, and travel time are given by
r0
p
dr
p
2
2
r
r2
rp
r0
dr
s 2 p
2 r2
rp
r0
dr
p
t2
r2
rp v 2
where rv 1, r0 is the radius at the surface of the Earth, and rp is the radius at the point
of maximum penetration of the ray.
The variation of the distance from the epicentre D with the ray parameter p in a spherical
medium is
dB
B
dr
d
2
drp
p 2
dp
1 B0 20 p2
B 2 2 p2
0 1
where
r dv
B
v dr
The radial and vertical components (u1 and u3) of surface waves can be obtained from
the potentials and c. The transverse component (u2) is kept apart
@ @c
;1 c;3
@x1 @x3
u2 C exp iksx3 ikx1 ct
@ @c
;3 c;1
u3
@x3 @x1
u1
Seismology
ct
ct
For surface waves, c < b < a, and hence r and s are imaginary.
For dispersive waves, the relationship between the phase velocity c and the group
velocity U is
dc
U ck
dk
where k is the wavenumber.
The position of the seismic focus is given by the coordinates of the epicentre (0, l0)
and the depth h. The time is that of the origin of the earthquake t0. The size is given by
the magnitude which is proportional to the logarithm of the amplitude of the recorded
waves. For surface waves this is:
Ms log
A
1:66 log 3:3
T
where A is the amplitude of ground motion in microns, T is the period in seconds, and the
epicentral distance in degrees.
The magnitude of the moment is given by
2
Mw log M0
3
6:1
where M0 is the seismic moment in N m (newton metres). The seismic moment is related to
the displacement of the fault u and its area S:
M0 muS
The mechanism of earthquakes is given by the orientation of the fracture plane (fault)
dened by the angles (azimuth), d (dip), and l (slip angle or rake), or by the vectors n
(the normal to the fault plane) and l (the direction of slip).
The elastic displacement of the waves produced by a point shear fault is
@Gki
uk xs ; t mut S li nj lj ni
@xj
where Gki is the mediums Greens function which, for an isotropic, homogeneous, innite
medium, and P-waves in the far-eld regime, is given by
1
r
GPki
gi gk d t
2
4pra r
a
10
Introduction
u_ t S
m l i nj l j ni g i g j g k
3
4pra r
This equation can be expressed also in terms of the moment tensor Mij
uPk xs ; t
M_ ij t
ggg
4pra3 r i j k
Heat ow
The Fourier law of heat transfer by diffusion states that the heat ux q_ is proportional to the
gradient of the temperature T:
q_
KrT
e
@T
rCv
@t
where Cv is the specic heat, r the density, e the heat generated per unit volume and unit
time (heat sources), and k the thermal diffusivity:
k
K
rCv
@T
@t
o
o
T z; t T0 exp
zi
z ot
2k
2k
where z is the vertical direction (positive towards the nadir) and o the angular frequency.
In the case of stationary one-dimensional solutions (T constant in time) one obtains from
the diffusion equation:
T
e 2 q_ 0
z z T0
2K
K
11
Geochronology
@ T 2 @T
@T
K
et rCv
@r2 r @r
@t
where r is the radial direction.
For the stationary case, the above equation reduces to
1 d
e
2 dT
r
r2 dr
dr
K
Integrating twice, one has
T T0
e 2
R
6K
r2
Geochronology
Geochronology is based on determining the age of a rock by measuring the decay of its
radioactive elements. In a sample of radioactive material, the number of atoms that have
yet to disintegrate after time t is given by
nt n0 e
lt
where n0 is the initial number of atoms, and l the decay constant. The rate of decay dn/dt is
the activity R, so that
R R0 e
lt
0:693
l
The mean life-time t of one of the atoms that existed at the start is given by:
t
1
l
If a sample consists of NR radioactive nuclei and NE stable nuclei, the time to arrive at the
propotion NE/NR is given by
12
Introduction
1
NE
1
l
NR
e
1
86 Srtotal
86 Sr initial
86 Sr
This expression corresponds to a straight line (isochrone) of slope e lt 1 and intercept
87
Sr
corresponding to the initial content 86 initial .
Sr
Gravity
o 2 a3
GM
where G 6.671011 m3 kg1 s2 is the gravitational constant, M the Earths mass, and
the angular velocity is o = 2p/T, where T is the rotation period (T 24 h). We obtain for
the semi-axis a the value
a
1=3
mGMT 2
6378:127 km
4p2
The Earths attening a can be obtained directly since we already know a and c so
a
a c 6378:127 6356:742
3:3529 103
c
6378:127
The radius vector to the point P is given by the equation r a(1 a sin2 )
From this equation we can calculate the geocentric latitude :
6370:031 6378:127 1 3:3539 103 sin2
37 580 2200
1
1 a 2
tan
14
Gravity
jd
j
a
Fig. 1
2
m
1:0878 103
a
3
2
From this value we can determine the gravity attening b using the equation
5
b m a 5:2533 103
2
2. Taking the rst-order approximation, let two points of the ellipsoid at 45 N and 30 S
be situated at distances of 6367.444 km and 6372.790 km from the centre, respectively.
If the normal gravity values are 9.806193 m s2 for the rst and 9.793242 m s2 for
the second, calculate: the attening, gravity attening, coefcient m, equatorial radius,
polar radius, dynamic form factor, and the Earths mass.
Data
r1 6367.444 km
r2 6372.790 km
The normal or theoretical gravity at a point can be expressed in terms of the normal gravity
at the equator ge, the gravity attening b, and the latitude of the point :
g1 ge 1 b sin2 1
g2 ge 1 b sin2 2
g1 1 b sin2 1
g2 1 b sin2 2
15
From this expression we can obtain the gravity attening, since we already know g1, g2, 1, 2:
b
g1 g2
5:297 103
g2 sin2 1 g1 sin2 2
The distance r from the centre of the ellipsoid to points on its surface can be given as a
function of the attening a, the equatorial radius a, and the latitude :
r1 a1 a sin2 1
r2 a1 a sin2 2
If we divide both expressions
r1 1 asin2 1
r2 1 asin2 2
Thus we obtain the value of the attening,
a 3:353 103
From this value we nd the equatorial radius,
a
r1
6378:137 km
1 asin2 1
The polar radius c can be found from this value and the attening:
a
ac
a
and
c a1 a 6356:751 km
2
m a b 3:460 103
5
From this value we can obtain the value of the Earths mass M from
m
o 2 a3
GM
2p
p where T 24 hours.
T
Therefore
with o
4p2 a3
5:946 1024 kg
T 2 Gm
3. Obtain the value of the terrestrial attening in the rst-order approximation, given
that the normal gravity values for two points of the ellipsoid are:
Point 1: w1 42 200 g1 980.389 063 Gal
Point 2: w2 47 300 g2 980.854 830 Gal
Take the equatorial radius to be 6378.388 km.
16
Gravity
g2 1 bsin2 2
and we can solve for the gravity attening, b:
b 5:288 2675 103
Using the gravity attening b we can determine the value of gravity at the equator, ge:
ge
g1
978:043 614 Gal
1 bsin2 1
GM
1 b o2 a
a2
o 2 a3
4p2 a3
2
3:442 5698 103
GM
T GM
17
c
3:4 103
a
r
6 378 386 m
1 asin2
o 2 a3
4p2 a3
2
3:4429 103
GM
T GM
2a m
1:1190 103
3
Data
50 S r 6365.587 km
c
3:349 103
a
r
6378:122 km
1 asin2
18
Gravity
J2
2
m
a
1:0852 103
3
2
g
9:780 579 m s2
1 bsin2
(c) The centrifugal force at point P is given by its radial and transverse components
f fr er fy ey
where, since 90 y = ,
fr o2 r sin2 y o2 r cos2 0:013 909 m s2
fy o2 r sin y cos y o2 r cos sin 0:016 576 m s2
6. Taking the rst-order approximation, calculate the Earths attening a, gravity
attening b, dynamic form factor J2, and polar radius c, given that:
ge 978.032 Gal (normal gravity at the equator)
a 6378.136 km (equatorial radius)
GM 39:8603 1013 m3 s2
and that for a point on the ellipsoid at latitude 60 N the normal gravity value is
981 921 mGal.
Calculate also the radius vector of this point and the gravitational potential.
Assuming a rst-order approximation, the expression for the normal gravity is
g ge 1 b sin2
The value of b is given by
b
g ge
5:302 103
ge sin2
4p2 a3
3:442 103
T 2 GM
J2
2
m
a
1:055 103
3
2
19
ac
) c a1 a 6357:069 km
a
7. Assuming that the Moon is an ellipsoid of equatorial radius 1738 km and polar
radius 1737 km, with J2 = 3.8195 104 and a mass of 7.3483 1022 kg, calculate its
period of rotation.
First, we calculate the lunar attening a,
a
ac
5:7537 104
a
15
b
J2 3:353 103
8
4
20
Gravity
1
mGM 3
6 387 062:758 m
a
o2
where we have substituted o = 2p/T, taking T 24 hours.
Finally, we nd the radius vector of point P
r a1 asin2 6 378 946:678 m
9. At a point P on the terrestrial ellipsoid of latitude 70 S and radius vector 6359.253
km, the value of normal gravity is 982.609 Gal. If the mass of the Earth is 5.9769 1024
kg and the equatorial radius is 6378.136 km, calculate the value of normal gravity at
the Pole, the dynamic form factor, and the centrifugal force at the Pole and the equator.
The attening a is given by
a
1
r
3:3528 103
1
a
sin2
o 2 a3
3:4425 103
GM
g
9:780 72 m s2
1 b sin2
21
10. Let two points of the ellipsoid be of latitudes w1 and w2, with radius vectors
6372.819 km and 6362.121 km, respectively. The ratio of the normal gravities is
0.997 37, the attening 3.3529 103, and the gravity attening 5.2884 103.
Calculate:
(a) The Earths mass.
(b) The latitude of each point and the dynamic form factor.
(a) The equatorial radius a can be obtained from the ratio of the two normal gravities
a r
1
2
1
b
g1 1 bsin 1
aa
l
g2 1 bsin2 2 1 b a r2
aa
blr2 r1
6382:94 km
a b l 1
We calculate the mass of the Earth from the attening and gravity attening as in Problem 2:
2
m a b 3:4565 103
5
4p2 a3
5:9653 1024 kg
T 2 Gm
(b) The latitudes at each point are calculated from the radius vectors
a r1
sin2 1
! 1 43 270 5800
aa
a r2
! 2 80 330 4600
sin2 2
aa
The dynamic form factor is obtained from the values of a, b, and m:
9
b 2a m J2
2
2
J2 2a m b 1:0831 103
9
11. Let a point A have a value of gravity of 9793 626.8 gu and a geopotential number
of 32.614 gpu. Calculate the gravity at a point B, knowing that the increments in
dynamic and Helmert height over point A are 271.116 m and 271.456 m, respectively.
Take g45 9.806 2940 m s2. Give the units for each parameter.
The dynamic heights at points A and B are given by:
CA
g45
C
B
HDB
g45
HDA
N
P
j1
gj dhj
22
Gravity
CB CA
g45
If heights are given in km and normal gravity in Gal, geopotentials are in gpu (geopotential units)
1 gpu 1 kGal m 1 Gal km
The Helmert orthometric height H is given by
H
C
g 0:0424H
11:1
CB
0:0424HB 979:382 75 Gal
HB
12. Calculate the value of gravity in gravimetric units and mGal of a point on the
Earths surface whose orthometric (Helmert) and dynamic heights are 678.612 m and
679.919 m, respectively, taking g 45 9.806 294 m s2.
The geopotential is calculated from the dynamic height,
HD
C
) C HD g45 666:748 gpu
g45
C
C
) g 0:0424H 982:489 34 Gal 9 824 893:4 gu
g 0:0424H
H
13. If at a point on the surface of the Earth of Helmert height 1000 m one observes
a value of gravity of 9.796 235 m s2, calculate the average value of gravity
23
between that point and the geoid along the direction of the plumb-line, and
the points geopotential number.
The mean value of gravity between a height H and the surface of the geoid is given by
1 H
g
gzdz
H 0
where g(z) is the value of gravity at a distance z from the geoid along the vertical path to a
point of height H. This value can be obtained using the Poincar and Prey reduction from
the value of g observed at the Earths surface at a point of height H,
gz g 0:0848H z
Then
1 H
1 H
gzdz
g 0:0848H zdz
g
H 0
H 0
H
1
gz 0:0848 Hz 0:0424z2 0
H
g g 0:0424 H 979:6659 Gal
where g is given in Gal and H in km.
The geopotential C can be obtained from the formula for the Helmert height,
H
C
) C g 0:0424 H H 979:666 gpu
g 0:0424H
14. For two points A and B belonging to a gravity measurement levelling line, one
obtained:
gA = 9.801 137 6 m s2
CA = 933.316 gpu
Gross increment elevation: DhBA 20:340
B
Increment in dynamic height: H A
D H D 20:340 m.
Given that the normal gravity at 45 latitude is 9806 294 gu, calculate the Helmert
heigth of point B.
As in Problem 11, the dynamic heights at A and B are given by
CA
g45
CB
HDB
g45
HDA
CB CA
g45
24
Gravity
The geopotential at B can be obtained from the gross increment in elevation between A and B,
g g
A
B
CB CA
hBA
2
gB
2CB CA
gA 980:103 08 Gal
hBA
C
g 0:0424H
Station
Gravity
(Gal)
Height
Increment (m)
Geopotential
Number (gpu)
Dynamic
Height (m)
Helmert
Height (m)
A
B
C
979.88696
?
979.88665
0.541
?
664.982
?
?
?
677.577
?
?
?
657.134
Station A
Dynamic height:
HDA
CA
678:118 m
g45
Helmert height:
C
g 0:0424H
p
g g2 4 0:0424 C
H
678:611 m
2 0:0424
H
Station B
The geopotential number is found from the dynamic height:
CB g45 HDB 664:452 gpu
15:1
25
From this value and the difference in height with respect to station A we nd the gravity at B:
g g
A
B
CB CA
hA
B
2
from which we get gB = 979.877 84 Gal
The Helmert height of B is found as in station A:
HB 678:077 m
Station C
From the known values of gravity and Helmert height we nd the geopotential number
(Equation 15.1)
CC gHC 0:0424HC2 661:574 gpu
To calculate the difference in height of C with respect to B we begin with the expression
g g
B
C
hCB
CC CB
2
from which
hCB
2CC CB
2:937 m
gB gC
CC
674:642 m
g45
Station
Gravity
(Gal)
Height
increment (m)
Geopotential
number (gpu)
Dynamic
height (m)
Helmert
height (m)
A
B
C
979.88696
979.87784
979.88665
0.541
2.937
664.982
664.452
661.574
678.118
677.577
674.642
678.611
678.077
657.134
26
Gravity
(c) The error made in (b) with respect to the exact solution.
(d) The deviation of the vertical from the radial at the equator.
(a) The gravitational potential is the sum of the potentials of the three spheres
V V1 V2 V3
GM GM1 GM2
0
r
q
q
16:1
where r is the distance from a point P to the centre of the sphere of radius a and mass M,
where M is given by
4
M pra3
3
q and q0 are the distances to the centres of the two spheres in its interior in the northern and
southern hemispheres which have differential masses M1 and M2, respectively (Fig. 16).
The differential masses are those corresponding to the difference in density in each case
with respect to the large sphere:
4
a3 M
M1 p5r r
3
8
2
differential mass of the sphere in the northern hemisphere
a3
4 r
M
M2 p r
3 5
8
10
r
r
a2
a 2
a
a
2
q r
cos y
2 r cos y r 1
2
2
2
2r
2r
Considering this expression, 1/q corresponds to one of the generating functions of the
Legendre polynomials. Then 1/q, in the rst-order approximation, is given by
1 1
a
1 a 2
2
1 cos y
3cos y 1
q r
2r
2 2r
1
cos
y
3cos
y
1
q0 r
2r
2 2r
P
5
q
r
r2
a/2
a
r3
/5
Fig. 16
q'
'
27
If we substitute in Equation (16.1), the potentials for each sphere are given by
GM
GM 1
a
a2
V2
2 cos y 3 3cos2 y 1
V1
r
2
r 2r
8r
GM 1
a
a2
2
V3
cos y 3 3cos y 1
10 r 2r2
8r
Then, the total gravity potential is the sum of the three gravitational potentials plus the
potential of the centrifugal force due to the rotation:
1 1 1
1 1 a
U GM 1
cos y
2 10 r
4 20 r2
1
1 a2
1 2 2 2
2
3 cos y 1 r o sin y
16 80 r3
2
In terms of the coefcient m, given here by m
o2 a3
,
GM
1 r 2 2
GM 7 a 3 a2
1 a3
2
cos y
3cos y 1 m
sin y
U
a 5 r 10 r2
20 r3
2 a
(b) Using this rst-order approximation of the potential, the radial and tangential
components of gravity at the equator, r = a and y = 90 , putting m 0.1, are
@U
GM
1:3 2
@r
a
1 @U
GM
0:3 2
gy
r @y
a
gr
GM
a2
GM
a2
GM
gr2 2 cos a
2r2
GM
cos a
gr3
10r32
gr1
where
r
a2
r 2 a2 r 3
4
and a is the angle which forms r2 and r3 with the equator (Fig. 16)
28
Gravity
sin a
Then
GM
gr 2
a
a=2
1
p
r2
5
4
4
GM
1 p p m 1:19 2
a
5 5 25 5
0
1
GM 1 C
B GM 1
p
pA
gy gy1 gy2 @
5 2 5
5
2 a
10 a2 5
4
4
GM
2
2
GM
2 p p 0:14 2
a
a
5 5 25 5
The error made in the rst-order approximation with respect to the exact solution is
GM
GM
0:11 2
a2
a
GM
GM
gy 0:3 0:14 2 0:16 2
a
a
gr 1:19 1:3
(d) The deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction is given by the angle i
which is determined from the gravity components gr and gy. At the equator this angle is:
Using the rst order approximation
tan i
gy 0:3
) i 13:0
gr 1:3
0:16
) i 7:6
1:19
17. A spherical planet is formed by a sphere of radius a and density r, and inside it a
sphere of radius a/2 and density 5r centred at the midpoint of the radius of the
northern hemisphere. There is no rotation.
(a) Determine J0, J1, and J2.
(b) What is the deviation of the vertical from the radial at the equator?
(a) The total gravitational potential is the sum of the potentials of the two spheres
(Fig. 17) where g, is the attraction due to the potential V1 and g2 that due to the
potential V2:
V V1 V2
GM GM 0
r
q
where r and q are the distances from a point P to the centres of the large and small spheres,
respectively.
29
5r
r
a /2
q
g2
i
g1
Fig. 17
As we did in Problem 16, for the small sphere of radius a/2 we take the differential
mass M 0
4 a3
16
M
M 0 p 5r r pra3
3 8
24
2
where M is the mass of the sphere of radius a and density r.
For 1/q we take the rst-order approximation of the Legendre polynomial, as we did in
Problem 16:
1 1
a
1 a 2
2
1 cos y
3cos y 1
q r
2r
2 2r
Then, the expression for the gravitational potential V is:
GM GM 1
a
1 a2
2
2 cos y
3cos
y
1
V
r
2
r 2r
4 4r3
3
a
a2
2
GM
cos y
3cos y 1
2r 4r2
32r3
a3 1
GM
a
a 2
J0
J1 cos y
J2 3cos2 y 1
V
a
r
r
r
2
Comparing the two expressions we obtain,
30
Gravity
3
2
1
J1
4
1
J2
16
J0
@V GM
3 1
3
2 cos y
3cos2 y 1
@r
a
2 2
32
1 @V GM
1
3
gy
2 sin y cos y sin y
r @y
a
4
16
gr
gr
At the equator the deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction is
gy
8
gr 45
i 10:08
tan i
18. Suppose an Earth is formed by a sphere of radius a and density r, and within it
there are two spheres of radius a/2 and density 2r with centres located on the axis of
rotation in each hemisphere. If M is the mass of the sphere of radius a, calculate:
(a) The potential U(r,u) and the form of the equipotential surface passing through the Poles.
(b) The component gr of gravity in the rst-order approximation for points on the surface.
(c) Calculate gr directly at the Pole and the equator, and compare with the rst-order
approximation.
(a) This problem is similar to Problem 16, but now the density of the two spheres is the
same. The total gravity potential is the sum of the gravitational potentials of the
three spheres (V, V1 and V2) plus the potential due to the rotation F:
where
U V V1 V2 F
GM
r
GM 0
V1
q1
GM 0
V2
q2
1 2 2 2
F o r sin y
2
V
18:1
31
q1
2r
r
r
q2
a/2
a
a
2r
Fig. 18
and where M is the mass of the large sphere of radius a and M 0 the differential mass of each
of the small spheres of radius a/2, r is the distance from a point P to the centre of the large
sphere, and q1 and q2 the distances from P to the centres of the small spheres (Fig. 18). As
in Problem 16 the differential mass is given by the difference in density between the large
and the small spheres:
a 3 M
4
M 0 p2r r
3
2
8
The inverse of the distance 1/q can be approximated by
a 2 1
1
1
a
2
1 cos y
3cos y 1
q1 r
2r
2r 2
a 2 1
1
1
a
2
3cos y 1
1 cos y
q2 r
2r
2r 2
The potential of the rotation can be written in terms of the coefcient m = a3o2/GM,
GM 1 1 a3 o2 3
GM m r 3 2
r
sin2 y
sin y
F
3
r
2 a GM
r 2 a
Substituting in Equation (18.1)
r 3 m 2
GM 10 1 a 2
2
sin y
U
3cos y 1
r
8 8 2r
a 2
18:2
32
Gravity
At the Poles, r a and y = 0 , and the potential is
GM 10 2
21 GM
U poles
a
8 32
16 a
The form of the equipotential surface which passes through the Poles (r a) is obtained
from Equation (18.2)
r
r 3 m 2
GM 10 1 a 2
3cos2 y 1
sin y
Upoles 8 8 2r
a 2
32 10 m 2
1
a
sin y
3cos2 y 1
42 8
2
32
32 3 m
2
r a 1
sin y
42 32 2
At the poles: y 0 ) rp a.
32 m 3
At the equator: y 90 ) re a 1
42 2 32
Depending on the value of m, we have the following cases,
m
3
) re a ) sphere
2 32
m
3
<
) re < a ) prolate ellipsoid
2
32
m
3
>
) re > a ) oblate ellipsoid
2
32
3
< a ) prolate ellipsoid
m0)r a 1
42
(b) For the gravity at the Pole, in the rst-order approximation, we take the derivative
of the potential (18.2) and substitute y 0 ) rp a:
@U GM
10 6
GM
gr
2
1:4375 2
@r
a
8 32
a
(c) The exact solution for the gravity at the pole is the sum of the attractions of the
three spheres:
gr
GM GM GM
GM
2
1:5555 2
a2
2a
18a2
a
33
At the equator we take the derivative of the potential and substitute r = a and
y = 90 :
@U GM
10 3
gr
2 m
@r
a
8 32
GM 37
GM
m 2 1:1562 m
2
a 32
a
For the exact solution we write
gr
GM 2GM
cos a o2 a
a2
8q2
Therefore
"
#
r
GM
8 4
GM
gr 2 1
m 2 1:1789 m
a
40 5
a
The approximated values are smaller than the exact solutions.
19. For the case of Problem 18, if GM = 4 103 m3 s2, a = 6 103 km, and v = 7
105 s1, calculate the values of J2, a, m, H, and b.
From the denition of m we obtain
m
2:6 103
GM
4 1014
The value of J2 is obtained by comparing the two expressions for the potential U
(Problem 18):
a2 1
m r 3 2
GM
U
1
J2 3cos2 y 1
sin y
r
r
2
2 a
2
5 GM
1 a
m r 3 2
3cos2 y 1
sin y
1
U
4 r
40 r
2 a
Then, J2 = 0.05.
The attening is obtained from the relation
3
m
a J2
2
2
a
3
2:3 103
50 103
0:0765
2
2
34
Gravity
X3
2r
r
a/2
X1
a
2r
Fig. 19a
gp ge 1:555 1:175
0:323
ge
1:175
where we have used the values of gravity at the Pole and equator obtained in Problem 18,
and in the latter we have substituted the value obtained for the coefcient m.
The dynamic ellipticity H is dened as the ratio of the moments of inertia with respect to
the polar and equatorial radius (Fig. 19a):
H
CA
C
where A and C are the moments of inertia of a sphere respect to the polar and equatorial
radi: (axes x1 and x3). The moment of inertia of a sphere of radius R is
2
Isph MR2
5
We have to add to the moment of inertia of the sphere of radius a the moments of inertia of
the two internal spheres of radius a/2. For the C-axis (x3) we have
2
2 M a2
0:425Ma2
IC Isph a 2Isph a2 Ma2 2
5
58 4
For the A-axis (x1) the moment of inertia of each of the small spheres is given by
(Fig. 19b)
35
R
h
Fig. 19b
I ICM Mh2
since in this case the A axis does not coincide with the centre of mass, where R a/2
and h a/2:
Isph a=2
2 M a2 M a 2
0:044Ma2
58 4
8 4
2
IA Isph a 2Isph a=2 Ma2 2 0:044Ma2 0:488Ma2
5
Finally
H
C A IC IA 0:425 0:488
0:147
C
IC
0:425
20. Suppose an Earth is formed by a sphere of radius a and density r, and within it
there is a sphere of radius a/2 and density 5r centred at the midpoint of the northernhemisphere polar radius. If m 1/8 and M is the mass of the sphere of radius a,
determine:
(a) The form of the equipotential surface passing through the North Pole.
(b) For latitude 45, the astronomical latitude and the deviation of the vertical from
the radial.
(a) The gravitational potential is the sum of the potentials for the sphere of radius a
and that of the sphere of radius a/2 (Fig. 20):
V V1 V2
GM GM1
r
q
As in the previous problems the potential of the small sphere is given in terms of
differential mass M1:
36
Gravity
gq
a/2
q
g
5r
gr
fa
Fig. 20
a3 M
4
M1 p5r r
3
2
2
and for the inverse of the distance 1/q we use the approximation
a 2 1
1 1
a
2
1 cos y
3cos y 1
q r
2r
2r 2
The total potential U is the sum of the gravitational potential V plus the potential of rotation
F, where
1
F r2 o2 sin2 y
2
and using the coefcient m = o2a3/GM = 1/8, we have
r 3 m 2
GM 3 a
1 a2
U
cos y
3cos2 y 1
sin y
r 2 4r
16 r
a 2
At the North Pole, y = 0 and r a, and the value of the potential is
GM 3 1 1
15GM
Up
a 2 4 8
8a
37
cos y
3cos2 y 1
sin y
8a
r 2 4r
16 r
a 2
(b) The deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction is given by the angle i:
tan i
gy
gr
sin
y
@r
2r
4 r3
16a3
16 r4
1 @U GM
a
a2
r2
2 sin y
6
cos
y
sin
y
sin
y
cos
y
gy
r @y
r
4r
16r3
8a3
For a point on the surface we put r a:
GM 19 1
11 2
gr 2
cos y cos y
a 16 2
16
GM 1
1
sin y sin y cos y
gy 2
a 4
4
and for latitude 45
GM
1:88
a2
GM
gy 2 0:30
a
0:30
) i 9:0.
Then the angle i is given by tan i
1:88
The astronomical latitude is
gr
fa 90 y i 36:0
21. If the internal sphere of Problem 20 is located on the equatorial radius at
longitude zero, nd expressions for the components of gravity: gr , gu , gl.
As in the previous problem the differential mass of the small sphere M1 is (Fig. 21a):
M1
M
2
The total potential U is the sum of the gravitational potentials V and V1, and the potential
due to rotation F. According to Fig. 21b, using the relations of spherical triangles, if and
l are the coordinates of the point where the potential is evaluated, then
38
Gravity
P
q
y
j
l = 0 A
a/2
Fig. 21a
B
90
90 j
P
Fig. 21b
3cos
cos
l
1
r 2 4r
2
16r2
39
sin y cos l
3sin ycos l 1 3 sin y
2r 4r2
16r3
a 2
The three components of gravity are found by differentiating U with respect to r, y, and l:
r
@U
3
a2
3a2
2
2
2
gr
GM 2 3 sin y cos l
3sin
ycos
l
1
msin
y
@r
2r
2r
16r4
a3
2
1 @U
a
a2
r
cos
y
cos
l
6
cos
l
sin
y
cos
y
m
sin
y
cos
y
GM
gy
4r3
16r4
r @y
a3
1 @U
a2
3a2
gl
GM 3 sin l 4 sin y cos l sin l
r sin y @l
4r
8r
22. A planet is formed by a sphere of radius a and density r, with a spherical core of
density 5r and radius a/2 centred on the axis of rotation in the northern hemisphere
and tangential to the equator. The planet rotates with m 1/4. For the point at
coordinates (45 N, 45 E), calculate:
(a) The astronomical latitude.
(b) The deviation of the vertical from the radial.
(c) The angular velocity of rotation that would be required for this deviation to be zero.
(a) The gravitational potential is the sum of the potentials of the two spheres (Fig. 22):
V V1 V2
GM GM 0
r
q
22:1
5r
g
gr
r
j
Fig. 22
gq
a/2
40
Gravity
As in Problem 16, the inverse of the distance from a point P to the centre of the small
sphere, 1/q, can be approximated by
1 1
a
1 a 2
1 cos y
3cos2 y 1
q r
2r
2 2r
2 cos y
3cos
y
1
r
2 r 2r
2 4r3
3
a
a2
2
2 cos y
3cos
y
1
GM
2r 4r
16r3
The total potential U is the sum of V plus the potential due to rotation F:
GM 3 a
a2
1
2
cos y
3cos y 1 r2 o2 sin2 y
U V F
r 2 4r
2
16r2
22:2
22:3
For a point on the surface of the large sphere and coordinates 45 N, 45 E, we have that
y = 45 , r a, and
a3 o 2 1
GM
4
Putting these values in (22.2) and (22.3), we obtain
m
gr 1:82
GM
GM
and gy 0:24 2
a2
a
To nd the astronomical latitude we rst have to nd the deviation of the vertical with
respect to the radial:
tan i
gy
0:13 ; i 7:5
gr
41
a3 o2
GM
22:4
2 23 m
16
2
23. A planet consists of a very thin spherical shell of mass M and radius a, within
which is a solid sphere of radius a/2 and mass M 0 centred at the midpoint of the
equatorial radius of the zero meridian. The planet rotates with angular velocity v
about an axis normal to the equatorial plane. Calculate:
(a) The potential at points on the surface as a function of latitude and longitude.
(b) The components of the gravity vector.
(c) If M 0 10 M, what is the ratio between the tangential and radial components of
gravity at the North Pole?
(a) The potential U is the sum of the gravitational potentials due to the spherical shell V1, and
to the interior sphere V2, plus the potential due to the rotation of the planet F (Fig. 23):
U V1 V2 F
1
F o2 r2 cos2
2
GM
V1
r
GM 0
V2
q
23:1
where r is the distance from a point P on the surface of the planet to its centre, q is the
distance from point P to the centre of the interior sphere, and the latitude of point P.
Using the cosine law,
r
a2
q r2 ar cos c
4
where c is the angle between r and the equatorial radius, and its inverse can be approximated by (Problem 16)
1 1
a
a2
2
1 cos c 2 3cos c 1
23:2
q r
2r
8r
Using the relation for spherical triangles
cos a cos b cos c sin b sin c cos A
42
Gravity
j
90
P
r
y
a
y
q
j
a/2
Fig. 23
GM GM 0
a
a2
2
2
gr
o2 rcos2
1 @U
1 @U
gy
r @y
r @
0
GM a
a2
2
sin
cos
l
6
cos
cos
l
sin
r 2r2
8r3
o2 r cos sin
23:3
43
1 @U
GM 0
a
a2
2
gl
2 cos sin l 3 6cos cos l sin l
8r
r cos @l r cos
2r
(c) At the North Pole, = 90 and r a. Putting M 0 10M and substituting in the
previous equations we obtain
gr
GM GM 0 3GM 0 a2
GM
2
7:25 2
a2
a
8a4
a
gy
GM 0
5GM
2
2a2
a
The ratio between the radial and the tangential components of gravity at the North
Pole is
gr
1:45
gy
24. An Earth consists of a sphere of radius a and density r, within which there are two
spheres of radius a/2 centred on the axis of rotation and tangent to each other. The
density of that of the northern hemisphere is 4r and that of the southern hemisphere
is r/4.
(a) Express the gravitational potential in terms of M (the mass of the large sphere) up
to terms of 1/r3.
(b) What astronomical latitude corresponds to points on the equator (without
rotation)?
(c) What error is made by using the 1/r3 approximation in calculating the value of gr
at the equator?
(a) The total gravitational potential V is the sum of the potentials of the sphere of
radius a (V0) and of the two spheres of radius a/2 situated in the northern (V1) and
southern (V2) hemispheres (Fig. 24):
V V0 V1 V2
As in previous problems the large sphere is considered to have uniform density
r and the effect of the two interior spheres is calculated using their differential
masses
4
M pra3
3
4
a3 3M
M1 p4r r
3
8
8
a3
4 r
3M
M2 p 1
3 4
32
8
44
Gravity
4r
r1
a/2
a
a
r2
r/4
Fig. 24
GM
r
GM1 3GM 1
a
a2
2 cos y 3 3cos2 y 1
V1
r1
8
r 2r
8r
GM2
3GM 1
a
a2
V2
2 cos y 3 3cos2 y 1
r2
32 r 2r
8r
V0
where r1 and r2 have been calculated as in Problem 16. Then, the total gravitational
potential in the 1/r3 approximation is
V GM
41 15 a
9 a2
cos y
3cos2 y 1
2
3
32r 64 r
256 r
(b) The components of the gravity vector, taking into account that there is no rotation, are
@V
41
15a
27a2
2
gr
GM
cos
y
3cos
y
1
@r
32r2 32r3
256r4
24:1
1 @V
15a
27a2
gy
GM
sin
y
cos
y
sin
y
r @y
64r3
128r3
At the equator, r a and y = 90 and we obtain
45
GM
a2
GM
gy 0:243 2
a
gr 1:175
The astronomical latitude (a) is the angle between the vertical and the equatorial plane. In
our case at the equator this is given by the deviation of the vertical from the radial
direction:
tan a
gy
0:207
gr
Then
a 11:68 N
(c) If we want to calculate the exact value of gr at the equator, we calculate the exact
attractions of each sphere and add them:
gr0
GM
a2
gr1
3GM
cos a
8r12
gr2
3GM
cos a
32r22
24:2
where r1 and r2 are the distances from the centre of each of the two interior
spheres (Fig. 24):
r
p
a2 a 5
r 1 r 2 a2
4
2
and a is the angle which r1 and r2 form with the equatorial plane:
sin a
a=2
1
p
r1
5
GM
a2
GM
;
a2
25. An Earth consists of a sphere of radius a and density r within which there are
two spheres of radius a/2 centred on the axis of rotation and tangent to each other.
The density of that of the northern hemisphere is 2r and that of the southern
hemisphere is r/2.
(a) Express the potential V in terms of M (the mass of the large sphere), G, and r up to
terms in 1/r3.
46
Gravity
q1
a/2
q2
2r
x
gq
gr
r
q
ja
r/2
Fig. 25
(b) According to the value of this potential V, which astronomical latitudes correspond to the geocentric latitudes 45 N and 45 S?
(c) What must the rotation period be for the astronomical and geocentric latitudes to
coincide?
(d) What error is made by the 1/r3 approximation in calculating the value of gr at the
equator? And at the North Pole?
