Computer Hardware

INDEX
1. Hardware Fundamentals
Ch 1 Identifying Components & their use
Ch 2 Measuring Voltages at different levels
2. Motherboards and their related components
Ch 1 Motherboards
Ch 2 Ports
3. Bios & CMOS
Ch 1 Bios & CMOS
Ch 2 Bios features & Configration
4. Operating Systems
Ch 1 Installing different Operating Systems like
DOS & Windows
Ch 2 Troubleshooting through Software
5. Antivirus Software
Ch 1 Viruses
Ch 2 Intallation of Norton Antivirus
Ch 3 Recovery of Sytem through Antivirus
Patches
PAGE NOS
1-10
11-14
15-25
26-37
38-41
42-52
53-59
60-64
65-71
72-84
85-88
CHAPTER 1
IDENTIFYING COMPONENTS AND THEIR USE
Unit 1.Chapter 1
1
Name : Identifying components and their use
1.1.1 What is a computer?
The term computer is used to describe a device made up of electronic and
electro mechanical components. The computer itself cannot perform any task
and is referred to as hardware.
A computer system consists of three elements.
Fig 1.1.1 Components of a Computer System

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People
Hardware : The physical components which you can see, touch and feel in
the computer system are called hardware Eg monitor, keyboard, mouse
etc.
Software : Software is used to describe the instructions that tells the computer how to perform a task. Software is categorized
1) System softwares ( eg . operating systems, compilers, editors etc)
2) Application softwares ( MS-word, excel, accounting packages etc)
People : People who operate the computer and also create computer software instructions.
1.1.2 Computer hardware
Basic components in a computer system are central processing unit (CPU),
memory, the input device and output device.
2
ComputerHardware
Computer systems Micros, Minis and Mainframes.
Micro computer : Micro computer is also called as personal computer or PC.
It has a processor based on a single silicon chip. Personal computers come in
three different physical sizes, pocket pcs, lap pcs and desktop pcs. Pocket
pcs and lap pcs belong to portable category. Microcomputer is used in small
businesses.
Ex : IBM compatible or IBM clone and Apple Macintosh systems.
Multiuser microcomputers. Until recently microcomputers were personal
computers for individual use only. But now days several microcomputers can
be networked together for simultaneous used by several people.
Mini computers: Mini computer is simply a small mainframe computer. It is a
reduced version of mainframe. Attached printers are not so fast. So it has less
storage capacity less processing speed of that of mainframe computers. They
are usually used by small businesses. For example research groups, engineering firms, colleges etc. use mini computers.
Mainframe computers: A mainframe computer is a large expensive machine
whose processing speed is very high and has large amount of secondary storage and fast printers. A large mainframe computer may be used to meet the
data processing requirements of the entire organization.
Examples: airline booking systems, Railway booking systems , weather forecast etc.
1.1.3 System types
We can classify systems into the following categories :
8-bit, example : 8085 microprocessor
16-bit, example : 8086, 286, 386 processor
32-bit , example : 486
64-bit, example : Pentium - II
This gives us two basic system types or classes of hardware.
8-bit ( PC/XT) class systems
16/32/64 (AT) class systems
Chapter 1
PC stands for personal computers, XT stands for eXTended PC, and AT stands
for an advance technology PC.
The XT basically was a PC system that included a hard disk for storage in
addition to the floppy drive found in the basic PC system. These systems has an
8-bit processor and an 8-bit INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE
(ISA) bus for system expansion. Bus is the name given to expansion slots in
which additional plug in circuit board can be installed.
16-bit and greater systems are said to be AT class. 16-bit (and latter 32 and 64
bit) processors and expansion slots are included. The first AT class systems had
a 16-bit version of the ISA bus which is an extension of the original 8-bit ISA
bus found in the PC/XT class systems. Afterwards several expansion slots were
developed for AT class systems.
Example
16/32 bit PS/2 microchannel architecture (MCA) bus.
16-bit PC card (PCMCIA) bus
Fig 1.1.2 ATX Format
Fig 1.1.3 PS/2 Port
16 bit ISA bus

16/32 bit Extended ISA(EISA) bus
32/64 - bit card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus.
The easiest way to identify a PC/XT system is by the 8-bit ISA expansion slots
regardless of the processor present in the system. AT systems can be similarly
identified by having 16-bit of greater slots of any type (ISA, EISA, PCI) slots.
4
Computer Hardware
1.1.4 System components
Component needed to assemble a basic modern PC system.
Motherboard
Processor
Memory (Primary)
Hard disk
CD-ROM
Floppy Drive
Keyboard
Mouse
Monitor
Power Supply
Cabinet
Motherboard : motherboard is the important component of the computer as
everything else is connected to it. And it controls everything in the system.
Motherboard are available in several different shapes.
Motherboard usually contain the following individual components.
Fig 1.1.4 Motherboard
Chapter 1
1) Processor slot
2) Processor voltage regulators
3) Motherboard chipset
4) Level 2 cache
5) Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets
6) Bus slots
7) ROM BIOS
8) Clock / CMOS battery
9) Super I/O chips
Processor
Fig 1.1.5 Processor Chips

The processor is often thought as the engine of the computer. Then the processor reads the commands from the memory and then executes them. the processor is one of the most
expensive parts of the computers and is also one of the smallest parts.
Primary Memory
Fig 1.1.6 Memory Chips

Memory : Is used to hold programs and data during execution.
Primary memory is often called as RAM(Random Access Memory). It holds
all the programs and data the processor is using at a given time. RAM is volatile
because its contents are erased when power is switched off.
The other type of system memory is ROM(Read only Memory)which is permanent because it contents are not erased even when power is switched off. It is
usually used to load an operating system.
6
Hard disk drive
Computer Hardware
Fig 1.1.7 Hard Disk Drive

A hard drive consists of spinning platters made up of aluminum or ceramic that
is coated with magnetic media. The platters come in various sizes. The hard
drive with many different storage capacities can be created depending upon the
density, size and number of platters.
This is also called as Secondary memory. There can be several programs in the
system, which cannot be stored in RAM, so we need a very huge non-volatile
memory, which can be used for storing all the programs, and data when the
system is not in use are called as Hard disks.
CD-ROM drive
Fig 1.1.8 CDROM Drive

CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. It consists of small disks
similar to the gramophone records to hold digital information. As the name applies they are read only medium. With the advancement in technology writable
CDs are also available.
Floppy Disk Drive
Fig 1.1.9 Floppy Disk Drive

Floppy disks are the slowest and the smallest form of secondary storage. They
provide a simple way to carry information from one place to another, and backup
small amount of files. In modern days floppy drive component is not as important as it was years ago. All PCs made in the last 10 years use a standard 3
inch, 1.44 MB capacity floppy drive.
Chapter 1
Keyboard
Fig 1.1.10 Keyboard

The keyboard is the main input device for most computers. It is used to input
text or enter commands into the PC. Nowadays keyboards with additional features are available like multimedia keyboard, wireless keyboard.
Mouse
Fig 1.1.11 Mouse

With the invention of graphical user interface mouse is used to input information
into the computer. Users simply point and click to enter information. The main
advantage of mouse over keyboard is simplicity. And there are many operations
that are much easier to perform with a mouse then a keyboard.
Monitor
Fig 1.1.12 Monitor

The monitor is the specialized high-resolution screen similar to a television. The
video card sends the contents of its video memory to the monitor at a rate of 60
or more time per second. The actual display screen is made up or red, green and
blue dots that are illuminated by electron beam from behind. The video card
DAC chip controls the movement of the electron beam, which then controls
what dots are turned on and how bright they are. Which then determines the
picture you see on the screen.
Computer Hardware
Power supply
Fig 1.1.13 Power Supply(SMPS)

SMPS(Switch Mode Power Supply): The power supply supplies power to
every single part in the PC. The main function of the power supply is to convert
the 230 V AC into 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V DC power that the system requires for
the operations.
In addition to supplying power to run the system, the power supply also ensures
that the system does not run unless the power supplied is sufficient to operate
the system properly. The power supply completes internal checks and tests
before allowing the system to start. If the tests are successful, the power supply
sends a special signal to the motherboard called Power_Good. If this signal is
not present continuously, the computer does not run. Therefore, when the AC
voltage dips and the power supply becomes stressed or overheated, the
Power_Good signal goes down and forces a system reset or complete shutdown.
Cabinet
Fig 1.1.14 Cabinet

The box or outer shell that houses most of the computers. The cabinet actually
performs several important functions for your PC including protection to the
system components, directing cooling airflow, and allowing installation of and
access to the system components. The cabinet often includes a matching power
supply and must also be designed with shape of the motherboard and other
system components in mind.
Chapter 1
9
Peripheral Devices
Any external device, which is not necessary to perform the basic operation of
computer, is called as peripherals. They provide additional computing capabilities. For ex : Printers, Modems, Speakers etc.
Modem
Fig 1.1.15 Modem

Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is typically used to send digital data
over a phone line. The sending modem converts digital data into analog data,
which can be transmitted over telephone lines, and the receiving modem
converts the analog data back into digital form. This is used to connect to
Internet.
A typical arrangement is shown below in fig 1.1.16
Modems are available in different capacities.

300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
2400 bps
9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
28.8 Kbps
33.6 Kbps
56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
10
Computer Hardware
ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps)

- Gained popularity in 1999
Printers
The capability to produce a printed version often called a hard copy of a document is the primary function of a printer.
Different types of printers are 1) Laser 2) Inkjet 3) Dot-Matrix.
Summary:
1) A computer is made up of electromechanical and electronic components.
2) Software is used to make computer usable.
3) Based on the microprocessor systems are classified as PC-XT and PCAT
4) Important components of a system are processor, memory, keyboard,
mouse, monitor etc.
5) SMPS converts AC (Alternate Current) into DC (Direct Current).
Short type Questions: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What is a computer?
Name different types of computers?
Name the system components?
How many types of memories are there?
What is SMPS?
Which type of input is given to SMPS?
What is the difference between ROM and RAM?
Essay type questions: 1. Name the types of system components and explain them briefly?
2. What is a MODEM? What is its use?
3. Discuss the use of SMPS?
CHAPTER :2
MEASURING VOLTAGES AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
Chapter -2
11
Name : Measuring Voltages at different levels
1.2.1 What is a multimeter? A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter
measures current, a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single
instrument.
A multimeter can serve many purposes including checking for voltage signals at different points in a system,
testing the output of the power supply and checking
for continuity in a circuit or cable.
Fig 1.2.1 Digital Monitor
Digital multimeter (DMM)?
One simple test that you can perform on a power supply is to check the output
voltages. This shows whether a power supply is operation correctly and whether
the output voltages are within the correct tolerance range.
You must measure all voltages with the power supplies connected to a proper
load. Which usually means testing while the power supply is installed in the
system.
Measuring voltage: To measure voltage on the system that is operating you
must use a technique called back probing on the connectors (These are the red,
yellow, orange, black and white wires coming out of power supply). You must
measure the voltages when system is powered on. Nearly all the connectors you
need to probe have openings in the back where the wires enter the connector.
The meter leads are narrow enough to fit into the connector beside the wire and
make contact with the metal terminal inside. The technique is called back probing because you are probing the connector from the back. You must use this
back probing technique to perform all of the following measurements.
To test a power supply for the proper output, check the voltage at the
Power_Good pin for +3v to +6v of power. If the measurement is not within this
range, the system never sees the Power_Good signal and therefore does not
start or run properly. In most cases, the power supply is bad and must be replaced.
Continue by measuring the voltage ranges of the pins on the motherboard and
12
ComputerHardware
Hard Disk power connectors. If you are measuring voltages for testing purposes
any reading within 10 % of the specified voltage is considered acceptable,
although most manufactures of high quality power supplies specifies a tighter 5%
tolerance. For ATX power supplies,
the specification requires that voltages must be within 5% of the rating , except
for the 3.3v current which must be within 4%.
Desired
Voltage
+3.3v
+/- 5.0v
+/- 12.0v
Loose tolearance
Min (-10%) Max( +8%)
2.97v
4.5v
10.8v
3.63v
5.4v
12.9v
Tight tolerance
Min (-5%) Max( +5%)
3.135v
4.75v
11.4v
3.465v
5.25v
12.6v
Power_Good signal has tolerances that are different from the other signals, although it is nominally a +5v signal in most systems. The trigger point for
Power_Good is about +2.5v, but most systems require the signal voltage to be
within the tolerances listed.
Signal
Minimum
Maximum
Power_good +5v 3.0v
6.0v
Replace the power supply if the voltages are measured out of these ranges.
Again, it is worth noting that any and all power supply tests and measurements
must be made with the power supply properly loaded, which usually means that
it must be installed in a system and the system must be running.
2.1.2 Meters
The DMM has a pair of wires called test leads or probes. The test leads make
the connections so that you can take readings, depending on the meters setting;
the probes measure electrical resistance, direct current (DC) voltage, or alternating Current (AC) voltage.
Usually, each system-unit measurement settings has several ranges of operations. DC voltage, for example, usually can be read in several scales, to a maximum of 200mv, 2v, 20v, 200v and 1000v. Because computers use both +5v
and +12v for various operations you should use the 20v maximum scale for
making your measurements. Making these measurements on the 200mv or 2v
scale would possibly damage the meter because the voltage would be much
Chapter -2
Name : Measuring Voltages at different levels
13
higher then expected.

Using the 200v or 1000v scale works, but the readings at 5v and 12v are so
small in proportion to the maximum that accuracy is low.
If you are taking a measurement and are unsure of the actual voltage, start at the
highest stage and work your way down.
Using Multimeter to measure voltages:Initially you have to check if the current from wall socket is 230 V or not. For
this go through the following steps:
1) Adjust the multimeter by roatating the knob of the multimeter and set it to any
AC voltage higher than 230 V.
2) Now put the positive lead(Red) of the mutlimeter into phase(+ve terminal)
and
Negative lead (Black) into neutral(-ve teminal) of the wall socket.
3)Note down the readings. Which has to be 230 V. But practically anything
between 210
and 230 V is acceptable.
Follow the steps which are given below to check the power in Hard Disk Drive.
1) Adjust the multimeter by roatating the knob of the multimeter and set it
to any DC voltage higher than 12 v and maximum can be 20v.
2) Switch on the system.
3) Now put the positive lead (Red) of the mutlimeter into Red wire from
the back of the power connecter which goes to Hard disk and Negative
lead (Black) into the black wire of the power connector of Hard disk.
4) Note down the readings. Which has to be +5 volts. Where as tolerance
levels you can find from the above tables 2.1 and 2.2.
5) Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the yellow and black wires of Hard disk power
connector.
And follow the above procedure to measure the power in the motherboard,
CPU fan, Floppy dirve, CD ROM etc.
14
Computer Hardware
Summary:1. Digital multimeters are used to measure power supply in computer.

2. Power_Good signal is necessary to start the system.
Short questions: 1.
2.
3.
4.
What is a Multimeter?
What is the difference between multimeter and digital multimeter?
What is back probing?]
What is Power_Good Signal?
Essay type questions: 1. How is multimenter used to measure voltages?
Unit II Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
15
2.1.1 What is a Motherboard?