(a) As in previous problems the effect of the interior spheres is given in terms of their
differential masses (Fig. 25):
a3 M
4
M1 p2r r
3
2
8
4 r
a 3
M
M2 p r
3 2
2
16
The distances q1 and q2 from the centre of each sphere to an arbitrary point P are found
using the cosine law:
a2
ar
2 cos y
4
2
2
a
ar
q2 r2 2 cos y
4
2
q1 r 2
47
Using the approximation for 1/q (Problem 16), the total gravitational potential V is the sum
of the potentials of the three spheres:
GM GM1 GM2
r
q1
q2
GM 17 3 a
1 a2
2
cos y
3cos y 1
r 16 32 r
128 r
6
cos
y
sin
y
gy
r @y
r 32 r2
128 r3
25:1
gr 1:21
The deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction i is given by
tan i
gy
0:074 ) i45 4:2
gr
According to Fig. 25, the astronomical latitude a can be determined from the deviation of
the vertical i,
a i 180 180 ) a i 45 4:2 40:8 N
In the same way, for geocentric latitude 45 S (y = 135 )
GM
a2
GM
gy 0:04 2
a
gr 0:94
gy
Then tan i135 0:043 ) i135 2:5
gr
Then the astronomical latitude is
a 45 2:5 47:5 47:5 S
48
Gravity
(c) If we want the astronomical and geocentric latitudes to coincide, then the
deviation of the vertical must be null, i 0. This implies that gytotal must be
zero. To do this by means of the rotation, we have to make the tangential
component of the centrifugal force gyR be equal and of opposite sign to that of
the gravitational potential gyV :
gy total gy V gy R 0 ) gy V gy R
The tangential component due to rotation is
gyR
1 @F
r @y
1
where F o2 r2 sin2 y. Then
2
gyR o2 r cos y sin y
For a point on the surface at latitude 45 N, r = a and y = 45 , so
gy V gy R ) 0:09 GM =a2 o2 a=2
From here we can calculate the period of rotation
2p
2p
p
T
o
0:18
r
a3
GM
gyV
1
GM
2p
) o2 a 0:04 2 ) T p
2
a
0:08
r
a3
GM
(d) The value of the radial component of gravity at the equator, r a, y = 90 , by
substitution in (25.1), is
gr 1:04
GM
a2
If we calculate the exact value by adding the contributions of the three spheres
(Fig. 25)
grexact grM gr1 gr2
grM
GM
a2
49
a
2
cos b r p
5
5
a
4
GM 4
g1
8 5a2
GM 4
g2
16 5a2
grexact
GM
0:96
a2
GM
GM
GM
0:96 2 1:04 2 0:08 2
a
a
a
a2 36a2
16 a
2
grM
grexact
GM
1:47
a2
GM
GM
GM
1:47 2 1:30 2 0:17 2
a
a
a
26. A spherical Earth of radius a has a core of radius a/2 whose centre is displaced a/2 along
the axis of rotation towards the North Pole. The core density is twice that of the mantle.
(a) What should the period of rotation of the Earth be for the direction of the plumbline to coincide with the radius at a latitude of 45 S?
(b) What are the values of J0, J1, J2, and m?
(a) As in previous problems we calculate the gravitational potential by the sum of the
potentials of the two spheres, using for the core the differential mass (Fig. 26):
GM GM 0
V V1 V2
r
q
2
4
a
M
M 0 p2r r
3
8
8
50
Gravity
a/2
2r
q
r
a
45
i
gr
gq
Fig. 26
2 cos y
3cos
y
1
r
8 r 2r
2 4r3
26:1
The total potential U is the sum of the gravitational potential V and the potential due to
rotation
1
F r2 o2 sin2 y
2
U GM
91
a
a2
1
2
cos
y
3cos
y
1
r2 o2 sin2 y
8 r 16r2
64r3
2
In order that the direction of the plumb-line coincides with the radial direction, the
tangential component of gravity, gy, must be null:
1 @U GM
a 1
a2 1
gy
sin
y
6
cos
y
sin
y
r @y
r
16 r2
64 r3
ro2 sin y cos y
For a point on the surface at latitude 45 S, the tangential component of gravity is, with
r = a, y = 135 ,
gy 0:003
GM ao2
a2
2
51
Putting this component equal to zero, we nd the value of the period of rotation T:
r
GM ao2
GM
2p
a3
2
gy 0:003 2
0 ) o 0:006 3 ) T
a
2
a
0:077 GM
(b) The gravitational potential V of Equation (26.1) can be written as
GM 9
a
a2
2
V
1
cos y
3cos y 1
r 8
18r
72r2
27. Within a spherical planet of radius a and density r there are two spherical cores of
radius a/2 and density r 0 with centres located on the axis of rotation at a/2 from the
planets centre, one in the northern hemisphere and the other in the southern hemisphere.
(a) Neglecting rotation of the planet, calculate what the ratio r0 /r should be for the
gravity attening to be 1/8.
(b) If the planet rotates so that m 1/16, and the ratio of the densities is that found in
part (a), calculate the astronomical latitude which corresponds to the geocentric
latitude 45 N.
(a) Since there is no rotation the total potential U is the sum of the gravitational
potentials of the three spheres (Fig. 27). As in previous problems we use the mass
M of the planet with uniform density r and for the two cores the differential
masses M 0 . For 1/q we use the approximation as in Problem 16:
4 a3 0
4 a3 0
r M r0
0
1
27:1
M p r r p r r
3 8
3 8
r
8 r
The potential U is
a 2
GM GM 0
2
U
2
3cos y 1
r
r
2r
The radial components of gravity at the equator and the Pole are found by taking the
derivative of the potential U:
@U
GM
2 3a2
2 GM 0 2 4 3cos2 y 1
gr
@r
r
r
4r
52
Gravity
On the surface r a, and at the equator y = 90 and at the Pole y = 0 , so
GM GM 0 5
2
a2
a 4
GM GM 0 14
p
gr 2 2
a
a 4
gre
gp ge 1
ge
8
) M M0
5 0
8
4
M M
4
Putting M 0 in terms of M from Equation (27.1) we nd the ratio of the densities:
4
M r0
r0
1 ) 1:48
M0 M
67
8 r
r
(b) For a rotating planet we add to the potential U the rotational potential, F:
a 2
GM GM 0
GM r 3 m 2
2
sin y
3cos y 1
2
U
r
r
2r
r a 2
@U
GM
2 3a2
0
2
gr
2 GM 2 4 3cos y 1
@r
r
r
4r
rm 2
GM 3 sin y
a
GM
1:11 2
r
1 @U GM 0
a 2
2
6 cos y sin y
gy
r @y
r
2r
GM r 3
2
m sin y cos y
r
a
GM
0:013 2
r
From Fig. 27 we see that the relation between the geocentric and astronomical latitudes is
a i
where i is the deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction, which is given by
tan i
gy
0:012 ) i 0:7
gr
53
gq
a/2
r
gr
i
r
j = 45
ja
a
Fig. 27
1
2
V 2pGra ln
r
where r is the distance measured perpendicular to the axis. Assume that a horizontal
cylinder is buried at depth d as measured from the surface to the cylinders axis.
(a) Calculate the anomaly along a line of zero elevation on the surface perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder.
(b) At what point on this line is the anomaly greatest?
(c) What is the relationship between the distance at which the anomaly is half the
maximum and the depth at which the cylinder is buried?
(d) For a sphere of equivalent mass to produce the same anomaly, would it be at a
greater or lesser depth?
54
Gravity
gr
gz
gmax
d
r
(1/2)gmax
a
x
x1/2
Fig. 28
(a) The gravity anomaly produced by an innite horizontal cylinder buried at depth d, with
centre at x 0 (Fig. 28), is given by the derivative in the vertical direction (z-axis) of
the gravitational potential V:
0
1
1
B
C
V 2pGra2 ln@qA
x2 z d2
g gz
@V
2prGa2 d
@z x2 z d2
28:1
2prGa2 d
x2 d 2
(b) To nd the point at which the anomaly has its maximum value, we take the
derivative with respect to x and put it equal to zero:
@g
0 ) 2prGa2 d2x 0 ) x 0
@x
Substituting x 0 in (28.1):
gmax
2pGra2
d
(c) The distance at which the anomaly has a value equal to half its maximum value
gives us the depth d at which the cylinder is buried:
55
gmax
2pGra2 2pGra2 d
g )
) x1=2 d
2
2d
x2 d 2
(d) The gravitational potential produced by a sphere of differential mass DM buried at
depth d under x 0 is given by
V
GM
GM
1=2
r
x2 z d2
gz
@V
GM z d
3=2
@z
x2 z d2
gz
GMd
x2
d 2 3=2
GM
d2
The distance at which the anomaly has half its maximum value is
GMd
GM
3=2
2d 2
x21=2 d 2
x1=2
p
22=3 1 d 0:766d
56
Gravity
(b) The Bouguer anomaly is calculated from the free-air anomaly using the Bouguer
correction with a crust density of 2.65 g cm3:
g B g 3:086h 2pGrh g gFA 2pGrh 659:3 gu
30. An anomalous mass is formed by two equal tangent spheres of radius R, with
centres at the same depth d ( d R ) and density contrast Dr.
(a) Calculate the Bouguer anomaly at the surface (z 0) produced by the mass
anomaly along a prole passing through the centres of the two spheres.
(b) Represent it graphically for x 0 (above the tangent point), 500, 1000, and 2000 m
taking R 1 km, d 3 km, and Dr 1 g cm3.
(a) For one sphere the anomaly for points on the surface (z 0) is (Problem 28)
g
GMd
x2
d 2 3=2
For two spheres the anomaly is the sum of the attractions of the two spheres (Fig. 30a):
g
GMd GMd
r13
r23
where
q
x R2 d 2
q
r2 x R2 d 2
r1
Then
GMd
GMd
g h
i3=2 h
i3=2
x R2 d 2
x R2 d 2
P(x,0)
r2
R
x
Fig. 30a
r1
57
(b) To represent graphically the curve of the anomaly (Fig. 30b), we rst nd the point
at which it is a maximum:
0
1
@g
@ B
@h
@x
@x
GMd
GMd
C
i3=2 h
i3=2 A 0
x R2 d 2
x R2 d 2
h
i5
h
i5
x R2 x R2 d 2 x R2 x R2 d 2 ) x 0 maximum
Using the data given in the problem, we nd the values of the anomaly for the ve points,
with Dr = 1 g cm3, R = 1 km, d = 3 km
4
4
M pR3 r p 109 103 4:19 1012 kg
3
3
x (m)
Dg (gu)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
53.0
52.0
48.9
43.9
37.5
55
Anomaly (g)
50
45
40
2000
Fig. 30b
1000
0
Distance (m)
1000
2000
58
Gravity
31. At a point at geocentric latitude 45 N and height 2000 m the observed value of
gravity is g 6690 000 gu. Taking the approximation that the Earth is an ellipsoid of
equatorial radius a 6000 km, density 4 g cm3, J2 103, and m 103,
calculate for that point:
(a) The free-air and the Bouguer anomalies.
(b) The distance from the free surface to that of the sphere of radius a (precision 1 gu).
(a) The volume of an ellipsoid is:
4
V pa3 1 2a
3
The attening is
a
3J2 m
2 103
2
2
GM
3
ge 2 1 J2 m 6:736 361 m s2
a
2
For a point at latitude 45 N the radial component of gravity is
gr ge 1 b sin2 6:738 045 m s2
2GM
h 2:24 106 h m s2 2:244h gu
a3
59
N
h
a
r
Fig. 31
1
3
r a 1 asin 6000 1 2 10
5994 km
2
Then,
N 6000 5994 2 4 km
32. Beneath a point A at height 400 m there exists an anomalous spherical mass of
radius 200 m, density 3.5 g cm3, whose centre is 200 m below the reference level.
A point B is located at a height of 200 m and a horizontal distance of 400 m from A,
and a third point C is at a height of 0 m and at a horizontal distance of 800 m from
A. The density of the medium above the reference level is 2.6 g cm3, and below the
reference level it is 2.5 g cm3. The theoretical value of gravity is 980 000 mGal.
Calculate:
(a) The values of gravity at A, B, and C.
(b) The Bouguer anomalies at these points.
60
Gravity
Precision 1 gu.
(a) The gravity at each point is given by
g g C FA C B C am
where
Normal gravity: g 9800 000 gu
Free-air correction: CFA 3.086 h
Bouguer correction: CB 0.419 r1 h
r1 2.6 g cm3 is the density of the material above the reference level
C am is the anomaly produced by the buried sphere at a point at height h and a horizontal
distance x from its centre:
am
4
G pR3 rsph r2 h d
GM h d
3
3=2
3=2
2
2
x h d
x2 h d2
32:1
where d is the depth to the centre from the reference level; and rsph and r2 are the densities
of the sphere and of the medium where it is located, respectively. In our case: d 200 m,
rsph 3.5 g cm3, and r2 2.5 g cm3.
For point A, x 0, we obtain
C FA 1234 gu
am
C B 436 gu
4
G pR3 rsph r2
6 gu
3
h d 2
h d 2
GM
61
By substitution of the values for each point we obtain that the anomalies correspond to
those produced by the sphere:
gAB 6 gu
gBB 5 gu
gCB 1 gu
33. For a series of points in a line and at zero height which are affected by the
gravitational attraction exerted by a buried sphere of density contrast 1.5 g cm3, the
anomaly versus horizontal distance curve has a maximum of 4.526 mGal and a point
of inexion at 250 m from the maximum. Calculate:
(a) The depth, anomalous mass, and radius of the sphere.
(b) The horizontal distance to the centre of the sphere of the point at which the
anomaly is half the maximum.
(a) We know that the inection point of the curve of the anomaly produced by a
sphere buried at depth d corresponds to the horizontal distance d/2. Then
d
xinf ) d 2xinf 2 250 500 m
2
The maximum value of the anomaly at x 0 is
GM
4:526 mGal 45:26 gu
gmax
d2
and solving for DM
DM
1=3
4
3M 1=3
3 1:6964 1011 kg
M pR3 r ) R
300 m
3
4pr
4 3:14 1:5 103 kg m3
(b) In order that g 12 gmax with z 0 we write
GMd
1 GM
) x1=2 383 m
3=2
2 d2
x21=2 d 2
34. At a point at height 2000 m, the measured value of gravity is 9.794 815 m s2.
The reference value at sea level is 9.8 m s2. The crust is 10 km thick and of density
2 g cm3, and the mantle density is 3 g cm3. Calculate:
(a) The free-air, Bouguer, and isostatic anomalies. Use the Pratt hypothesis with a
cylinder of radius 10 km and a 40 km depth of compensation.
(b) If beneath this point there is a spherical anomalous mass of GDM 160 m3 s2 at
a 2000 m depth, what should the compensatory cylinders density be for the
compensation to be total?
62
Gravity
Fig. 34a
hr0
Dh
34:2
where r0 is the density for a block at sea level, which in our case is formed by a crust
of density 2 g cm3 and thickness 10 km over a mantle of density 3 g cm3 and thickness
30 km. For the whole 40 km we use a mean value of density
r0
2 10 3 30
2:75 g cm3
40
63
P
h
rc = 2 g cm3
10 km
D = 40 km
rM = 3 g cm3
Fig. 34b
2 2:75
0:13 g cm3
42
p p
100 4 100 1764c 103
GM
160
40 gu
d2
20002
The total anomaly now is the Bouguer anomaly plus the anomaly due to the sphere:
g 689 40 729 gu
If the isostatic compensation is total (isostatic anomaly equal to zero), this anomaly must
be compensated by the cylinder. Thus, the necessary contrast of densities Dr to do this can
be calculated using expression (34.1):
729 106 2 3:1416 6:67 1011
p p
40 100 4 100 1764 103 r
64
Gravity
so
r 0:25 g cm3
As the mean value (crustmantle) of the density is 2.75 g cm3, the density of the cylinder
must now be
r0 r r 0:25 2:75 r ) r 2:50 g cm3
35. At a point on the Earth at height 1000 m, the observed value of gravity is 979 700
mGal. The value at sea level is 980 000 mGal.
(a) Calculate the free-air and Bouguer anomalies.
(b) According to the Airy hypothesis, which is the state of compensation of that height?
(c) What should the depth of the root be for the compensation to be total?
To calculate the compensation, use cylinders of radius 40 km, crustal thickness
H 30 km, crust density 2.7 g cm3, and mantle density 3.3 g cm3.
(a) The free-air anomaly is
g FA g g C FA g g 3:086h 86 gu
The Bouguer anomaly is
gB g g C FA C B gFA 2p G r h 1046 gu
(b) To calculate the isostatic anomaly according to the Airy hypothesis we rst need to
obtain the value of the root given by the equation
t
rc
h 4500 m
rM rc
65
(c) If we want the compensation to be total, the value of the isostatic correction
must be
DgI DgB CI 0 > CI DgB 1046 gu
Since the isostatic correction under the Airy hypothesis is
q q
C 2pGr t a2 h H 2 a2 h H t2
I
GMz d
3=2
x2 z d2
66
Gravity
XA
XB
h
B
r c = 2.76 g / cm3
Fig. 36
rC
h
rM rC
67
37. At a point at latitude 43 N, the observed value of gravity is 9800 317 gu, and the
free-air anomaly is 1000 gu.
(a) Calculate the Bouguer anomaly. Take rC 2.67 g cm3.
(b) If the isostatic compensation is due to a cylinder of radius 10 km which is beneath
the point of measurement, what percentage of the Bouguer anomaly is compensated by the classical models of Airy and Pratt?
(c) According to the Pratt hypothesis, what density should the cylinder have for the
compensation to be total?
(a) First we calculate the normal gravity at latitude 43 N:
g 978:0320 1 0:005 3025sin2 0:000 0058sin2 2 Gal
g 9804 385 gu
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
37:1
where
a 10 km; b t 7307 m; c t 30 000 h 38 949 m
r rM rC 3:27 2:67 0:6 g cm3
which results in C I 70 gu. This represents 8% of the observed Bouguer anomaly.
68
Gravity
q p
b a2 c b 2 a2 c 2
gFA 2pGr0 N
2:46 g cm3
2pGh N
where we have used the values r0 2.67 g cm3 and DgFA 1000 gu.
38. At a point on the Earths surface, a measurement of gravity gave a value of
9795 462 gu. The point is 2000 m above sea level. At sea level the crust is 20 km thick
and of density rC 2 g cm3. The density of the mantle is rM 4 g cm3.
(a) Calculate the free-air and Bouguer anomalies.
69
(b) Calculate the isostatic anomaly according to the Airy and Pratt assumptions.
Use cylinders of 10 km radius and compensation depth of 60 km.
(c) Beneath the point, there is an anomalous spherical mass of GDM 1200 m3 s2.
How deep is it?
Take g 9.8 m s2.
(a) The free-air anomaly is given by
g FA g g 3:086h 9 795 462 9 800 000 3:086h 1634 gu
For the Bouguer anomaly we rst calculate the Bouguer correction
C B 0:419rh 0:419 2 2000 1676 gu
Then we obtain
g B g g C FA C B gFA C B 42 gu
(b) To calculate the isostatic anomaly according to the Airy hypothesis we determine
rst the value of the root corresponding to the height 2000 m:
t
rc
2
2000 2000 m
h
rM rc
42
The isostatic correction, using a single cylinder under the point, is given by
q p
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
where (Fig. 38a)
Fig. 38a
38:1
70
Gravity
a 10 km;
b t 2 km;
c H t h 20 2 2 24 km
D
60
r0
3:33 3:22 g cm3
Dh
60 2
where D is the compensation depth (in this problem 60 km) and for r0 (Fig. 38b) we have
used the mean value of the density of the crust (2 g cm3) and of the mantle (4 g cm3)
along the compensation depth
1
2
r0 2 4 3:33 g cm3
3
3
The contrast of densities is
r 3:33 3:22 0:11 g cm3
For the isostatic correction, using the Pratt hypothesis, the term A is now
q p
A 60 102 62 602 102 622 7:4 km
P
x
h
20 km
rC = 2 g cm3
40 km
rM = 4 g cm3
Fig. 38b
71
C I 2 3:1416 6:67 1011 m3 =kg1 s2 0:11 103 kg=m3 7:4 103 m
341 gu
Since according to the Pratt hypothesis, the density of the compensating cylinder extends
to the surface of the height 2000 m, we have to calculate again the Bouguer anomaly using
this density (3.33 g cm3). We nd for the Bouguer and isostatic anomalies the values
CB 2 p G r h 2699 gu
DgB DgFA CB 1065 gu
DgI DgB CI 724 gu
(c) If we assume that the isostatic anomaly is produced by a spherical anomalous mass
buried under the point at a depth d under sea level its gravitational effect is given by
gmax
GM
h d2
gI 724 gu
39:1
where,
g 9800 000 gu
C FA 3:086 h 3:086 2000 6172 gu
C B 0:419rh 0:419 3 2000 2514 gu
The anomaly due to the anomalous mass is given by
C am gmax
GM
h d 2
39:2
72
Gravity
GM
h d2
75 gu
rC
3
h
2000 6000 m
rM rC
43
q p
C 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
I
39:3
hr0
Dh
where D is the level of compensation (100 km) and r0 is the mean density for the crust and
mantle down to depth 100 km:
r0
20 3 80 4
3:8 g cm3
100
Substituting we nd
r
2 3:8
0:074 g cm3
100 2
73
b 100 km;
c 100 2 102 km
3
4pR3 G 4 3:1416 109 6:67 1011
2:326 g cm3
Since the density of the sphere rsph is double that of the crust rc, the densities of the crust
and mantle are
rsph 2rC ) r rsph rC 2rC rC rC 2:326 g cm3
rsph 4:652 g cm3
2
rM rsph 3:101 g cm3
3
(b) If isostatic compensation is total we have
g I 0 g gP C FA C B C I C am
40:1
where g is the normal gravity, gP the observed gravity at point P, CFA the free-air correction,
CB the Bouguer correction, CI the isostatic correction and C am the gravitational effect of
the anomalous mass.
The free-air and Bouguer corrections are given by
C FA 3:806h 3:806 1000 3086 gu
C B 0:419r h 0:419 2:326 1000 975 gu
74
Gravity
P
x
h
d
a
rC
rsph
rM
Fig. 40
GM
h d
650
2
4 106
41 gu
We calculate the isostatic correction using the Airy hypothesis and taking into account the
presence of the spherical anomalous mass. Thus, according to Fig. 40, the equilibrium
between the gravity at P and at sea level far from P is given by
4
pa2 rC H pa2 rM t pa2 rC h H t pR3 rsph rC
3
4
a2 hrC R3 rsph rC
3
t
3011 m
a2 rM rC
As in previous problems we calculate the isostatic correction using a cylinder under point P
q p
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
75
41:1
Since there is an anomalous mass under point P we have to add its gravitational contribution to the gravity at P. For a spherical mass at depth h d under P the gravitational
attraction is
76
Gravity
C am
GM
2
h d
104 m3 s2
104 m s2 100 gu
108 m2
We calculate the root corresponding to the isostatic compensation, assuming the Airy
hypothesis, and taking into account the presence of the anomalous mass in the same way as
in Problem 40:
4
pa2 rC H pa2 rM t pa2 rC h H t pR3 rsph rC
3
pa2 rC h H t Ma
t
pa2 rC h Ma
2239 m
pa2 rM rC
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
41:2
77
For the compensation, assume cylinders of the same radius as the sphere. Normal
gravity g 9.8 m s2.
We rst calculate the root t, assuming the Airy hypothesis, corresponding to the height
2000 m of point P. If the situation is of total isostatic equilibrium, we have to introduce the
effect produced by the sphere in the determination of the root (Fig. 40):
4
p rsph rC a3 pa2 rC h pa2 rC H pa2 rC t pa2 HrC pa2 rM t
3
so
4
rC h a rsph rC
3
t
10 000 m
r M rC
42:1
The negative value of t (anti-root) is due to the decit of mass produced by the presence of
the sphere (rsph < rC) under point P.
The isostatic correction, as in previous problems, is calculated taking a cylinder under the point:
q p
C I 2pGrM rC b a2 c b2 a2 c2
42:2
78
Gravity
centre of the sphere, not in the same vertical, is 321 gu. Also calculate the
horizontal distance from the centre to point A.
Take, for compensation, cylinders of 10 km radius. g 9.8 m s2
(a) The isostatic anomaly is given by
g I gA g 3:086h 0:419rC h C I
43:1
To calculate the isostatic correction CI, assuming the Airy hypothesis, we must rst
calculate the root t that corresponds to the height h
t
rC h
7800 m
rM rC
C I 2pGrM rC b a2 c b2 a2 c2
and substituting the values
b t 7800 m;
a 10 km;
c h H t 39900 m;
r rM rC 700 kg m3
we obtain
C I 84 gu
Solving for gA in Equation (43.1) we obtain
gA gI g 3:086h 0:419rC h C I 9795 748 gu
(b) For a Worden gravimeter the increment in gravity between two points (Dg) is proportional to the increment in the values given by the instrument (DL) corrected by the
instrumental variations
g KL
gB gA KLB LA ) gB gA KLB LA
gA 364 gu 9795 384 gu
where K is the constant of the gravimeter.
(c) The anomaly produced by a sphere buried at depth d under sea level at a point at height
h and at a horizontal distance x from the centre of the sphere is given by
C am
4
G pa3 rsph rC h d
3
3=2
x2 h d2
43:2
79
r
d
rC
a
x
x
rsph
Fig. 43
For point A (Fig. 43) if r is the distance from the centre of the sphere to the point A,
x2 (h d)2 r2 and solving for d in Equation (43.2) gives
d
C am r3
h
4
G pa3 rsph rC
3
q
r2 h d2 3910 m
44. In a gravity survey, two points A and B on the Earths surface gave the values 159
and 80 mGal for the free-air anomaly, and 51 and 25 mGal for the Bouguer
anomaly, respectively. Given that B is at an altitude 1000 m lower than A, and that the
density of the mantle is 25% greater than that of the crust, calculate:
(a) The value of gravity at A and B, and the densities of the crust and mantle.
(b) The isostatic anomaly according to the hypotheses of Airy (H 30 km) and Pratt
(D 100 km, r0 the value determined in the previous part) at point A. Take, for
compensation, cylinders of 10 km radius. g 980 Gal.
(a) The free-air anomaly at point A is given by
gAFA gA g CAFA gA g 3:086hA
44:1
80
Gravity
44:2
rC h A
hA
8000 m
1:25rC rC 0:25
I
C 2pGrM rC b a2 c b2 a2 c2
Substituting the values
b t 8000 m;
a 10 km;
c h H t 40 000 m;
r rM rC 626 kg m3
we obtain
C I 77 gu
81
Dr0
100 2:505
2:456 g cm3
Dh
100 2
C I 2pGrM rC b a2 c b2 a2 c2
where Dr 0.049 g cm3, b D 100 km, a 10 km, c D h 102 km.
Then, we obtain
C I 158 gu
The isostatic anomaly will be the Bouguer anomaly plus the isostatic correction
gAI gAB C I 510 158 352 gu
In both cases the anomaly is negative, but using the Airy model the value is greater than
using the Pratt model.
45. At a point P on the Earths surface, the observed value of gravity is 9.795
636 m s2, and the Bouguer anomaly is 26 mGal. Assuming the Airy hypothesis
(rC 2.7 g cm3, rM 3.3 g cm3, H 30 km), calculate:
(a) The height of the point.
(b) The isostatic anomaly.
(c) The value of gravity that would be observed at the point if beneath it were a
sphere at a depth of 10 km below sea level, with a density of 2.5 g cm3 and a
radius of 5 km, such that the compensation was total.
Compensation with cylinders of 5 km radius; g 9.8 m s2.
(a) We calculate the height of point P from the Bouguer anomaly:
gB g P g 3:086h 0:419rC h ) h
gB gP g
3:086 0:419rC
so
h
82
Gravity
(b) To calculate the isostatic anomaly, using the Airy hypothesis, we rst calculate the
value of the root t corresponding to the height of the point:
t
rC
2:7
h
2100 9450 m
rM rC
3:3 2:7
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
45:1
45:2
4
rC h a rsph rC
3
7228 m
t
rM rC
83
P
h
d
x a
rsph
rC
rM
Fig. 45
We substitute this value of t in Equation (45.1) together with the other values
a 5 km;
b 7 7228 m;
c h H t 39 328 m;
and obtain
C I 18 gu
By substitution in (45.2) we nd the value of the gravity at P under the given conditions:
gP 9800000 3:086 2100 0:419 2:7 2100 48 18 9795830 gu
46. Consider a point on the surface of the Earth in an overcompensated region
at which the values of the free-air and the Bouguer anomalies are 1300 gu and
1200 gu, respectively.
(a) Is this a mountainous or an oceanic zone? Give reasons.
(b) Calculate the altitude and the value of gravity at the point given that the density
of the crust is 2.72 g cm3.
(c) If the isostatic anomaly is -1062 gu calculate, according to the Airy hypothesis
(rC 2.72 g cm3, rM 3.30 g cm3, H 30 km), the value of the root
responsible for this anomaly. Compare it with the value that it would have if
the region were in isostatic equilibrium.
84
Gravity
Compensation with cylinders of 10 km radius; g 9.8 m s2.
(a) Since the free-air anomaly is positive and the Bouguer anomaly is negative, this
indicates that this is a mountainous region.
(b) From the free-air and Bouguer anomalies we can easily calculate the height of the point:
g FA g P g 3:086h
g B gP g 3:086h 0:419rC h
46:1
gFA g B
2193 m
0:419rC
The observed gravity at P can be obtained from either of the two equations (46.1):
gP g 3:086h gFA 9794 532 gu
(c) The isostatic correction is found from the known Bouguer and isostatic anomalies:
g I gB C I ) C I 1062 1200 138 gu
The isostatic correction, using the Airy hypothesis, is given, as in previous problems, as a
function of the root t, by
q p
C I 138 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
where we substitute
r 3:3 2:72 0:58 g cm3 ;
a 10 km;
b t;
c h H t 2:193 30 t km
and obtain for t,
t 19 984 m
If the region is in equilibrium the root due to the height h would be
t
rC h
2:72 2193
10 284 m
rM rC
3:3 2:72
Since we have already obtained a larger value (t 19 984 m), this indicates that the region
is overcompensated.
47. In an oceanic region, gravity is measured at a point on the surface of the sea,
obtaining a value of 979.7950 Gal. Calculate, using the Airy hypothesis (H 30 km,
rC 2.9 g cm3, rM 3.2 g cm3, rW 1.04 g cm3):
(a) The isostatic anomaly if the thickness of the crust is 8.4 km.
85
(b) The thickness that the water layer would have to have if 15 km vertically below
the point there was centred a sphere of 10 km radius such that the anti-root is null
and the compensation total. Also calculate the density of the sphere.
For the compensation, take cylinders of 10 km radius. g 9.8 m s2.
(a) We are in an oceanic region, therefore in the calculation of the root for the isostatic
compensation according to the Airy hypothesis we have to consider the layer of water
of density rW. The value of the root is now given by
t0
rC rW 0 2:9 1:04 0
h
h 6:2h0
3:2 2:9
rM r C
47:1
I
C 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
To calculate the isostatic anomaly we rst have to apply the Bouguer correction which in
this case consists of two terms: the rst to eliminate the attraction of the water layer
P
h
rW
rC
Fig. 47a
rM
86
Gravity
(2pGrWh0 ) and the second to replace this layer by one of density equal to the crustal
density (2pGrCh0 ). Since the point is at sea level the free-air correction is null:
DgI g g C B C I
C B 0:419rC rW h0 2338 gu
Dg I 19 gu
(b) If the anti-root is null and there is total compensation, then we have
t0 0
g I 0 g g 2pGrW h0 2pGrC h0 C am
47:2
Since the isostatic anomaly must be null, then the anomalous spherical mass and the water
layer must compensate each other. The attraction of the anomalous mass is Cam GDM/d2
where d is the depth of its centre below sea level. Then we can write
g g 2pGrC rW h0
GM
0
d2
4a rC rsph
47:3
3rW rC
P
h
rW
d
H
Fig. 47b
x a
rsph
rC
87
gg
rC 3372 kg m3
4
a3
pG 2a 2
3
d
rC
h0 2700 m
rM rC
I
C 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
h
rC
t
rM
Fig. 48
88
Gravity
Substituting c H h0 and b t0 , we obtain
C I 9 gu
Then the isostatic anomaly is DgI 5 gu.
49. In an oceanic region where the density of the crust is 2.90 g cm3 and that of the
mantle 3.27 g cm3, the value of gravity measured at a point P on the sea oor at
depth 4000 m is 9.806 341 m s2.
Calculate, according to the Airy hypothesis:
(a) The thickness of the crust.
(b) The isostatic anomaly in gravimetric units.
Data: rw 1.04 g cm3, H 30 km, g 9.8 m s2. Take, for compensation, cylinders
of 10 km radius.
(a) First we calculate the value of the root according to the Airy hypothesis
t0
rC rW 0
h 20 108 m
rM rC
The thickness of the crust under the point is found by (Fig. 49)
e H h0 t 0 30000 40000 2018 5892 m
(b) Because the point is located at the bottom of the sea, to reduce the observed value of
gravity to the surface of the geoid (sea level) we eliminate rst the attraction of the
water layer. Then we apply the free-air and the Bouguer corrections, to take into
account the attraction of a layer of crustal material which replaces the water. Finally we
apply the isostatic correction:
g I gP g 0:419rW h0 3:086h0 0:419rC h0 C I
The isostatic correction is calculated using a cylinder of 10 km radius,
q p
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
h
rW
rC
Fig. 49
rM
89
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
50:1
where Dr is the density contrast, b the height of the cylinder, and c the distance from the
base of the cylinder to the observation point.
Airy: We calculate rst the root given by the equation
t 4:45 h 4:45 1572 6995 km
For the isostatic correction we substitute in (50.1) the values
90
Gravity
a 10 km;
b t 6995 km;
c t H h 38 567 km;
6:995
q p
so
C I 68 gu
Pratt: The contrast of densities is now given by
r
h
1575
r
2:67 0:04 g cm3
D h 0 100 000 1572
g B 2pGr t a2 H h2 a2 t H h2
so
t
q q
gB
a2 H h2 a2 t H h2
2pGr
a2 t 2 H h2 2tH h t 2 N 2 2tN
so
t
N 2 a2 H h2
2H h N
91
C I 2pGr b a2 c b2 a2 c2
where we substitute
b t 10 km,
c h H t 42 km,
and obtain
a 20 km,
Dr 600 kg m3
CI 306 gu
Since the point is totally compensated the isostatic anomaly must be zero:
gI g g C FA C B C I 0
The free-air anomaly can now be written as
gFA g g C FA C B C I
51:1
92
Gravity
a2
P
Px
a1
a1
a2
hm
h
rC
Fig. 52
C FA 3:086h 6481 gu
and the Bouguer correction by
C B 0:419rC h 2200 gu
The topographic correction is introduced in order to correct for the topographic masses not
included in the Bouguer correction, that is, in this case those above the height h (Fig. 52).
Remember that the Bouguer correction corrects for an innite layer or plate of thickness h
and doesnt consider the additional masses above h or the lack of masses below h. The
topographic correction is always positive because the masses above height h produce on
point P an attraction of negative sign which must be added and the lack of mass under h
must also be taken into account with a positive sign, since it has been subtracted in the
Bouguer correction.
To calculate the attraction of the mass above height h we use the attraction of
concentric cylinders (in our case two) with axis passing through point P and with
height equal to the difference between the height h of the point P and the height of
the mass of the topography hm above h. The cylinder is divided into n sectors with
radius a1 and a2 to approximate the topography (Fig. 52). Then the topographic
correction is given by
q q q q
2pGrC
T
a22 c b2 a22 c2 a21 c b2 a21 c2
n
In our case we substitute the values
a2 5240 m;
a1 3520 m;
b hm h 900 m;
c 0;
n 16
93
and obtain
T 2 gu
The rened Bouguer anomaly is
gB g g C FA C B T 298 gu
53. Calculate the topographic correction for a terrestrial compartment of inner radius
a1 5240 m, outer radius a2 8440 m, n 20, mean height 120 m, with 2000 m being
the height of the point P. Take r 2.65 g cm3.
In this problem we consider the topographic correction for the case of the lack of mass in
the topography at heights below that of the point P. Since in the Bouguer correction we
have subtracted an innite layer of thickness h, we have to correct for the places where the
mass was not present (Fig. 53).
The topographic or terrain correction T in this case is calculated in the same way as in
the previous problem. Thus we take n sectors of cylinders with axis at point P and height
equal to the difference between h and hm (Fig. 52b). The correction is then given by
q q q q
2pGrC
a22 c b2 a22 c2 a21 c b2 a21 c2
T
n
where we substitute a2 8440 m, a1 5240 m, b c h hm, n 20 to obtain
T 0:67 mGal
54. Calculate the topographic correction for an oceanic sector or compartment
of inner radius a1 5240 m, outer radius a2 8440 m, n 20, mean depth
525 m, with 600 m being the height of the point P. Take rC 2.67 g cm3, rW
1.03 g cm3.