Motherboard is the most important component in any personal computer. It
contains almost every important elements of the computer.
Sometimes instead of the calling it motherboard, IBM refers to is as system
Board or Planner Board , some other manufacturer refer to this as the
Logic Board.
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside the PC which holds the
processor, memory and expansion slots and connects directly or indirectly
to every part of the PC. Its made up of a chipset(known as the glue logic),
some code in ROM and the various interconnections or buses.
2.1.2 Evolution
The original PC had a minimum of integrated devices, just ports for a keyboard
and a cassette deck (for storage). Everything else, including a display adapter
and floppy or hard disk controllers, were add-in components, connected via
expansion slots.
Over time, more devices have been integrated into the motherboard. Its a slow
trend though, as I/O ports and disk controllers were often mounted on expansion cards as recently as 1995. Other components - typically graphics, networking, SCSI and sound - usually remain separate. Many manufacturers have
experimented with different levels of integration, building in some or even all of
these components. However, there are drawbacks. Its harder to upgrade the
specification if integrated components cant be removed, and highly integrated
motherboards often require non-standard cases. Furthermore, replacing a single
faulty component may mean buying an entire new motherboard.
Consequently, those parts of the system whose specification changes fastest RAM, CPU and graphics - tend to remain in sockets or slots for easy replacement. Similarly, parts that not all users need, such as networking or SCSI, are
usually left out of the base specification to keep costs down.
The basic changes in motherboard form factors over the years are covered later
in this section - the diagrams below provide a detailed look at the various components on two motherboards. The first a Baby AT design, sporting the ubiquitous Socket 7 processor connector, circa 1995. The second is an ATX design,
with a Pentium II Slot 1 type processor connector, typical of motherboards on
the market in late 1998.
16
Computer Hardware
Fig 2.1.1 Baby AT Design
Fig 2.1.2 ATX Design
Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
17
Motherboard development consists largely of isolating performance-critical components from slower ones. As higher speed devices become available, they are
linked by faster buses - and the lower-speed buses are relegated to supporting
roles. In the late 1990s there was also trend towards putting peripherals designed as integrated chips directly onto the motherboard. Initially this was confined to audio and video chips - obviating the need for separate sound or graphics adapter cards - but in time the peripherals integrated in this way became
more diverse and included items such as SCSI, LAN and even RAID controllers. While there are cost benefits to this approach the biggest downside is the
restriction of future upgrade options.
2.1.2 Motherboard Form Factors

Early PCs used the AT form factor and 12in wide motherboards. The sheer
size of an AT motherboard caused problems for upgrading PCs and did not
allow use of the increasingly popular slimline desktop cases. These problems
were largely addressed by the smaller version of the full AT form factor, the
Baby AT, introduced in 1989. Whilst
this remains a common form factor, there have been several improvements since.
All designs are open standards and as such dont require certification. A consequence is that there can be some quite wide variation in design detail between
different manufacturers motherboards
There are several common form factors used for PC motherboards. The form
factors refer to the physical dimensions and size of the board, and dictates what
type case is motherboard will fit into. The PC motherboard form factors generally available include the following.
Baby AT
NLX
LPX
Backplane systems
ATX
Proprietary designs
BAT(Baby AT)
The Baby AT (BAT) format reduced the dimensions of the motherboard to a
typical 9in wide by 10in long, and BAT motherboards are generally characterised
by their shape, an AT-style keyboard connector soldered to the board and serial and parallel port connectors which are attached using cables between the
physical ports mounted on the system case and corresponding connectors located on the motherboard.
18
Computer Hardware
With the BAT design the processor socket is located at the front of the motherboard, and fulllength expansion cards are intended to extend
over it. This means that removing the processor
requires the removal of some or all expansion
cards first. Problems were exacerbated by the
increasing speeds of Pentium-class processors.
Fig 2.1.3 Baby AT Motherboard
System cooling relied on the AT power supply blowing air out of the chassis
enclosure and, due to the distance between the power supply and the CPU, an
additional chassis fan or active heatsink became a necessity to maintain good
airflow across the CPU. AT power supplies only provide 12V and 5V outputs
to the motherboard, requiring additional regulators on the motherboard if 3.3V
components (PCI cards or CPUs) are used. Sometimes a second heatsink was
also required on these voltage regulators and together the various additional heat
dissipation components caused serious obstruction for expansion slots.
Some BAT designs allow the use of either AT or ATX power supplies, and
some ATX cases might allow the use of a Baby-AT motherboard.
ATX
The Intel Advanced/ML motherboard, launched in 1996, was designed to solve
these issues and marked the beginning of a new era in motherboard design. Its
size and layout are completely different to the BAT format, following a new
scheme known as ATX. The dimensions of a standard ATX board are 12in wide
by 9.6in long; the mini ATX variant is typically of the order 11.2in by 8.2in.
The ATX design gets round the problem by moving the
CPU socket and the voltage regulator to the right-hand
side of the expansion bus. Room is made for the CPU
by making the card slightly wider, and shrinking or integrating components such as the Flash BIOS, I/O logic
and keyboard controller. This means the board need
only be half as deep as a full size Baby AT, and
Fig 2.1.5 ATX Motherboard
theres no obstruction whatsoever to the six expansion slots (two ISA, one
ISA/PCI, three PCI).
Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
19
The ATX uses a new specification of power supply that can be powered on
or off by a signal from the motherboard. This allows notebook-style power
management and software-controlled shutdown and power-up. A 3.3V output is also provided directly from the power supply. Accessibility of the processor and memory modules is improved dramatically, and relocation of the
peripheral connectors allows shorter cables to be used. This also helps reduce electromagnetic interference. The ATX power supply has a side vent
that blows air from the outside directly across the processor and memory
modules, allowing passive heatsinks to be used in most cases, thereby reducing system noise.
Mini-ATX is simply a smaller version of a full-sized ATX board. On both
designs, parallel, serial, PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports are located on a
double-height I/O shield at the rear. Being soldered directly onto the board
generally means no need for cable interconnects to the on-board I/O ports. A
consequence of this, however, is that the ATX needs a newly designed case,
with correctly positioned cut-outs for the ports, and neither ATX no MiniATX boards can be used in AT-style cases.
NLX
Intels NLX design, introduced in 1997, is an improvement on the LPX
design for low-profile systems, with an emphasis on ease of maintenance.
The NLX format is smaller, typically 8.8in wide by 13in long, so well suited
for low-profile desktop cases.
All expansion slots, power cables and
peripheral connectors are located on an
edge-mounted riser card, allowing simple
removal of the main motherboard, which is
mounted on rails in the chassis. It uses a fullwidth I/O shield to allow for different
combinations of rear-panel I/O. The design
allows for use of an
Fig 2.1.6 NLX Motherboard
AGP card, but the slot must be on the motherboard, which reduces the
ease of maintenance when such a card is implemented.
AGP card, but the slot must be on the motherboard, which reduces the
ease of maintenance when such a card is implemented.
Proprietary designs motherboards that are not one of the standard form
factors such as Fullsized AT, Baby- AT, ATX or NLX are called as
proprietary.
20
Computer Hardware
Backplane systems: One type of proprietary design is the backplane

system. These systems donot have a motherboard, the components normally
found on the motherboard are located on an expansion adapter card plugged
into a slot. In these systems, the board with the slots is called a backplane
rather than a motherboard. Systems using this type of constructions are called
backplane systems.
2.1.3 Motherboard components