In this problem we have to correct for the lack of mass in the oceanic area near the point P,
between the sea level and height h (column 1 in Fig. 54). Also we have to take into account
the attraction produced by the water layer between sea level and the bottom of the sea
(column 2 in Fig. 54).
a2
a1
hm
Fig. 53
rC
94
Gravity
a2
a1
rw
Fig. 54
2pGr
T
a22 c b2 a22 c2 a21 c b2 a21 c2
n
where
a2 8440 m;
a1 5240 m;
n 20
For the correction corresponding to the attraction of column 1, between height h and sea
level, we substitute the values:
b h c;
r rC
and obtain
T1 0:07 mGal
For the correction of the attraction of column 2 between sea level and the bottom of the sea
we use the difference between the densities of the crust and of water:
b p 525 m
c p hs 1125 m
c b hs
r rC rW
T2 0:11 mGal
The total topographic correction is
T T1 T2 0:18 mGal
95
Tides
Tides
55. Two spherical planets A and B of radii 2a and a and masses 3m and m are
separated by a distance (centre to centre) of 6a. The only forces acting are gravitational, and the system formed by the two planets rotates in the equatorial plane.
(a) Calculate the value of the components of the acceleration of the tides at the Pole of
each planet directly and using the tidal potential. On which planet are they greater?
(b) If each planet spins on its axis with the same angular velocity as the system, what,
for each planet, is the ratio between the centrifugal force and the maximum of the
tidal force at the equator? On which planet is this ratio greater?
(a) From Fig. 55a we can deduce that at the Pole of planet A, the radial component of
the acceleration of the tides produced by planet B is
grT
Gm
cos a
q2
where q is the distance from the Pole of planet A to the centre of planet B and a the angle
formed by q and the radius at the Pole of planet A.
By substitution of the required values we obtain
q p
q 6a2 2a2 40a
2a
cos a p ) a 71:6
40a
Gm
Gm
grT
cos71:6 0:008 2
2
40a
a
sin71:6
36a2
q
36a2 40a2
Gm
Gm
2 0:028 0:024 0:004 2
a
a
gyT
2a
q
b
6a
3m
Fig. 55a
96
Gravity
where R is the distance between the centres of planets A and B (Fig. 55a), and # is the
angle the position vector r forms with the distance vector R (in this case it is equal to the
colatitude, # y)
GMr2
3cos2 y 1
c
3
2R
The radial and tangential components of the acceleration are given by
@c
@ Gmr2
Gmr
3cos2 y 1
3cos2 y 1
3
3
@r @r 26a
216a
2
1 @c
1 @ Gmr
Gmr
3cos2 y 1
3cos y sin y
gyT
r @y
r @y 26a3
216a3
grT
Gm
Gm
0:009 2
2
108a
a
gyT 0
For planet B, we proceed in a similar manner:
q02 36a2 a2 37a2
a
cos a p ) a 80:5
37a
Therefore,
G3m
Gm
cos80:5 0:013 2
37a2
a
G3m G3m
Gm
T
sin80:5 0:003 2
gy
36a2 37a2
a
grT
G3mr2
3
3cos2 y 1
26a
@c Gmr
3cos2 y 1
grT
3
@r 72a
1 @c
9 Gmr
gyT
cos y sin y
r @y 216 a3
Substituting at the Pole of planet B, r a and y 90, we have
Gm
grT 0:014 2
a
T
gy 0
97
Tides
2a
(3/2)a
(9/2)a
6a
3m
Fig. 55b
(b) First we calculate the centre of gravity of the system formed by the two planets
measured from the centre of planet A (Fig. 55b):
x
3m 0 m 6a 3
a
3m m
2
Gm3m
6a2
9
fC o2 r mo2 a
2
From this expression we obtain the value of the angular velocity o of the rotation system:
3Gm2
9
Gm
mo2 a ) o2
2
36a
2
54a3
Since the angular velocity of the spin of each planet is equal to that of the system, the spin
centrifugal force at the equator of planet A is
fC o 2 r
Gm
Gm
2a
3
54a
27a2
2Gmr 2Gm2a
3 3
R3
6 a
98
Gravity
2
Gm
fT
54a2
If we repeat these calculations for planet B, we obtain
Gm
Gm
a
3
54a
54a2
2G3ma
Gm
fT 3 3
6a
36a2
fC o 2 r
Gm
fT
36a2
The ratio is larger for planet A, as expected owing to its larger radius.
56. Two planets of mass M and radius a are separated by a centre-to-centre distance
of 8a. The planets spin on their own axes with an angular velocity such that the value
of the centrifugal force at the equator is equal to the maximum of the tidal force (the
equatorial plane is the plane in which the system formed by the two planets rotates
around an axis normal to that plane).
(a) Calculate the value of the components of the vector g as multiples of GM/a2 for a
point of l' 60 and w 45 (with l 0, being the meridian in front of the other
planet) including all the forces that act.
(b) What is the relationship between the angular velocity of each planet and that of
the system?
(a) The tidal potential is given by
c
GMr2
3cos2 # 1
3
2R
where R is the centre-to-centre distance between the planets, and # the angle formed by the
vector r to a point and R (Fig. 56a). From this potential we calculate the radial component
of the tidal force:
@c
@ GMr2
GMr
2
3cos
#
1
frT
3 3cos2 # 1
3
@r @r 2R
R
At the equator of one planet # 0, r a, and R 8a, so
frT
GMa
8a
GM
256a2
99
Tides
w
gr
g
g
a
x
R
M
Fig. 56a
GM 1 2 2 2
GMr2
o r cos
3cos2 # 1
3
r
2
2R
GM 1 2 2 2
GMr2
o r cos
3cos2 cos2 l 1
3
r
2
2R
100
Gravity
j
j
a
Fig. 56b
45 ;
GM
GM
1 GMa
11
GM
3
gr 2
a
1 0:9993 2
3
3
a
256a
2 8a
24
a
GM
1 1
GMa 1 1 1
GM
g
a p p
3 p p 0:0027 2
256a3
a
2 2 8a3 4 2 2
p p
GMa
GM
21 3
3
gl
0:0018 2
a
8a3 2 2 2
(b) To obtain the angular velocity of the rotation of the system (O) we take into account
that the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the system at the equatorial plane is
equal to the gravitational attraction between the two planets:
M
2 p G
MM
8a2
where p is the distance from the centre of one planet to the centre of gravity of the system.
Then we nd
M
2 4a G
and nally O o.
MM
8a2
)
2
GM
GM
4 64a3 256a3
101
Tides
57. Consider two planets of equal mass m and radius a separated by a centre-to-centre
distance of 8a. Only gravitational forces act.
(a) Calculate the tidal force at the equator on one of the planets directly, using the
formula of the tidal potential (do so at l 0, i.e. the point in front of the other
planet). Express the result in mGal given that Gm/a2 980 000 mGal.
(b) Compare and comment on the reason for the difference between the results of the
direct calculation and using the tidal potential.
(c) What relationship must there be between the angular velocities of the planets
spin and of the systems rotation for the centrifugal force due to the planets spin
to be equal to the tidal force at the equator and l 0?
(a) The exact calculation of the tidal force at a point located at the equatorial plane in
front of the other planet is (Fig. 57)
Gm
Gm
Gm 1
1
fT
2
46 875 gu
a
49 64
7a2 8a2
Using the tidal potential
c
Gmr2
2 R
3cos2 # 1
where R is the centre-to-centre distance between the planets (8a), r the radius to the point
where the tide is evaluated (a), and # the angle between r and R (at the equator in front of
the other planet # 0), the radial component of the tidal force can be derived from the
potential. At the equator this is the total tidal force
!
@c
@ Gmr2
2Gma
2
T
3cos # 1
2 38 281 gu
fr
@r @r 28a3
2512a3
(b) The difference between the value obtained by the exact calculation and by using
the tidal potential is 8594 gu, that is, 18%. This is explained because the tidal
a
x
x
8a
m
Fig. 57
102
Gravity
Gm 1
1
fT 2
a
49 64
If the spin angular velocity is op, the spin centrifugal force at the equator is given by
fC o2p a
Equating these two expressions we obtain
Gm 1
1
Gm 1
1
) o2p 3
fC fT ) o2p a 2
a
49 64
a
49 64
57:1
The centrifugal force due the rotation of the system with angular velocity os is equal to the
gravitational attraction between the two planets:
mo2s 4a
Gm
Gm2
) o2s
2
64a
256a3
57:2
From (57.1) and (57.2) we obtain the relation between the two angular velocities:
Gm 1
1
o2p
op
a3 49 64
1:22 )
1:10
Gm
o2s
os
256a3
58. Two planets of equal mass m and radius a are separated by a distance R. The spin
angular velocity of each planet is such that the centrifugal force at the equator is
equal to the maximum of the tidal force. If the sum of the two forces at the equator
cancels the gravitational force, what is the distance R?
The tidal potential is given by
c
Gmr2 1
3cos2 # 1
3
R 2
where R is the centre-to-centre distance between the planets, r the radius to the point where
the tide is evaluated, and # the angle between r and R. The maximum value is at a point at
the equator in front of the other planet, # 0 and r a. Then
fT
2Gma
@c Gmr
3 3cos2 # 1
@r
R
R3
58:1
58:2
103
Tides
2Gma
2Gm
o2 a ) o2 3
3
R
R
If, at the point considered, the sum of the spin centrifugal force and the tidal force cancel
the gravitational force of the planet, then
F fC fT 0
where F Gm/a2.
The value of R must be
p
4Gma Gm
3
2 ) R 4a
3
R
a
59. Two spherical planets A and B of radii 2a and a and masses 5M and M spin on
their axes with equal angular velocities. They are separated by a centre-to-centre
distance of 8a, and form a system that rotates in the equatorial plane of both planets
with an angular velocity that is equal to that of the spin angular velocity of each one.
(a) Determine the total potential for points on planet A.
(b) Determine the expression for the three components of the total gravity, including
the tide, for a point on the surface of planet A at longitude 0.
(c) If the Love number h on planet A is 0.5, determine the height of the terrestrial tide
as a multiple of a at the equator, at local noon with respect to planet B, in the case
that the systems rotational angular velocity is the same as that of the spin of the
two planets about their axes.
(a) We calculate the centre of gravity of the system, measured from the centre of planet
A (Fig. 59a):
X
5M 0 M 8a 4
a
5M M
3
A
B
2a
(4/3)a
x
8a
5M
Fig. 59a
104
Gravity
j
2a
Fig. 59b
The total potential U at a point on the surface of planet A at latitude is given by the sum
of the gravitational potential V, plus the spin potential , plus the tidal potential c
produced by planet B:
U V Fc
U
5GM 1 2 2 2
GMr2
o r cos
3cos2 # 1
3
r
2
8a 2
59:1
5GM 1 2 2 2
GMr2
o r cos
3cos2 cos2 t 1
3
r
2
28a
@U
5GM
GMr
2 o2 rcos2
3cos2 cos2 t 1
3
@r
r
8a
gy
gl
1 @U
GMr
o2 r cos sin
3 cos sin cos2 t
r @
8a3
1 @U
GMr
105
Tides
c
g
2GM 2a2
28a3
GM
128a
If we approximate g by gr
5GM
GM 2a
5GM
GM
o2 2a
2
o2 2a
3
2
2
4a2
4a
128a
8a
159GM
2o2 a
128a2
gr
B
2 159MG
2
2ao
128a2
59:2
We know that the angular velocity of the rotation of the system is equal to the spin angular
velocity of both planets, so the spin angular velocity is given by
4
G5M 2
3GM
) o2
5M o2 a
2
3
256a2
8a
By substitution in (59.2)
GM
1
a
128a
B
3GM
2 159MG
312
2a
128a2
256a2
60. The Earth is formed by a sphere of radius a and density r, and a core of radius a/2
and density 2r, in the northern hemisphere, centred on the axis of rotation and
106
Gravity
tangent to the equatorial plane. The Moon has mass M/4 (where M (4/3)pra3), is at
a distance (centre-to-centre) of 4a, and orbits in the equatorial plane. Determine:
(a) The total potential and the components of gravity including the tidal forces.
(b) The total deviation of the vertical from the radial at lunar noon, and the deviation
due to the tide at the same hour for latitude 45 N, with m 1/8.
(a) The total potential U is equal to the gravitational potential of the planet V1 with
uniform density plus that of the core V2 using the differential mass, the spin
potential F, and the tidal potential c. The gravitational potentials are given by
(Fig. 60):
GM
r
GM 0
V2
q
V1
1
F o2 r2 sin2 y
2
and the total potential is
"
!
#
r 3 m
GM
1
a
a2 1
2
2
1
1 cos y
3cos y 1
sin y c
U
r
8
2r
a 2
2r2 2
w
2r
a/2
q r
j
4a
t 180
r
Fig. 60
107
Tides
where m o2 a3/GM.
The tidal potential c due to the Moon is given by
c
According to Fig. 60
GML r2
3cos2 # 1
2R3
60:1
GMr2
3cos2 cos2 t 180 1
3
512a
5
a
a2
sin
3 sin2 1
8r 16r2
64r3
r2 m 2
r2
2
2
3 cos
3 cos cos t 1
a 2
512a3
The components of gravity are found by taking the derivatives of U with respect to r and :
5
2a
3a2
sin
3 sin2 1
gr GM 2
3
4
8r
16r
64r
r
2r
2
2
3
cos
cos
3 m cos2
t
1
a
512a3
1 @U
r @
GM
a
a2
cos
6 cos sin
2
r
16r
64r3
r2 m
r2
2
6
sin
cos
cos
t
3 2 sin cos
a 2
512a3
gy
GM
a2
gy 0:023
GM
a2
(b) The deviation of the vertical with respect to the radial direction at 12 h lunar time is
given by
tan i
gy
0:020 ) i 1:2
gr
108
Gravity
gyM
1 1 @c 1 GMr2
gr r @ gr r512a3
gr
3
Gm
3mo2 a ) o2
3
2
54a
6a
2
The tidal force (radial component) can be calculated from the tidal potential
c
GMr2
@c GMr
3 3cos2 # 1
3cos2 # 1 ) frT
3
@r
R
2R
where R is the centre-to-centre distance between the planets. For a point on the equator in
front of the other planet, # 0, and
frT
2GMr
6a3
2Gm2a
Gm
Planet A : frT
0:018 2
216a3
a
2G3ma
Gm
T
0:028 2
Planet B : fr
216a3
a
Gravity without tides is the sum of the gravitational and centrifugal forces:
g
Gm
o2 r
r2
G3m
3Gm Gm
Gm
o2 2a
2a 0:71 2
4a2
4a2
54a3
a
Gm
Gm Gm
Gm
2
a 0:98 2
Planet B : g 2 o a 2
a
a
54a3
a
Planet A : g
109
Tides
2a
(3/2)a
(9/2)a
x
6a
3m
Fig. 61
g
0:71
39:44
T
fr
0:018
Planet B :
g
0:98
35:00
T
fr
0:028
62. The Earth is of radius a and density r, with a core of radius a/2 and density 3r
on the axis of rotation in the southern hemisphere tangent to the equatorial
plane. The Moon has mass M/2 and its centre is at 4a from the centre of the Earth
(M 4/3pra3).
(a) Write down the total potential.
(b) What is the value of the angular velocity of the Earth if at the point 30 N, 30 E at
06:00 lunar time the radial component of gravity is equal to GM/a2?
(c) In this case, what is the ratio between the angular velocity of the Earths rotation
and that of the system?
(a) As in previous problems the total potential U is given by
U V1 V2 F c
The differential mass of the core is:
M1
4p
a3 M
3r r
3
8
4
110
Gravity
90 q
4a
t
a/2 x
3r
Fig. 62
Using the approximation for 1/q, where q is the distance from a point on the surface of the
Earth to the centre of the core, the gravitational potential due to the core is
GM GM 1
a
a2
V2
2 cos y 3 3cos2 y 1
4q
4 r 2r
8r
The potential due to the spin of the Earth is given by
1
GM m
F o2 r2 sin2 y 3 r2 sin2 y
2
a
2
where
m
o2 a3
GM
GMr2
GM r2 1
2
3cos
#
1
3sin2 ycos2 t 1
3
3
2 64a 2
256a
@U
@r
5
2a
3a2
GM 2 3 cos y
3 cos2 y 1
4r
8r
32r4
rm sin2 y
2r
2
2
3 sin y cos t 1
a3
256a3
111
Tides
GM
a2
141
3
1
GM
m
2
128
4 128
a
M
r
8a
T 1
L 2
r0
2
5
1
MT ML
7
M
4 2
where the mass of the Earth MT includes that of the core,
MT M
M
M
and ML
4
2
MT ML
r2
M
M 2
8
8
G
O 4 a;
16a2
2
7
r
GM 7
so O
a3 256
Then, the ratio between the angular velocities of the spin of the Earth and of the system is:
r
2:81GM
o
a3
r 10:14
7GM
256a3
63. Consider two planets of equal mass m and radius a separated by a centre-tocentre distance of 8a. The planets revolve around their centre of mass and
spin around their own axes. Their spin angular velocity is such that the value
of the centrifugal force is equal to the maximum tidal force of the two at the
equator.
112
Gravity
(a) Calculate, for a point on the equator of one of the planets and longitude l 90, the
value of the vector g including all the forces acting at that point (l 0 corresponds
to the point on the line joining the two centres of the planets) at t 0.
(b) What is the deviation of the vertical from the radial at the point w 45, l 0?
(a) If o is the spin angular velocity of the two planets, the centrifugal force at the
equator y 90 , r a, only has radial component:
frC o2 a
63:1
The radial component of the tidal force can be obtained from the tidal potential c which, in
the rst-order approximation, is given by (Fig. 63)
c
Gmr2
3cos2 # 1
3
2R
Gmr2
3cos2 t l 1
2R3
3cos
t
l
1
3 3cos2 t l 1
3
@r @r 2R
R
8a
x
m
Fig. 63
90
x
m
113
Tides
Gma
8a
Gm
256a2
63:2
Then, as the centrifugal force is equal to the tidal force, we put (63.1) equal to (63.2) and
solve for o:
o2 a
Gm
Gm
) o2
256a2
256a3
63:3
Gm
256a3
Gm 1 2 2 2
Gmr2
o r sin y
3sin2 ycos2 l 1
3
r
2
28a
@U
Gm
Gmr
2 o2 rsin2 y
3sin2 ycos2 l 1
3
@r
r
8a
1 @U
Gmr
o2 r sin y cos y
3 sin y cos ycos2 l
r @y
8a3
1 @U
Gmr
3 sin y cos l sin l
r sin y @l
8a3
Gm
Gm
o2 a
a2
512a2
gy 0
gl 0
(b) By substitution of r a, l 0, and y 45 in (63.4) we obtain
Gm
1
Gm 3
gr 2 o2 a
1
a
2 512a2 2
Gm
Gm 1
Gm 1
1021 Gm
2
2
2
a
256a 2 512a 2
1024 a2
1
Gm
3
Gm
1
Gm
3
5 Gm
gy o 2 a
2
2
2
2 512a 2 256a 2 512a 2 1024 a2
gl 0
63:4
114
Gravity
gy
0:28
gr
64. Two spherical planets of radii 2a and a and masses 8M and M separated by a
centre-to-centre distance of 4a spin on their own axes and rotate in the equatorial
plane with the same angular velocity.
(a) Determine all the forces acting at a point on the smaller planet at geocentric
coordinates w 60 N, l 0 (00:00 h local time corresponds to passage of the
other planet through the zero meridian).
(b) For this same point, calculate the astronomical latitude and the tidal deviation of
the vertical.
(a) First we determine the centre of gravity of the system, putting the origin at the
centre of the small planet (Fig. 64):
x
0 M 4a 8M 32a
9M
9
Because the spin angular velocity of each planet is equal to the angular velocity of the
system (o O), we can write, for the small planet, putting the gravitational attraction of
the two planets equal to the centripetal force:
G8MM
4a
M o2
32a
9
9GM
64a3
q r
a
x
x
4a
Fig. 64
8M
2a
115
Tides
GM
r2
gy 0
and the force due to its spin is
fr o2 rsin2 y
fy o2 r cos y sin y
For the point under consideration, r a, y 30, we obtain
Gm 9 GM 1
247GM
2
2
2
a
64
p a 4
p256a
3 GM 9 3
9 GM
2
a
4
64 a3
a 256
grGC
gyGC
To add the tidal force we use the tidal potential in the rst-order approximation,
c
G8Mr2
3cos2 # 1
3
2R
frT
The total force acting at the point is the sum of the three forces, gravitational, centrifugal,
and tidal:
255GM
2
256a
p
GM 12 3
2
a 256
grtotal
gytotal
116
Gravity
fyT
grtotal
tan i0
p
3 3
32 0:163 ) i0 9:3
255
256
Gravity observations
65. Determine the values of gravity at the following series of points belonging to a
gravimetric survey with a Worden gravimeter, specifying the drift correction for each
of them.
Station
Time
Reading
A (base)
B
C
D
A
08:30
09:21
11:34
13:20
14:20
562.5
400.7
437.9
360.1
568.8
LAe LAb
tAe tAb
where LAb and LAe are the readings at the base A at the beginning and end of the
measurements taken at times tAb and tAe, respectively. By substitution we obtain
d
568:8 562:5
1:08 ru=hour
14:33 8:50
117
Gravity observations
Station
Corrected reading
D g (mGal)
g (mGal)
A (base)
B
C
D
A
562.5
399.8
434.6
354.9
562.5
49.10
10.50
24.05
62.66
980
980
980
980
980
139.82
090.72
101.22
077.17
139.83
g g
A
B
hBA 82:661 59 gpu
2
where gravity is given in Gal and increments in height in km, because the geopotential
units are, 1 gpu 1 kGal m 1 Gal km.
The dynamic height is given by
HDB
CB
84:294 m
g45
C
g 0:0424H
118
Gravity
Time
A (base)
B
C
A
1520.23
1759.15
1583.11
1521.30
8h
9h
9h
9h
50
15
35
50
m
m
m
m
Gravity (gu)
9 793 626.8
9 794 363.9
9 793 820.7
30.410
301.863
Calculate the gravimeter readings corrected for drift, and the gravimeter constant
The instrument drift is given by
d
LAe LAb
tAe tAb
where LAb and LAe are the readings at the base A at the beginning and end of the
measurements taken at times tAb and tAe, respectively. By substitution we obtain,
d 1:07 ru=hour
A reading corrected at station j is given by
Lcj Lj dtj tAb
where Lj is the reading at time tj.
For a Worden gravimeter the increment in gravity between two points (D g) is proportional to the increment in the readings corrected by the instrument drift (D Lc):
D g K DLc
where K is the instrument constant. Thus, K can be calculated in the form
K
g
Lc
From each pair of observations we obtain a value of K. Finally we take the arithmetic mean
(Km) from all the values obtained. The results are given in the following table.
Station
Gravity (mGal)
K (mGal/ru)
A (base)
B
C
A
1520.23
1758.70
1582.31
1520.23
979 362.68
979 436.39
979 382.07
0.3091
0.3079
Km 0.3085
119
Gravity observations
Station
Gravimeter reading
Time
A
B
C
A
3614.351
3650.242
3610.633
3614.414
10:10
10:25
10:37
11:02
The gravimeter scale factor is 1.000 65, and the equivalence between reading units
and the relative value of gravity in mGal is given by
Reading
Value in mGal
Interval factor
3600
3700
3846.02
3953.15
1.071 25
1.071 40
Given that the value of gravity at point A is 9.794 6312 m s2, calculate the values at
B and C.
First we correct the readings by the instrument drift:
d
LAe LAb
tAe tAb
where LAe and LAb are the readings at the base A at the end and the beginning of the survey
at times tAe and tAb. Then
d 0:0727 ru=hour
The corrected reading at each station j is given by
Lcj Lj dtj tAb
where Lj is the reading at time tj. The corrected readings are:
LcA 3614:351
LcB 3650:224
LcC 3610:600
These readings are converted into relative gravity values Rj using the conversion table.
The reading at station A is
LcA 3600 14:351
and the relative gravity value is
RA (3846.02 (14.351 1.07125)) 1.00065 3863.90 mGal
For stations B and C,
120
Gravity
Geomagnetism
Main eld
69. Assume that the geomagnetic eld of the Earth is a geocentric dipole with a North
Pole at 80 N, 45 E and a magnetic moment 8 1022 A m. Calculate for a point with
geographical coordinates 45 N, 30 W the components NS, EW, and Z of the Earths
magnetic eld, the declination and inclination, and the geomagnetic longitude.
Earths radius: 6370 km and the constant C 107 H m1 (this value is used in all
problems).
We calculate rst the geomagnetic latitude and longitude (f , l ) from the geographical
coordinates (f, l) of the point and the geographical coordinates of the geomagnetic North
Pole (fB, lB) by the equation
sin sin B sin cos B cos cosl lB
sin l
sinl lB cos
cos
69:1
122
Geomagnetism
In these equations B0 is the geomagnetic constant, m the magnetic moment of the dipole,
a the Earths radius, and the constant C 107 H m1.
In this case we are given that
m 8 1022 A m2
a 6370 km 6.37 106 m
By substitution in Equations (69.1) we obtain:
B0 30 951 nT
Z 45 051 nT
H 21 227 nT
The geomagnetic declination is given by
cos fB sinl lB
cos f
D 14:16
sin D
Cm
a3
Main eld
123
GMNP
GNP
P
x
f
fB
l=0
l
l
Fig. 70
124
Geomagnetism
For the point with geomagnetic latitude f 50 located in the Earths surface (r a),
y 90 f 40, so
a
r0 2 15 417km
sin y
71. Assume that the geomagnetic eld is produced by a geocentric dipole of magnetic
moment 7.5 1022A m, with North Pole at 75 N, 65 W, and that the Earths radius
is 6372 km. Calculate:
(a) The NS and EW components for a point on the Earths surface at which the
inclination is 67 and the geomagnetic longitude is 120 .
(b) The geographical coordinates of that point.
(c) The geomagnetic coordinates, eld components, declination, and inclination of the
point on the geographical equator of zero geomagnetic longitude.
(a) The geomagnetic latitude f is obtained from
tan I 2 tan f ) f 49:7
The horizontal component, H , can be calculated from the geomagnetic constant, B0, and
the geomagnetic latitude:
Cm
B0 3 28 989 nT
a
H B0 cos f 18 761 nT
To obtain the NS (X ) and EW (Y ) components it is necessary to calculate the declination (D )
from the spherical triangle with vertices at the Geographical North Pole (GNP), Geomagnetic
North Pole (GMNP), and the point P (Fig. 71a). But we need to calculate the geographic latitude
rstly by solving the spherical triangle. Applying the cosine law to the angle (90 f):
cos90 f cos90 fB cos90 f
sin90 fB sin90 f cos180 l
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cos l
71:1
)
sin
D
sin90 fB
cos f
sin90 f
71:2
Main eld
125
GNP
90 fB
l lB
180 l
90 f
GMNP
q = 90 f
Fig. 71a
71:3
71:4
126
Geomagnetism
GMNP
GNP
fB
P
f
x
Fig. 71b
f 90 fB 15:0
l 0
Z 2B0 sin f 15 006 nT
H B0 cos f 28 001 nT
D 0
X H
Y 0 nT
tan I 2 tan f ) I 28:2
72. Assume that the geomagnetic eld is that of a dipole with North Pole at 75 N, 0 E.
What is the conjugate point of that of geographical coordinates 30 N, 30 E?
First, we calculate the geomagnetic coordinates (f , l ) (Problem 71; Fig. 71a):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
sin l
72:1
sinl lB cos f
cos f
lB 0
l 30
Main eld
127
GMNP
GNP
fB
Px
f
f
P1
x
Fig. 72
128
Geomagnetism
cosl1 lB
l1 lB 47:3
and taking the solution in the correct quadrant
l1 > 0 ) l1 lB > 0
l1 47:3
73. Assume the centred dipole approximation, with the coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole being 65 N, 0 E, and the magnetic moment of the dipole 8 1022
A m. Calculate, for a point on the Earths surface at geographical coordinates 30 N,
30 E:
(a) The geographical coordinates of the conjugate point.
(b) The declination, inclination, and vertical and horizontal components of the eld
at both points. Compare and contrast the results.
Earths radius: 6370 km.
(a) First, we calculate the geomagnetic coordinates (f , l ) for point P with geographical coordinates f 30 N, l 30 E using the equations (Problem 71; Fig. 71a)
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
sin l
73:1
sinl lB cos f
cos f
lB 0
Main eld
129
To calculate the geographical longitude we apply the cosine law again and, solving for l1,
sin f1 sin fB sin f1
cos fB cos f1
l1 lB 77:1
l1 > 0 ) l1 lB > 0
cosl lB
l1 77:1
(b) First we calculate the geomagnetic constant B0
B0
Cm
8 1022
30 951 nT
a3
63793 109
P1
cos fB sinl lB
sin D
cos f
D 19.33
tan I 2 tan f ) I 67.5
Z 2B0 sinf 47 662 nT
H B0 cosf 19 750 nT
cos fB sinl1 lB
sin D1
cos f1
D1 40:2
tan I1 2 tan f1 ) I1 I1 67:5
Z1 2B0 sin f1 Z 47 662 nT
H1 B0 cos f1 H 19 750 nT
74. Assume the centred dipole approximation, with the coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole 78.5 N, 70.0 W, and the magnetic dipole moment being 8.25 1022
A m. Calculate, for a point on the surface with coordinates 60.0 S, 170.0 W:
(a) Its geomagnetic coordinates, declination, inclination, and vertical and horizontal
components of the eld.
(b) The potential at that point.
(c) The declination and inclination at the point diametrically opposite to it.
Earths radius: 6370 km.
(a) We calculate the geomagnetic coordinates (f , l ) using the equations (Problem 71,
Fig. 71a)
sin f cos y sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
sin l
74:1
sinl lB cos f
cos f
lB 70:0
l 170:0
130
Geomagnetism
176 T m
a2
a2
(c) We can observe in Fig. 74 that at the point diametrically opposite the geographical
and geomagnetic coordinates are
f1 f 60:0 N
l1 l 180 10:0 E
f1 f 60:0
l1 l 180 100:0
The geomagnetic declination at that point satises (Fig. 71a)
cos fB sinl1 lB cos fB sinl 180 lB
cos f1
cos f
cos fB sinl lB
sin D
cos f
sin D1
Main eld
131
GNP
GMNP
fB
P1
f1
f
l
P
Fig. 74
Cm
30 177 nT
a3
Y 5036
) D 10:5
X 27 050
132
Geomagnetism
The geomagnetic latitude f is calculated from the horizontal component H :
p q
H X 2 Y 2 270502 50362 27 515 nT
H B0 cos f ) f
H
24:3
B0
We then have two solutions for the geomagnetic latitude. To choose the correct one we bear
in mind that a negative value of the geomagnetic inclination implies a negative value of the
geomagnetic latitude:
tan I 2 tan f
I < 0 ) f < 0
f 24:3
With these results we calculate the geographical coordinates of the Geomagnetic North
Pole (fB, lB) using the spherical triangle in Fig. 71a. Applying the cosine rule for the angle
90 fB:
cos90 fB cos90 f cos90 f sin90 f sin90 f cos D
sin fB sin f sin f cos f cos f cos D
fB 79:0
To calculate the longitude lB of the Geomagnetic North Pole, we apply the cosine law for
the angle 90 f :
cos90 f cos90 fB cos90 f sin90 fB sin90 f cosl lB
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
cosl lB
To choose the correct sign for the longitude we notice that the declination is negative and
then the point must be to the east of the Geomagnetic North Pole:
D < 0 ) l lB > 0
lB 61 10 71:0 W
(b) The geomagnetic coordinates (f1 , l1 ) of Ps conjugate point verify that
f1 f 24:3
l1 l
We calculate the geomagnetic longitude l by
sinl lB cos f
cos f
l 56:2 l1
sin l
Main eld
133
76. At a point P on the Earths surface with coordinates 45 N, 30 W, the value of the
total geomagnetic eld is 49 801 nT, the horizontal component is 21 227 nT, and the
EW component is 5171 nT, with the magnetic inclination being positive. Calculate:
(a) The geographical coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole.
(b) The value of the geomagnetic potential at P.
(c) The distance from the Earths centre to the point at which the line of force passing
through P intersects the geomagnetic equator.
Earths radius: 6370 km.
(a) We calculate rst the geomagnetic inclination, latitude, and declination by
cos I
H
) I 64:8
F
Y
) D 14:1
H
With these results we calculate the geographical coordinates of the Geomagnetic North
Pole solving the spherical triangle (Fig. 71a) in the same way as in Problem 71:
sin fB sin f sin f cos f cos f cos D
fB 80:0
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
sin f sin fB sin f
cos fB cos f
l lB 75:2
D > 0 ) l lB < 0
cosl lB
lB 45:2 E
(b) The geomagnetic potential at point P on the Earths surface (r a 6370 km) is given by
F
Cm cos y
B0 a sin f
a2
76:1
21 227
30 951 nT
cos46:7
134
Geomagnetism
In this equation r0 is the distance from the Earths centre to the point at which the line of
force passing through P intersects the geomagnetic equator. Substituting r a 6370 km
gives
r0
a
a
13 543 km
2
sin y cos2 f
77. Assume the centred dipole approximation, with the coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole being 75 N, 65 W, and the magnetic moment of the dipole
7.5 1022 A m2. For a point on the Earths surface at which the inclination is 67 and
the geomagnetic longitude is 120 , calculate:
(a) The NS and EW components.
(b) Its geographical coordinates.
The Earths radius: 6372 km.
(a) We calculate rst the geomagnetic constant B0, latitude f , and horizontal H
component:
B0
Cm
28 989 nT
a3
cos fB sin l
cos f
D 23:1
From this value we obtain the NS and EW components:
X H cos D 17 262 nT
Y H sin D 7349 nT
(b) The geographic latitude was already obtained,
f 55:1
Main eld
135
To calculate the geographical longitude we apply the cosine law for the angle 90 f
(Fig. 71a):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
cosl lB
l lB 101:7
To choose the correct solution we notice that the declination is positive and then the point
must be to the west of the Geomagnetic North Pole
D > 0 ) l lB < 0
l 101:7 65 166:7 W
78. Assume a spherical Earth of radius 6370 km, with magnetic eld produced by a
centred dipole whose northern magnetic pole is at 70 N, 60 W. Given that for a point
on the surface with coordinates 50 S, 80 W the horizontal component is 24 890 nT,
calculate:
(a) The magnetic dipole moment.
(b) The geographical coordinates of the conjugate point.
(a) We calculate rst the geomagnetic latitude by (Fig. 71a)
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 30:9
To obtain the magnetic dipole moment m we need the geomagnetic constant B0, which is
related with the horizontal component H by
B0
H
29 007 nT
cos f
B0
Cm
B0 a3
7:5 1022 A m2
)m
3
a
C
(b) Let us obtain rst the geomagnetic longitude by (Problem 71, Fig. 71a)
sin l
sinl lB cos f
cos f
l 14:8
The geomagnetic coordinates of the conjugate point (f1 , l1 ) are (Fig. 78)
f1 f 30:9
l1 l 14:8
136
Geomagnetism
GNP
GMNP
fB
P1
f1
Fig. 78
Solving again the spherical triangle (Fig. 71a) we calculate the geographical coordinates
(f1, l1):
sin f1 sin fB sin f1 cos fB cos f1 cos l1
f1 11:4
cosl lB
l1 lB 13:0
l < 0 ) l1 lB < 0
l1 73:0
79. If the Earths geomagnetic eld is produced by a centred dipole, tilted 15 away
from the axis of rotation, of magnetic moment 7.6 1022 A m2, and the Geomagnetic
North Pole is at longitude 65 W, calculate:
(a) The geomagnetic constant in nT.
(b) The geographical coordinates of a point on the Earths surface at which the
declination is D 14 15.50 and the inclination is I 65 23.50 . Discuss the
possible solutions.
(c) The geographical and geomagnetic longitude of the agonic line.
Assume a spherical Earth of radius 6370 km.