A conventional motherboard comprises of various components such as
Expansion slots
CPU(Main Processor)
Coprocessor
Memory
BIOS and
Support circuits of chipset for interrupt, DMA etc.
Expansion Slots
What is expansion slot?
The expansion slots are long thin connectors on the motherboard, near the backside
of the computer. Various expansion cards are connected to the motherboards
through data, address and control lines/buses on these slots.
One can connect various expansion cards such as display card, hard drive controller, sound card, network card, modem card etc. on these slots.
When an adapter card is connected to the expansion slot, it is actually connected to the data, address and control bus on the motherboard.
What is a Bus?
A bus is an electronic path on which signals are sent from one part of the
computer to another.
These buses are categorizes according to the number of BINARY DIGITS
(bits) that thety can transfer at a time.
If the data bus is 8 bit wide then it can transfer 8 bits of information at
a time and called an 8 bit bus.
On a 8 bit data bus transferring 16 bit data requires two data transfers
Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
21
Another very common term while talking about bus is , its bandwidth.
The bandwidth of a bus is the measure of data that can fit in the bus at
a given time.
You can increase the data movement through a bus either by increasing the
bus width( from 8 bit to 16 bit) of by increasing the bus bandwidth (8 Mhz to
20 Mhz).
This is similar to the way you can increase water output from a pipe, either
you can increase the pipe diameter or you can increase the water flow.
Data Bus : Is a set of wires or tracks on the motherboard. Data bus is used to
transfer data from one part of the computer to another part.
Address Bus : is a set of wires or tracks on the motherboard Printed Circuit
Board(PCB) which is used to specify address of a memory location
Depending on the width and the technology, the expansion slot bus can be
divided into the following categories.
8 bit ISA
16 bit ISA
MCA
EISA
VESA local bus or VL bus
PCI local Bus
CPU (Main Processor)

The main component of any motherboard is the main processor chip which
controls all the inner functions of the system. The CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT(CPU) functions as the brain of every PC.
It is usually inserted into the socket and is not soldered onto the motherboard
as many other chips are normally done, this makes its replacement, in case of
any problem, very easy.
Some of the common CPU chips are inter 8088,8086,80286,80386,80486,
Pentium, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV etc.
22
Computer Hardware
Coprocessor
What is a coprocessor?
Coprocessor is a special purpose microprocessor, which is used to spped up
main processor job by taking over some of the main processors work. Most
common type of coprocessor is a math coprocessor.
Coprocessor chips are used to help the main processor in carrying out its
various functions.
A math coproessor helps main processor in performing mathematical calculations
Older system (XT, AT, AT-386) required a coprocessor chips to be inserted
into special socket on the motherboard, but the current feneration of CPUs
have math coprocessor built inside the main processor itself.
Memory
What is a memory?
Memory is the place where computer stores the program(set of instructions
telling ehe computer what to do), and data that help the program in carrying
out its operations.
For example, a marks sheet printing program will require students rollnumber,
name and marks obtained in various subjects etc. as data.
There is basically two type of memory used in a computer which are discussed in the previous chapter.
RAM memory
ROM memory
RAM memory
RAM or random access memory is a read/write type of memory which is
used by the processor to keep program, data and intermediate results during
program executions.
It is VOLATILE type of memory, which lose ists content when the power
supply to it is switched off.
The physical installation of RAM memory on the motherboard can take place
in various ways.
DIP(dual In-line Pin) memory chips were used on initial
motherboards.
Later SIMM ( single inline memory modules) became common.
Currently DIMM(dual inline memory modules) are most common
memory module.
Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
23
Bit is a binary digit that is either 0 or 1.

Nibble is collection of 4 bits.
Byte is collection of 8 bits.
Kilobyte is 1024 bytes
Megabyte is 1024 Kilobytes
Gigabyte is 1024 Megabytes
Read Only Memory(ROM)
ROM or Read Only Memory, as its name suggest is a read only type of
memory it cannot be written. Data is written into it by the manufacturer.
On major advantage with the ROM is, ROM is Non-Volatile type of
memory i.e it does not lose its content when the power supply to it is
switched off.
A motherboard normally contains one or more of these ROM chips.
The memory capacity of a ROM varies from one type of system to
another.64 KiloByte (KB) was normally sufficient for a XT system,
whereas as AT system requires 256KB of ROM.
BIOS
What is BIOS?
BIOS is an abbreviation if Basic Input Output System. It is one of the most
important program stored in the ROM.
BIOS program lets your application program and the hardware such as floppy
disk, hard disk, video adapter etc. communicate with each other.
It is pronounced bye-os.
The BIOS also contains a program called Power-On-Self-Test or
POST. This post program checks the motherboard and other devices
connected to the computer during the system power-on time.
IBM made the original BIOS for their copyright product, but many compatible
BIOS program BIOS program are available from Award, Phoenix, American
Megatrends Inc. (AMI) etc. various manufacturers.
CMOS(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) Memory
In old IBM XT or compatible system, BIOS, with the help of jumpers,
detected what all components are connected to the computer system.
IBM AT and higher systems do not contain these jumper switches and
instead use a CMOS memory to store the system configuration, date,
and time etc. information.
24
Computer Hardware
This CMOS memory receives power from a battery accompanying it,

this battery helps it retains the information stored in it even when the
system is switched off.
When an AT or higher system is switched on, BIOS matches the information

stored inside the CMOS with the components connected to the system and if
it finds some mismatch or error, the BIOS displays some error message,
explaining the problem.
Cache Memory:
A small amount (normally less than 1MB) of high-speed memory residing on
or close to the CPU. Cache memory supplies the processor with the most
frequently requested data and instructions. Level 1 cache (primary cache) is
the cache closest to the processor. Level 2 cache (secondary cache) is the
cache second closest to the processor and is usually on the motherboard.
Support Chips/Chipsets
Apart from the processor chip and the memory, Motherboard also contains
many controller chips and other devices which everything together.
A typical system required interrupt controller, DMS controller, Timer
chip, Clock chip, Bus controller chip, I/O peripheral interface chip
etc, to make the computer work as a complete unit.
The IBM PC, XT, AT, Pentium etc. use standard Inter chips intended
for any computer built around an Intel CPU.
Modern developments in electronics have made it possible to produce
VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS(VLSIC), and
now just two or three of these VLSIC chips can do the work which
were previously performed by dozens of different chips.
These set of VLSIC chips are called CHIPSETS.
A typical chipset contains in one or two VLSIC chips all the support
logic required by the processor to function as a complete system.
Many of these chipset maker include serial and parallel ports, floppy
and hard disk controllers, USB support, LAN and audio support, and
display adapter on the chipset itself.
Large-scale integration along with high capacity memory chips has let to even
fewer components on a PCs motherboard.
Chapter -1
Name : Motherboard
25
Motherboard Configuration
A typical motherboard has several options and proper configuration is required to select the required hardware setup.
Most of the PC and XT class motherboards are set/configured using
jumpers or switches on the motherboard.
In the AT and later machines, the configuration options are stored in
CMOS RAM and are set using the SETUP utility in the BIOS ROM.
The motherboard configuration should always be perfect, as an incorrectly
setup motherboard can cause the system to malfunction or even crash.
Summary
1. Motherboard is the main circuit of PC.
2. It holds important components like CPU, Memory, SMPS etc.
3. Integrated motherboards have features such as graphics, LAN, audio,
etc integrated onto the motherboard and aim at providing solutions for
the cost-conscious users.
4. Form factors of motherboard are Baby-AT, ATX, NLX, LPX.
5. To identify motherboard model, see the white sticker on the side of
the last ISA slot or the prints on the board itself.
Short questions :1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
What is a motherboard?
Name the components of a motherboard?
What is Cache Memory?
What is an integrated motherboard?
How can I identify the model and manufacturer name for my
motherboard?
Essay Type questions: 1. Explain briefly about the Motherboard Form Factors?
2. Briefly explain the components of Motherboard?
26
Computer Hardware
Ports
2.2.1 Introduction
The most basic communication ports in any PC system are the serial and parallel ports. The serial ports were originally used for devices that must communicate bi-directional with the system. Such devices include modems, mice, scanners and any other devices that talk to and receive information from the PC.
Newer parallel port standards now allow the parallel port to perform highspeed bi-directional communications.
1.2.2 Serial ports

How Serial Ports work?
Considered to be one of the most basic external connections to a computer, the
serial port has been an integral part of most computers for more than 20 years.
Although many of the newer systems have done away with the serial port completely in favor of USB connections, most modems still use the serial port, as do
some printers, PDAs and digital cameras. Few computers have more than two
serial ports.
Fig 2.2.1Two serial ports on the back of a PC

Essentially, serial ports provide a standard connector and protocol to let you
attach devices, such as modems, to your computer.
UART Needed
All computer operating systems in use today support serial ports, because
serial ports have been around for decades. Parallel ports are a more recent
invention and are much faster than serial ports. USB ports are only a few
years old, and will likely replace both serial and parallel ports completely
over the next several years.
The name serial comes from the fact that a serial port serializes data. That is,
Unit II Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
27
it takes a byte of data and transmits the 8 bits in the byte one at a time. The
advantage is that a serial port needs only one wire to transmit the 8 bits (while a
parallel port needs 8). The disadvantage is that it takes 8 times longer to transmit
the data than it would if there were 8 wires. Serial ports lower cable costs and
make cables smaller.
Before each byte of data, a serial port sends a start bit, which is a single bit with
a value of 0. After each byte of data, it sends a stop bit to signal that the byte is
complete. It may also send a parity bit.
Serial ports, also called communication (COM) ports, are bi-directional. Bidirectional communication allows each device to receive data as well as transmit
it. Serial devices use different pins to receive and transmit data using the same
pins would limit communication to half-duplex, meaning that information could
only travel in one direction at a time. Using different pins allows for full-duplex
communication, in which information can travel in both directions at once.
Fig 2.2.2 This 40-pin Dual Inline Package (DIP) chip is a variation of the Na-
tional Semiconductor NS16550D UART chip.
Serial ports rely on a special controller chip, the Universal Asynchronous

Receiver/Transmitter (UART), to function properly. The UART chip takes
the parallel output of the computers system bus and transforms it into serial
form for transmission through the serial port. In order to function faster, most
UART chips have a built-in buffer of anywhere from 16 to 64 kilobytes. This
buffer allows the chip to cache data coming in from the system bus while it is
processing data going out to the serial port. While most standard serial ports
have a maximum transfer rate of 115 Kbps (kilobits per second), high speed
serial ports, such as Enhanced Serial Port (ESP) and Super Enhanced Serial Port (Super ESP), can reach data transfer rates of 460 Kbps.
The
Serial
Connection
The external connector for a serial port can be either 9 pins or 25 pins.
Originally, the primary use of a serial port was to connect a modem to your
28
Computer Hardware
computer. The pin assignments reflect that. Lets take a closer look at what
happens at each pin when a modem is connected.
Fig 2.2.3 Close-up of 9-pin and 25-pin serial

connectors
9-pin connector:
1. Carrier Detect - Determines if the modem
is connected to a working phone line.
2. Receive Data - Computer receives information sent from the modem.
3.Transmit Data - Computer sends information to the modem.
4.Data Terminal Ready - Computer tells the
modem that it is ready to talk.
5.Signal Ground - Pin is grounded.
6.Data Set Ready - Modem tells the computer that it is ready to talk.
Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
7. Request To Send - Computer asks the modem if it can send information.
8. Clear To Send - Modem tells the computer
that it can send information.
9. Ring Indicator - Once a call has been
placed, computer acknowledges signal (sent
from modem) that a ring is detected.
25-pin connector:
1.
Not Used
2.
Transmit Data - Computer sends
information to the modem.
3.
Receive Data - Computer receives
information sent from the modem.
4.
Request To Send - Computer asks
the modem if it can send information.
5.
Clear To Send - Modem tells the
computer that it can send information.
6.
Data Set Ready - Modem tells the
computer that it is ready to talk.
7.
Signal Ground - Pin is grounded.
8.
Received Line Signal Detector Determines if the modem is connected to a
working phone line.
9.
Not Used: Transmit Current Loop
Return (+)
10.
Not Used
11.
Not Used: Transmit Current Loop
Data (-)
12.
Not Used
13.
Not Used
14.
Not Used
15.
Not Used
16.
Not Used
17.
Not Used
18.
Not Used: Receive Current Loop
Data (+)
19.
Not Used
20.
Data Terminal Ready - Computer
29
30
Computer Hardware
tells the modem that it is ready to talk.
21.
Not Used
22.
Ring Indicator - Once a call has
been placed, computer acknowledges signal
(sent from modem) that a ring is detected.
23.
Not Used
24.
Not Used
25.
Not Used: Receive Current Loop
Return (-)
Voltage sent over the pins can be in one of
two states, On or Off. On (binary value 1)
means that the pin is transmitting a signal
between -3 and -25 volts, while Off (binary
value 0) means that it is transmitting a signal
between +3 and +25 volts...
2.2.3 Parallel ports
How Parallel Ports Work?

If you have a printer connected to your computer, there is a good chance that it
uses the parallel port. While USB is becoming increasingly popular, the parallel
port is still a commonly used interface for printers.
Fig 2.2.4 A typical parallel port on the back of your computer

Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals:
Printers
Scanners
Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
31
CD burners
External hard drives
Iomega Zip removable drives
Network adapters
Tape backup drives
Parallel Port Basics
Parallel ports were originally developed by IBM as a way to connect a printer
to your PC. When IBM was in the process of designing the PC, the company
wanted the computer to work with printers offered by Centronics, a top
printer manufacturer at the time. IBM decided not to use the same port interface on the computer that Centronics used on the printer.
Fig 2.2.5
Instead, IBM engineers coupled a 25-pin connector, DB-25, with a 36-pin
Centronics connector to create a special cable to connect the printer to the
computer. Other printer manufacturers ended up adopting the Centronics interface, making this strange hybrid cable an unlikely de facto standard.
When a PC sends data to a printer or other device using a parallel port, it sends
8 bits of data (1 byte) at a time. These 8 bits are transmitted parallel to each
other, as opposed to the same eight bits being transmitted serially (all in a single
row) through a serial port. The standard parallel port is capable of sending 50 to
100 kilobytes of data per second.
32
Computer Hardware
Table 2.2.1 Comparison of DB-25 and Centronics 36 Parallel ports
SPP/EPP/ECP
The original specification for parallel ports was unidirectional, meaning that
data only traveled in one direction for each pin. With the introduction of the
PS/2 in 1987, IBM offered a new bidirectional parallel port design. This
mode is commonly known as Standard Parallel Port (SPP) and has completely replaced the original design. Bidirectional communication allows each
device to receive data as well as transmit it. Many devices use the eight pins
Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
33
(2 through 9) originally designated for data. Using the same eight pins limits
communication to half-duplex, meaning that information can only travel in
one direction at a time. But pins 18 through 25, originally just used as grounds,
can be used as data pins also. This allows for full-duplex (both directions
at the same time) communication.
Table 2.2.2 EPP Pins

Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) was created by Intel, Xircom and Zenith in
1991. EPP allows for much more data, 500 kilobytes to 2 megabytes, to be
transferred each second. It was targeted specifically for non-printer devices
that would attach to the parallel port, particularly storage devices that needed
the highest possible transfer rate.
Fig 2.2.6 EPP Parallel Port

Close on the heels of the introduction of EPP, Microsoft and Hewlett Packard
jointly announced a specification called Extended Capabilities Port (ECP)
in 1992. While EPP was geared toward other devices, ECP was designed to
provide improved speed and functionality for printers
Table 2.2.3 ECP Pins
34
Computer Hardware
In 1994, the IEEE 1284 standard was released. It included the two
specifications for parallel port devices, EPP and ECP. In order for them to
work, both the operating system and the device must support the required
specification. This is seldom a problem today since most computers support
SPP, ECP and EPP and will detect which mode needs to be used, depending
on the attached device. If you need to manually select a mode, you can do so
through the BIOS on most computers.
2.2.4 What is USB?