Main eld
137
(a) We calculate the geomagnetic constant from the magnetic moment m, the Earths
radius a, and the constant C107 H m1, by
B0
Cm
29 403 nT
a3
(b) Let us obtain rst the geomagnetic latitude from the inclination I by
tan I 2 tan f ) f 47:5
If the dipole is tilted 15 away from the axis of rotation the latitude of the Geomagnetic
North Pole will be
fB 90 15 75:0
With these results we calculate the geographical latitude f solving the spherical triangle
(Fig. 71a). Applying the cosine rule,
cos90 fB cos90 f cos90 f sin90 f sin90 f cos D
sin fB sin f sin f cos f cos f cos D
79:1
To obtain the geographical latitude from this equation we can carry out a change of
variables, introducing two new variables (m, N ) such that
sin f m cos N
cos f cos D m sin N
79:2
) N 41:6
sin f
tan f
cos N
P
1:02
sin f
tan N
sinf N
m
sin f
f N 78:4 ) f 36:8
But another solution is also possible:
f N 180 78:4 258:4 ) f 60:0
The two solutions are correct and we dont have any additional information to choose one
or the other.
(c) The agonic line is the line where the declination is zero and this implies that the
point is on the great circle that contains the Geographic North Pole and the
Geomagnetic North Pole. So the geomagnetic longitude l is zero or 180:
l 0 ) l lB 65 W
l 180 ) l lB 180 115 E
138
Geomagnetism
80. The Earths magnetic eld is produced by two dipoles of equal moment
(M Cm 9.43 109 nT m3) and polarity, forming angles of 30 and 45 with the
axis of rotation, and contained in the plane corresponding to the 0 meridian. Find
the potential of the total eld and the coordinates of the resulting magnetic North
pole, taking the Earths radius to be 6000 km.
The total potential at a point is the sum of the potentials of the two dipoles. If M is the
magnetic moment (M Cm), r is the distance from the dipoles centre, and y1 and y2
are the geomagnetic co-latitude relative to each dipole (Fig. 80), the total potential F is
given by
F F1 F2
r2
r2
r2
80:1
45
GNP
30
GMNP1
GMNP2
q2
q1
Fig. 80
80:2
Main eld
139
Z
H
r sin # @l
2r3
p
2
2
H X Y
Since the magnetic North Pole is contained in the plane corresponding to the 0 geographical meridian, then its longitude is either 0 or 180.
If the longitude is 0
i
p
M h p p
l 0 ) H 3 3 2 sin # 1 2 cos # 0
2r
# 8 172
But this result doesnt correspond to the north hemisphere. Then we must take the
geographical longitude 180:
i
p
M h p p
l 180 ) H 3 3 2 sin # 1 2 cos # 0
2r
# 8 ) fB 82
140
Geomagnetism
This is the correct result and the coordinates of the magnetic North Pole are
fB 82 ; lB 180
81. The Earths magnetic eld is produced by one dipole in the direction of the axis
of rotation (negative pole in the northern hemisphere) and another with the same
moment in the equatorial plane which rotates with differential angular velocity v
with respect to the points on the surface of the Earth (consider that the Earth doesnt
rotate). Its negative pole passes through the 45 E meridian at time t 0 and
completes a rotation with respect to that point in 24 hours. Consider a point of
geographical coordinates 45 N, 45 E.
(a) Calculate the magnetic eld components (Br, Bu, Bl) at that point.
(b) Illustrate graphically how each of them varies with local time.
(a) The total potential at a point on the surface of the Earth is the sum of the potentials
of the two dipoles (Problem 80, Equation 80.1):
F F1 F2
r2
r2
r2
Dipole 1 is in the direction of the axis of rotation and so the geomagnetic co-latitude of the
point with respect to this dipole (Fig. 81a) is equal to the geographical co-latitude,
y1 90 f
cos y1 sin f
GMNP1
GNP
q1
P
q2
f
GMNP2
Fig. 81a
Main eld
141
Dipole 2 is on the equatorial plane (fB2 0) and rotates with respect to the points of
the surface. Owing to this rotation its geographical longitude lB2 changes with time t in
the form
lB2 ot 45
where o is the angular velocity, o 360 /T, T being the rotation period of 24 h.
The co-latitude y2 is
cos y2 sin fB2 sin f cos fB2 cos f cosl lB2
Substituting the geographical coordinates of the negative geomagnetic equatorial Pole
(fB2, lB2):
cos y2 cos cosl ot 45
Substituting in the equation for the potential
F F1 F2
We obtain the magnetic eld components (Br , By, Bl) at the point (#, l) by taking the
gradient in spherical coordinates of the potential F:
Br
@r
r3
B#
r@#
r3
Bl
1 @F
M sinl ot 45
r sin # @l
r3
B0
B# p 1 cos ot
2
Bl B0 sin ot
(b) The variation of each component with local time is shown in Fig. 81b
142
Geomagnetism
Bl
Br,q,l
B0
Br
1
B
10
15
20
t (h)
Fig. 81b
Magnetic anomalies
82. Calculate the magnetic anomaly created by a magnetic dipole buried at depth d,
arbitrarily oriented, at an angle to the vertical of a. The negative pole is upwards.
Consider a point P with coordinates (x, z), where x is measured along the horizontal from
the projection of the centre of the dipole and z is the vertical from the reference level (the
Earths surface). The position vector r forms an angle b to the vertical (Fig. 82). The
anomalous magnetic potential created by the dipole for this point is
F
r2
r2
82:1
143
Magnetic anomalies
x
z
d
b
+
Z
Fig. 82
d
cos
a
3z
d
cos
a
x
sin
a
@F
Z
h
i5=2
@z
x2 z d2
For points on the Earths surface (z 0)
Z
82:2
The component of the magnetic anomaly in an arbitrary horizontal direction x for the
Earths surface points (z 0) is given by
X
@x
x2 d 2 5=2
82:3
144
Geomagnetism
d 2 5=2
Cm
d3
Substituting
Cm 5 105 T m3
d 10 m
we obtain
Y 50 nT
jBj Y 50 nT
X 0
P
a
+
Fig. 83a
145
Magnetic anomalies
GMNP
GNP
fB
P
f
f
Fig. 83b
To calculate the components of the magnetic anomaly in the direction of the Earths
magnetic eld, F, and their horizontal component, H, we need to determine the magnetic
declination and inclination at the point:
H X cos D Y sin D
F H cos I Z sin I
83:1
Because the point has the same longitude as the Geomagnetic North Pole (Fig. 83b),
f 90 fB f 56:0
D 0
The inclination is given by
tan I 2 tan f ) I 71:4
Substituting these values in Equations (83.1) we obtain
H 0
F 0
The total value of the eld in the NS, EW, and vertical directions, and total eld F are
XT X X
YT Y Y
ZT Z Z
FT F F
146
Geomagnetism
The vertical Z and horizontal H components of the geomagnetic eld are given by
Z 2B0 sin f 53 058 nT
H B0 cos f 17 894 nT
The NS (X ) and horizontal EW (Y ) components of the geomagnetic eld and its
magnitude F are given by
X H cos D H 17 894 nT
Y H sin D 0
p
F H 2 Z 2 55 994 nT
XT 17 894 nT
YT 50 nT
ZT 53 058 nT
FT 55 994 nT
The variations in magnetic declination and inclination due to the presence of the buried
dipole are
YT
) D0 0:02
tan D0
XT
D D0 0:02
tan I 0
ZT
) I 0
71:4 I
HT
84. Buried at a point with magnetic latitude 30 N and a depth of 50 m is a horizontal
magnetic dipole with Cm 107 nT m3 with the positive pole to the geographical
north.
(a) Calculate DF if B0 30 000 nT and the declination at that point is 15 . Find the
ratio DF /F.
(b) How far from the dipoles centre along the northsouth line will the dipole eld
strength be in the same direction as that of the Earth (take D 0 ).
(a) The component of the magnetic anomaly DF in the direction of the Earths
magnetic eld (the total eld anomaly) is given by
F H cos I Z sin I
84:1
We rst calculate the components in the geographical directions of the magnetic anomaly
produced by the buried dipole using Equations (82.2) and (82.3) of Problem 82, substituting a 90 because the dipole is horizontal, and x 0 because the dipoles centre is
beneath the point. In this problem DY 0 because the dipole is on the geographical north
south vertical plane (Fig. 84). Then
147
Magnetic anomalies
a
+
Fig. 84
X
Cm
d3
Y 0
Z 0
Substituting the values
Cm 107 nT m3
d 50 m
we obtain
X 80 nT
Substituting D 15, the component of the magnetic anomaly in the direction of the
horizontal component H of the Earths magnetic eld is
H X cos D 77 nT
At a point of magnetic latitude f 30 the magnetic inclination is
tan I 2 tan f ) I 49:1
Substituting in Equation (84.1), the total eld anomaly is
F 50 nT
To calculate the geomagnetic eld F we rst obtain the components H and Z :
Z 2B0 sin f 30 000 nT
H B0 cos f 25 981 nT
p
F H 2 Z 2 39 686 nT
148
Geomagnetism
The ratio of the total eld anomaly and the Earths total magnetic eld is
F
1:26 103
F
(b) If the dipole eld strength is in the same direction as that of the Earth then the
inclination I 0 due to the dipole is equal to that of the Earths eld I , where
Z
H
Z
tan I
H
tan I 0
Assuming D 0, then
H E
If we substitute in Equations (82.2) and (82.3) of Problem 82, the angle a 90 because
the dipole is horizontal, we obtain
3Cmdx
Z
5=2
2
x d2
Cm2x2 d 2
X
5=2
x2 d 2
We have changed the sign of the vertical component because the negative pole is toward
the south.
Applying the condition, tan I 0 tan I , we obtain
Z
Z
Z
H X H
3Cmdx
5=2
2
x d2
3dx
Z
2
Cm 2x d 2 2x2 d 2 H
5=2
x2 d 2
2Z x2 3dH x Z d 2 0
Substituting the values
d 50 m
Z 30 000 nT
H 25 981 nT
and solving the equation, we obtain
x1 80 m
x2 15 m
We have two solutions: a point 80 m to the north from the surface projection of the dipoles
centre and another 15 m to the south.
149
Magnetic anomalies
85. Located at a point with geocentric geographical coordinates 45 N, 30 W, at a
depth of 100 m, is a dipole of magnetic moment Cm 1 T m3, tilted 45 from the
horizontal to true north, with the negative pole to the north and downwards. At this
point on the surface, the following magnetic eld values were observed (in nT):
F 55 101; H 12 413; DF 1268; DH 547.
Determine:
(a) At the indicated point, the main eld components X , Y , Z .
(b) At the indicated point, the deviation of the compass with respect to geomagnetic
north.
(c) The geocentric geographical coordinates of the North Pole of the Earths dipole.
Precision 1 nT.
(a) We calculate rst the magnetic anomaly produced by the dipole, applying Equations (82.2) and (82.3) of Problem 82, substituting a 225 and x 0. The
horizontal component is in the NS direction (DX) (Fig. 85a)
2Cm cos a
1414 nT
d3
Cm sin a
X
707 nT
d3
Y 0
Z
85:1
H
X
D 39:3
d
+
a
45
Fig. 85a
150
Geomagnetism
To obtain the Earths main eld we eliminate the buried dipole contribution from the
observed values:
F F F 56 369 nT
H H H 11 866 nT
q
Z F 2 H 2 55 106 nT
X H cos D 9182 nT
Y H sin D 7516 nT
(b) The observed declination is given by
tan D0
Y
Y Y
) D0 37:2
X X X
The deviation of the compass due to the buried dipole with respect to geomagnetic north is
D0 D 2:1
(c) We calculate rst the geomagnetic latitude of the point from the vertical and
horizontal components:
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
Z
2H
f 66:7
tan f
With this value, the declination D and the geographical coordinates of the point (f, l), we
can solve the spherical triangle (Fig. 85b) and obtain the geographical coordinates of the
Geomagnetic North Pole:
GNP
90 fB
l lB
90 f
180 l
GMNP
q = 90 f
Fig. 85b
151
Magnetic anomalies
cosl lB
The correct solution is the negative one because a positive value of the declination implies
that the point is to the west of the Geomagnetic North Pole:
D > 0 ) l lB < 0
lB 0
86. Located at a point with geographical coordinates 45 N, 30 W, at a depth of 100 m,
is a dipole of magnetic moment Cm 1 T m3, inclined 45 to the vertical towards the
south, with the positive pole upwards, and in the geographical northsouth vertical
plane. The Earths dipole has its north pole at 60 N, 0 E and B0 30 000 nT.
Calculate:
(a) The values of Z, H, F at the given point.
(b) Where does the compass point to at that same point?
(a) We calculate rst the geomagnetic latitude corresponding to the point by
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 66:7
From this value we obtain the geomagnetic components Z , H and the total main eld F :
Z 2B0 sin f 55 107 nT
H B0 cos f 11 866 nT
q
F H 2 Z 2 56 370 nT
cos fB sinl lB
cos f
D 39:2
sin D
152
Geomagnetism
The magnetic anomaly created by the dipole buried at depth d is given by Equations (85.1)
of Problem 85. Substituting Cm 1 T m3, d 100 m, and a 45, we obtain
2Cm cos a
1414 nT
d3
Cm sin a
X
707 nT
d3
Z
Y 0
The eld anomalies DH and DF are given by
H X cos D 548 nT
F H cos I Z sin I 1266 nT
Finally, the observed values are
Z Z Z 53 693 nT
F F F 55 104 nT
H H H 12 414 nT
(b) To calculate in what direction the compass points we need the value of the observed
declination D including the effects of the geomagnetic eld and the buried dipole:
tan D0
Y
Y Y
X X X
Y H sin D 7500 nT
X H cos D 9195 nT
D0 37:1
87. Located at a point on the Earth with geographical coordinates 45 N, 30 E, at a
depth of 100 m, is a dipole of magnetic moment Cm 107 nT m3, tilted 45 to the
vertical towards the south, with the positive pole downwards, and contained in the
plane of true north. The Earths eld is produced by a centred dipole tilted 30 from
the axis of rotation in the plane of the 0 meridian, with B0 30 000 nT. Calculate
the total values of F, Z, and H observed at the point of the surface above the centre of the
buried dipole.
We rst calculate the geographical coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole and the
geomagnetic latitude
fB 90 30 60
lB 0
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 66:7
153
Magnetic anomalies
The geomagnetic eld components Z , H and the total main eld F are given by
Z 2B0 sin f 55 107 nT
H B0 cos f 11 866 nT
q
F H 2 Z 2 56 370 nT
cos fB sinl lB
cos f
D 39:2
sin D
154
Geomagnetism
GNP
GMNP
q = 90 f
10
P
20
Fig. 88a
(a) We rst calculate the geomagnetic co-latitude (y) and latitude (f ) of the point,
knowing that it is in the same meridian as the Geomagnetic North Pole (Fig. 88a):
y 90 f 90 10 20 60
f 30
The geomagnetic eld is given by
M
4630 nT
a3
Z 2B0 sin f 4630 nT
B0
H B0 cos f 4009 nT
q
F H 2 Z 2 6124 nT
tan I 2 tan f ) I 49
The magnetic anomaly created by a sphere is the same as the anomaly created by a
magnetic dipole oriented in the same direction as the geomagnetic eld, that is, tilted
90 I to the vertical and with the negative pole upwards (Fig. 88b). So we use Equations
(82.2) and (82.3) taking a 41 and x 0, but we change the sign of Equation (82.3)
because the negative pole is toward the north. The horizontal component is DX DH
because the dipole is in the magnetic north-vertical plane and DY 0:
2Cm cos a
d3
Cm sin a
H
d3
Z
155
Magnetic anomalies
49
GN
MN
41
Fig. 88b
To calculate Cm we use the magnetic susceptibility w and the volume V of the sphere:
Cm wF V 3:2 107 nT m3
Substituting this value in the equation of the components of the magnetic anomaly we
obtain
Z
6 nT
8 106
d3
X
3 nT
d3
8 106
(b) The anomaly created by the sphere at a point at a distance x 100 m to the south of
the above point is given by
Cm x2 2d 2 cos a 3dx sin a
0:8 nT
5=2
x2 d 2
Cm 2x2 d 2 sin a 3dx cos a
3:3 nT
H
5=2
x2 d 2
Z
156
Geomagnetism
89. Buried at a point on the Earth at magnetic latitude 45 N, at a depth d, is a vertical
dipole of magnetic moment M (Cm) with negative pole upwards. If M/d3 10B0 (B0 is
the geomagnetic constant of the main eld) calculate how far along the magnetic
meridian the direction of the buried dipoles eld will coincide with that of the Earth
(the terrestrial dipole eld).
First we calculate the geomagnetic eld components and the inclination by
p
Z 2B0 sin f 2B0 nT
p
2
B0 nT
H B0 cos f
2
Z
tan I 2 ) I 63:4
H
The components of the magnetic eld created by the dipole are given by Equations (82.2)
and (82.3) of Problem 82, putting a 0:
Cm x2 2d 2
Z
5=2
x2 d 2
Cm3dx
H
5=2
2
x d2
If the buried dipoles eld coincides with that of the Earth the magnetic inclinations due to
both have to be equal and so
Z
tan I 2
H
p
x2 6xd 2d 2 0 ) x d 3 28
Of the two solutions, x 2.3d and x 8.3d, only the positive corresponds to the equal
direction of the two elds.
157
30
GMNP2
GNP
GMNP1
q2
q1
Fig. 90
(a) The total potential at a point is the sum of the potentials of the two dipoles (see
Equation 80.1 of Problem 80):
F F1 F2
r2
r2
r2
90:1
The geographical coordinates of the North Pole of each dipole are given by (Fig. 90)
fB1 fB2 90 30 60
lB1 0
lB2 180
Substituting these values in Equation (90.1):
p
3
1
sin f cos f cos l
cos y1
2
2
p
3
1
sin f cos f cos l
cos y2
2
2
Adding the two equations:
cos y1 cos y2
p
3 sin f
158
Geomagnetism
90:2
The magnetic poles are the points on the surface of the Earth where the value of the
inclination is equal to 90:
f 90
I 90 )
f 90
Therefore the magnetic poles coincide with the geographical poles.
(c) We derive the main eld by taking the gradient of the potential F. The components are
p
@F 2 3M sin f
@r
r3
p
1 @F 3M cos f
Bf
r @f
r3
1 @F
Bl
0
r cos f @l
Br
At the magnetic equator the inclination is null (I 0) and according to Equation (90.2) the
latitude is null too (f 0). Substituting in the last equations:
Br 0
p
3M
Bf
r3
Bl 0
The external magnetic eld to annul out the internal eld is therefore
p
3M
Be 0; 3 ; 0
r
91. The Earths magnetic eld is formed by a centred dipole with northern geomagnetic pole at 60 N, 0 E and B0 32 000 nT and a uniform external eld from the Sun
of 10 000 nT parallel to the equatorial plane.
(a) For a point at coordinates 60 N, 60 W, calculate the components X, Y, Z of the
total eld, and the values of D and I.
(b) How do D and Z of the total eld vary throughout the day with local time t?
159
(a)
P
N coswt
wt
Fig. 91a
B e
160
Geomagnetism
GNP
X = Bf
Ncost
P
z = Br
Fig. 91b
XT
7043 8660 cos ot
ZT
ZT
p
HT
XT2 YT2
(b) To see how D and Z vary during the day with local time t we substitute several
values for t, obtaining the values in the table:
t (h)
Z (nT)
D ()
0
6
12
18
60976
55976
50976
55976
41
28
83
73
161
92. The Earths magnetic eld is formed by a centred dipole of moment m and
north pole 60 N, 0 E, and a uniform external eld of magnitude N B0/4 (B0 is
the geomagnetic constant of the internal eld) parallel to the axis of rotation.
Determine:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The main eld is formed by a centred dipole of moment m so the potential is given by
Fi
Cm cos y
r2
GNP
ze
Xe
f
Fig. 92a
Fe
162
Geomagnetism
The external eld is parallel to the axis of rotation; therefore its components are in the
vertical and NS directions (Fig. 92a). If we call # 90 f the geographical co-latitude,
the components are given by
Ber N cos # N sin f
Be# N sin # N cos f
Z e Ber N sin f
X e Be# N cos f
Bearing in mind that Be Fe the potential for the external eld is
Fe Nr cos # Nr sin f
Therefore the total potential is given by
p
Cm 23 sin f 12 cos f cos l
Nr sin f
F
r2
(b) At the magnetic boreal pole the inclination is I 90 and the horizontal eld
components H, X, Y are given by
Z
)H 0
H
p
X 0
2
2
H X Y )
Y 0
tan I
X
N cos f 0
r @f
r3
1 @F
Cm
3 sin l 0 ) l 0
Y
r cos f @l
2r
Substituting in the equation of component X (92.1) the values
l0
ra
Cm
a3
N B0 =4
B0
92:1
163
GNP
GMNP
fB
P
f
l
feq
Fig. 92b
B0
sin l
2
3
1
B0
cos f sin f cos l cos f
2
2
4
sin l
p
1
cos f sin f cos l
3
2
B0
@F 2CM
1
3
3
Z Br
sin feq cos feq cos l N sin feq 0
@r
r
2
2
4 cos l
tan feq p
4 31
164
Geomagnetism
Fe
r2
F F1 F2 Fe
In this equation r is the distance from the dipoles centre (the Earths centre), y1 and y2 are
the co-latitudes relative to each dipole, and M Cm.
Dipole 1 is on the direction of the axis of rotation and so the geomagnetic co-latitude of
the point with respect to this dipole is
y1 90 f
cos y1 sin f
Dipole 2 is in the equatorial plane (fB2 0) and contained in the 0 meridian so the
geomagnetic co-latitude y2 is given by (71.3)
cos y2 sin fB2 sin f cos fB2 cos f cosl lB2
fB2 0
lB2 0
cos y2 cos f cos l
The equation for the potential of the external eld is the same as that of Problem 92:
Fe Nr sin f
Therefore the potential of the total eld is given by
F
165
(b) We obtain the component Z by taking the vertical component of the gradient of the
potential (B F)
Z Br
N sin f
@r
r3
M
a3
Substituting this constant and solving the equation we determine the latitude at which the
Z component is maximum:
2B0 cos f sin f
B0
cos f 0 ) f 48
4
94. The internal eld has its northern geomagnetic pole at the coordinates 60 N, 0 E,
and B0 30 000 nT. At a point with coordinates 30 N, 45 W, one observes an
increase of 7.7 in the value of the declination from 00:00 h to 09:00 h. There is
known to be an external eld parallel to the Earths axis of rotation in the direction
from N to S which is null at 00:00 h and maximum at 12:00 h local times. Calculate:
(a) The components of the internal and external elds.
(b) The difference in the inclination at 00:00 h and 09:00 h.
(c) The maximum value of the declination during the day.
(a) To calculate the geomagnetic main eld intensity components we obtain rst the
geomagnetic latitude (Equation 71.3):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 47:7
The declination and inclination are given by (71.2):
cos fB sinl lB
) D 31:7
cos f
tan I 2 tan f ) I 65:5
sin D
166
Geomagnetism
The external eld is parallel to the axis of rotation so its components are in the vertical and
NS directions. This eld is null at 00:00 h and maximum at 12:00 h local time (period T
24 h). Its components are given by
N
1 cos ot sin f
2
N
X e 1 cos ot cos f
2
Ye 0
Ze
He X e
o
2p 2p
T
24
(b) To calculate the difference in the inclination we obtain rst the value of N, bearing
in mind the time variation of the declination. The observed declination as a
function of time is given by
tan D
Y
Y Ye
X X Xe
Y
X
For t 0 h:
tan D1
N
1 cos ot cos f
2
Y
tan D ) D1 D 31:7
X
tan D2
X
N
1 cos ot cos f
2
0:82
2
Y
X
5766 nT
N
1 cos ot cos f
tan D2
The magnetic inclination is given by
N
Z 1 cos ot sin f
Z
Z Ze
2
tan I
N
H H He
H 1 cos ot cos f
2
At t 0 h:
I1 I 65:5
At t 9 h:
I2 71:2
167
tan D
X
N
1 cos ot cos f
2
94:1
The maximum value is at 12 h because at that time the external eld has the maximum
value. Substituting ot p and the values obtained for X , Y , N, and f:
Dmax 41:0
95. At a point on the Earth with coordinates 45 N, 45 E, measurements are made of
the magnetic eld components at 00:00 h and 12:00 h in nT with a 2 nT precision:
0h
X 20 732 Y 2500 Z 57 768
12 h X 24 267 Y 2500 Z 54 232
It is known that the modulus of the magnetic eld intensity has a harmonic diurnal
variation, and that the geomagnetic pole is on the zero meridian. Calculate:
(a) The moment and coordinates of the main eld dipole.
(b) Expressions for the potential and components of the external eld.
(Earths radius a 6400 km, m0 4p107 kg m s2 A2).
(a) To calculate the moment and coordinates of the main eld dipole we need to obtain the
geomagnetic main eld intensity components. The observed values are equal to the
sum of the geomagnetic main eld (X , Y , Z ) and the external eld (X e, Y e, Z e):
X X Xe
Y Y Ye
Z Z Ze
The geomagnetic main eld is constant but the external eld changes with time. So if we
denote by (X0, Y0, Z0) and (X12, Y12, Z12) the observed values at 0 h and at 12 h respectively
then the differences are due to the variations of the external eld:
e
X0e
X12 X0 3535 nT X12
e
Y12 Y0 0 nT Y12
Y0e
e
Z12 Z0 3536 nT Z12
Z0e
We notice that the Y component doesnt vary, which implies that the component Y e is zero,
and so the external eld is parallel to the axis of rotation. We also notice that the NS
component increases in the time interval between 0 h and 12 h, while the vertical
component diminishes, which implies that the polarity of the external eld is inverted
with respect to that of the main eld.
The modulus of the magnetic eld intensity has a harmonic diurnal variation and
increases with time. Therefore the components of the external eld are (Fig. 95a)
168
Geomagnetism
Fe
GNP
Xe
Ze
P
Fig. 95a
X e N 1 cos ot cos f
Z e N 1 cos ot sin f
2p
2p
o
T
24h
We notice that at time t 0 the external eld is null and so
e
X12
3535 nT
e
Y12 0 nT
e
Z12
3536 nT
If we consider the centred magnetic dipole model, the vertical and horizontal eld
components are given by the equations
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
169
GNP
90 fB
l lB
90 f
180 l
GMNP
q = 90 f
Fig. 95b
From these equations we obtain the geomagnetic latitude (f ) and the geomagnetic
constant B0:
tan f
B0
Z
) f 54:1
2H
Z
35 657 nT
2 sin f
m0 m
) m B0 107 a3 9:3 1022 A m2
4p a3
The longitude of the Geomagnetic North Pole is lB 0 and we calculate the latitude fB
from the spherical triangle (Fig. 95b), but obtaining rst the declination from the X and
Y components:
tan D
Y
) D 6:9
X
170
Geomagnetism
e
Z12
2500 nT
2 sin f
96. The Earths main magnetic eld is that of a centred dipole of moment M (M
Cm) in the direction of the axis of rotation, and the external eld is produced by
electric currents of intensity J circulating in a clockwise sense in a ring in the plane of
the ecliptic at a distance of 10 Earth radii around the Earth.
(a) Express the potential of the total eld and the components Br and B on the
Earths surface for l 0 .
(b) If the inclination of the ecliptic is 30 , and the external eld strength is N M /
4R3, what is the latitude of the northern magnetic pole?
(a) The potential of the total eld is the sum of the potentials of the dipole and of the
external eld:
FT F Fe
M cos y
Fe
r2
where r is the distance from the dipoles centre (Earths centre) and y is the geomagnetic
co-latitude. The dipole is in the direction of the axis of rotation and so the geomagnetic colatitude is equal to the geographic co-latitude:
y 90 f
cos y sin f
To calculate the potential of the external eld we know that it is produced by electric
currents of intensity J circulating in a clockwise sense at a distance of 10 Earth radii around
the Earth. These electric currents produce, at remote points, a magnetic dipolar eld whose
modulus is m0J/2R, J being the current intensity and R the radius of the circular currents;
the dipole is oriented in the direction of the ecliptics axes with the negative pole in the
southern hemisphere, because the currents are clockwise. So the potential of the external
eld is given by
Fe
Cme cos y2
r2
In this equation me Jp100a2, a is the Earths radius, and y2 is the angle between the axes
of the circular currents and the direction of the point from the negative pole (Fig. 96)
Therefore
y2 180 y e
cos y2 cosy e
where e is the angle between the axes of the circular currents and the axes of rotation of the
Earth.
171
GNP
q
e
q2
Fig. 96
Cme cosy e
r2
r2
r2
We calculate the components of the main eld intensity by taking the gradient of the
potential:
@F 2M cos y
@r
r3
1 @F
M sin y
By
r @y
r3
Br
m0 J
N
4 10a
172
Geomagnetism
(b) We know that the Earths dipole is in the direction of the axis of rotation and y is
the geographical co-latitude (Fig. 96). At the magnetic North Pole the total eld is
vertical and the tangential component is By 0:
By
M sin y
N siny e 0
r3
From these values we calculate y, the geographical co-latitude of the magnetic North Pole,
By 4N sin y N siny 30 0
p
1
3
sin y cos y 0 ) y 9
4 sin y
2
2
97. Two spherical planets of radius a and separated by a centre-to-centre distance of 4a
orbit around each other and spin in the equatorial plane. Each has a magnetic eld
produced by a centred dipole in the direction of the axis of rotation, with the positive
pole in the northern hemisphere and B0 10 000 nT. Determine the components X, Y, Z,
D, and I of the total magnetic eld at the North Pole of one of the planets (precision 1 nT).
The total magnetic eld in each planet is the sum of its main eld and the external eld
created by the other planet. To determine the main eld of either of the planets we need the
geomagnetic latitude, which is positive toward the negative pole, in this case, the South
Pole. Therefore the geomagnetic latitude and the components of the main eld at the North
Pole are
f 90
Z 2B0 sin f 20 000 nT
H B0 cos f 0
X Y 0
The external eld at one of the planets is created by the main eld of the other planet and
corresponds to that of a magnetic dipole. Its components are (Fig. 97)
2Cm cos y
r3
Cm sin y
Bey
r3
Ber
173
B er
q 90
+
r
B e
q 90
a
a
4a
Fig. 97
p
17a 4:12a and we calculate the geomagnetic co-latitude y by
a
1
4a 4
y 14 90 104
tany 90
Substituting these values in the equations for the radial and tangential components with
respect to the planet producing the external eld:
2Cm cos y Cm cos y B0 cos y
69 nT
r3
35a3
35
Cm sin y Cm sin y B0 sin y
Bey
139 nT
r3
70a3
70
Ber
From this value we calculate the vertical and horizontal components (Fig. 97):
Z e Ber cos180 y Bey cosy 90 Ber cos y Bey sin y 118 nT
H e Ber sin180 y Bey siny 90 Ber sin y Bey cos y 33 nT
X e H e 33 nT
Ye 0
The components of the total eld are nally
Z Z Z e 19882 nT
H H H e 33 nT
X X X e 33 nT
Y Y Ye 0
Y
tan D ) D 0
X
Z
tan I ) I 89:9
H
174
Geomagnetism
+
45
Fig. 98a
175
Y
) D 0
H
We calculate the geomagnetic latitude of the point f and the geomagnetic constant B0
from the vertical and horizontal geomagnetic main eld components by
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
Z
) f 32:8
tan f
2H
Z
B0
30 953 nT
2 sin f
We obtain the coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole by (Fig. 98b)
D 0 ) lB 180 l 225 E 135 W
90 fB f f ) fB 82:8
(b) The magnitude of the external eld at 06:00 h is
q
B6e Xe2 Ye2 Ze2 10 000 nT
176
Geomagnetism
GMNP
GNP
f
f
90 fB
Fig. 98b
The direction of the external eld is in the NS-vertical plane because the EW component is
null, forming with the horizontal an angle Ie (Fig. 98c). This direction is the same at 06:00
h and at 12:00 h. We calculate the angle Ie by
Ze
Xe
Ie 40
tan Ie
Xe
Ie
Ze
Be
Fig. 98c
177
Because at
06 : 00 h t p=2 ! N 10 000
12 : 00 ht p ! N 20 000
the variation of the magnitude of the external eld with time is given by
N 10 0001 cos t
99. Buried at a depth of 100 m at a point with geographical coordinates 45 N, 45 W is
a dipole anomaly of Cm 0.1 T m3, inclined 45 from the horizontal northwards in the
vertical plane with the negative pole downwards. Measurements gave the following
results (in nT):
09:00 h X 27 759; Y 0; Z 30 141
12:00 h X 28 052; Y 0; Z 30 141
Find:
(a) The coordinates of the magnetic dipoles North Pole.
(b) The value of B0.
(c) An expression for the variation Sq knowing that it is zero at 00:00 h and
maximum at 12:00 h.
(a) As in Problem 98, the observed eld is the result of three parts: the main (internal)
eld, the buried dipole eld, and the external eld. To calculate the coordinates of
the magnetic dipoles North Pole we need to obtain the components of the
geomagnetic main eld from the components of the total eld. With this aim we
begin by calculating the magnetic anomaly created by the buried dipole, applying
Equations (82.2) and (82.3), and substituting a 225 and x 0. The horizontal
component is in the NS direction (DX) given that the dipole is on the NS-vertical
plane (Fig. 99a).
2Cm cos a
141 nT
d3
Cm sin a
X
71 nT
d3
Y 0
Z
178
Geomagnetism
X P
N
Z
d
45
Fig. 99a
Z2e
Z1e
0)
Z2e
99:1
Z1e
We assume that the time variation of the observations is due to the diurnal Sq variation
which is zero at 00:00 h and maximum at 12:00 h. Therefore the only possible values
for the components Ye and Ze are zero because these components have the same values at
09:00 h and at 12:00 h:
Y2e Y1e Y 0
Z2e Z1e 0
Then, the intensity of the external eld is given by
X e N 1 cos ot
o
2p
24
The NS components of this eld at 09:00 h (X1) and at 12:00 h (X2) are
p
3p
2
e
N 1
X1 N 1 cos
2
4
X2e N 1 cos p 2N
p
e
2
2 X2
e
e
X2 X1 1
293 nT ) X2e 2001 nT
N 1
2
2
2
X1e 1708 nT
179
GMNP
GNP
f
f
90 fB
Fig. 99b
Y
) D 0
H
The geomagnetic latitude of the point f is determined from the vertical and horizontal
geomagnetic main eld components:
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
tan f
Z
) f 29:9
2H
180
Geomagnetism
XT
DT
YT
HT
Y
ZT
IT
FT
Fig. 100a
181
P
X60
d
a
+
Fig. 100b
The observed eld is the result of three parts: the main eld (X , Y , Z ), the buried dipole
eld (DX, DY, DZ), and the external eld (Xe, Ye, Ze):
XT X X X e
YT Y Y Y e
ZT Z Z Z e
We determine the magnetic anomaly created by the buried dipole from Equations (82.2)
and (82.3) substituting a 90 and x 0. If we call X60 the direction N 60 E the horizontal
component of this anomaly is DX60 (Fig. 100b):
2Cm cos a
0 nT
d3
Cm sin a
X60
1250 nT
d3
The NS and EW components will be given by (Fig. 100c)
Z
182
Geomagnetism
60
Y
E
X
X60
Fig. 100c
GNP
P
Ze
Xe
Fe
Fig. 100d
The geomagnetic latitude of the point f and the geomagnetic constant B0 are found from
the vertical and horizontal geomagnetic main eld components by
Z 2B0 sin f
H B0 cos f
Z
tan f
) f 44:9
2H
Z
30 953 nT 30 044 nT
B0
2 sin f
183
GNP
90 fB
l lB
90 f
180 l
GMNP
q = 90 f
Fig. 100e
To calculate the geographical coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole we use the
corresponding spherical triangle (Fig. 100e). We obtain the latitude fB by applying the
cosine law for the angle 90 fB:
cos90 fB cos90 f cos90 f sin90 f sin90 f cos D
sin fB sin f sin f cos f cos f cos D
fB 75:0
We obtain the longitude lB by applying the cosine rule for the angle 90 f :
cos90 f cos90 fB cos90 f sin90 fB sin90 f cosl lB
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
sin f sin fB sin f
cos fB cos f
l lB 180:0
cosl lB
lB 135:0 W
Therefore the coordinates of the Geomagnetic North Pole are
fB 75 N
lB 135 W
The coordinates of the Geomagnetic South Pole (the antipodal point) are:
fA fB 75 S
lA 180 lB 45 E
101. At a point with geographical coordinates 30 N, 30 E, the observed geomagnetic
eld components are (in nT): X 15 364, Y 7660, Z 48 980. The northern
geomagnetic pole is at 60 N, 0 E, and B0 30 000 nT. There is also a constant external
magnetic eld normal to the equatorial plane, with a southwards direction, of 1000 nT
intensity. Buried 10 m below the observation point is a magnetic dipole. Calculate:
(a) The magnetic anomalies DX, DY, DZ, DH, DF.
184
Geomagnetism
(b) The orientation and magnetic moment (Cm, in nT m3) of the buried dipole.
(a) The observed values are the sum of the geomagnetic main eld, the magnetic eld
due to the buried dipole, and the external eld:
X X X X e
Y Y Y Y e
Z Z Z Z e
To obtain the magnetic anomalies from these equations we rst calculate the geomagnetic
latitude and the vertical and horizontal components of the geomagnetic main eld by (71.3):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 54
Z 2B0 sin f 48 479 nT
H B0 cos f 17 676 nT
The declination and inclination are given by
cos fB sinl lB
) D 25
cos f
tan I 2 tan f ) I 70
sin D
2Cm cos a
d3
101:1
185
GNP
P
Ze
Xe
Fe
Fig. 101a
X
Cm sin a
cos b
d3
101:2
Y
Cm sin a
sin b
d3
101:3
To solve this system of three equations in three unknowns (Cm, a, b) we divide Equation
(101.3) by (101.2):
tan b
Y
) b 36 180 144
X
This value of the angle b implies that the dipole is oriented in the N 144 E direction.
To calculate the angle a between the buried dipole and the vertical we divide Equation
(101.2) by (101.1):
X
1
tan a cos b
Z
2
2 X
) a
90
tan a
cos b Z
Therefore the dipole is practically horizontal (Fig. 101b) and this explains the small value
of the vertical component DZ.
Finally we calculate the magnetic moment of the buried dipole from Equation (101.2):
Cm
d3
X 2:8 105 nT m3
sin a cos b
186
Geomagnetism
P
N 144 E
d
a
+
Fig. 101b
cos fB sinl lB
) D 25:1
cos f
187
GNP
60
Xe
Ze
f
Fe
Fig. 102a
60
E
f
Xe
Ze
Fe
Fig. 102b
The external eld is on the plane containing the vertical and NS directions (Figs 102a
and 102b):
Z e 1000 cos60 f 866 nT
X e 1000 sin60 f 500 nT
Ye 0
188
Geomagnetism
102:1
X
Cm sin a
cos b
d3
102:2
Y
Cm sin a
sin b
d3
102:3
Z
Y
) b 39:2 180 140:8
X
B
103. The Earths magnetic eld is formed by a centred dipole with a geomagnetic pole
at 60 N, 0 E, and B0 30 000 nT, and an external eld of 10 000 nT parallel to the
equatorial plane and to the zero meridian.
(a) Calculate the components X, Y, Z of the total eld at a point P with geographical
coordinates 60 N, 30 W.
(b) If at 30 m in the direction of the compass needle from P there is a vertical dipole of
moment Cm 4000 nT m3 buried 40 m deep, what would be the anomaly DZ
produced at P?
189
(a) The components of the total eld are the sum of the geomagnetic main eld and
the external eld:
X X Xe
Y Y Ye
Z Z Ze
Let us rst calculate the geomagnetic latitude, declination, and inclination using (71.3)
and (71.2):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 75:1
cos fB sinl lB
) D 76:5
cos f
tan I 2 tan f ) I 82:4
sin D
x2 d 2 5=2
Cmx2 2d 2
Z
0:029 nT
x2 d 2 5=2
190
Geomagnetism
B e = Nsinl
Be
Ncos
l
Plane parallel
to the equator
Fig. 103a
GNP
B ef
Ncos
Ber
f
Fig. 103b
191
x
NM
Fig. 103c
104. The Geomagnetic North Pole is at 60 N, 150 W, with B0 30 000 nT, and there
is an external magnetic eld of intensity 3000 nT parallel to the axis of rotation
pointing away from the North Pole. Buried 10 m below a point with coordinates
30 N, 30 E there is a horizontal dipole with Cm 40 000 nT m3 and the negative
pole pointing in the direction N 45 E.
(a) What are the components X, Y, Z of the total eld?
(b) Calculate the total eld anomaly DF.
(c) What is the angle between the direction of the compass and geographic north?
(a) The components of the total eld are the sum of the geomagnetic main eld, the
magnetic eld due to the buried dipole, and the external eld:
X X X X e
Y Y Y Y e
Z Z Z Z e
We determine rst the geomagnetic latitude, declination, and inclination using (71.3)
and (71.2):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 0
sin D
cos fB sinl lB
) D 0
cos f
tan I 2 tan f ) I 0
192
Geomagnetism
X45
Fig. 104
d3
Z
X45
193
Y
28
) D 0:06
X 27430
105. The geomagnetic eld is that of a dipole in the direction of the axis of rotation
and B0 30 000 nT. There is also a constant external eld of 2500 nT normal to the
equatorial plane in the direction of the South Pole.
(a) Calculate the value of the inclination observed at a point P with coordinates 45 N,
45 E given that, at 10 m below it, there is a vertical dipole with the negative pole
upwards and moment Cm 40 000 nT m3.
(b) For a point 20 m north of P, calculate the observed inclination and declination,
and the total eld anomaly DF.
(a) The components of the total observed eld are the sum of the geomagnetic main
eld, the magnetic eld due to the buried dipole, and the external eld:
X X X X e
Y Y Y Y e
Z Z Z Z e
The magnetic dipole is oriented in the direction of the axis of rotation and therefore
f f 45
D 0
Then the components of the geomagnetic main eld are
Z 2B0 sin f 42 426 nT
H B0 cos f 21 213 nT
X H cos D 21 213 nT
Y H sin D 0
The magnetic anomaly created by the dipole is obtained from Equations (82.2) and (82.3)
substituting a 0 and x 0 (Fig. 105a):
2Cm cos a
80 nT
d3
Cm sin a
X
0
d3
Y 0
Z
194
Geomagnetism
P
X
Fig. 105a
GNP
P
Ze
Xe
f
Fe
Fig. 105b
The external eld is parallel to the axis of rotation directed southwards so its components
are in the vertical and NS direction (Fig. 105b) and are given by
Z e 2500 sin f 1768 nT
X e 2500 cos f 1768 nT
Ye 0
195
Z
) I 66:3
H
(b) For a point Q located 20 m to the north of P we can assume that the main and
external elds have the same value as at point P and only the magnetic anomaly
created by the buried dipole is different. We calculate this anomaly from Equations
(82.2) and (82.3) substituting a 0 and x 20:
Z
X
d 2 5=2
Cmx2 2d 2
x2 d 2 5=2
Cm3dx
x2 d 2 5=2
1 nT
4 nT
Y 0
Therefore, the components of the observed eld at that point are
X X X X e 19 441 nT
Y Y Y Y e 0
H X
Z Z Z Z e 44 193 nT
From these values we calculate the observed inclination and declination by the expressions
Z
) I 66:2
H
Y
tan D ) D 0
X
tan I
196
Geomagnetism
d3
Z
X60
P
X 60
d
a
+
z
Fig. 106a
197
60
E
X
X60
Fig. 106b
GNP
N = Be
P
f +e
f
e
Sun
Fig. 106c
198
Geomagnetism
GNP
X = Bf
P
f+e
Z = Br
Fig. 106d
199
(b) The same parameters for a point 200 m north of P, assuming that neither the
internal nor the external elds change (precision 1 nT).
(a) The components of the intensity of the total eld are the sum of the geomagnetic
main eld, the external eld, and the magnetic eld due to the buried pole.
To calculate the main eld we determine rst the geomagnetic latitude and the declination
by (71.3) and (71.2):
sin f sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
f 30
sin D
cos fB sinl lB
) D 0
cos f
From these values we obtain the vertical and horizontal components of the geomagnetic
main eld:
Z 2B0 sin f 30 000 nT
H B0 cos f 25 981 nT
X H cos D 25 981 nT
Y H sin D 0
To calculate the external eld we notice that it comes from the Sun which on March 21
(spring equinox) is on the equatorial plane so that the external eld is parallel to this plane.
In addition this eld changes during the day as a function of local time t with a diurnal
period (o 2p/24 h). At t 12 h, the external eld is maximum given that at this time
the Sun is at the meridian point (Fig. 107a). Calling N its magnitude (N 1000 nT), the
components of the external eld are given by
GNP
Xe
P
N
Ze
f
Fig. 107a
200
Geomagnetism
@F
CP
2
@r
r
Y
) D 0
X
(b) The radial component of the magnetic eld anomaly created by the buried pole for
a point 200 m north of P (x 200 m) is given by
Br
@F CP
2
@r
r
r2 r x2 d 2 3=2
CP x
CPx
X Br sin a 2
2
r r x d 2 3=2
Z Br cos a
Y 0
Substituting the values given (d 500 m, x 200 m, CP 0.5 Tm2), we obtain
Z 1601 nT
X 640 nT
Y 0
201
Paleomagnetism
Fig. 107b
The components of the observed total eld and the declination are the sum of the three
contributions:
X X X e X 27 264 nT
Y Y Y e Y 0
Z Z Z e Z 29 165 nT
tan D
Y
) D 0
X
Paleomagnetism
108. At a point with geographical coordinates 60 N, 60 W a 1 cm3 sample was taken
of a rock with remanent magnetism, age 10 000 years, specic susceptibility
0.01 cm3. The magnetization components of the rock were:
X 40, Y 30, Z 50 nT (N, E, nadir).
The current eld is B0 30 000 nT and the geomagnetic pole coincides with the
geographical pole. Calculate:
(a) The coordinates of the virtual geomagnetic pole which corresponds to the
sample.
(b) The magnetic moment of the terrestrial dipole 10 000 years ago.
(c) The secular variation of F, D, and I in nT and minutes per year assuming that the
variation since that time has been constant.
202
Geomagnetism
GNP
90 fB
l lB
90 f
180 l
VP
90 f
Fig. 108
(a) First we determine the declination D and the geomagnetic co-latitude y, corresponding to the virtual pole, from the magnetization components of the rock X, Y,
and Z:
Y
tan D ) D 36:9
X
p
H X 2 Y 2 50 nT
Z
tan I ) I 45
H
tan I 2 cot y ) y 63:4 ; fvirtual 26:6
Since at present the geomagnetic pole coincides with the geographical pole, the geographical latitude of the point coincides with the present geomagnetic latitude:
f fpresent 60 N
To determine the coordinates of the virtual Geomagnetic North Pole (VP), corresponding
to the magnetization of the rock, we solve the spherical triangle of Fig. 108 for B and lB
using the obtained values of y and D. The latitude fB applying the cosine rule is given by
cos90 fB cos y cos90 f sin y sin90 f cos D
sin fB cos y sin f sin y cos f cos D
fB 48:2
To obtain the longitude lB we again apply the cosine rule:
cos y sin90 f cos90 fB cos90 f
sin90 fB sin90 f cosl lB
cos y sin fB sin f cos fB cos f cosl lB
203
Paleomagnetism
To choose between the positive and negative solution we bear in mind that the declination
is negative and so the point is to the east of the virtual magnetic North Pole:
D < 0 ) l lB > 0
lB 173:6 E
(b) To obtain the magnetic moment we rst calculate the constant B0. The susceptibility
w relates the magnetization and the magnetic eld. If we call F the magnitude of the
paleomagnetic eld and F0 the remanent magnetization, the relation between them is
F 0 wF
108:1
w 0:01
We calculate F0 from its components
p
F 0 X 2 Y 2 Z 2 71 nT
The eld F of the virtual pole is given by
p
F B0 1 3 cos2 y
From this value we calculate the magnetic moment of the virtual pole taking a 6370 km
for the Earths radius
B0
Cm
) m 1:45 1022 A m2
a3
(c) The magnetic eld, the declination, and inclination 10 000 years ago were
F0
7100 nT
w
D 36:9
F
I 45
At present the values of these parameters are
F p Ba0
D p 0
q
1 3 sin2 fpresent 54 083 nT
204
Geomagnetism
Declination (D, E)
Inclination (I, )
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
650
700
32
36
38
39
41
41
41
41
300
33
22
12
4
5
5
5
5
55
0.056
0.056
0.057
0.058
0.058
0.050
0.016
0.009
0.000
205
Paleomagnetism
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
a
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.02
d
0.01
0.00
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
Z
0.02
0.03
Fig. 109
X300 X20
0:0051
23:9
a tan1
tan1
0:0115
Y300 Y20
D 180 23:9 203:9
1
Y400
X400
0:0379
tan
41:0
0:0436
1
Note: this value can be obtained directly from the declination of the observations between
400 and 650 C.
The apparent inclination, Iap, of a stable component is determined by measuring or by
calculating the angle between the north axis and the trajectory of the stable component in
the vertical plane. Iap is related to the true inclination, I, by:
tan I tan Iap j cos Dj
For the 20300 C component:
Iap g tan
1
Z20 Z300
X300 X20
tan
1
0:0265
0:0051
79:1
Z400
X400
tan1
0:0051
6:7
0:0436
Note: this value can be obtained directly from the inclination of the observations between
400 and 650 C.
Therefore the stable component isolated in the range 20300 C has D 203.9 and
I 78.1 and the stable component isolated in the range 400700 C has D 41.0 and
I 5.0 .
206
Geomagnetism
Declination (D, E)
Inclination (I, )
30
28
34
25
32
35
26
43
39
44
45
38
44
40
Use unit vector addition to calculate the mean direction of the primary remanence.
Calculate the direction cosines of each direction, the resultant total eld vector, F, and
then the mean direction using:
X cos I cos D
Y cos I sin D
Z sin I
v
!2
!2
u N !2
N
N
u X
X
X
Ft
Z 6:98542
Y
X
Xmean
N
P
i1
i1
i1
Xi
i1
F
N
P
Yi
0:6446;
Ymean i1 0:37186;
F
N
P
Zi
Zmean i1 0:66799
F
Ymean
Dmean tan1
30:0
Xmean
Imean sin1 Zmean 41:9
The mean direction of the primary remanence has a declination of 30.0 and an inclination
of 41.9 .
207
Paleomagnetism
Next, calculate the expected eld direction at the site using the reference palaeomagnetic
pole. The rst step is to determine y 90 f , (Equation 71.3), from the pole (fp, lp) to
the site (fs, ls) using spherical triangles:
sin f sin p sin s cos p cos s cosls lp ) f 24:1
The expected inclination can then be calculated using:
tan Iexp 2 tan f ) Iexp 41:8
The expected declination can be calculated by (71.2):
sin Dexp
cos p sinls lp
) Dexp 34:5 W 325:5
cos f
rotation about the vertical axis should give rise to a difference between the observed and
expected declinations, dened as positive for an observed declination clockwise from the
expected declination.
Therefore the outcrop has suffered 64.5 of clockwise rotation with respect to stable
Iberia.
Seismology
Elasticity
111. Determine the principal stresses and principal axes of the stress tensor:
0
1
2 1 1
@ 1 0 1 A
1
1 2
Find the invariants I1, I2, I3, the deviator tensor, its eigenvalues, and the invariants
J2 and J3.
To calculate the principal stresses (s1, s2, s3) and principal axes (n1i, n2i, n3i), we
calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix. They are found through the
equation
tij sdij ni 0
111:1
The eigenvalues are the roots of the cubic equation for s resulting from putting the
determinant of the matrix in (111.1) equal to zero:
2 s 1
1
1 0
1 s
1
1 2 s
) 2 ss2 s 1 1 s 2 s 2 s 0
s3 4s2 s 6 0
208
209
Elasticity
For s3 3
0 1
@ 1 2
1
1
10 1
1
n1
1 A@ n2 A 0 ) n21 ; n22 ; n23 1; 1; 1
0
n3
10 1
1
n1
1 A@ n2 A 0 ) n31 ; n32 ; n33 1; 0; 1
1
n3
1 1
@ 1 3
1
1
2
3
t022
t033
4
3
2
3
s3 J1 s2 J2 s J3 0
210
Seismology
J2
1
4
B
B
B
B
B
B 25
B
4
B
B
3
@ 1 2
2
5
2
4
1
4
3
1 2
2
2
3 1
1 2
C
C
2
C
3 C
2
1 C
C
2
2 C
C
C
A
3
2
calculate:
(a) The principal stresses.
(b) The angles formed by the greatest of these stresses with the axes 1, 2, 3.
(a) As in the previous problem to nd the principal stresses we calculate the eigenvalues of the stress matrix
1
0
3=2
1
5
1
B
C
C
B 4s
4
2
B
C
3=2 C
B
C
B
5
1
1
B
C 0 ) s3 2s2 s 2 0
s
C
B
4
4
2
B
C
3=2
C
B
3=2
A
@ 1
1
3
s
2
2
2
s1 2
s2 1
s3 1
The largest is s1. The associated eigenvector corresponds to the axis of greatest stress
whose direction cosines are (n1, n2, n3). They are found by solving the equation
0
3=2 1
7
5
1
B
C
B
C0 1
4
4
C n1
B
2
B
C
5
7
1
C@ n2 A 0
B
3=2
B
C
4
4
2
C n3
B
C
B
3=2
3=2
A
@
1
1
1
2
2
2
211
Solving this equation with the condition that n21 n22 n23 1, we obtain,
n1 n2
1
n3 p
2
1
2
(b) From these values we obtain #, the angle with the vertical axis (x3) and , the angle
which forms its projection on the horizontal plane with x1:
9
1 >
>
n1 sin # cos
>
2 >
>
1=
n2 sin # sin
) 315 ; # 45
2>
>
>
1
>
>
n3 cos # p
;
2
113. The stress tensor t ij in a continuous medium is
0
1
3x1 x2 5x22 0
@ 5x2
0 2x3 A
2
0
2x3 0
Determine the stress vector Tin acting at the point (2, 1, 3) through the plane
tangential to the cylindrical surface x22 1 x23 at that point.
First we calculate the value of the stress tensor at the given point:
0
1
6
5
0
p
p
0 2 3 A
tij 2; 1; 3 @ 5
p
0 2 3
0
A unit vector normal to the surface f x22 x23 4 0 at the given point is
0
1
@f
@f
@f
p
B @x1 @x2 @x3 C
grad f
C 0; 1 ; 3
B
ni
;
;
2 2
jgrad f j @ @f @f @f A
@x @x @x
1
Then, the stress vector acting at the point through that surface is given by
0
1
0
1 0
1 C
6
5
0 B
p
B
C
p
AB 2 C 5 ; 3; 3
0
2
3
Tin tij nj @ 5
B p C
p
2
@ 3A
0 2 3
0
2
4
4
4
p ; p ; p
uP
3 2 3 2 3
p p p
S
u 3; 3; 2
212
Seismology
and their speeds of propagation are 6 km s1 and 4 km s1, respectively. Find the
scalar and vector potentials. Displacements are always given in m.
The displacements of P-waves can be deduced from a scalar potential function such that
uPi ri . The general form of the potential function for P-waves for harmonic motion is
A exp ika ni xi at
114:1
where A is the amplitude, ni the direction cosines of the ray or propagation direction, a the
velocity of propagation, and ka the wavenumber. If uj is given in m and ka in km1, then A
is given in 103 m2. Taking the derivatives in (114.1) we obtain for the components of the
displacement
uPj
@
Aika nj exp ika nk xk at
@xj
Their amplitude is
uPj Aka nj
114:2
Dividing these two expressions and writing the direction cosines of the ray in terms of the
incident angle i and azimuth az,
n1 sin i cos az
v2 sin i sin az
n3 cos i
114:3
we have
uP1
n1 sin i cos az
1
) a 45
P
n2 sin i sin az
u2
Using the uP3 and uP1 components,
p
uP3 Aka n3
cos i
3 ) i 30
uP1 Aka n1 sin i cos az
From the values of the direction cosines and the amplitude of the displacement we calculate
the amplitude of the potential A:
A
uP1
) A 4 103 m2
ka n1
213
2
2
2
3
4 exp i
x1
x2
x3 6t
3
4
4
2
Displacements of the S-wave are obtained from a vector potential ci of null divergence,
whose general form is
ci Bi exp ikb nj xj bt
where b is the velocity of propagation and kb the wavenumber. The displacements are
given by
uS r c
114:4
The wavenumber is kb o/b 1 km1. According to (114.4) the relation between the
components of the displacement and of the amplitude of the potential is
p
p
p
2
3
S
B2
3 mm
u1 B3
4
2
p
p
p
3
2
uS2 B1
B3
3 mm
2
4
p
p
2
2 p
uS3 B2
B1
2 mm
4
4
The potential must have null divergence,
p
p
p
3
2
2
rc
B3 0
B1
B2
2
4
4
From these equations we obtain, in units of 103 m2,
B1 2
B2 2
B3 0
The S-wave vector potential is
p
p
p
2
2
3
cj 2; 2; 0 exp i
x1
x2
x3 4t
4
4
2
Note: These units will be used for all problems but not explicitly given.
115. The components of the S-wave with respect to the axes (x1, x2, x3) are (6, 3.25, 3)
where x2 is the vertical axis, the azimuth is 60 , and the angle of incidence is 30 .
Determine the amplitude and direction cosines of the SV and SH components.
From the azimuth and incident angles we calculate the direction cosines (x2 is the
vertical axis)
214
Seismology
X2
SV
r
30
SVH
X1
60
SH
90
X3
Fig. 115a
1
n1 sin i cos az
4
p
3
n2 cos i
2
p
3
n3 sin i sin az
4
Since the SV and SH components are on a plane normal to the direction of the ray r
(Fig. 115a) unit vectors in the direction of SV (a1, a2, a3) and of SH (b1, 0, b3) must satisfy
the equations
p
p
a1 a2 3 a3 3
4
2
4
p
b1 b3 3
0
SH r 0 )
4
4
SV r 0 )
115:1
SH SV 0 ) a1 b1 a3 b3 0
The projections on the horizontal plane R of the ray r and SH are perpendicular
(Fig. 115b). Then SH forms an angle of 180 30 with the x1 axis. The direction
cosines of SH are
p
3
b1
2
1
b3
2
215
SVH
30
X1
30
60
SH
X3
Fig. 115b
SV forms an angle of 60 with the vertical axis x2 (Fig. 115a). Then a2 sin i 12
From a2 using Equations (115.1) and a21 a22 a23 1, we calculate a1 and a2:
p
3
a1
4
3
a3
4
p
p p
7 5 7
7
116. Given the potential ci p ; p ; 6 exp 4i p1 x1 p1 x2 p x3 4t ,
5
3
5
5
15
calculate the polarization angle.
First we calculate the amplitudes of the components of the displacement of the S-wave
from the vector potential
8
13
>
>
uS1 c3;2 c2;3 4 p 30:02
>
>
>
3
>
>
>
<
7
6
S
S
p
c
c
4
13:97
ui r c i )
1;3
3;1
2
>
5
5 3
>
>
p
>
>
>
p
7
>
S
>
: u3 c2;1 c1;2 4
7 p 7:85
15
The modulus is
uS
q
u21 u22 u23 34:03
From the vertical component uS3 we calculate the SV component (Fig. 116) knowing that
r p
p
8
7
7
n3 cos i p ) sin i 1
p
15
15
15
) uSV 10:75.
216
Seismology
X3
r
i
SV
90 i
R
Fig. 116
uSH
) e 71:6
uSV
uS1 8
p
uS2 2 2
p
uS3 4 2
uP2 4
uP3 8
determine the angle of incidence i, azimuth az, polarization angle of the S-wave,
and apparent polarization angle g.
Given that the displacements of the P-wave are on the incident plane, in the direction of the
ray r, the angle of incidence i can be obtained from the modulus and the vertical component:
p
p
uP 42 42 82 4 6
cos i
uP3
8
p ) i 35:3
P
u
4 6
The azimuth, the angle between the horizontal projection of the ray and the north (x1), is
obtained from the horizontal components, uP1 and uP2 :
tan az
uP2
) az 45
uP1
217
90 az
uS
1
az
uS
H
u S2
az
X1
SH
R
X2
Fig. 117
We calculate the SV component from the vertical component uS3 , as in the previous
problem:
uSV
uS3
uS
3 9:37
cos90 i0 sin i0
uSH 3:66
uSV 9:37
) e 21:3
To calculate the apparent polarization angle g, the angle between the horizontal component
of S, (uSH), and the radial direction R (Fig. 117), we use the relation
tan e cos i0 tan g
) g 25:5
118. Given the values az 60 , 30 , g 45 , and ub 5, calculate the
amplitudes of the components 1, 2, and 3 of the S-wave.
From the modulus of the displacement of S-waves and the polarization angle, we calculate
the SV and SH components (Fig. 118a):
uSV
uSH
p
5 3
u cos e
2
5
S
u sin e
2
S
218
Seismology
SV
SH
Fig. 118a
X3
r
SV
uS
3
i
i
R
SV
uH
Fig. 118b
1
) cos i p
3
r p
2
1
) sin i 1 p
3
3
The vertical component u3 of the S-wave is obtained from the value of SV (Fig. 118b):
p p
5 3 2
S
SV
p 3:53
u3 u cos90 i
2
3
To calculate the horizontal components we have to take into account the horizontal
component of SV (Fig. 118b):
SV
uSV
cos i
H u
5
2
219
u SV
H
az
X1
uS
H
az
u SH
az
SH
R
X2
Fig. 118c
3
1
1
The direction cosines are p ; p ;
.
2 2 2 2 2
The general expressions for the scalar and vector potentials are
A exp ika n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 at
ci Bi exp ikb n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 bt
Since ka o/a then a o/ka 6 km s1.
If Poissons ratio is 0.25 then
1
l
s
4 2 l m
)lm
Substituting this condition in the equation for the P-wave velocity a, we nd for the
velocity b of S-waves is given by
s s
p
p
l 2m
3m
a
b 3 ) b p 2 3 km s1
a
r
r
3
Then the wavenumber of S-waves is
kb
o
2
p
b
3
220
Seismology
2
1
1
3
p
3 exp i
x1
x2
x3 6t
3 2 2
2
2 2
p
p
3
2
1
1
x 3 2 3t
ci 2; 2; 0 exp i p p x1 p x2
2
3 2 2
2 2
119:1
uP3 3
uS1 2
uS2 2
p
2 2
uS3 p
3
From the components of the displacement of the S-wave we can obtain the SV component.
The values of the angles of incidence and azimuth are found from the direction cosines,
1
n1 sin i cos az p
2 2
1
n2 sin i sin az p
2 2
p
3
n3 cos i
2
) i 30 ;
az 45
From the horizontal components of the S-waves and the azimuth we calculate the SH
component:
uSH uS2 cos az uS1 sin az 0
120. In an elastic medium of density r 3 g cm3 and Poisson ratio 1/3 there
7
1 1
; p ; p . Given
3 2 3 2
that the pressure of the P-wave is 5000 dyn cm2, the magnitude of its displacement,
10 mm, is twice that of the S-wave, and the angle g 45 , nd all the parameters
involved in the expression of the potentials and ci. (It is not necessary to solve the
equations to obtain the coefcients Bi)
221
Given that Poissons ratio is 1/3 the relation between the elastic coefcients l and m is,
s
l
1
) l 2m
2l m 3
a
r
r
The bulk modulus K is
2
8
K l m m
3
3
Expressing m in terms of b and a, we get for K:
r
m
8
8 a2 2
b
) m rb2 ) K rb2 r ra2
r
3
3 4
3
Taking into account that the bulk modulus K is dened as the applied pressure divided by
the change in volume per unit volume y,
2
P Ky ra2 y
3
2
y r Aka2
y
120:1
3P
3P
Aka2 ) a2
2ra2
2rAka2
o 2pf
a
a
P
P
P
u jrj ka A ) A ju j ju ja
ka
2pf
3P
3Pa
3P
)a
2rAka2 2rjuP j2pf
2rjuP j2pf
120:2
222
Seismology
We obtain a 3.98 km s1 and b 1.99 km s1.
Since we know A, a, and ka we can write the complete expression for the scalar
potential
p
7
1
1
10 exp i1:58 x1 p x2 p x3 3:98t
3
3 2
2
ci Bi exp ikb n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 bt
120:3
We calculate kb:
kb
o
3:16 km1
b
@c3 @c2
kb B3 n2 B2 n3
@x2 @x3
uS2
@c1 @c3
kb B1 n3 B3 n1
@x3 @x1
uS3
@c2 @c1
kb B2 n1 B1 n2
@x1 @x2
120:4
The incidence angle i is found from n3 and, using tane cosi tang, we nd the polarization
angle e:
p
7
n3 cos i p ) i 31:95 ) e 31:95
3 2
The azimuth is
az tan1
n2
64:76
n1
Since the amplitude of the S-wave displacement is 5 mm, knowing the value of e we can
nd the values of the SV and SH components:
uSV uS cos e 4:24 mm
uSH uS sin e 2:65 mm
From uSV we calculate its vertical and horizontal components:
uS3 uSV cos90 i 2:25 mm
SV
uSV
cos i 3:61 mm
H u
223
Using the values found for the displacements and Equations (120.4) and c 0 (n1 B1
n2 B2 n3 B3 0) we nd the values of B1, B2, B3. Substituting all the values in (120.3) we
obtain for the vector potential
p
7
1
1
p
121. At the origin in an innite medium in which s, Poissons ratio, is 0.25, and the
density is 3 g cm3, there is an emitter of elastic plane waves of frequency 0.5 cps.
Calculate:
(a) The equation of the P- and S-waves in exponential form and with arbitrary
amplitudes for the wave arriving at the point A(500, 300, 141) km.
(b) The arrival time.
(a) First we calculate the distance to point A and the direction cosines of the direction
of the ray (r) (Fig. 121):
p
5002 3002 1412 599:90
600 km
500 5
n1
600 6
300 1
n2
600 2p
2
141
n3
6
600
r
X3
r
141
X1
300
500
X2
Fig. 121
224
Seismology
r p
m
10 km s1
r
p p
s 0:25 ) l m ) a b 3 30 km s1
2pf
2p 0:5
p
p km1
a
5:5
30
2pf
2p 0:5
p
p p km1
kb
b
10
10
ka
The general expressions for the scalar and vector potentials are
A exp ika n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 at
ci Bi exp ikb n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 bt
Leaving the amplitudes A and Bi in arbitrary form and substituting the obtained values we
have for the potentials,
p
p
p
5
1
2
x1 x2
x3 30t
A exp i p
2
6
30 6
p
p
p
5
1
2
x1 x2
x3 10t
ci Bi exp i p
2
6
10 6
(b) The travel times for P- and S-waves from the origin to the given point are
r
600
p 109:5 s
a
30
r
600
t b p 189:7 s
b
10
ta
x1
x2
x3
p
4t
w 4 exp 0:25i
6
3
2
225
122:1
where e 90 i is the emergence angle and i the incidence angle, and k ka cos e is the
wavenumber corresponding to the apparent horizontal velocity, c a /cos e. These
expressions are written for rays contained on the incidence plane (x1, x3). Then, we have
to rotate the given potential to refer it to the incidence plane. First, from the direction
cosines we calculate the incidence angle i and the azimuth az:
1
n1 sin i cos az p
6
1
n2 sin i sin az p
3
1
n3 cos i p ) i 45 e
2
p
1
2
cos az p ) sin az p
3
3
Using the rotation matrix we obtain the direction cosines on the plane of incidence (x1, x3):
1
0
1
10 1
0 01 0
p
n1
n1
cos az
sin az 0
B 2C
C
@ n02 A @ sin az cos az 0 A@ n2 A ) B
B 0 C
@
1 A
n03
1
n3
0
0
p
2
The values of c and k are
p
a
a0
8
p
4
2 km s1
cos e cos e0
2 p
2
km1
k ka cos e ka0 cos e0
8
Then the potential of the incident wave is now given by
p
1
inc 4 exp i p x3 x1 4 2 t
4 2
0
The angle i of the transmitted or refracted ray is found from Snells law:
p
sin i sin i0
2
0
0 ) sin i
cos e0
a
4
a
p
p
14
0
0
) tan e0 7
) cos i sin e
4
Using the expressions for the reection and refraction coefcients, V and W, we can
calculate the amplitude of the reected and refracted potentials:
p
p
A
r0 tan e r tan e0 4 3 7
16 12 7
p
p
1:07
V
0
)
A
A0 r tan e r tan e0 4 3 7
43 7
A0
2rtge0
6
24
p ) A0
p 2:01
0
W
A0 r tan e r tan e0 4 3 7
43 7
226
Seismology
8
2
refl 1:07 exp
i x3 x1 p t
8
2
p
2
8
i
7x3 x1 p t
trans 2:01 exp
8
2
p p p
123. A P-wave of amplitude 5 2; 5 6; 10 2 and frequency v 12 rad s1 in a
semi-innite medium of speed of propagation a 6 km s1 and Poissons ratio 0.25 is
incident on the free surface. Calculate:
(a) The potential of the incident P-wave.
(b) The potential of the reected S-wave.
(c) The components u1, u2, u3 of the reected S-wave.
(a) The displacements of the P-wave can be deduced from its scalar potential:
A exp ika n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 at
123:1
uP r
where A is the amplitude, ka is the wavenumber (P), ni are the direction cosines, and a is the
P-wave velocity. The wavenumber is found from the given angular frequency and velocity:
ka
o 12
2 km1
a
6
Since we know the amplitudes of the components of the displacements we can nd the
incidence angle i and the azimuth az:
p
@
Aka n1 A2 sin i cos az 5 2
@x1
p
@
Aka n2 A2 sin i sin az 5 6
uP2
@x2
p
@
uP3
Aka n3 A2 cos i 10 2
@x3
p
Dividing the two rst equations we obtain 3 tan az ) az 60 , and dividing the
last two,
p
5 2
1
p tan i cos az tan i ) i 45
2
10 2
uP1
P q
2 2 2
j uP j
u
102 m2
uP1 uP2 uP3 Aka ) A
ka
p
p
p
2
6
2
x1
x3 6t m2
x2
4
4
2
227
If we express the potential referred to the plane (x1, x3) as the incidence plane, as we did in
Problem 122, then
A exp ik x1 tan e x3 ct
where
p
1
k ka cos e 2 p 2
2
p
a
6
c
6 2 km s1
1
cos e
p
2
e 90 i 45 ;
p
p
inc 102 exp i 2 x1 x3 6 2t m2
123:2
p
a
b p 2 3 km s1
3
From the values of e and f we calculate the P-to-S reection coefcient VPS, using equation
VPS
4a1 3a2
4ab 1 3a2 2
where we substitute
a tan e 1
and
b tan f
so
p
5
41 3
VPS p
0:64
4 5 1 3 2
From this coefcient we calculate the proportion of the incident P-wave which is reected
as an S-wave (only with SV component; the negative sign indicates the opposite sense of
the reected ray):
B AVPS 10 0:64 6:4 103 m2
When the ray is contained in the (x1, x3) plane we use a scalar potential for the S-wave
which in this case is given by
c B exp ik x1 tan f x3 ct
p
p
p
6:4 103 exp i 2 x1 5x3 6 2t m2
228
Seismology
(c) To calculate the amplitudes of the total displacements in terms of the two scalar
potentials, we remember that for this orientation of the axes the displacements are
given by
@ @c
u1
uP1 uSV
1
@x1 @x3
@ @c
u3
uP3 uSV
3
@x3 @x1
The displacements of the SV reected wave in this case are
p
@c
6:4 5
uSV
1
@x3
p
@c
6:4 2
uSV
3
@x1
If we want to determine the components 1 and 2, referred to the original system of axes, we
SV
project uSV
1 uR using the azimuth 60 :
p
SV
uSV
1 uR cos az 3:2 5
p
SV
uSV
2 u2 sin az 3:2 15
p
x1
3
3
x2
x3 4t
ci 10 3; 2; 4 exp 5i
4
4
2
is incident on the free surface x3 0. Find the SV and SH components of the reected
S-wave referred to the same coordinate system as the incident wave, and the coefcient of reection. Poissons ratio is 3/8.
According to the value of Poissons ratio the relation between l and m is
s
l
3
) l 3m
2 l m 8
and the relation between the velocities of the P-waves and S-waves is
ss
l 2m
5m p
5b
a
r
r
The incidence angle i and the azimuth az are obtained from the direction cosines:
p
3
n3 cos i
) i 30
2
1
n1 sin i cos az sin 30 cos az ) az 60
4
Using Snells law we nd the value of the critical angle
sin ic 1
b
1
) sin ic p ) ic 26:5
b
a
a
5
229
X3
r
i
u SV
60
Fig. 124a
Since i > ic, there is no reected P-wave. The components of the incident S-wave are
obtained from the potential
8
< uS1 0
S
ui r c ) uS2 80
: S
u3 40
q
p
The modulus of the displacement is uS 802 402 40 5:
The SV component is given by (Fig. 124a)
uSV
u3
80
cos90 i0
q
uS 2 uSV 2 40
3 1
3
3
1
uSH
40
;
;
0
exp
5i
x
x
x
4t
2
3
1
i
2 2
4
2
4
For total reection the amplitude of the reected SV is equal to that of the incident one, but
with a phase shift d. The components are given by (Figs 124a and 124b)
SV
cos i cos az
uSV
1 u
SV
uSV
cos i sin az
2 u
SV
uSV
sin i
3 u
230
Seismology
X1
u SH
30
X2
60
SV
uH
Fig. 124b
p
3
3
3
3 1
1
SV
; ;
x2
x3 4t id
exp 5i x1
ui 80
4
4
2
4 2
4
To determine the phase shift d we have to determine the reection coefcients for a free
surface. Textbooks usually give those for Poissons ratio s = 1/4, but since in this problem
s 3/8 we have to calculate them. On a free surface the boundary conditions are that
stresses are null, which in terms of the scalar potentials and c, are given by
t31 0 m u3;1 u1;3 2;31 c;11 c;33
124:1
t33 0 l u1;1 u3;3 2mu3;3 3;11 5;33 2c;13
where, using (x1, x3) as the plane of incidence, the scalar potential of the reected
P-waves is
A exp ik ax3 x1 ct
and the scalar potential of the incident and reected S-wave is
c B0 exp ik bx3 x1 ct B exp ik bx3 x1 ct
Substituting in (124.1) we obtain for the coefcient of the reected S-waves,
VSS
B
i4^ab 1 b2 3 5^a2
B0 i4ab 1 b2 3 5a2
1
4^ab
1 b2 3 5^a2
231
p
3
1
x3 4 2 t
c 10 exp i3 x1
2
2
is incident from an elastic medium with l 0 onto a liquid with velocity a0 4 km s1
(the two media have the same density). Derive the equations relating the amplitudes of
the potentials of the incident, reected, and transmitted waves.
Given that the wave is incident from an elastic medium onto a liquid medium, there are reected
S- and P-waves in the elastic medium and transmitted P-waves in the liquid (Fig. 125).
If l 0, the P-wave velocity in the elastic medium is
s s
p
pp
l 2m
2m
b 2 4 2 2 8 km s1
a
r
r
Assuming (x1, x3) is the incidence plane, we use the scalar S-wave potential which, for the
incident and reected waves in the solid medium, is given by
c B0 exp ikb x1 cos f x3 sin f bt
B exp ikb x1 cos f x3 sin f bt
X3
P
e
a= 4
b= 0
M
f
X1
a=8
b = 42
Fig. 125
232
Seismology
1
) f 60 ;
2
B0 10;
kb 3
k kb cos f
Applying Snells law we determine the angle e of the reected P-wave in the solid medium
and the angle e0 of the transmitted P-wave onto the liquid (Fig. 125):
cos f
cos e
cos 60 cos e
) p
) e 45
b
a
8
4 2
cos e0 cos f
1
) cos e0 p ) e0 69
0
a
b
2 2
r
p
p
7
1
sin e0 1 p ) tan e0 7
8 2 2
p
p
3
x 1 x 3 7 8 2t
2
The relation between the amplitude of the potential of the incident S-wave (B0 = 10) and
those of the reected and refracted P-waves A, A0 and the reected S-wave B can be
obtained from the conditions at the boundary between the two media (x3 0), that is,
continuity of the normal component of the displacements (u3) and of the stress (t33) and
null tangential stress (t31):
u3 u03 ) ;3 c;1 0;3
t31 0 ) 2;13 c;33 c;11 0
t33 t033 ) l0 0;33 0;11 2m ;33 c;13
233
A
4 7 21
p p
10 4 7 21
p p
B
1:8
4 7 21
126. An S-wave incident on the free surface of a semi-innite medium with s 0.25 is
given by (in units of 103 m2)
p
p
1
p
3
3
ci 10 3; 2; 4 exp 5i x1
x2
x3 4t
4
4
2
Calculate:
sin ic 1
1
) sin ic p ) ic 35
b
a
3
Since i < ic we have a reected P-wave. The reection coefcient at a free surface for a
reected P-wave from an incident S-wave is given by
VSP
4b1 3a2
4ab 1 3a2 2
126:1
234
Seismology
X1
f
P
S
X3
Fig. 126
where a tan e and b tan f, and f is the emergence angles of the incident S-wave and e is
that of the reected P-wave (Fig. 126). The relation between f and e according to Snells law is
p 1
cos f
cos e
a
VSP
p
4 3 1 1
4 1 1
p
3
We can write the potential of the incident S-wave referred to the incidence plane (x1, x3) by
means of the rotation matrix
0
1
cos az
sin az 0
@ sin az cos az 0 A
1
0
0
and substituting
0
1
B 2
B p
B
@ 3
2
0
p
1
3
8
p
0 C0 10p3 1 0 B1 1
<B1 4 3
2
C@
C
2 A @ B2 A ) B2 16 B0
1
:
0A
B3
B3 4
4
2
0 1
the potential is
c0i B1 ; B2 ; B3 exp ikb cos fx1 sin fx3 4t
p
p
3
1
x3 4t
4 3;16; 4 exp 5i x1
2
2
3
1
x3 4t
16 exp 5i x1
2
2
126:2
235
From
kb
o
o
5
b
4
o 20 s1
we have
and
ka
o
20
p km1
a 4 3
The scalar potential of the reected P-wave referred to the original system of axes is
given by
A exp ika nj xj at
where the direction cosines are now
p
p
31
3
p
3
3
1
x 1 x 2 x 3 4 3t
4
4
2
(b) For the reected S-wave we have to separate the SV and SH components. The SV
component can be deduced from the scalar potential
p
1
3
r
cSV B exp ikb cos f x1 sin f x3 4t B exp 5i x1
x3 4t
2
2
4ab 1 3a2
4ab 1
3a2 2
B
)B0
B0
236
Seismology
For the reected SH component we use the displacement of the u2 instead of the
potential. The displacements of the SH component of the incident wave are obtained from
(126.2):
uiSH c01;3 c03;1 40
Referred to the reference of the plane of incidence, the displacement is given by
p
3
1
i
x3 4t
uSH 40 exp 5i x1
2
2
The amplitude of the reected SH wave is equal to that of the incident SH wave. Referred
to the incidence plane system of reference,
p
3
1
r
uSH 40 exp 5i x1
x3 4t
2
2
The displacement of the reected S-wave referred to the original system of axes is
p
p
1
3
3
uri Br1 ; Br2 ; Br3 exp i5 x1
x2
x3 4t
4
4
2
Since the SV component is zero, Br3 0; Br1 and Br2 are found using the equations
jur j urSH ) Br1 2 Br2 2 1600
p
1 r
3 r
r
B 0
ui n i 0 ) B 1
4
4 2
resulting in
p
Br1 20 3
Br2 20
x1
x2
x3
w 4 exp 0:25i p p p 4t
6
3
2
127:1
237
) l a2 r
a
r
r
The cubic dilatation is obtained from the potential :
y r2 ka2 A
1
1
4
16
4
Then, we obtain
l a2 r
P
5 109
Pa
5
) r g cm3
2
2
1
y
m s
4
16 106
4
1
5
4 5 J m2
16
4
127:2
127:3
A0 r0 tan e r tan e0
A
r0 tan e r tan e0
0
V
A0 r tan e r tan e0
127:4
238
Seismology
and from Snells law the emergence angle of the transmitted wave e0 is
r
p
cos e cos e0
a0
2 1
1
1
7
0
0
0 ) cos e cos e p p ) sin e 1 p
a
a
a
4 2 2 2
8 2 2
Given that the transmitted energy is four times the reected energy,
Itras
Iref
W 2 A20 r0 o4
V 2 2r0 a
0
4 2 a2 4 ) 2
W
5ra0
V A0 ro
a
If we substitute in (127.4)
5 p
7
4
V
5 p
7
r0
4
5
2
4
W
p
5
7
r0
4
r0
We have three equations for r, V, and W. The solution for positive values of the variables
is
W 0:23
r0 7:7 )
V 0:40
(b) The potential of the reected P-wave is
ref VA0 exp ik a n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 at
1 1
1
1
p x1 p x2 p x3 4t
1:6 exp i
4
6
3
2
To determine the potential of the transmitted wave we have to calculate the direction
cosines of the transmitted ray. The azimuth is the same as that of the incident wave which
can be deduced from the direction cosines and the value of i:
1
1
n1 sin i cos az p ) cos az p
6
3
p
1
2
n2 sin i sin az p ) sin az p
3
3
239
1
1
1
7
p x1 p x2 p x3 2t
tras 0:92 exp i
2 2 6
2 3
2 2
128. Two liquid media are separated at x3 0, the rst of volumetric coefcient
1
K 109 Pa and density 1 g cm3. The amplitudes of the components of an
p
2
incident wave of frequency 3 Hz
pare
ui 18p 1;1; 6 mm and those of the wave
63 2p pp p
transmitted to medium 2 are
2; 2; 3 mm. Given that the amplitude of
7
the transmitted potential is twice that of the reected potential, nd expressions for
the incident, reected, and transmitted potentials.
In liquids only P-waves are propagated and their displacements can be deduced from the
scalar potential
A0 exp ika n1 x1 n2 x2 n3 x3 at ) uP r
Then in our case the components of the displacement in mm are
uP1
@
A0 ka n1 A0 ka sin i cos az 18p
@x1
uP2
@
A0 ka n2 A0 ka sin i sin az 18p
@x2
uP3
p
@
A0 ka n3 A0 ka cos i 18p 6
@x3
p
2 2 3
3
63p 2
2
0
0
P
p ; p ; p ) n3 sin e p ) cos e0 p
utras p
7 7 7
7
7
7
The P-wave velocity in the medium of the incident wave is
s s
l 2m
K
1
a
p km s1
r
r
2
Using Snells law we nd the velocity of the medium of the refracted wave,
p
cos e
a
2 2
0
) a p
cos e0 a0
7
From the values of the velocities in the two media we calculate their densities:
9
1 0
>
>
r
2
0
>
a
7
Kr
>
2
>
=
02
0
0
3
3
a
16 K r
K
) r0 r g cm3
p
>
2
2
q 2 2
>
8 0>
>
0
K0
0
>
a r0 p ) K r ;
7
7
240
Seismology
The reection V and transmission W coefcients are found using their expressions and from
them we get the relation between the amplitude A0 of the incident wave potential and those
of the reected A and refracted A0 waves, and substituting the value for A0 6, we obtain
A0 6 ) A 3 103 m2
From these values we can write the potentials of the incident, reected, and transmitted
waves:
p
p 1
3
1
1
x3 p t
inc 6 exp i6p 2 p x1 p x2
2
2 2
2 2
2
p
p 1
3
1
1
x3 p t
ref 3 exp i6p 2 p x1 p x2
2
2
2 2
2 2
p
p
p
p p
2
2
2
3
7
tras 6 exp i3p p p x1 p x2 p x3 2 p t
7
7
7
7
2
129. Two liquids in contact have speeds of propagation of 4 and 6 km s1. The density
of the rst is 2 g cm3 and is less than that of the second. For waves of normal
incidence, the reected and transmitted energies are equal. A wave of v 1 s1 and
with a potential of amplitude A0 2103 cm2 is incident from the rst onto the
second at an angle of 30 . Calculate:
m n2
m n2
4mn
m n2
129:1
241
i = 30
r = 2 g cm3
M
e
a = 4 km s1
a = 6 km s1
M
Fig. 129
a
4
16
a
4
The partition of energy between the reected and refracted waves is given by
sin e0 2
W V2 1
sin e
The reection V and transmission W coefcients are
p
p
3 2 7
m sin e n sin e0 4 2 3 4
p 0:8
p
V
m sin e n sin e0
3 2 7
4
2 p3 4
3
2 sin e
p 0:46
W
p
0
m sin e n sin e
3 2 7
4
2
3 4
mn
The incident, reected, and transmitted energies per unit time and surface area are (Problem 127)
ro4 2
A sin e 17:3 erg cm2 s
a 0
ro4 2
ro4 2 2
Eref
A sin e
A V sin e 11:1 erg cm2 s
a
a 0
r0 o4
r0 o4
Etrans 0 A02 sin e0 0 A20 W 2 sin e0 7:5 erg cm2 s
a
a
Einc
242
Seismology
7
1
x3 x1 8t
tras 920 exp i
8 3
130. An SV wave is incident on the free surface of an elastic medium of Poisson ratio
0.25. If the potential of the wave is (in units of 103m2)
p
3
5
5
1
1
c i p ; p ; 0 exp i p x1 p x2
x3 4t
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
nd the components of the amplitude of the reected P-wave referred to this set of axes.
From the direction cosines we nd the incidence angle i, the emergence angle f, and the
azimuth az of the incident SV wave (Fig. 130):
p
3
n3 cos i sin f
) i 30 and f 60
2
1
1
n1 sin i cos az cos az p ) az 45
2
2 2
Bearing in mind that Poissons ratio is 0.25, from Snells law we nd the emergence angle
e of the reected P-wave:
p
p
s 0:25 ) l m ) a 3b 4 3 km s1
p
cos f
cos e
3
) cos e
) e 30
b
a
2
X3
f
f
SV
Fig. 130
243
The reection coefcient for the reected P-wave gives us the relation between the
amplitude of the potential, B0, of the incident SV wave and A, that of the reected P wave:
VSP
p
A
4 tan f 1 3 tan2 e
3
2
B0 4 tan e tan f 1 3 tan2 e
To nd B0 we write the potential of the incident SV wave referred to the (x1, x3) plane of
incidence using the rotation matrix
0 5 1
0
1
0
1
p
0
cos az
sin az 0 B 2 C
B
C
C
C
B
C B
@ sin az cos az 0 AB
B p5 C @ 5 A
@
2A
0
0
0
1
0
p
B0 5 103 m2 ) A 5 3 103 m2
Referred to this system of axes the potential of the reected P-wave is given by
A exp ik x3 tan e x1 a t
kb
1
1 2 km1
cos f
2
p
p
1
5 3 exp i2 x3 p x1 4 3t
3
k
The amplitudes of the displacements of the reected P-wave referred to this set of axes are
p
@
10 3 mm
@x1
@
u3
10 mm
@x3
u1
244
Seismology
xc
F
H
ic
ic
v1
v2
Fig. 131a
critical distance, calculate the values of H, v1, and v2. Plot the travel-time curve (t, x)
for this specic case with numerical values.
The critical distance xc is the distance at which a ray that is reected with the critical angle
at the top of the mantle arrives at the surface and is given by the equation (Fig. 131a)
xc 2H tan ic 99 km
131:1
where H is the thickness of the crust. Since we know the relation between the velocities in
the crust and the mantle, we can calculate the critical angle
v2 1:2v1 )
sin ic
1
1
) ic 56:44
) sin ic
v1
v2
1:2
To draw the travel-time curve for different distances of the direct, reected, and critically
refracted waves we use the equations
x
t1
v1
r
2 x2
H2
t2
v1 4
p
x 2H v22 v21
t3
v2
v1 v2
245
t1 (s)
t2 (s)
t3 (s)
0
30
60
90
99
120
150
0
4.3
8.7
13.0
14.3
17.4
21.7
9.5
10.4
12.9
16.1
17.2
19.8
23.7
17.2
19.7
23.4
40
3
t (S)
30
20
1
10
ti
0
0
Fig. 131b
50
xc
150
x (km)
200
250
300
246
Seismology
x
P
Fig. 132
132. In a seismogram recorded at a regional distance, the S-P time lag is 5.5 s, and the
focus is at a depth x/2, where x is the epicentral distance. The
p model1Earth has a single
layer of Poisson ratio 0.25 and constant S-wave velocity 3 km s . Calculate:
(a) For a direct wave from point F to point P (Fig. 132) the difference of the arrival
times of the P- and S-waves (the S-P interval) is
t S-P 5:5
FP FP
b
a
p
5ab
5:5 x
2 ab
Since Poissons ratio is 0.25 and knowing the S-wave velocity we obtain
p p
p
5 31
pp
s 0:25 ) a b 3 ) 5:5 x
2
3 3
x 21 km
x
h 10:5 km
2
133. The Earth consists of a layer of thickness 20 km and seismic wave velocity
6 km s1 on top of a medium of speed of propagation 8 km s1. A seismic focus is
247
x
h
H
F
ic
ic
ic
i
v1
v2
Fig. 133
located at a depth of 10 km. Calculate the difference in travel times between the
reected and the critical refracted waves observed on the surface at a distance of
150 km from the epicentre.
This problem is similar to Problem 131, but now the focus is at depth h 10 km.
The critical distance in this case is given by (Fig. 133)
xc 2H h tan ic
v1
1 6
sin ic ) ic sin
48:6
v2
8
) xc 2 20 10 tan48:6 34:0 km
Since the distance 150 km is greater than the critical distance there arrive critically
refracted rays. The travel times of the reected (t2), and critically refracted (t3) rays at that
distance are
q q
x2 2H h2
1502 2 20 102
25:5 s
t2
v1
6
p
p
x 2H h v22 v21 150 2 20 10 82 62
t3
22:1 s
v2
8
v1 v2
86
The time difference between the travel times of the two rays is
t3 t2 22:06 24:49 3:4 s
134. Consider a crust of thickness H and constant speed of propagation v1 on a mantle
of constant speed of propagation v2. A seismic focus is located at depth H/2, the
critical distance is 51.09 km, the delay time is 4.96 s, and the critical angle is 48.59 .
Calculate the values of H, v1 and v2, and the depth of the focus.
For a focus at depth h H/2, the travel times of the critically refracted (t3) rays and the
critical distance are given by the expressions (Fig. 133).
248
Seismology
p
x 2H h v22 v21
t3
v2
v1 v2
xc 2H h tan ic ) 51:09
H
2H
tan48:59
2
) H 30 km; h 15km
Knowing the depth and thickness of the crust, using Snells law, the value of the critical
angle, and the delay time ti, we nd the velocities v1 and v2:
sin ic
1
) v1 0:75v2
v1
v2
q
p
2
2
2
30
15
v22 0:75v2 2
2H h v2 v1
ti
) 4:96
v1 v2
0:75v22
) v2 8 km s1
v1 6 km s1
135. In a seismogram, the S-P time difference is equal to 5.31 s, and corresponds to a
regional earthquake that occurred at a depth h 2H, where H is the thickness
of the crust. Given that the crust is formed by a layer of constant P-wave velocity
of 3 km s1, that below it there is a semi-innite mantle of double that speed of
propagation, and that Poissons ratio is 0.25, determine:
(a) An expression for the travel-time of the P- and S-waves.
(b) The epicentral distance for an emerging P-wave with a take-off angle of 30 at the
focus.
(a) The travel time corresponding to the ray given in Fig. 135 is given by
t
FA AS
2v
v
i0
i0
2H
A
ih
Fig. 135
2v
249
where v a for P-waves and v b for S-waves. Using Snells law we nd the relation
between the incidence angle at the focus ih and at the station i0:
sin ih sin i0
1
) sin i0 sin ih
2v
v
2
From Fig. 135 we obtain
H
H
) FA
cos ih
FA
H
H
cos i0
) AS
cos i0
AS
cos ih
From these equations we deduce the expression for the travel time:
t
H
H
2v cos ih v cos i0
135:1
135:2
Using Equations (135.1) and (135.2) and putting v a we obtain the travel time and
epicentral distance for P-waves and putting v b for S-waves.
(b) For a P-wave with take-off angle at the focus (ih) of 30 , we rst nd the value of
the angle at the station i0,
sin ih sin i0
) i0 14:47
2a
a
Substituting in (135.1) we obtain
tP
H
H
H
p
1:61
a0:97
a
3
2a
2
The travel time of the S-wave with take-off angle jh 30 can also be calculated using
(135.1). Since Poissons ratio is 0.25, the velocity of the S-wave is
p
p
a
s 0:25 ) a 3b ) b p 3 km s1
3
The incidence angle at the station, j0, using Snells law, is given by
sin jh sin j0
) j0 14:47
2b
b
and the travel time is
tS
H
H
H
2:79
2b cos jh b cos j0
a
Since we know the S-P time interval we can obtain the value of h:
t S-P 5:31 2:79
H
H
1:61 ) h 13:61 km
3
3
250
Seismology
t1
v1
7
q q
2H1 h2 x2
2 12 62 1002
t2
14:5 s
v1
7
As the velocity of the second layer is less than that of the rst layer there is no critical
refraction at that boundary. There is critical refraction at the boundary between the second
layer and the mantle where the velocity is greater. Using Snells law, we can calculate the
h
F
2 (H1 h)
H1
n1
i1
i1
F
H2
n2
ic
ic
n3
Fig. 136
251
critical angle ic and from this value the incidence angle at the focus i1 for the critically
refracted ray:
sin i1 sin ic
1
6
) sin ic ) ic 48:6
v1
v2
v3
8
7
sin i1 ) i1 61:0
8
The travel time t3 of the critically refracted ray at the bottom of the second layer is given by
FA AB BC CD DS
v1
v2
v3
v2
v1
If the epicentral distance x is 100 km, the different segments of (136.1) are
t3
136:1
H1 h H1
cos i1
2v
3v
v
sin ic
1
) ic 41:8
2v
3v
137:1
The rays which leave the focus and arrive at the surface at a distance x are only those with
angles less than the critical angle (Fig. 137). The travel time for these rays is
t
FA AB BS
H
H
H
2v
3v
v
2v cos ih 3v cos i2 v cos i1
137:2
According to Equation (137.1) we have the relation between the incidence angles:
q
q
3
1
4 9 sin2 ih
sin i2 sin ih ) cos i2 1 sin2 ih
2
2
q
q
1
1
sin i1 sin ih ) cos i1 1 sin2 ih
4 sin2 ih
2
2
252
Seismology
i1
H
i0
H
i2
3v
A
ic
ih
2v
Fig. 137
Substituting in (137.2) we write the travel time as function of the take-off angle ih:
!
H
1
2
2
t
p p
v 2 cos ih 3 4 9 sin2 ih
4 sin2 ih
We nd a similar expression for the epicentral distance x:
x H tan ih H tan i2 H tan i1
!
sin ih
3 sin ih
x H tan ih p p
4 sin2 ih
4 9 sin2 ih
The range of values of the take-off angle for rays which arrive at the surface is
0 < ih <42 .
138. A semi-innite medium consists of two media of velocities v and 3v separated by a
vertical surface. In the rst medium there is a focus of seismic waves at a depth a
below the free surface and at the same distance a from the surface separating the two
media. Write the expressions for the direct, reected, and transmitted waves arriving
at the free surface, and plot the travel time curve (t, x) in units of a/v and a (neglecting
waves with more than a single reection).
In this situation we have the following rays arriving at the surface: direct in the rst
medium, reected at the boundary, and critically refracted and refracted to the
second medium. We consider two cases for rays arriving at distances 0 < x < a and
distances x > a.
253
S
x
a
3v
Fig. 138a
S
E
x
ic
a
A
ic
ic
a
v
3v
Fig. 138b
(a) For 0 < x <a, the travel time t1 of the direct wave is (Fig. 138a)
p
FS
x 2 a2
t1
v
v
The travel time t2 of the reected ray is
q
2a x2 a2
FP PS AP PS AS
t2
v
v
v
v
The reected rays exist also for negative distances, but we will not consider them.
The travel time t3 of the critically refracted ray (Fig. 138b) is
t3
FA AB AS
v
3v
v
138:1
254
Seismology
E
xc
ic
a
ic
ic
F
ic
a
3v
Fig. 138c
a
ax
FA
AS
138:2
BP a a tan ic
) SB 1:83a
SB
SB
255
S
X
a
A
i
a
3v
Fig. 138d
2.0
2
t (a/v)
1.5
1
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
x (a)
Fig. 138e
(b) For distances x > a, we have the rays refracted at the boundary between the two
media when the incidence angle is less than the critical angle (Fig. 138d), that is,
i <19.47 :
256
Seismology
FA AS
v
3v
a
FA
cos i
xa
AS
cos e
t4
Using Snell`law
sin i sin e
) sin e 3 sin i
v
3v
The travel-time is given by
t4
a
xa
p
v cos i 3v 1 9 sin2 i
The travel-time curves for direct (1), reected (2), critically refracted (3) and transmitted
(4) waves are given in Fig. 138e.
139. Given the structure in the diagram, calculate the arrival times of the direct and
(non-reected) transmitted waves for x 0, where x 0 is a point on the free surface
in the vertical above the focus.
At x 0 )ih 0 , the travel-time of the vertical ray is (Fig. 139a)
t
a a 3a
2v v 2v
For rays arriving at x > 0 and leaving the focus with take-off angles 0 < ih < 45 , the
travel-times are given by
FA AS
a
a
2v
v
2v cos ih v cos r
a
cos ih
FA
a
cos r
AS
t
a
2a
2v
Focus
Fig. 139
139:1
257
X
E
r
2a
2v
a
ih
F
a
Fig. 139a
) sin r sin ih
v
2
2v
139:2
Substituting in (139.1):
a
1
2
t
p
v 2 cos ih
4 sin2 ih
139:3
The relation between the epicentral distance x and the incidence angle ih is
x F0 A A0 S
F0 A a tan ih
A0 S a tan r
sin ih
x atan i tan r a tan i p
4 sin2 ih
tan ih
F0 A
a
tan r
x F0 A x
tan ih
a
a
tan ih )
cos r cos r a
cos r sin ih cos ih
258
Seismology
x
E
n
2a
r
2n
a
ih
ih
F
F
a
Fig. 139b
By substitution in (139.3),
t
2x
3a
v sin ih 2v cos ih
1
x a 1 p
7
This is the limit of the epicentral distance at which these rays arrive. The corresponding
time limit is
t
a 1
4
p p
v
2
14
For angles ih > 45 (Fig. 139b), the travel time and epicentral distance, as a function of the
take-off angle ih, are
t
FA AS
a
xa
a
xa
sin ih
2v
v
2v sin ih v sin r 2v sin ih
v
2
x a A0 S
A0 S
2a F0 A
a
F0 A
tan ih
a
sin ih
p
x a 2a
tan ih
4 sin2 ih
tan r
259
Using
cos ih cos r
1
) cos r cos ih
2v
v
2
1 p
4 cos2 ih
sin r
2p
4 cos2 ih
tan r
cos ih
we obtain for x and t,
p
a
4 cos2 ih
tan ih
cos ih
a
2x a
p
t
2v sin ih v 4 cos2 ih
x a 2a
For i 90 , as expected the ray doesnt arrive at the free surface.
140. For the structure in Fig. 140a, write the equations of the travel times of the
direct, reected, and transmitted waves (neglecting waves with more than a single
reection) as a function of the epicentral distance. Determine the times of intersection,
and the minimum and maximum distances in each case in terms of a/v and v. Plot the
travel-time curves.
The travel-time of the direct wave for distance 0 < x < 1 is (Fig. 140a)
p
4x2 a2
t
2v
For the ray reected on the horizontal surface at depth a the travel time is
s
2
3a
p
x2
2
4x2 9a2
t
2v
v
x
S
a /2
F
Fig. 140a
260
Seismology
x
S
a/2
a
a
2v
Fig. 140b
2v
v
The range of distances is
3a
3
a
2
xmin
7
2
) xmin 7a ) tmin
p
7 5a
2 v
xmax 1
The critically refracted ray on the surface at depth a, using the general expression, is given by
p
p
x 2H h v22 v21
x a3 3
t
v2
v 1 v2
2v v 4
The minimum distance for this ray corresponds to the critical distance:
sin ic
1
) ic 30
v
2v
p
3
a
a
xc tan ic a tan ic
2
2
and the maximum distance is
xmax
p
a 3 3
a
a p
3
3
261
10
t (a/v)
2
2
4
6
X (a)
10
12
Fig. 140c
On the surface at depth 2a there is no critically refracted ray, since the minimum take-off
angle ih at that surface is
a
tan ih a 2 ) ih 63:4
2
greater than the critical angle 30 .
The travel-time curves are drawn after rewriting the equations in units of a/v and a, and
are represented in Fig. 140c
tv2 x 2
x
1. Direct ray:
14 ; 0
< 1 (a hyperbola)
a
a
a 2
tv
x 2 9
x
2. Reected ray on the surface at depth a:
; 0
3 (a hyperbola)
a
a
4
a
tv2 x2 49
x
; 7
1 (a hyperbola)
3. Reected ray on the surface at depth 2a:
a
a
4 p
a
tv 1 x 3 3
x
4. Critically refracted ray on surface at depth a:
262
Seismology
141. For the structure in the diagram, assume a seismic focus at the surface, and
calculate the travel time of the direct, reected, and critical refracted waves for
epicentral distances between 0 and a. Calculate the critical distance, and the expression for the transmitted wave.
Since the focus is at the free surface, the travel time of the direct ray is simply given by
(Fig. 141a)
t
x
v
0<x<a
a
F
45
Fig. 141
a
x
S
45
P
a
a 2
45
Fig. 141a
263
a
x
S
45
45
ic
ic
B
A
2
a
45
Fig. 141b
FP PS F0 P PS 1 p
x2 2a2 2ax
v
v
v
v
v
p
sin ic
1
1
2 2
) ic 19:47
) sin ic ) cos ic
v
3v
3
3
The travel-time of the critically refracted ray is (Fig. 141b)
FA AB BS
v
3v
v
a
p
3
2
a
FA
cos ic 4
t
The distance BS can be found using the sine law in triangle SBD:
sin90 ic sin 45
ax
BS
BS a x
3
4
264
Seismology
a
xc
s
D
45
ic
45
ic
A
2
2
45
Fig. 141c
) d a x
d
ax
sin90 ic
p
sin45 ic
2
AB a
0:96x 0:50a
1 tan ic a x
sin90 ic
2
The travel time is given by
x
a
t 0:43 1:33
v
v
Finally we determine the critical distance xc from the triangle AS0 D (Fig. 141c):
b 90 ic 45 180 ) b 64:47
sin90 ic
sin b
) xc 0:52a
a
a
a xc
p p tan ic
2
2
265
x
x
) v1 a
v1 a
142:1
(b) We now consider the case of a dipping layer with dip angle y 45 . The critical
distance is now given by the equation (Fig. 142)
xc
F
*
ic
xc sin
Fig. 142
266
Seismology
142:3
so
xc
2H tan ic
cos y sin y tan ic
The critical distance along the horizontal free surface xc is found by substituting H, y, and ic
in (142.3)
xc 3:86a
The travel times of the reected and critically refracted rays for a dipping layer are given by
the equations
p
4H 2 x2 4Hx sin y
t2
v1
q
x cos y x sin y 2H
t3
v22 v21
v2
v1 v2
By substitution of the values of H, v1, v2, and y, we obtain
p
p
4a2 x2 2 2ax
t2
pa
2
p
p
p p
x 2 x 2 2a p x 2
3
1 3 3
t3
2a
4a
4a
For the required values of x, we obtain the following values of the travel time in units
of a/v:
x
t2 (a/v)
t3 (a/v)
a
3a
5a
2.80
4.64
6.57
6.56
) sin ih
v0 kr v0 kh
v0 kr
v0
143:1
267
x
a
0 / k
R
S
E
V0
r
F
i0
ih
Fig. 143
The problem is solved if we can express r as a function of x, v0, h, and k. The epicentral
distance x is the sum of a and b (Fig. 143):
r
v 2
0
b R2
k
But we know that for a distribution of velocities which increases linearly with depth the
rays are circular and their radius R is
r
2 v 2
v0
v0
0
r
R r )b
k
k
k
and
r
v
2 v
2
0
0
a
r
h
k
k
Therefore,
r
r
2 v 2
2 v
2
v0
v0
0
0
bxa)
r
x
r
h
k
k
k
k
v
u0
12
u x 2 h2 2 v 0 h
u
k A v0 h 2 v0
r t@
2x
k
k
268
Seismology
144. Consider a semi-innite medium in which the velocity increases linearly with depth
according to the expression v 4 0.1 z. There is a seismic focus at a depth of 10 km.
Calculate the epicentral distance reached by a wave leaving the focus at an angle of 30 .
The velocity at the focus is found directly by putting in the equation for the distribution of
velocity, z h:
vh 4 0:1 10 5 km s1
According to Snells law we nd the velocity at the point of greatest depth penetration
(i 90 ) of the ray (Fig. 144):
sin ih
1
5
10 km s1
) vm
vm
sin 30
vh
From this value we nd the depth to that point:
vm 10 4 0:1 r ) r 60 km
Knowing that the rays are circular of radius R,
v0
R r 60 40 100 km
k
As in the previous problem, the epicentral distance (from point E to S) is (Fig. 144):
xab
where
r
v
2
0
h 86:60 km
a R2
k
r
v 2
0
b R2
91:65 km
k
so
x 178:25 km
x
a
0/k
R
S
V0
h
r
F
i0
ih
Fig. 144
269
145. A at medium consists of a layer of thickness H and constant speed of propagation v on top of a medium of variable speed of propagation v v0 k(z H) where z
is the depth and k is a constant. If there is a focus at the surface:
(a) Write expressions for the epicentral distance x and the travel time t as functions of
the angle of incidence i0 at the surface.
(b) If H 10 km, k 0.1 s1, and v0 6 km s1, calculate the angle of incidence of a
wave that reaches an epicentral distance of 140 km.
(a) As we saw in Problem 143, for a distribution with a linear increase of velocity with
depth, now in the medium under the layer, v v0 k(z H), the rays are circular with
v0
radius R r where r is the maximum depth of penetration of the ray (Fig. 145).
k
The travel-time of the ray that crosses the layer and penetrates the medium is given by
t2
FP 2
kx0
sinh1
v0 k
2v0
145:1
In the layer of constant velocity the path is a straight line and in the medium it is circular.
The epicentral distance x (from F to S) is (Fig. 145)
x x0 2H tan i0
The length of the straight ray in the layer is
FP
H
cos i0
Substituting in (145.1):
0
2H
2
1 kx
sinh
t
v0 cos i0 k
2v0
145:2
Since the layer has constant velocity the angle i0 is the same at the focus as at the bottom of
the layer at the boundary with the medium. According to Snells law
x
F
i0
i0
x
i0
0/k
P
Fig. 145
Q
r
270
Seismology
sin i0
1
v0
) vm v0 kr
v0
v0 kr
sin i0
where r is the maximum depth reached by the ray in the medium and vm the velocity at that
depth. According to Fig. 145,
0
2
2 v2
x
v0 2
v0
v2
v0
r m2 2 0 2 ) x0 2 cot i0
145:3
2
k
k
k
k
k sin i0
The epicentral distance x is given by
x x0 2H tan i0
2v0
cot i0 2H tan i0
k
145:4
2H
2
sinh1 cot i0
v0 cos i0 k
The epicentral distance for a ray reaching the bottom the layer is given by
H
vp
2 H
kpv0 kz
qdz
x 2 p dz
2
2
k
1p v
0
0
1 p2 v kz2
0
For a ray incident at the bottom of the layer at the critical angle, we have
p
sin ic
1
v0 kH 2v0 kH
146:1
271
xmax
xc
n0/k
S
H
ic
n1
Fig. 146a
Substituting this expression in (146.1) and evaluating the integral, making the change of
variable u v0 kz, we obtain the critical distance
"p s#
3
4v0 kH
v20
1
146:2
xc
2
k
4v0 kH 2
The intercept time for x 0, corresponding to the time of the reected vertical ray (p 0),
is given by
H
dz
2 v0 kH
ln
146:3
ti 2
k
v0
0 v0 kz
The maximum distance xmax corresponds to the last ray propagated inside the layer
v0
without penetrating into the medium and has a circular path of radius R H
k
(Fig. 146a):
r
x 2 v 2
v0 2
2v0
max
0
H
) xmax 2H 1
146:4
2
k
k
kH
(b) For the particular case with the values, H 10 km, v0 1 km s1, and k 0.1 s1,
the velocity at the bottom of the layer H is
vH v0 kH 1 10 0:1 2 km s1
The velocity of the medium is
v1 2v0 kH 21 10 0:1 4 km s1
The critical distance, using Equation (146.2), is
42
xc
0:1
"p s #
p
p
3
1
20
3
2
5 8:2 km
1
2
422
272
Seismology
30
25
t (s)
20
15
10
10
20
30
40
x (km)
Fig. 146b
k
v0
0:1
1
and the maximum distance for the ray in the layer (146.4) is
xmax
r
p
21
2 10 1
20 3 34:6 km
0:1 10
The travel-time curve for rays inside the layer is calculated using the expression
2
1 kx
t sinh
20 sinh1 0:05x
k
2v0
and is represented in Fig. 146b.
273
Fig. 147
147. A medium has a distribution of velocity with depth of the form v v0 eaz, with
0 < a <1. Write as functions of the epicentral distance x the expressions for the ray
parameter, travel-time, and maximum depth reached.
If r is the maximum depth reached for a ray with ray parameter p (Fig. 147), the epicentral
distance x is given by
r
r
pvdz
pv0 eaz dz
x p p
1 p2 v20 e2az
1 p2 v 2
0
0
r
2
2
sin1 pv0 eaz sin1 pv0 ear sin1 pv0
a
a
0
1
, we have
and, as p
v0 ear
i
2 hp
sin1 pv0
x
a 2
From this expression we obtain
1
ax
p cos
v0
2
The travel-time is given by
x
1 x
ax
2
ax
cos dx
sin
t pdx
v0 0
2
v0 a
2
0
To nd the maximum depth of penetration r of a ray arriving at distance x, we write
1
1
ax
1 ax
p
)
r
ln cos
cos
v0 ear v0
2
a
2
z
148. In a semi-innite medium of speed of propagation v 6 exp
, the P-wave
2
emerges with an angle of incidence of 30 . Calculate the difference in arrival times at
a given station of the P-wave and the PP-wave (the wave reected once at the free
surface). At what angle of incidence does the PP-wave emerge?
For a velocity distribution increasing with depth of the type v v0ea z (in our case with
v0 6, a 1/2) rays follow a curved path. For a focus on the free surface the ray parameter
p and the travel times t are given by (Problem 147)
ax
1
p cos
v0
2
148:1
ax
2
sin
t
av0
2
274
Seismology
Fig. 148
For a ray with incidence angle at the surface i0 30 , the ray parameter of the direct
P-wave is given by
p
sin i0
1
1
v0
2 6 12
tP
2
1 4p 1
sin
0:58 s
1
2 3 2
6
2
The travel time of the reected PP-wave (Fig. 148) is double that of the direct P-wave
arriving at the distance x/2:
2
1 4p 1
t PP 2 sin
0:67 s:
1
2 6 2
6
2
The difference between the two times is
t PP t P 0:67 0:58 0:09 s:
To calculate the incidence angle of the PP-wave, we determine rst the ray parameter
p corresponding to the distance x/2:
x
4p
4p
2 32
6
so
p
1
1 4p 1
3
p cos
12
6
2 6 2
275
149:1
149:2
xmax
xc
S
ic
n1
Fig. 149
276
Seismology
2 1
sin pv0 eaH sin1 pv0
a
sin i0 sin ic
1
vH
v0 eaH
) ic sin1
sin1
v0
vH
v1
v1
v1
2
v0 eaH
v0
2
vH
v0
2
xc sin1
sin1
sin1
sin1
ic i0
a
v1
v1
a
v1
v1
a
(b) The intercept time of the reected ray corresponding to the vertical ray (x 0 and p 0) is
H
H
dz
1 az
2
ti 2
2
e dz
1 eaH
av0
0 v
0 v0
(c) The maximum distance of a ray contained in the layer is given by (149.2)
H
vp
2
149:3
xmax 2 p dz sin1 pv0 eaH sin1 pv0
a
1 p2 v 2
0
At the point of greatest depth penetration the incidence angle is 90 and, according to
Snells law,
p
p
vH
v0
vH
By substitution in (149.3),
xmax
i 2
2 hp
sin1 eaH cos1 eaH
a 2
a
1 e0:110
30
5:62
2
ti
1 e0:110 12:6 s
0:1 1
2
cos1 e0:110 23:9 km
xmax
0:1
2
1 1
1 1
sin
sin
6:8 km
xc
0:1
2
5:62
ic sin1
277
) ic 30
v
2v
To calculate the critical distance Dc we consider the relation (Fig. 150b)
R
n
2n
R/2
Fig. 150a
/2
max
R
278
Seismology
ic
P
n
2n
q
R/2
Fig. 150b
/2
R/2
Fig. 150c
y b a 180
sin a sin b
R
R
2
ic b 180 ) b 150 ) a 14:5 ) y 15:5
c 2y 31
(c) The travel time of a ray reected at the mantlecore boundary is (Fig. 150c)
t2
FP PS
FP
2
v
v
v
150:1
279
S
i1
Q
P
i1
i2
i2
2n
R/2
n
R
Fig. 150d
FP
Substituting in (150.1):
2
R
R
R2 2 R cos
2
2
2
r
R
t2
5 4 cos
v
2
The travel times for the minimum and maximum angular distances are
R
min 0 ) t
v
p R
max 120 ) t 3
v
The travel time for a ray which enters the core, that is, with i1 < ic, can be determined
according to Fig. 150d using Snells law:
sin i1 sin i2
v
2v
sin i2 2 sin i1
150:2
Adding the times of the paths through the mantle and the core:
FP PQ QS 2FP PQ
v
2v
v
v
2v
2
R
R
a
2
FP R2 2R cos
2
2
4
R a
PQ 2 sin
2
2
t3
2R 5
R
sin
i2 cos i2
t3
v
4
2
2v
150:3
for values of the incidence angle 0 < i < ic, corresponding to distances Dc < D < 180 .
The relation between the incidence angle i1 and angular distance D is given by
280
Seismology
i 1 ( )
i 2 ( )
D ( )
t3 (R/v)
0
10
20
30
0
20.3
43.2
90
180.0
169.9
153.4
89.0
1.50
1.53
1.60
1.46
sin i1 sin 90 i1 i2 2
R
R=2
sin i1
sin i1 2 cos i1 i2
) 2 i1 i2 cos1
2
2
150:4
Using Equations (150.2), (150.3), and (150.4) we can calculate the travel times of the direct
ray in the mantle, the reected ray, and the transmitted ray through the core. Some values
for the transmitted rays in the core are given in the table.
The travel-time curves for direct rays (1), reected rays (2), and rays refracted in the core
(3) are shown in Fig. 150e.
2.0
3
1.5
t (R/v)
1.0
1
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
Fig. 150e
150
281
151. Assume that the Earth consists of two concentric regions of constant velocity: the
core of radius R/2 and the mantle. The speed of propagation in the core is half that
of the mantle. Plot the travel-time curves of the waves that propagate in the interior of
the Earth in units of R/v where v is the speed of propagation in the mantle.
This problem is similar to Problem 150, but now the velocity of the core is less than that of
the mantle. In the mantle we have direct and reected rays. As in Problem 150 the
maximum angular distance for the direct wave is 120 . The travel times for the direct
(t1) and reected (t2) rays are
R
t1 2 sin
v
2
r
R
5 4 cos
t2
v
2
151:1
151:2
Since the velocity of the core is less than that of the mantle there is no critical angle. All
rays incident at the core are refracted into it. According to Snells law the refracted angle i2
is less than the incident angle i1 (Fig. 151a):
sin i1 sin i2
v
v
2
1
sin i2 sin i1
2
i1
i2
i2
R/2
n
n/2
Q
i1
Fig. 151a
282
Seismology
The travel-time for a ray crossing the mantle and the core is (Fig. 151a)
t3
FP PQ QS 2FP 2PQ
v
v
v
v
v
2
where
R2
R
R2
2R cos a R2 R2 cos 90 i2
4
2
4
2
2
5R
2
R2 sin i2
FP
4
2
R
PQ 2 cos i2 R cos i2
2
2
FP R2
so
2R
t3
v
5
2R
sin i2
cos i2
4
2
v
151:3
3.5
3
3.0
2.5
t (R / n )
2.0
1.5
2
1.0
0.5
1
0
0
25
50
75
100
()
Fig. 151b
125
150
175
283
The relation between the incidence angle at the mantlecore boundary, i1, and the angular
distance, D, of a ray which crosses the core is
90
sin
i
i
1
2
sin180 i1
2
R=2
R
sin i1
1
sin i1 2 cos i1 i2
i1 sin1 sin i1
) 2 cos1
2
2
2
151:4
i2 ( )
D ( )
t3 (R/v)
0
10
20
30
0
20.3
43.2
90
180.0
149.4
114.0
31.0
1.50
1.48
1.40
1.07
The travel-time curves for rays that are direct (1), reected (2), and refracted in the core (3)
are shown in Fig. 151b.
152. Consider a spherical Earth of radius R formed by two hemispherical media of
constant velocities of propagation v and 2v. For a focus on the surface of the
hemisphere of velocity v at the point of intersection of the diameter perpendicular
to the plane that separates the two media, calculate the travel times and travel-time
curves of the direct, reected, and critical refracted waves at the surface of separation
of the two media, in units of R/v. Calculate the expression for the travel time of waves
that propagate through the medium of speed of propagation 2v.
The travel time for angular distances D
90 are given by (Fig. 152a)
t1
FS
R
2 sin
v
v
2
152:1
The travel time of the ray reected at the plane boundary between the two hemispheres is
(Fig. 152a)
t2
FP PS F0 S
v
v
v
According to Fig. 152a (triangle OSF0 ) the relation between the angles a and D is
180 2a 180 ) a
0
2
SS0
sin a
FS
R sin
SS0 R sin ) F0 S
2R cos
sin a
2
sin a
SS
0
) F0 S
284
Seismology
2
R
Fig. 152a
2R
cos
v
2
152:2
FA AB BS
v
2v
v
152:3
R
cos ic
BS
SS0
R cos
cos ic
cos ic
0
AB OS OA BS
0
OS R sin
OA R tan ic
0
BS BS sin ic
285
ic
ic
ic
ic
P
O
2n
Fig. 152b
Substituting ic 30 :
2R
FA p ;
3
BS
2R cos
p ;
3
R
R cos
AB R sin p p
3
3
152:4
The critical distance can be calculated from ic 30 using Fig. 152a (triangle OSP) and a D/2
90 c a ic 90 180 ) c ic a ) c 60
The travel time of the rays that cross the boundary and penetrate in to the medium of
velocity 2v is given by (Fig. 152c)
t4
FP PS
v
2v
) sin i0 2 sin i
v
2v
and we have that
R
cos i
SP0
PS
sin i0
0
SP R sin180 R tan i
FP
152:5
286
Seismology
2n
i
R
Fig. 152c
2.0
2
t (R / n )
1.5
1.0
1
0.5
0
0
Fig. 152d
20
40
()
60
80
287
3R
R sin
4v cos i 4v sin i
152:6
Travel-time curves for t1, t2, and t3 are shown in Fig. 152d.
153. Assume an Earth formed by a mantle of thickness R and a core of radius R/2,
with velocities v and 2v. There is a seismic focus at depth R/4 below the surface.
Calculate the travel-time curves of the direct and reected waves.
The travel time of the direct ray is (Fig. 153a)
t1
FP
v
The distance FP can be expressed in terms of R and D using the cosine law in triangle FOP:
3R 2
3R
FP
R2 2R cos
4
4
Then, we obtain
R
t1
v
r
25 3
cos
16 2
153:1
F
R/4
Fig. 153a
R/2
MAX
O
2n
R
288
Seismology
i
r
b
P
r
F
R /4
2
a
i
2n
1
R/2
Fig. 153b
FP PS
v
v
The distances FP and PS are expressed in terms of R, D1, and D2 using the cosine law in
triangles FOP and SOP (Fig. 153b):
s
2
2
3
R
R 3R
R
cos 1
2
FP
4
2
2 4
s
2
R
R
PS R2
2 cos 2
2
2
Then, we obtain
r
r
13 3
5
cos 1 R
cos 2
R
16 4
4
t2
v
v
153:2
Now we need to express D1 and D2 in terms of the take-off angle i at the focus (F). Using
Snells law for a spherical medium, we relate i and i0 , the incidence angle at the station (S):
3R
R
sin i
sin r R sin i0
3
4
2
) sin i0 sin i
v
v
v
4
153:3
R
3R
2
4
and we obtain
2 sin1 i 3 sin i
153:4
289
1.4
0.8
t (R / n )
0.8
0.8
1
0.6
0.4
40
20
60
80
100
()
Fig. 153c
R
R
2
and
2 sin i0 sin2 i0
153:5
Equations (153.3), (153.4), and (153.5) allow us to calculate D1 and D2 from the take-off
angle i at the focus. The travel-times are given in the following table.
i ( )
i 0 ( )
D1 ( )
D2 ( )
D ( )
t2 (R/v)
0
10
30
40
41.8
0
7.5
22.0
28.8
30.0
0
5.1
18.6
34.6
47.1
0
7.6
26.6
45.8
58.9
0
12.7
45.2
80.4
106.0
0.75
0.76
0.92
1.19
1.41
For angular distance D greater than 108.2 there are no reected rays. The travel-time
curves corresponding to the direct (1) and reected (2) rays are shown in Fig. 153c.
290
Seismology
154. Consider a spherical Earth of radius R 3000 km and constant P-wave speed of
propagation of 4 km s1. Within it there is a core of radius R/2 and constant velocity
v1. At a station at epicentral distance D from an earthquake with focus at the surface,
the observed time interval is tS-P 547.0 s. Given that Poisson's ratio is 1/6, and that
the arrival of the P-wave is at 12 h 23 m 20.4 s, calculate:
(a) The epicentral distance.
(b) The time of the earthquake.
(a) For a spherical Earth of constant velocity the travel time of the direct ray is given by
t2
FO0
R
2 sin
v
v
2
154:1
Taking into account the presence of the core the maximum distance for the direct ray is (Fig. 154)
R
max 2
cos
) max 120
R
2
Since Poissons ratio is 1/6 we have
s
1
l
) m 2l
6 2l m
and we can calculate the relation between the velocities of the P-wave (a) and the S-wave (b),
r 9
l 2m >
r
>
a
=
5
rr
)a
b ) b 2:53 km s1
m >
2
>
b
;
r
Using (154.1) and assuming the same path for P- and S-waves, from the time interval S-P
we obtain the distance:
1 1
S-P
) 77:7
t
2R sin
2 b a
O
max
n1
F
Fig. 154
R/2
291
2R
3000 77:7
sin 2
sin
940:9 s
a
2
4
2
R
5
) cos 1 ) 1 56 ) max 116
10
9
F
h
Fig. 155
2 1
R/2
292
Seismology
For a point on the surface at distance D, the S-P time interval implies, assuming the same
path for P- and S-waves,
t S-P
FP FP FP
a b
b
a
ab
155:1
From the value of Poissons ratio the relation between the P and S velocities is given by
s s r
1
l
m
l 2m
7m
7
)l )a
b
s
8 2 l m
3
r
3r
3
Substituting in (155.1) the S-P interval equal to 600 s we obtain the length of the ray:
FP 600
ab
5212 km
a b
FP R h2 R2 2RR h cos
2
FP R h2 R2
cos
2RR h
2
If h R then D 106 , but this result is not possible because the maximum distance of
5
R
the direct ray for that depth is 94 . If h
then D 86 , this result is possible because
10
this distance is less than the maximum distance. The depth is, then, 400 km.
156. Consider the Earth of radius R and constant velocity v with a core of radius 6R/10
and constant speed of propagation 2v. An earthquake occurs with focus at 8R/10 from
the centre of the Earth. A wave emerges from that focus with a take-off angle of 15 .
(a) Will it pass through the core?
(b) What epicentral distance will it reach?
(c) What will be the travel time of the wave (in units of R/v)?
(a) First we calculate the maximum epicentral distance for a ray which doesnt
penetrate the core. According to Fig. 156a the maximum distance is
max 1 2
6
R
10
) 1 41:4
cos 1
8
R
10
6
R
10
cos 2
) 2 53:1
R
max 41:4 53:1 94:5
From this value we calculate the take-off angle ih for this ray:
1 ih 90 ) ih 48:6
293
ih
6R/10
2n
8R/10
Fig. 156a
S
i
B
i0
i2
A
i
F
ih
i2
6R/10
2
O
3
2n
8R/10
Fig. 156b
For take-off angles less than 48.6 the rays travel through the core.
Since the velocity in the core is greater than in the mantle, to nd out which rays
penetrate into the core, we also need to know the critical angle. Rays with incidence angle
at the coremantle boundary with i > ic are totally reected and dont penetrate into the
core. According to Snells law the critical angle is given by
sin ic
1
) ic 30:0
v
2v
We calculate, using Snells law, the angle of incidence i corresponding to the take-off angle
of 15 (Fig. 156b):
8
6
R sin ih
R sin i
10
10
) i 20:2
v
v
Since the incidence angle i (20.2 ) is less than the critical angle (30 ) and less than the
angle corresponding to the maximum distance (48.6 ), the ray with take-off angle of 15
penetrates into the core.
294
Seismology
(b) Applying Snells law we nd the angle of the transmitted ray in the core i2 (Fig. 156b):
8
6
R sin ih
R sin i2
10
10
v
2v
i2 43:7
2v
v
v
3 i io 8:3
) io 11:9
FA AB BS
v
2v
v
where
s
2
2
8R
6R
8 6
FA
2 R R cos 1 0:21 R
10
10
10 10
s
2
6
6
6 6 2
AB
R
R 2
R cos 2 0:87 R
10
10
10 10
s
2
6
6
R R2 2 RR cos 3 0:42 R
BS
10
10
so
t 1:07
R
v
157. Assume a spherical Earth of radius R 6000 km and constant S-wave speed of
propagation 4.17 km s1. Poisson's ratio is 1/4. At a station at epicentral distance 60
an earthquake is recorded with a time interval t S-P 554 s. Calculate the depth of the
earthquake.
Given that Poissons ratio is 0.25, the P-wave velocity is
s
p
1
l
) l m ) a 3b 7:22 km s1
4 2l m
295
R
Rh
Fig. 157
From the time interval S-P we can calculate the length of the ray FS (Fig. 157):
FS FS
ab
FS
b
a
ab
S-P
t
ab
FS
5469 km
ab
t S-P
157:1
The distance along the ray in terms of the angular epicentral distance D, using the cosine
law, is
q
FS R2 R h2 2RR h cos
Substituting FS from (157.1):
5370
q
R2 R h2 2RR h cos
157:2
We substitute in (157.2) the values R 6000 km and D 60 and solve for h, nding two
possible solutions:
h1 4706 km
h2 1294 km
158. Assume a spherical Earth of radius R and P-wave velocity which can be
expressed by the equation v(r) a br2. The speed of propagation at the surface
of the Earth is v0 and at the centre of the Earth it is 2v0. What angular distance D does
a wave reach which penetrates to a depth equal to half the Earths radius?
If the velocity distribution inside the Earth is v(r) a br2, the ray paths are circular with
radius given by (Fig. 158)
296
Seismology
7/4 R
7/4 R
/2 /2
R/2
Fig. 158
r
dv
p
dr
158:1
v0 )
r2
2
R
) v v0 2 2
R
a 2v0
b
The radius of curvature of the ray which penetrates to r R/2 is that corresponding to the
ray parameter
r0
R
p0 0 0
158:2
2v
v
The velocity at depth R/2 is
0
0 12 1
R
B
7
B
0
2C C
C
v v0 B
@2 @RA A v0 4
R
2R
7 7v0
v0
2
297
a br2 2br 2 2 r
dr dr
R
r
7R
p2br
4
The epicentral (angular) distance corresponding to this ray is found by applying the cosine
law to the triangle POS:
2
2
7
9
9R
R
R R2 2 R cos ) 96:4
4
4
4
2
p
159. The Earth consists of a mantle of radius R and speed of propagation v a= r,
and a core of radius R/2 and speed of propagation 4v0, where v0 is the speed of
propagation at the Earths surface. Calculate:
(a) The maximum epicentral distance corresponding to a wave that travels only
through the mantle.
(b) The critical angle of the wave reected at the core, and the angle at which it leaves
the surface.
(c) The epicentral distance Dc corresponding to the critical angle.
(d) Plot the travel-time curve, specifying Dc and Dm.
(a) The value of a in the velocity distribution is found from the value of velocity at the surface:
1
1
r R ! v v aR 2 ) a v R 2
0
2
1 p
159:1
cos
1a
0
where
r
R
) 0
v
v0
The maximum distance for a ray which travels only through the mantle, that is that reaches
depth R/2, can be calculated from the velocity at that depth, vm:
0 11
R
R
2
p
1 R
BRC
vm v0 @ A v0 2 ) p 2 2p p p
R
vm v0 2 2 2 v0
2
298
Seismology
c
F
i0
ic
/2
/2
R/2
Fig. 159a
(b) The critical angle of a reected ray at the mantle-core boundary applying Snells law is
sin ic
1
p
) ic 20:7
v0 2 4v0
The take-off angle at the surface i0 for this ray is found by again applying Snells law:
R
R sin i0 2 sin20:7
p
) i0 7:2
v0
v0 2
p
v0
8v0
r
r
r3=2
1 p
v v R 2 v0 R
0
rp
1
4
dr
r
R=2 r
R3
3
r
64
R3=2
159:2
299
dx
2
p p cos1
n
n
x x a
n an
r
an
xn
8
1
1
18
cos1
cos1 p
6
8
8
t
1a
2
v0 3
4
By substitution of values of D we nd the travel time curve given in Fig. 159b.
1.2
1.0
t (R/n)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
c
20
m
40
60
80
()
Fig. 159b
160. A spherical medium of radius R has a constant speed of propagation v0 from the
surface down
R/2, and from R/2 to the centre a core of variable speed of propaga to
1=2
R
tion v v0
.
r
(a) What value should i0 have for the waves to penetrate into the core?
(b) Calculate the epicentral distance reached by a wave leaving a focus at the surface
at angle i0.
(a) The velocity at the top of the core (r R/2) is
300
Seismology
S
F
l
i0
n0
R/2
Fig. 160
0 11
2
p
BRC
v1 v0 @ A v0 2
R
2
Applying Snells law we nd the critical angle ic for incident rays at the core (Fig. 160):
R
R sin ic
p2
v0
2v 0
) ic 45
The take-off angle i0, for a focus at the surface corresponding to the critical angle, using
Snells law, is
R
R sin i0 2 sin ic
v0
v0
) i0 20:7
The rays that penetrate into the core must leave the focus with take-off angles less than
20.7 .
(b) For a ray with take-off angle i0 which penetrates the core the epicentral distance is the
sum of that corresponding to the part that has travelled through the mantle, D1, plus the
part that has travelled through the core, D2:
21 2
Since in the core the velocity varies with depth with the law given in the problem, the
epicentral distance is given by
2
1 p
cos
2
1a
1
where a is the exponent of the velocity distribution
v v0 ra ) a
1
2
301
and p is the ray parameter, which can be obtained using Snells law:
and
R
R sin i0 2 sin i1
p
p
v0
2v 0
Then, we nd
R
r
) 1 p2
v
2v 0
0
1
R sin i0
B
C 4 1 p
2
1 B v0 C
2
cos
2
cos
2
sin
i
0
@ R A 3
1 12
p
2 2v 0
The distance D1 can be determined using the sine and cosine laws for the triangle FOP
(Fig. 160):
R
2 l ) sin1 2l sin i0
1
R
sin i0 sin 1
l 2 R2 2Rl cos i0
R2
1 p
) l R cos i0
4R2 cos2 i0 3R2
4
2
p
1 p
4
2sin1 2 cos i0
4cos2 i0 3 sin i0 cos1 2 2 sin i0
2
3
161. Consider a spherical Earth of radius 6000 km and surface velocity of 6 km s1, with
p
a velocity distribution of the type vr a= r. At the distance reached by a wave
emerging at a take-off angle of 45 from a focus on the surface, calculate the interval
between the arrival times of the direct P- and reected PP-waves (the PP-wave is one that
is reected at the surface at the midpoint between
focus and the point of observation).
the
a
R
The velocity distribution is of the type v v0
where
r
p
a
r R ) v v0 p ) a v0 R
R
12
R
v v0
r
and the ray parameter p for a ray with take-off angle of 45 is
1
6000 p
R sin i0
2
p
707 s
6
v0
302
Seismology
For this type of velocity distribution the relation between the ray parameter and the
epicentral distance is
1a
p 0 cos
161:1
2
In this problem the value of 0 is
r
R
) 0 1000 s
v
v0
Substituting the values in (161.1) we obtain the distance for the ray with take-off angle
of 45 :
3
707 1000 cos ) 60
4
The PP-wave which arrives at D 60 travels twice the distance which a P-wave does for a
distance of 30 . For this type of velocity distribution the travel time for a distance D is
given by
20
1 a
sin
t
1a
2
In our case for the P- and PP-waves at distance 60 we substitute the values of the problem
and nd
tP 60 943 s
tPP 60 2tP 30 1021 s
The time interval between the PP- and P-waves 60 is
tPP tP 1021 943 78s
162. In an elastic spherical medium of radius r0, the velocity increases with depth
according to v arb. If v0 6 km s1, r0 6000 km, and, at a point at distance
D 90 , the slope of the travel-time curve is 500 s, determine:
(a) The value of b.
(b) The value of rp and of vp of the wave reaching an epicentral distance of 90 .
(a) For this type of velocity distribution the travel time in terms of the epicentral
distance is given by
20
t
sin 1 b
162:1
1b
2
As we know the velocity at the surface,
r
r0
) 0 1000 s
v
v0
303
The ray parameter p is known, because it is equal to the slope of the travel-time curve
which for D 90 is given as 500 s. Using the relation between p and D for this type of
velocity distribution,
dt
0 cos 1 b
p
d
2
h
h
pi
pi 1
p p
1
500 1000 cos 1 b ) cos 1 b ) 1 b ) b
4
4
2
4 3
3
(b) At the point of greatest penetration rp for D 90 , we have the relation
p
rp sin 90 rp
) rp pvp
vp
vp
and also
1
r0 3
vp v0
rp
From these two equations we obtain rp and vp:
1
3 1 3
tS
20
sin1 b
2
1b
where
b
R
R
1
0
and v v0
)b
v0
r
2
Substituting in (163.2) we obtain for the travel time in the southern hemisphere
163:2
304
Seismology
S1
n0
S2
Fig. 163
tS
4R
3
sin
3 v0
4
163:3
(b) The travel times for waves in the northern and southern hemisphere are given by
Equations (163.1) and (163.3). By substitution of D 60 we obtain
R
v0
p
R2 2
R
S
0:47
t
v0 6
v0
The waves arrive rst in the southern hemisphere.
tN
r R ) v v0 ) v0 aR 2 ) a v0 R2
1
R 2
Mantle : v v0
r
1
R 3
Core : v v0
r
We determine the ray parameter corresponding to the ray with take-off angle i0 14.5 ,
using Snells law (Fig. 164a):
p
v
v0
4v0
305
S
F
i0
i0
R/2
i2
Fig. 164a
1
BRC
v1 v0 @ A v0 22
R
The incident angle i of this ray on the mantlecore boundary, applying Snells law, is given by
R
sin i R sin i
0
2
) i 45
1
v
0
v 22
0
1
BRC
v2 v0 @ A v0 23
R
which is less than at the bottom of the mantle and there is no critical angle. Applying
Snells law again we obtain the angle i2 of the refracted ray in the core:
sin i sin i2
) i2 39
v1
v2
The take-off angle of the last ray which travels only in the mantle is given by
R
R sin i0
2 1 ) i0 20:7
v0
v 0 22
In our case the angle 14.5 is less and the ray penetrates into the core.
The epicentral distance is the sum of the distances corresponding to the paths in the
mantle and in the core:
21 2
306
Seismology
S
F
Fig. 164b
2
p
2
cos1
1b
0
where
p
R
4v0
R
0 2 1
v0 23
and where p is the ray parameter and r/v. Substituting the values we obtain
2 76:4
To calculate D1 we suppose that there is no core and a ray with take-off angle i0 14.5
would arrive at distance D3 which is related with D1 by (Fig. 164b)
21 3 4
The distances D3 and D4 can be determined using the equation
2
1 p
cos
1b
0
where for D3
0 R
2
R
v0
R
3
R 2
2
2
0 11 v 0
2
BR C
v0 @ A
R
2
307
Surface waves
and we obtain
0
1
R
B4v0 C
2
C
3
cos1 B
@ R A 100:6
1
1
2
1
R
C
B
B
C
2
1 B 4v0 C
cos B
4
C 60:0
1
3
@
A
1
R
2
2 2
v0
Surface waves
165. A Rayleigh wave in a semi-innite medium has a 20 s period. If the P-wave
velocity is 6 km s1 and Poissons ratio is 0.25, calculate the depth at which u1 0,
and at which depth the particle movement becomes prograde.
Since Poissons ratio is 0.25, we nd the relation between P- and S-waves:
s s
1
l
l 2m
3m p
s
)lm)a
3b
4 2 l m
r
r
6
a 6 ) b p 3:4 km s1
3
@ @c
@x1 @x3
1=2
c2
r i 1 R2
0:85i
a
1=2
c2
0:39i
s i 1 R2
b
308
Seismology
Then,
u1 0 ) ikA exp0:85kx3 0:39ikB exp0:39kx3 0
165:1
so
k
2p
2p
0:1 km1
l
TcR
We can write B in terms of A using the boundary condition of zero stress at the free surface:
t31 0jx3 0 ) 2rA 1 s2 B 0
so
B 1:47iA
Substituting in (165.1) we obtain the value of x3:
exp0:85kx3 0:39 1:47 exp0:39kx3
x3 12 km
At 12 km depth u1 is null and for greater values of depth the particle motion is prograde
while for lesser values of depth it is retrograde.
166. Given a layer of thickness H and shear modulus m 0 on top of a half-space or
semi-innite medium in which l 0, study (without expanding the determinant)
whether there exist surface waves that propagate in the x1-direction. Are they
dispersive waves?
In the liquid layer ( m 0) the P- and S-velocities are
s s
s
0
m
l0 2m0
l0
b0 0
) a0
r
r
r
and in the solid half-space
s
2m p
2b
l0)a
r
1
2
ui; j uj;i .
u1 ;1 c;3
u2 u 2
u3 ;3 c;1
309
Surface waves
x3
x1
= 0
0
=0
Fig. 166
The boundary conditions at the free surface are null normal stresses:
0
t33 0
x3 H )
t031 0
and at the boundary between the liquid layer and the solid half-space continuity of the
normal component of the displacement and stress and zero tangential stresses,
8
u3 u03
>
>
>
< t t0
33
33
x3 0 )
0
>
t
t
>
32 0
> 32
:
0
t31 0
In the liquid layer there is only the P-wave potential . Taking (x1, x3) as the incidence
plane
0 A expikr0 x3 ik x1 ct B expikr0 x3 ik x1 ct
r
c2
0
r
1
a02
where c is the velocity of wave propagation in the x1-direction
In the half-space
c C expiksx3 ik x1 ct
u2 E expiksx3 ik x1 ct
D expikrx3 ik x1 ct
r
c2
1
r
a2
s
c2
s
1
b2
In the layer we have only guided P-waves and r0 is real, while in the half-space for surface
waves, r and s must be imaginary. Then a > b > c > a0 must be satised.
310
Seismology
be zero:
0
s2 1
1
2ms
0
2r
0
r
2mr2
Expanding the determinant and working r0, r, and s in terms of the variable c, we obtain c
(k), the velocity of waves in the x1-direction. They have the form of guided waves in the
liquid layer and surface waves in the half-space. Since the velocity c(k) is a function of the
wavenumber the waves are dispersive.
167. There is a liquid layer of density r and speed of propagation a on top of a rigid
medium (half-space). Derive the dispersion equation of waves in the layer by boundary conditions and by constructive interference in terms of v. Plot the dispersion
curve for the different modes.
Given that the layer is liquid the only potential is :
A exp ikrx3 B expikrx3 exp ik x1 ct
167:1
The boundary conditions at the free surface are zero normal stress and at the boundary
between the liquid layer and the rigid half-space zero normal component of displacement
(Fig. 167a):
x3 H ) t33 0
x 3 0 ) u3 0
where
t33 ly r2 ro2 0
u3 ;3
r
c2
1
r
a2
By substitution of (167.1) we obtain
AeikrH BeikrH 0
AB0)AB
311
Surface waves
x3
liquid layer
x1
0
rigid half-space
Fig. 167a
x3
O
B
A
x1
0
P
Fig. 167b
Then, 2A cos krH 0. For waves propagating in the layer, r must be real and c > a. The
solution is given by
1
krH n p;
n 0; 1; 2; . . .
167:2
2
The solution can also be found by the method of constructive interference. The condition
of constructive interference implies that waves coinciding at a given wavefront (AB) are in
phase, that is, the distance along the ray must be an integer multiple of the wavelength,
taking into account possible phase shifts (Fig. 167b). In our case on the free surface,
x3 H, there is a phase shift of p (l/2) and we write the condition as (Fig. 167b)
AP PQ QB
la
nla
2
or
2p
A P P Q Q B p 2pn
la
312
Seismology
Substituting
A P P Q Q B 2H cos i
we obtain
2p
2H cos i p 2pn 1
la
167:3
r
r
a2 a c 2
a
1 2
1 r
2
c
c a
c
a
and ka k.
c
Substituting in (167.3), we obtain the same solution obtained in (167.2):
a
1
ka Hr n p
c
2
This expression can also be written as
"
#12
r
1
oH c2
1
1
1 2 p2
167:4
1 n p)c 2 n
krH n p )
2
c
2
a
2 H 2 o2
a2
The fundamental mode (FM) corresponds to n 0, and n 1 to the higher modes (HM).
In the FM and the higher modes, the frequency oc corresponding to the zero in the
denominator in (167.4) is called the cut-off frequency, as there are no values of c for o <
oc. For a mode of order n the cut-off frequency is given by
1
p n a
2
oc
H
The dispersion curve is shown in Fig. 167c.
c
FM
1 HM
2 HM
2H
Fig. 167c
3
2H
5
2H
313
Surface waves
@u2
@x3
x 3 0 ) u2 0
By substitution we have
EeiksH FeiksH 0
E F 0 ) F E
Ee
iksH
iksH
0 ) cosksH 0 ) ksh
c2
1
1
p)c
2
b2
1
n p
2
! 1
2
1
1 2 p2
n
2 H 2 o2
b2
168:1
This equation give us, for the SH component, the frequency dependence of the velocity c(o).
The boundary conditions for P and SV are similarly
x3
x1
, ,
0
rigid medium
Fig. 168a
314
Seismology
x3 H ) t31 0; t33 0
x3 0 ) u1 0; u3 0
where
t33
t31
u1
u3
Expanding the determinant and putting it equal to zero, we obtain the dependence with
frequency of the velocity c(o) which gives us the dispersion curve.
For the wave with SH component the dispersion curve is given in Fig. 168b:
!12
1
1 2 p2
c
n
2 H 2 o2
b2
c
FM
1 HM
2 HM
2H
Fig. 168b
3
2H
5
2H
315
Surface waves
For n 0 the curves correspond to the fundamental mode and for 1
n to the higher
modes. For all modes, including the fundamental mode, there is a cut-off frequency oc
(n1)pb/2H, with n 0 for the fundamental mode and n 1, for higher-order modes.
169. For a liquid layer of thickness H with a rigid medium above and below, derive
the dispersion equation c(v) of the fundamental and higher modes. For the FM, at
what height above the layer is the motion circular?
Given that the medium is a liquid, motion is represented only by the scalar potential f:
169:1
A exp ikrx3 B expikrx3 exp ik x1 ct
r
c2
1.
where r
a2
The boundary condition at the two boundaries between the liquid and rigid solid is that
the normal component of the displacement is null (Fig. 169):
x 3 0 ) u3 0
x 3 H ) u3 0
Substituting u3 ;3 we have
AB0
169:2
AeikrH BeikrH 0
which leads to the equation
A eikrH eikrH 0
169:3
Consider rst that r is real, that is, c >a. Then, from (169.1)
2iA sin krH 0 ) krH np; n 0; 1; 2; :::
with n 0, fundamental mode (FM), and n 1 for higher modes.
For the FM, n 0 and r 0, and then
r
c2
10)ca
Hk
a2
The displacements from (169.1) and (169.2) are
x3
rigid medium
H
liquid layer
0
x1
rigid medium
Fig. 169
316
Seismology
@
Aikrexp ikrx3 exp ikrx3 exp ikx1 ct
@x3
@
Aik exp ikrx3 exp ikrx3 exp ikx1 ct
u1
@x1
For the FM r 0, then u3 0 and this is a P-wave, with only a u1 component, which
propagates in the x1-direction. For all HM the displacements have both components
For the rst higher mode (1HM), n 1:
r
o c2
H
1p
c a2
1
c2
1
p2
a2 o2 H 2
If
1
p2
ap
)c!1
0
then
o
a2 o 2 H 2
H
u3
The cut-off frequency is oc > ap/H. For each higher mode there is a cut-off frequency onc
> nap/H.
_
_
If r ir is imaginary, then c < a and this implies that 2 sinhkr H 0 which is
impossible (1< sinhx <1).
The particle motion inside the layer is circular when
u1 u3
169:4
so
u1 u3 ) 1 r exp ikrx3 1 r exp ikrx3 0
Taking only the amplitudes of the displacements,
1 r cos krx3 1 r cos krx3 0 ) cos krx3 0
1
1 p
krx3 n p ) x3 n
2
2 kr
For the FM, we have seen that u3 0, so there is no circular motion. For the 1HM, the
height in the layer at which the motion is circular is
3p
x3
2kr
The height inside the layer at which the motion is circular depends in each higher mode of
the frequency.
170. In the hypothetical case of a layer of thickness H and speed of propagation b0 on
top of a semi-innite medium of speed of propagation b, the phase shifts at the free
surface and the contact plane are
2 s 3
c2
7
6
6 b0 1 7
p
7
1 6
and
tan 6s7:
6
4
27
4 1 c 5
b2
317
Surface waves
Determine:
(a) The dispersion equation using constructive interference.
(b) The cut-off frequency of the fundamental mode and rst higher mode.
(c) Plot the dispersion curve of the FM and 1HM using units of c/b and H/l for
b 2b0 .
(a) The distance from A to B along the ray path is (Fig. 170a)
AB 2H cos i
According to Snells law
b0
c s
b0 c2
1
cos i
c b02
sin i
b0
k
c
As explained in Problem 167, the condition for constructive interference is that the distance
AB along the ray path be an integer multiple of the wavelength, taking into account the
phase shift at the free surface and the boundary surface between the two media:
0
p
s
2pn
170:1
2kB0 H cos i tan1
4
s
where
s
c2
s0
1
b02
s
c2
s 1 2
b
By substitution in (170.1) we obtain the dispersion equation
B
H
A
Fig. 170a
318
Seismology
v
u 2
u c
u
ub02 1
1
tan 2kHs0 2n p u
u
4
c2
t
1 2
b
If c b then
p
p
tanB 1 ) B
tan 2kHs0
4
2
s
s
c2
p p
p
b2
0
2kH
)
k
)
s
1
1
4 2
8Hs0
b02
b02
so
If c b0 then
p
0
tan 2kHs0
4
s
c2
p
p
0
s0
1
0
)
tan
kHs
0 ) k 1 ) kHs0
02
4
4
b
7p p
4
2
170:2
319
Surface waves
7p
7p
tan 2kHs0
)k1
0 ) kHs0
4
8
For c b
7p
7p p
9p
1 ) 2kHs0
)k
tan 2kHs0
4
4
2
8Hs0
(c) Taking b b/2, the dispersion equation for the FM is
s
4c2
s
"
#
1
2
b2
4c2
p
c
2
s
#
tan 2kH
)
1
"
s
2
2
4
b
2
b
c
H
c
1 2
5 3 sin 8p
4
1
l
b
b
But we have seen that
p p
H
1
)
4 2
l 16s0
p
c b ) s0 3
2kHs0
H
1
p
l 16 3
Giving values to H/l we can calculate the corresponding values of c/b by means of a
numerical method. For example, we obtain,
H/l
c/b
0.0
0.01
0.02
0.036
0.63
0.68
0.78
1
For the rst higher mode (1HM), we arrive at the same equation, given that tan(a p/4)
tan(a 7p/4), but vary the intervals of H/l and kHs0 :
7p
9p
kHs0
8
8
7
H
9
16s0
l 16s0
H
7
at one limit we have the value s0 0 which corresponds to c b0 and c/b
For
l 16s0
0.5.
H
9
H
9
we have s 0 and c b, and consequently p.
For
0
l 16s
l 16 3
The dispersion curves for the fundamental mode and the rst higher mode are shown in
Fig.170b.
320
Seismology
1.0
1 HM
FM
0.5
0.10
1
16
0.20
0.30
16
9
3
Fig. 170b
171:1
321
Surface waves
H
A
Fig. 171
s
c2
s 1 2
b
s
c2
s0
1
b0 2
According to Snells law
b0
c s
b0 c2
1
cos i
c b02
sin i
1
2Hks0 2pn sin1 0 ) cos 2Hk
2
s
b02
c2
1
b02
(b) The fundamental mode (FM) corresponds to the values
s
c2
1 2
b
p
0
2Hks0
) 1 s 0
2
2
c
1
b02
The velocity at the limit of lowest frequencies, k 0, is given by
s
c2
1 2
b
s
2b02 b2
k 0 ) 0 s 1 ) c2 02
s
b b2
c2
1
b02
q
p
s
1
0
b2 b02
)
0
)
s
0
)
c
b
)
s
k
4Hs0
s0
b0
322
Seismology
3p
s
1
) 0 0 ) s 0 ) c b ) s0 0
4Hs0
s
b
q
b2 b02
3pb0
p
4H b2 b02
p
s
2b02 b2
k2 0 ) 0 1 ) s s 0 ) c2 2
) s0
Hs
s
b b02
s
b2 b02
b2 b02
b
p
p
3p
p 3 2p
H
3
2
r
)
;cb
k1
2
H4
l
l
8
b
2
4H b
4
r
b2
r
p
p
p b2
p 5 2p
H
2
5
4
r p
) p ; c b
k2
2
l
l
5
H
3
2
3
b
4H b2
4
172. Consider a layer of thickness H and parameters m0 and r0 on top of a semic
H
innite medium of parameters m 4m0 and r r0 . If a and b:
b
l
(a) Write the dispersion equation of the Love wave in terms of a and b.
1 3
(b) Calculate the values of b corresponding to a ; and 1 for the fundamental
2 4
mode and rst higher mode.
(c) For which values of b is the node of the amplitude of the rst higher mode at a
depth of H/2?
(a) The dispersion equation for Love waves is
323
Surface waves
q2
s)
m
1 bc 2
2
c
q
tan kH
1
2
b02
m0 c02 1
(
In this problem,
172:1
m 4m0
r r0
then,
r
r
m
m
b
0
!b
b
r
4r 2
We now introduce a and b:
a
b
c
c
) 0 2a
b
b
H
2p 2pb
)k
l
l
H
Substituting in (172.1):
p
p
1 a2
2
tan 2pb 4a 1 4 p
4a2 1
a 1; b 0 and c b
1
a ; b ! 1 and c b0
2
r
9
"
r#
1
3
9
16
a ) tan 2pb 4 1 4 r ) b 0:17
4
16
9
4 1
16
For the 1HM,
1
a ; b!1
2
p
p
1
a 1 ) tan 2pb 4a2 1 0 ) 2pb 3 p ) b p 0:29
2 3
0
1
s
r
r!
2
p
3
3
7
7
1
1A 4
4
) pb 5 tan
p ) b 0:61
a ) tan@2pb 4
4
4
20
20
(c) Inside the layer the amplitude of the displacements of the Love wave are given by
h
x3 i
u02 2A0 cos ks0 H 1
cos k s0 H x1 ct
H
324
Seismology
The nodes are the points where the amplitude is zero. For the 1HM the node is located at
the value of x3 which satises the relation
x3 3p
ks0 H 1
H
2
If we want a node located at x3 H/2 then
k
3p
3
) b p
s0 H
2 4a2 1
If we substitute the values of a, , 1, and we obtain for b innity, 0.86, and 1.34. The
innite value of b corresponds to l 0.
Focal parameters
173. Consider three stations with coordinates:
St1 36.2 N, 4.8 E;
St2 37.0 N, 2.4 E; St3 38.6 N, 4.0 E
An earthquake is recorded at the three stations with the following respective S-P
time intervals:
t 1SP 26:7 s
t SP
27:0 s
2
t SP
22:5 s
3
Given that the focus is at the surface, the P-wave velocity is constant and equal to 6
km s1, and Poissons ratio is 1/3, calculate the coordinates of the epicentre.
Given that Poissons ratio is 1/3,
1
l
s
) l 2m ) a
3 2l m
s
l 2m
2b
r
160
1:44
111:11
162
1:46
111:11
x3 22:5 6 135 km
135
1:22
111:11
325
Focal parameters
40N
39N
St3
38N
E2
E1
St2
37N
St1
36N
35N
1E
2E
3E
4E
5E
6E
Fig. 173
L
a
326
Seismology
jh
ih
F
ih
A
Fig. 174
An sP-wave leaves the focus upward as an S-wave is reected at the Earths surface and
converted into a P-wave that travels to the station. Its travel time is (Fig. 174)
0
t sP
FS SF L
b
a
a
If we consider the length along the ray L from F and F0 to the station to be the same for both
waves, then the sP-P time interval is (Fig. 174)
t sP t P t 0
FS SF
b
a
174:1
At the focus at depth h, the takeoff angle of the direct P-wave is ih and the take-off angle
of the sP-wave is jh. We can write
FS
h
cos jh
0
SF
h
0
cosjh ih
) SF
sin jh sin ih cos jh cos ih
cos
jh
FS
a sin jh
sin ih
b
By substitution in (174.1) we obtain
t 0 h
cos jh cos ih
b
a
175. The displacement vector l of an earthquake is (0, 1, 0) and the vector normal to
the plane of displacement n is (0, 1, 0). Determine:
(a) The components of the P-wave displacement at the point of azimuth 45 and angle
of incidence 30 .
327
Focal parameters
where Greens function corresponding to the P-wave in the far eld for an innite medium
is given by
1
r
g
g
d
t
Gki
i
k
4pra2 r
a
and its derivative is
Gki;j
1
_ tr
g
g
g
d
4pra3 r i k j
a
where gi are the direction cosines of the line from the focus to the observation point.
The amplitude of the displacement is then
uPk
u
lns ls dij m li nj lj ni gi gk gj
3
4pra r
175:1
In our problem the direction cosines of the ray of the waves arriving at the point are
p
2
g1 sin i cos az
4
p
2
g2 sin i sin az
4
p
3
g3 cos i
2
X3
P
r
i
li= ni
e
az
X2
Fig. 175
X1
328
Seismology
The orientation of the source is given by li (0, 1, 0) and ni (0, 1, 0), and substituting in
(175.1) gives
uP1 A l 2mg22 g1
uP2 A l 2mg22 g2
uP3 A l 2mg22 g3
u
A
4pa3 rr
Substituting the direction cosines of the ray we obtain,
p
2
1
uP1 A l m
4
4
p
2
1
P
u2 A l m
4
4
p
3
1
P
u3 A l m
2
4
(b) The mechanism corresponds to a fault on the (x1, x3) plane which opens in the
direction of its normal, x2, under tensional forces in that direction.
176. The focal mechanism of an earthquake can be represented by a double-couple
(DC) model. The orientation of the fault plane is azimuth 30 , dip 90 , and slip angle
0 . Calculate:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
What kind of fault it is. Sketch it, indicating the direction of motion.
The auxiliary plane.
The azimuth of the stress axis.
A wave incident at a station has azimuth 180 and angle of incidence at the focus
of 90 . Calculate the amplitude of the components of the P-wave at that station.
(a) Given that the dip of the plane is 90 , the fault plane is vertical, and since the slip
angle is 0 , the motion is horizontal. Thus, it corresponds to a right lateral strikeslip fault (Fig. 176).
N
A
u
l
A
n
Fig. 176
329
Focal parameters
(b) From the azimuth ( 30 ), dip (d 90 ), and slip (l 0 ) we can calculate the
unit vectors li and ni which give the direction of the fracture and of the normal to
the fault plane:
1
n1 sin d sin sin Yn cos Fn
p 2
3
sin Yn cos Fn
n2 sin d cos
2
n3 cos d 0 cos Yn
p
3
l1 cos l cos cos d sin l sin
sin Yl cos Fl
2
1
l2 cos l sin cos d sin l cos sin Yl cos Fl
2
l3 sin l sin d 0 cos Yl
A Fn 90 ) Fn 120
dA Yn 90
cos Yl
lA sin1
0 ) Yi 90
sin Yn
where Y and F are the spherical coordinates for the vectors n and l (r 1, unitary vectors)
and for the auxiliary plane,
B 30 90 120
dB 90
cos Yn
lB sin1
0
sin Yl
(c) The T-axis is on the same plane as ni and li at 45 between them, and the direction
cosines are
0 1 0
10 1 1
p
T1
n1 n2 n3
2
@ T2 A @ l1 l2 l3 A@ p1 A
176:1
2
Z1 Z2 Z3
T3
0
where Zi is the axis normal to ni and li, that is, Zi ni li which results in Zi (0, 0, 1).
p
p
31 31
p ; p ; 0 . The azimuth of the T-axis is
Substituting in (176.1) we obtain Ti
2 2
2 2
p
31
1 T2
1
p
75
FT tan
tan
T1
31
(d) The direction cosines of the direction from the focus to the station are
g1 sin ih cos az 1
g2 sin ih sin az 0
g3 cos ih 0
330
Seismology
The amplitude of the displacements for a shear fracture or double-couple (DC) source in an
innite medium is given by
Rih ; az ) uPj Ani lk nk li gi gk gj
uP1 0:84A
uP2 0
uP3 0
A
M0
4pa3 rr
177. An earthquake is caused by a shear fracture. The vectors n and l (normal and
direction of travel) are, in terms of the angles F and Y,
n 57:13 ; 66:44
l 305:96 ; 50:09
Calculate the orientation of the fault plane, the auxiliary plane, and the tension (T )
and pressure (P) stress axes.
The orientation of the fault plane and auxiliary plane in terms of the angles , d, and l (azimuth,
dip, and slip) are found directly from the given values (Fig. 177), using the following relations:
A Fn 90 147:13
dA Yn 66:64
1 cos Yl
135:68
lA sin
sin Yn
B Fl 90 35:96
dB Yl 50:09
1 cos Yn
lB sin
31:12
sin Yl
Z
Y
qp
X
n
l
qn
T
P
fn
N
Fig. 177
331
Focal parameters
To calculate the T and P axes, we calculate rst the direction cosines of the l and n axes
from the given angles:
x1 sin Y cos F
n1 0:50; l1 0:45
n3 0:40; l3 0:64
Given that the T and P axes are on the same plane as n and l at 45 between them, we can
write, as in Problem 176,
0
1
0 1 0
1 p1
T1
l1 n1 Z1 B 2 C
@ T2 A @ l2 n2 Z2 AB p1 C
177:1
@
A
2
T3
l3 n3 Z3
0
where the Z-axis is normal to n and l and is found by Z n l. Its direction cosines
are (Z1, Z2, Z3) (0.72, 0.14, 0.66). By substitution of ni, li, and Zi in (177.1) we
obtain
9
T1 0:67 sin YT cos FT >
=
T2 0:11 sin YT sin FT
) T YT 42:27 ; FT 9:32
>
;
T3 0:74 cos YT
n1
n2
n3
0 1 1
p
1
Z1 B 2 C
1 C
Z2 AB
@ p A ! PYP 80:02 ; FP 268:03
2
Z3
0
178. The seismic moment tensor relative to the geographical axes (X1, X2, X3) (north,
east, nadir) is
0
1
2 1 1
Mij @ 1 0 1 A
1
1 2
Find the values of the principal stresses, and the orientation of the tension and
pressure stress axes.
First we calculate the eigenvalues of Mij. Since Mij is a symmetric tensor its eigenvalues are
real and the corresponding eigenvectors mutually orthogonal (Problem 111):
0
1
2 s 1
3
1
1
0s
1 0 ) s @ 2 A
1
1
1
2 s
s1 3; s2 2; s3 1
332
Seismology
3
Mij @ 0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0 A
1
In this form Mij is referred to the coordinate system formed by the eigenvectors or principal
axes. Given that the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal is not zero, the source
has net volume changes. Then, we can separate Mij into two parts: an isotropic part with
volume changes (ISO) and a deviatoric part without volume changes. The second part can
be separated into two parts: a part corresponding to a double-couple or shear fracture (DC)
and a part corresponding to a non-double-couple source usually expressed as a compensated linear vector dipole (CLVD). Thus the moment tensor is separated into three parts,
namely
M M ISO M DC M CLVD
The isotropic part is given by
1
4
M ISO s0 s1 s2 s3
3
3
The deviatoric part (DCCLVD) is given by
Mij0 Mij dij so
and in our case
Mij0
s1
@ 0
0
05
0
B3
0
B
2
0 AB
B0 3
@
s3
0 0
1
0
s2
0
C
C
0 C
C
A
7
3
M 0ij M DC M CLVD
1
s s3
B2 1
B
0
Mij B
0
@
0
0
Mij0
2
B
@0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
s2
C B 2
C B
CB 0
0
A @
1
0
s1 s3
2
1
1
3
B
B
C B
0 AB 0
B
@
2
0
C
C
C
0 C
C
A
1
0
3
2
3
0
s2
0
C
C
0 C
s2 A
2
333
Focal parameters
The orientation of the P and T axes is calculated from the double-couple part MDC:
0
1
1 0 0
MijDC 2@ 0 0 0 A
0 0 1
MijDC M0 li nj lj ni
1
1
~
) nYn 45 ; Fn 0
n : p ; 0; p
2
2
1
1
~
p
; 0;
) lYl 45 ; Fl 0
l:
2
2
In the same way as in Problems 176 and 177, we determine T and P from n and l, nding
rst Z n l:
0
1
0 1 0
1 p1
T1
l1 n1 Z1 B 2 C
C
@ T2 A @ l2 n2 Z2 AB
B 1 C
@ p A
T3
l3 n3 Z3
2
0
T1 1 sin YT cos FT
T2 0 sin YT sin FT ! T YT 90 ; FT 0
T3 0 cos YT
For the P-axis,
0
P1
l1
@ P2 A @ l2
P3
l3
n1
n2
n3
1 1
p
Z1 B 2 C
B
1 C
Z 2 AB
CPYP 0 ; FP 0
@ p A
Z3
2
0
1
A
1:66 log 3:3
T
334
Seismology
where A is the ground motion amplitude, T is the period of the wave, and D is epicentral
distance in degrees. Knowing the magnitude and period of the waves we can calculate the
wave amplitude:
A
3000
1:66 log
3:3
T
111:11
A
) log 0:454 ) A 2:84 20 1500 8:5 cm
T
6:13 log
We have reduced the ground motion to the amplitude of the seismogram using the
amplication of the instrument (1500).
Knowing the magnitude we can calculate the seismic energy:
log Es 11:8 1:5Ms ) Es 1021 ergs 1014 J
(b) Mw 6.13 2/3 log M0 6.1; M0 2.191018 Nm
If M0 mDu S, with S 12 8 9.6107 m2, then
u
M0
2:19 1018 Nm
0:52 m
mS 4:4 1010 N m2 9:6 107 m2
Heat ow
180. Assume that the temperature variation within the Earth is caused by gravitational forces under adiabatic conditions. Knowing that the coefcient of thermal
expansion at constant pressure is aP 2105 K1 and the specic heat at constant
pressure is cP 1.3 kJ kg1 K1, determine an expression for the gradient of the
temperature with depth. Compare it with the value observed at the surface which is
30 K km1, knowing that, at 200 km depth, T 1600 K.
Under adiabatic conditions, there is no heat ow and the variation of pressure with depth z
is a function of gravity g and density r:
dP rgdz
180:1
@S
@T
dT
@S
@P
dP
we can write
@s
dq Tds T
@T
@s
dT T
@P
P
dP
According to the denition of specic heat at constant pressure, cP and the increase in heat
dq are given by
335
336
cP T
@S
@T
dq cP dT T
@s
@P
180:2
dP
@G
@G
dG
dp
dT
@p T
@T p
we differentiate again and using the Schwartz theorem we obtain
@v
@s
@T P
@P T
But the coefcient of thermal expansion is dened as
1 @v
ap
v @T p
In consequence we can write Equation (180.2) as
dq cp dT Tvap dp
In our case the process is adiabatic and in consequence using this equation and Equation
(180.2) we obtain
dT T ap g
cp
dz
180:3
where we have taken into account that the variables are by unit mass so rv 1, and
substituting the values we obtain:
dT 1600 2 105 10 K K1 ms2
0:25 K km1
dz
1:3 103 J kg1 K1
We observe that this result is two orders of magnitude lower than the observed values. This
shows that observations correspond to heat ow at the lithosphere and are not satised by
purely adiabatic conditions.
Heat ow
337
181. If the Earths temperature gradient is 1 C/30 m, calculate the heat loss per
second due to conduction from its core. Compare this with the average power
received from the Sun.
Data:
Thermal conductivity K 4 W m1 C1.
Earths radius R 6370 km.
Solar constant: 1.35 kW m2.
The heat ow is given by
q_ KA
dT
dr
W
5:10 1014 m2 6:89 1017 J s1 1:65 1017 cal s1
m2
In consequence, from these values we can see that on the Earths surface the average solar
power is much larger than that due to the heat ow from inside the Earth.
182. At the Earths surface, the heat ow is 60 mW m2 and T0 0 C. If all the heat is
generated by the crust at whose base the thermal conductivity is K 4 W m1 C1, and
T is 1000 C, determine the thickness of the crust and the heat production per unit volume
If we assume that all the heat is generated at the crust and there is no heat ow from the
mantle at the crust base, then we can write
_ zH 0
qj
Using the temperature equation for a at Earth for one-dimensional heat-ow and the
stationary case we can write
T
e
e 2 q_ 0
z z T0
K
2K
q_ 0
H
For z H:
TH
q_ 0 H
TH T0 2K
T0 ) H
2K
q_ 0
338
q_ 0
4:5 104 mW m3
H
183. Consider the crust to be H 30 km thick and the heat ow at the surface to be
60 mW m2.
(a) If all the heat is generated in the crust, what is the value of the heat generated per
unit volume? (Take K 3 W m1 K1)
(b) If all the heat is generated in the mantle with a distribution Aez=H mW m3 , what
is the value of A? What is the temperature at 100 km depth?
(a) We solve the heat equation for a stationary one-dimensional case, assuming a at
Earth with one-dimensional ow in the z-direction (vertical) positive downward.
In this case the solution of the heat equation is given by
T
e 2 q_ 0
z z T0
2K
K
where e is the heat generated by unit volume and time, K is the thermal conductivity, q0 and
T0 are the heat ow and temperature at the surface of the Earth, respectively
If all the heat is generated at the crust we can write (Fig. 183)
z H ! q_ 0 0
The heat generated by unit volume is
dT
e2z q_ 0
_ zH 0 K
K
qj
zH 0
dz zH
2K K
e
q_ 0 60 103
2 106 W m3
H
30 103
A 2 z=H
H e
Cz D
K
183:1
where C and D are constants of integration. They may be estimated from the boundary
conditions at the surface
Heat ow
339
q0
T0
qH
TH
Fig. 183
A 2
A
H D ! D T0 H 2
K
K
A
z 0 ! q_ q_ 0 0 ! C H
K
z 0 ! T T0
A 2 z=H AH
A AH
H e
z T0 H 2
Hez=H z H T0
K
K
K
K
183:2
If the heat has its origin in the mantle, the ow at the base of the crust is
dT
q_ 0
_ zH q_ o K
)A
qj
dz zH
H e1 1
H
T z
K e1 1
T z 100
60 103
3 100=30
3
3
30
10
e
100
10
30
10
2249 K
3e1 1
184. Calculate the thickness of the continental lithosphere if its boundary coincides
with the 1350 C geothermal, knowing that the surface temperature is 15 C,
the heat ow at the surface is q_ 0 46 mW m2 , the lithospheric mantles thermal
conductivity is K = 3.35 W m1 K1, and the radiogenic heat production is
P = 0.01 103 mW m3
The geothermal equation at depth z is given by:
Tz T0
q_ 0
P0
z z0
z z0 2
K
2K
184:1
340
where K is the thermal conductivity, T0 is the temperature at the surface of the Earth (in K), q_ 0
is the heat ow at the surface, and P0 is the radiogenic heat production at the Earths surface.
At the Earths surface z0 = 0, and Equation (184.1) becomes:
Tz T0
q_ 0
P0 2
z
z
K
2K
P0 2 q_ 0
z z Tz T0 0
2K
K
So
q_ 0
K
s
2
q_ 0
P0
p
4
Tz T0
K
2K
q_ 0 q_ 20 2P0 KTz T0
P0
P0
2
2K
1 d
e
2 dT
r
185:1
2
r dr
dr
K
Integrating twice and using the boundary conditions:
Surface: r = R ! T = T0
Center: r = 0 ! T nite
we obtain the solution
e 2
T T0
R r2
6K
185:2
Heat ow
341
3:35 109
62 1012 7000 K
63
186. Consider a spherical Earth of radius R = 6000 km and a core at R/2, in which
there is a uniform and stationary distribution of heat sources per unit volume. The
heat ow at the surface is 5 mW m2, the thermal conductivity is 3 W m1 K1, and
the temperature at the coremantle boundary is 4000 K. Calculate the temperature at
the Earths surface.
We consider the problem as one of heat conduction inside a sphere with conductivity K and
constant heat generation per unit volume e inside the core (radius R/2). We begin with
Equation (185.1)
1 d
e
2 dT
r
r2 dr
dr
K
The boundary conditions at the coremantle boundary and its centre are
r R=2 ! T TN
r 0 ! T finite
where TN is the temperature at the coremantle boundary
Integrating twice we obtain
e
T r TN
6K
!
2
R
r2
2
)e 0
q_ 0 r R K
2:5 109 W m3
dr rR
3
R
6000 103
2
6000 10
250 K
342
dT
dr
187:1
where A 4pr2 is the area in the normal direction to the heat ow. Integrating this
equation:
q_
4p
R0
r1
dr
K
r2
T0
dT
T1
where the conditions at the Earths surface are, r = R0 !T = T0 and at the base of the crust,
r = r1 !T = T1.
Solving Equation (187.1), assuming that K is constant, we obtain
4pK
4pKr1 R0
T0 T1
T0 T1
q_ 1
1
R0 r1
r1
R0
187:2
(b) The temperature distribution inside of the Earth may be obtained by integration of
Equation (187.1):
T
q_ r dr
K
dT
4p r1 r2
T1
T r T1
R0 r r1
T0 T1
R0 r1 r
(c) The radial distance to the base of the crust is r2 = 5500 km, so, using expression
(187.2), we obtain
T1 T0
_ 0 r1
qR
5:5 1013 500 103
0
16579 C
4pKr1 R0
4p 4 5500 103 6000 103
This result implies a constant increase of temperature from the Earths surface
of 1 C each 33.2 m similar to the observed gradient in the real Earth of 1 C
per 30 m
188. Assume that the heat ow inside the Earth is due to solar heating of the
Earths surface. Calculate the maximum penetration of this ow in the diurnal and
annual cycles. Take as typical values for the Earth K = 3 Wm1 K1, r = 5.5 g cm3,
Cv = 1 kJ kg1 K1.
Heat ow
343
We assume the heat propagation inside the Earth coming from the solar radiation on its
surface as unidirectional ow thermal diffusion (inside the Earth) with periodic variation of
surface temperature. The diffusivity equation is
k
@ 2 T @T
@z2
@t
188:1
K
, K is the thermal conductivity, r is the density,
rCv
and Cv is the specic heat at constant volume. We solve Equation (188.1) using the
separation of variables
where the thermal diffusivity is k
T z; t Z zyt
Substituting in (188.1) we obtain the solution
Z z Aeaz Beaz
yt Ceka
where a is the constant of separation of variables. Using the boundary condition of periodic
ow and the temperature T0 at the Earths surface,
z 0 ) T T0 eiot
and as Z(z) exists only inside the Earth, B = 0. At the surface, z = 0, so
2
ACeka t T0 eiot
Then
AC T0
ka2 io
But putting, i 12 1 i2 , we have
r
o
a 1 i
2k
Then, we can write the temperature variation inside of the Earth as:
r
r
o
o
zi
z ot
T z; t T0 exp
2k
2k
This equation corresponds to a periodic wave, with angular frequency o propagating for
positive z values (to the Earths interior) and with the amplitude decreasing with depth. The
propagation velocity and wavelength are given by
r
2k
v
o
r
8k
l 2pv p
o
344
The values of l corresponding to the daily and annual cycles give their maximum penetration:
Daily cycle:
2p
7:2 105 s1
24 60 60
K
3 W m1 K1
Then
r
8 0:5 106
0:74 m
lp
7:2 105
Annual cycle:
2p
2 107 s1
365 24 60 60
l 14 m
The penetration of the solar radiation as periodic heat conduction inside the Earth is very
shallow due to the poor heat conduction.
189. Consider a lithospheric plate of 100 km thickness created from asthenospheric
material originating from a ridge in the asthenosphere with constant temperature Ta and
in which no heat is generated. Given that k = 106 m s1, that the temperature at the base
of the lithosphere is 1100 C, and in the asthenosphere is 1300 C, calculate the age of the
plate, and, if the velocity of drift is 2 cm yr1, how far it has moved away from the ridge.
The heat propagation inside the plate is given by:
K @2T @2T
@T
2 u
rcv @x2
@z
@x
189:1
where T is the temperature, r is the density, cv is the specic heat at constant volume, and u
is the horizontal velocity of the plate in the x-direction (normal to the plate front). If we
assume that the horizontal conduction of heat is insignicant in comparison with the
horizontal advection and vertical conduction, we can write, using the following change
of variable t = x/u,
K @ 2 T @T
rcv @z2
@t
Integrating this equation and using the boundary conditions at the ridge and surface:
x 0 ! T Ta
z0!T 0
we obtain for the temperature distribution
T z; t Ta erf
z
p
2 kt
345
Geochronology
where
K
rcv
2 x
2
erf x p ey dy
p 0
k
L
L
1100 1300erf p ) erf p 0:846
2 kt
2 kt
Values of the error function, erf(x), may be obtained from tables. If erf(x) = 0.846, x = 1.008, then
L
L2
1010
p 1:008 ) t
235
U:
235
4 7:95 107
318 kg
106
U is
Geochronology
191. The mass of 1 millicurie of 214Pb is 3 1014 kg. Calculate the value of the decay
constant of 214Pb.
The mass of the sample is
346
3 1014 kg 3 1017 g
N
M
N0
where N is the number of atoms in the sample, N0 is Avogadros number 6.02 1023,
and M is atomic number 214. Solving for N we obtain
N
dN
lN 3:7 1010 disintegrations s1
dt
3:7 107
0:44 1031 s1
8:44 1038
192. The isotope 40K decays by emission of b particle with a half-life of 1.83 109
years. How many b decays occur per second in one gram of pure 40K?
The average life t of a radioactive material is a function of the decay constant l:
t
1
1
!l
0:55 109 yr1 1:73 102 s1
l
1:83 109
The number of atoms N contained in 1 g of 40K may be estimated from Avogadros number
N0 and the atomic number M:
1
N
1 6:02 1023
M !N
0:15 1023 atoms
N0
40
704 106
T1=2
l238
l235
193:1
347
Geochronology
e
N238 N0238
Substituting the values given in the problem we obtain
4:0095 8:2924 1010 t ! t 4:8 109 yr
194. Date a meteorite which contains potassium knowing that its content of 40K is
1.19 1014 atoms g1, of 40Ar is 4.14 1017 atoms g1, and that the half-life of
40
K!40Ar is 1.19 109 years.
We obtain the decay constant of the
40
0:693
T1=2
0:693
l
0:58 109 yr1
1:19 109
We can solve the problem considering it as a case of radioactive parent atom disintegrating to a daughter stable atom. At time t 0 we have n0 parent atoms at the sample,
and at time t there remain NR radioactive atoms in the sample and NE daughter atoms,
from the disintegration of the n0 parent atoms:
n0 NR NE
But
n0 NR NE
NE
1
nt
NR
NR
From Equation (193.1) we obtain the age of the sample:
nt n0 elt !
n0
NR
elt 1
nt
NR
194:1
so
1
NE
t ln 1
l
NR
NE, the number of atoms of 40K in the sample, can be estimated from the number of atoms
contained in 1 g of potassium:
1
N
40 ! N 1:506 1022 atoms g1
6:023 1023
348
so
NE 1:506 1022 1:19 1014 1:792 1036 atoms g1
Then the age of the meteorite from (194.1) is
1
1:792 1036
t ln 1
7:4 1010 yr
l
4:41 1017
195. At an archaeological site, human remains were found and assigned an age of
2000 years. One wants to conrm this with 14C dating whose half-life is 5730 yr. If the
proportion of 14C/12C in the remains is 6 1013, calculate their age. (Assume that at
the initial time the 14C/12C ratio was 1.2 1012.)
The decay constant l may be obtained from the half-life:
T1=2
0:693
0:693
!l
1:2094 104 yr1
l
5730
1
R0
1
1:2 1012
ln
2379 yr
t ln
l
R
1:2094 104
9 1013
196. Mass spectrometry of the different minerals in an igneous rock yielded the
following table of values for the concentrations of 87Sr originating from the radioactive decay of 87Rb and of 87Rb, with the concentration expressed relative to the
concentrations of 86Sr of non-radioactive origin.
Mineral
87
Sr /86Sr
A
B
C
D
E
F
0.709
0.715
0.732
0.755
0.756
0.762
87
Rb /86Sr
0.125
0.418
1.216
2.000
2.115
2.247
Express on a 87Sr/86Sr87Rb/86Sr diagram the isochron corresponding to the formation of the rock, and calculate the age of the rock. Take l 1.42 1011 yr1.
For the decay of
87
Rb
87
Sr now 87 Sr 0 87 Rb now elt 1
196:1
349
Geochronology
0.80
0.78
86Sr
87Sr
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.70
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
87Rb
86Sr
Fig. 196
where [87Sr]now and [87Rb]now are the number of atoms of each isotope at time t, [87Sr]0 is the
amount of original number of atoms of the isotope 87Sr [87Sr]now, and l is the decay constant.
Equation (196.1) may be written as
87
87
Sr
Sr 87 Rb lt
86 86
e 1
196:2
86 Sr
Sr 0
Sr now
now
87
Sr
This equation corresponds to a line (y a bx) with intercept 86 and slope (elt 1),
Sr 0
which is called an isochron.
If we plot the values given in the problem (Fig. 196) we can obtain the equation of the
line by least-squares tting:
y 0:025x 0:705
The age of the sample can be obtained from the slope b 0.025:
el t 1 b
ln1 b
t
l
Substituting the values of b and l:
t 1:72 109 yr:
350
87
Rb/86Sr
A
B
C
D
1.195
2.638
4.892
5.671
(a) Calculate the proportions of 87Sr/86Sr and 87Rb/86Sr that these rocks will have
after 500 Myr. Take l 1.421011 yr1.
(b) Express in a 87Sr/86Sr87Rb/86Sr diagram the isochrons corresponding to t 0
and t 500 Myr.
(a) Using the same method as in the previous problem, we can write
87
87
Sr 87 Sr 87 Rb lt
Rb 1:421011 5108
86
e 1 0:709 86
e
1
86 Sr
86 Sr
Sr
Sr
0
0.78
0.76
86
87
Sr
Sr
t = 500 Ma
0.74
0.72
t=0
0.70
4
87Rb
86Sr
Fig. 197
351
Geochronology
The results for each rock are given in the following table
Sample
87
Sr/86Sr
A
B
C
D
0.717
0.728
0.744
0.749
87
Rb/86Sr
1.187
2.619
4.857
5.631
(b) For t 500 Myr, we carry out a least-squares tting to obtain the isochron,
which results in
y = 0.007x 0.709
In Fig. 197 the isochrones corresponding to t 0 and t 500 Myr are shown.
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