Anyone who has been around computers for more than two or three years
knows the problem that the Universal Serial Bus is trying to solve in the
past, connecting devices to computers has been a real headache
Fig 2.2.7 USB Connector
Printers connected to parallel printer ports, and most computers only

came with one. Things like Zip drives, which need a high-speed connection into the computer, would use the parallel port as well, often with
limited success and not much speed.
Modems used the serial port, but so did some printers and a variety of
odd things like Palm Pilots and digital cameras. Most computers have at
most two serial ports, and they are very slow in most cases.
Devices that needed faster connections came with their own cards, which
had to fit in a card slot inside the computers case. Unfortunately, the
number of card slots is limited and you needed a Ph.D. to install the
software for some of the cards.
The goal of USB is to end all of these headaches. The Universal Serial
Bus gives you a single, standardized, easy-to-use way to connect up to
127 devices to a computer.
Just about every peripheral made now comes in a USB version. A sample
list of USB devices that you can buy today includes:
Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
35
1. Printers
2. Scanners
3. Mice
4. Joysticks
5. Flight yokes
6. Digital cameras
7. Webcams
8. Scientific data acquisition devices
9. Modems
10. Speakers
11. Telephones
12. Video phones
13. Storage devices such as Zip drives
14. Network connections
How USB Ports Work ?

Just about any computer that you buy today comes with one or more Universal
Serial Bus connectors on the back. These USB connectors let you attach everything from mice to printers to your computer quickly and easily. The operating system supports USB as well, so the installation of the device drivers is quick
and easy, too. Compared to other ways of connecting devices to your computer
(including parallel ports, serial ports and special cards that you install inside the
computers case), USB devices are incredibly simple! Just about any computer
that you buy today comes with one or more Universal Serial Bus connectors
on the back. These USB connectors let you attach everything from mice to
printers to your computer quickly and easily. The operating system supports
USB as well, so the installation of the device drivers is quick and easy, too.
Compared to other ways of connecting devices to your computer (including
parallel ports, serial ports and special cards that you install inside the computers
case), USB devices are incredibly simple!
USB Connections
Connecting a USB device to a computer is simple you find the USB
connector on the back of your machine and plug the USB connector into it.
36
Computet Hardware
Fig 2.2.8 USB Connections

If it is a new device, the operating system auto-detects it and asks for the
driver disk. If the device has already been installed, the computer activates it
and starts talking to it. USB devices can be connected and disconnected at
any time.
Many USB devices come with their own built-in cable, and the cable has an
A connection on it. If not, then the device has a socket on it that accepts a
USB B connector.
The USB standard uses A and B connectors to avoid confusion:
Fig 2.2.9A typical A connection
Fig 2.2.10 Typical B connection
A connectors head upstream toward the computer.

B connectors head downstream and connect to individual devices.
By using different connectors on the upstream and downstream end, it is
impossible to ever get confused if you connect any USB cables B
connector into a device, you know that it will work. Similarly, you can plug
any A connector into any A socket and know that it will work.
Chapter -2
Name : Motherboard
37
Summary:
1. The main type of ports available on a PC are Serial port, Parallel
port, USB port.
2. Serial port allows you to connect to Mouse, Modem etc.
3. Parallel port allows you to connect to Printers.
4. USB allows you to connect you to Webcam, Videophones, Scanners etc.
Short Type Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name the different types of ports in a Computer?

Name few devices that connect to Parallel Port?
What is USB port?
In how many forms serial port is available?
What is the maximum number of devices which you can connect
using USB?
6. What is the use of USB A connector and USB B connector?
7. Expand ECP, EPP and SPP?
Essay type Questions:
1. Explain briefly how serial port works?
2. Explain briefly how parallel port works?
3. Explain about UART and its need?
38
Computer Hardware
BIOS & CMOS
3.1.1 Introduction: All motherboards must have a special chip containing

software called the ROM BIOS or BIOS. BIOS stand for Basic Input Output
System.
Fig 3.1.1 BIOS Chip

BIOS in most PCs has four main functions
POST (Power-On Self Test): The POST tests your computers processor,
memory, chipset, video adaptor, Hard disks, Floppies, keyboard and other
important components.
Bootstrap Loader: A routine that finds the operating system and loads it in
RAM.
BIOS- Basic Input Output System: This refers to the collection of drivers for
the various hardware components attached to the computers.
CMOS setup : This is normally a menu driven program that allows you to
configure the motherboard and chipset settings, along with date and time,
passwords, disk drives, and other basic system settings.
Some older PCs cannot co-operate with all the modern hardware because their
BIOS doesnt support that hardware. The operating system cannot call a BIOS
routine to use it; this problem can be solved by replacing your BIOS with a
newer one, that does support your new hardware, or by installing a device driver
for the hardware.
Unit III Chapter -1

Name : Bios & Cmos
39
3.1.2 Bootstrap loader

Definition: A routine that finds the operating system and loads or boots it. If an
operating system is found it is loaded and given control of your computer
This program doesnt have the full functionality of an operating system, but is
tailor-made specifically so that it is capable of loading enough other software for
the operating system to start. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in
which several small programs summon each other, until the last of them loads the
operating system. The name bootstrap loader comes from the image of one
pulling oneself up by ones bootstraps
This program doesnt have the full functionality of an operating system, but is
tailor-made specifically so that it is capable of loading enough other software for
the operating system to start. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in
which several small programs call upon each other, until the last of them loads
the operating system.
Boot loaders may face peculiar constraints, especially in size; for instance, on
the IBM PC and compatibles, the first stage of boot loaders is always 512 bytes
in length and ends with the AA55h value (which the BIOS looks at to ensure that
it is a proper boot loader).
Second-stage boot loader
The small program is most often not itself an operating system, but only a second-stage boot loader, such as NTLDR, LILO or GRUB. It will then be able to
load the operating system proper, and finally transfer execution to it. The system
will initialize itself, and may load device drivers and other programs that are
needed for the normal operation of the OS.
3.1.3 Booting
In computing, booting is a bootstrapping process that starts operating systems
when the user turns on a computer system. A boot sequence is the set of
operations the computer performs when it is switched on which load an
operating system.
In modern PC machines the way a computer boots is roughly:
1. A BIOS (basic I/O system), stored in ROM, contains
40
Computer Hardware
the program that checks the disk drives for a MBR

(master boot record).
2. The program found at the MBR is the boot loader which is specific to
the OS being booted.
3. The boot loader finds the OS and prepares the hardware
(memory, disk, etc.) for starting the OS.
4. The OS finishes initializing itself then starts optional services and
device drivers before the machine begins to respond to normal input.
In the case of a network boot, where a machine may be diskless, the sequence is
essentially the same, but the BIOS is in the ROM of a network card which fetches
the boot loader program from the network.
The boot process is considered complete when the computer is ready to interact
with the user or the operating system is capable of running ordinary applications.
Typical modern PCs boot in about a minute (of which about 15 seconds are
taken by the preliminary boot loaders, and the rest by the one loading the operating system), while large servers may take several minutes to boot and to start
all services - to ensure high availability, they bring up some services before others.
Most embedded systems must boot almost instantly for instance, waiting a
minute for the television to come up is not acceptable. Therefore they have their
whole operating system in ROM or flash memory, so it can be executed directly.
Summary:
1. BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System.
2. BIOS has four components.
3. The steps for the system to start is called booting sequence.
4. Bootstrap loader is a program, which pulls part of the operating
system from hard disk.
5. Bootstrap loader is multistaged.
6. BIOS includes low level routines which can directly talk to hardware.
Short type questions:

1. Expand BIOS?
2. What is boot sequence?
Chapter -1
Name : Bios & Cmos
3. Name few companies who make BIOS?
4. What are the different components of BIOS?
5. Define bootstrap loader? List the stages in it?
Long type questions:
1. Describe different steps of booting a system?
41
42
Computer Hardware
figuration
3.2.1 :
Standard BIOS features inculde date and time, Floppy Disk Drive, VGA/
EGA.,
HALT, IDE
Advanced BIOS features includes

Virus Program - Will scan your hard drive at startup and warn you
of trouble. Enable or disable as you wish.
Cache Allows the system to use the cache memory
Quick POST - Allows BIOS to boot-up faster by skipping some
tests.
Boot Sequence - Controls the order in which bootable information is
searched.
Swap Floppy Drives Used if you have two floppy drives and you
wish to assign the A and B drives letters interchangably
Fast A20 Gate Is used to increase speed of the computer.
Typematic Rate Settings - This deals with the rate by which holding
a keyboard character down produces repeated characters on the
screen.
Boot Numlock
CPU Serial Number -This identifies the CPU serial number in Intel
CPUs.
Video BIOS Shadow
Advanced Chipset Settings

You should not need to bother with this section. However, some basic settings
are provided for your information. You may enable or disable the following:
Chipset Special Features
L2 Cache Size
Chapter -2
Name : Bios Features and Configuration
43
DRAM Parity Checking

DRAM Parity/ECC Mode
DRAM Clock Control
DRAM Frequency
AGP Mode
AGP Aperture
There will most likely be many more options available to you. It is best to
leave these alone at least for the initial boot-up, and maybe best left alone
permanently.
Power Management
This is for sophisticated tweaking, which we are not doing now. Your manual
will best describe the different options available, if you are interested. But for
now, and maybe forever, leave at default (disable) as available.
Integrated Peripherals
Enable the ports you intend to use, disable the ports you intend not to use:
IDE Ports USB
Serial & Parallel Ports
Motherboard Integrated Hardware
Expansion Card Hardware - If you are using one or more expansion cards
and your motherboard also has the same options, you need to disable the
motherboard options to allow the use of the expansion cards.
PnP/PCI Configuration
This section controls aspects of Plug-n-Play and the PCI bus. Most selections should be left at default; but two deserve your attention:
PnP OS Installed
Reset Configuration Data
44
Computer Hardware
PC Health
Also known by other names, this section monitors some very basic operational
settings, such as voltage levels, fan speed, internal processor temperature. In
some versions you can set the temperature at which the computer would automatically shut down.
SoftMenu / Frequency-Voltage Control
This is for use by those with jumperless motherboards. This section allows you
to control computer settings related to minute voltage settings, CPU multiplier
selection, and the system bus speed.
Defaults
In many BIOS versions, a few clicks will set all default settings automatically
without your need to attend to individual settings. Some versions offer Failsafe defaults as well as Optimized defaults. If a Default section is available in
your BIOS version, feel free to use it.
Passwords
Many BIOS versions have a Password section to allow for the use of passwords. If you use it, be very sure to record your password somewhere safe.
Should you loose it, the entire BIOS system will lock and you will only be able to
use your computer after the entire BIOS system is reset.
There are two passwords, which we can set.
1) System Password: This feature helps user to set password to protect
unauthorized users from using the system.
2) CMOS setup Password: This allows the system administrator to only
set the system configuration for the users.
3.2.2 Configuration of system through BIOS

CMOS ( Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor) :
You can change hardware configurations that are stored in the CMOS, or
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
Chapter -2
45
Fig 3.2.1 CMOS setup

Note: The above CMOS setup varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer
To perform its tasks, the BIOS need to know various parameters
(hardware configuration). These are permanently saved in a little piece (64 bytes)
of CMOS RAM (short: CMOS). The CMOS power is supplied by a little
battery, so its contents will not be lost after the PC is turned off. Therefore, there
is a battery and a small RAM memory on board, which never (should...) lose its
information. The memory was in earlier times a part of the clock chip, now its
part of such a highly Integrated Circuit (IC). CMOS is the name of a technology
which needs very low power so the computers battery is not too much in use.
Your PCs performance can be highly affected by the CMOS settings.
The reason for this is that the CMOS setup allows you to specify how
fast your computer reads from memory, whether or not your cache is
enabled or disabled, whether or not your CPUs cache is enabled or
disabled, how fast your PCI bus communicates with its adaptor cards,
plus a lot more. For more information on optimizing these performance
46
Computer Hardware
settings,
Additionally, the CMOS setup allows you to specify disk drive and
memory configuration. In order for your hard drive to work with your
system, it must be configured in the CMOS setup. The exception to
that rule is SCSI drives with adaptor cards, as most have their own
built in BIOS. Floppy drives can be setup in the CMOS as well; a:
can be made to be b: in many systems, and other configuration options
can be changed as well.
Getting Into CMOS setup
Before you can begin BIOS configuration, it is necessary to get into

the BIOS Setup Utility. As computers become more powerful and faster,
so the boot up has become faster. In fact, Microsoft now has what is
called Rapid Booting in which their systems boot up within seven
seconds.
The BIOS Setup Utility is entered during the booting-up of the system.
You enter by pressing the correct key. That means you have to act very
quickly in order to enter BIOS. Luckily, the use of the Pause button
(upper right-hand corner of the keyboard) can help.
The first thing you must do is to discover what letter or key on the
keyboard you must press (at exactly the right time) in order to get into
BIOS. Wouldnt you know, each manufacturer uses a different key. The
one you need to use could be F1, F2, Alt, Ctrl, or any other key. During
boot up, the BIOS entrance page will flash on the screen for a second
or two. You may have to boot up once or twice just to have enough time
to look around that page and see which key they want you to use to
enter BIOS. It will be stated very clearly on the screen and is often (not
always) in the lower left corner.
After you know the key, then youll be able to press the key at just the
right time to enter BIOS.
Design Variations
Each manufacturer also has a different design and arrangement to its
BIOS Setup Utility. Therefore, use the following list of BIOS settings only as a rough guide.
Chapter -2
47
General Rule
There are several approaches to Bios settings. Some like to use BIOS
settings to make their system run exactly the way they prefer. There
is certainly merit to that approach. However, this is an initial configuration of BIOS, so it is wise to take a conservative approach.
For the purpose of this configuration, only use default settings when
possible. Many BIOS Utilities have a Default Section where you can
set all default settings automatically without the need to attend to
individual settings. Its a good idea to use it.
You can use your mouse or use the keyboard for selections, using the
Enter key, Escape key, and arrow directions. BIOS Help is usually at
Alt+H.
Standard CMOS Setup
Make sure that:

1. The date and time are correct.
2. The Floppy Disk Drive is set to 1.44MB, 3.5 inches.
3. Video is set to VGA/EGA.
4. In HALT select ON to stop the PC from repeatedly
rebooting.
5. Set IDE for Auto-Detection. IDE will either be on
the setup menu or on its own menu.(Only some BIOS
have this.) Perform an IDE Auto-Detection now.
Advanced BIOS Settings
The following can be enabled or disabled. At least for now, we sug-
48
Compur Hardware
gest you do the following:

The Virus Program - Enable or disable as you wish.
Cache - Enable; and also, if available, enable ECC Error
Checking.
Quick POST - If you leave your computer on most of the
time, disable. If you turn your computer off daily, enable.
Boot Sequence -In some versions you may select options. In
other versions you have separate settings for First Boot Device, Second Boot Device, and so on. If your System Boot is
on the O/S Installation CD, then for this initial boot-up set CDROM as first, hard drive as second, and A: Drive as third. However, if your System Boot is on floppy disk, then set A: Drive as
first, hard drive as second, and CD-ROM as third.
Swap Floppy Drives - This is usually disabled. Only enable if
you have two floppy drives and you wish to assign the A and B
drive letters interchangeably.
Fast A20 Gate - Leave at default.
Typematic Rate Settings - Disable. This deals with the rate by
which holding a keyboard character down produces repeated
characters on the screen.
Boot Numlock - Enable.
CPU Serial Number - Privacy buffs disable it. This identifies the CPU serial number in Intel CPUs.
Video BIOS Shadow - Disable or default.
Advanced Chipset Settings
You should not need to bother with this section. However, some basic
settings are provided for your information. You may enable or disable
the following:
Chipset Special Features - (If available) Disable.
L2 Cache Size - (If available) Set to match size of your
external cache.
DRAM Parity Checking - Enable only if using parity
memory.
DRAM Parity/ECC Mode - Select which one you are using.
DRAM Clock Control - Set to the speed of the system bus,
Chapter -2
49
which should be the default. At a later time, some super-tweaker

types may like playing with the settings in this section. Know
what youre doing before changing these settings. A wrong setting can cause damage.
DRAM Frequency - Set to the speed of your memory (such
as 166).
AGP Mode - Set to uto. If available. Otherwise, leave at
default.
AGP Aperture - Sets the amount of memory space available
for graphics. Set to 64 MB, this is normally fine.
There will most likely be many more options available to you. It is best
to leave these alone at least for the initial boot-up, and maybe best left
alone permanently.
Power Management
This is for sophisticated tweaking, which we are not doing now. Your
manual will best describe the different options available, if you are
interested. But for now, and maybe forever, leave at default (disable) as
available.
Integrated Peripherals
Enable the ports you intend to use, disable the ports you intend not to
use:
IDE Ports - Enable if you will use both.
- Device options may be available; if so,
set to AUTO when possible.
- Enable IDE pre-fetch only if your IDE
interface supports it, which most likely
it does.
- Enable IDE HDD Block Mode if your
hard drive supports it, most new drives
do.
USB - Enable, if used.

Serial & Parallel Ports - Enable, if used.
50
Computer Hardware
- Set the parallel port mode to ECP, EPP, or both. If

you dont know which to pick, leave at default.
Motherboard Integrated Hardware - If not controlled by

jumpers, you may enable or disable video, sound, or network
hardware as you wish.
Expansion Card Hardware - If you are using one or more
expansion cards and your motherboard also has the same options, you need to disable the motherboard options to allow the
use of the expansion cards.
PnP/PCI Configuration
This section controls aspects of Plug-n-Play and the PCI bus. Most
selections should be left at default; but two deserve your attention:
PnP OS Installed - Enable or Yes. This allows you to run
Plug-n-Play programs.
Reset Configuration Data - Usually set to Disabled. However,
if a system reconfiguration has previously caused a serious error that rendered the O/S un-bootable, you may wish to enable
this option. It will enable you to reset the Extended System
Configuration Data (ESCD) when you exit BIOS setup. This allows you to add hardware and software without trouble (in
theory).
PC Health
Also known by other names, this section monitors some very basic
operational settings, such as voltage levels, fan speed, internal processor temperature. In some versions you can set the temperature at which
the computer would automatically shut down.
SoftMenu / Frequency-Voltage Control
This is for use by those with jumperless motherboards. This section
allows you to control computer settings related to minute voltage settings, CPU multiplier selection, and the system bus speed. Leave all
settings at default or AUTO.
This is the section that would also be used by those wishing to overclock
their computer system (Not recommended right now).
Chapter -2
51
Defaults
In many BIOS versions, a few clicks will set all default settings automatically without your need to attend to individual settings. Some versions offer Fail-safe defaults as well as Optimized defaults. If a
Default section is available in your BIOS version, feel free to use it.
Passwords
Select change password option to set new password. Now system
prompts
Enter New Password :*******
Retype New Password :*******
New password installed, press any key to continue.
To Finish:
1. Click Save
2. Make sure your O/S Installation Disk with System
Boot is in the CD-ROM drive, or the floppy System
Boot Disk is in Drive A:.
3. Exit BIOS Setup Utility. This will automatically
reboot your
machine.
4. You have now finished BIOS configuration
Summary:
1. CMOS is a menu driven program to configure BIOS.
2. CMOS includes various items through which we can decide
the systems behavior.
3. BIOS is powered by a battery which resides on motherboard.
4. Using CMOS we can set the password when system is
booting.
Short questions: 1. What is CMOS setup?
52
Computer Hardware
2. Name few BIOS features?

3. What are the features available in ADVANCED BIOS SETTINGS?
Essay Type questions: 1. How do you set system password and CMOS password?
2. Name few BIOS features and explain briefly?
3. How do you configure BIOS? Name few features of CMOS?
Unit IV Chapter -1
Name : Installing different operating systems like DOS and Windows
53
4.1.1 Introduction :
Operating system: It is a software which allows the users to use computers.
Without OS a computer is a mere machine, which is incapable of performing any
work.
Ex : DOS, Windows 9x, Linux, OS/2 , Solaris etc
In this chapter we will learn how to install DOS and Windows 98 operating
system.
DOS is one of the oldest operating system. It forms the basis for next generation
of operating systems, like Windows 9x.
4.1.2 Hard Disk Partitions

This procedure explains how to setup a new hard disk. Warning - if you are
setting up a hard disk which contains data, the following procedure would
completely erase your hard disk and the data would be unrecoverable.
Before a new hard disk can be used it needs to be setup. This involves partitioning
and formatting the hard disk. Windows 98 or ME boot disk contains the required
software to perform this procedure. FDISK.EXE and FORMAT.COM are the
files required in your bootable floppy disk.
Start the partition and format procedure by booting your PC using a Windows
boot disk. Make sure you set the BIOS so that the boot sequence is set to
detect the floppy disk first. If your system has no problems booting you will be
presented with a Windows boot disk menu. This gives you the option to start the
system with or without CD-ROM support. At this stage you do not need the
CD-ROM support, so choose the option to boot without CD-ROM support.
You should end up in the MS DOS prompt A: (A drive).
From A: command prompt type fdisk. You will be presented with following message:
54
Computer Hardware
Choose Y to enable large disk support.

You will now be presented with the FDISK main menu as shown below.
From the menu, choose option 1 - Create DOS partition or Logical DOS
drive. Another menu will present the following options.
Chapter -1
55
Choose option 1 - Create primary DOS Partition. FDISK verifies the integrity
of your drive and will ask you if want to use the maximum available size of your
hard disk to create the primary partition and set it active. To keep things simple
we will create one large partition. Choose Y to use maximum available space.
When the partition has been created successfully you will be notified by the
system. Your drive is now known as C: (C drive). Press Esc to return to the
menu. Press Esc again to exit FDISK. You need to restart your system for the
changes to take affect. Leave boot disk in the drive.
When the system reboots, choose start without CD-ROM from the boot disk
menu. While booting from floppy disk you might get error message like Invalid
media type reading drive C this is OK for this stage as the hard disk is not
formatted.
If you want to create extended DOS partitions, specify the size of the partitions
in the bytes for primary partition. And remaining space can be utilized to create
logical drives in the extended partition. Like D, E , F etc.
From A: command prompt type format c:
You will get a message saying WARNING, ALL DATA ON NONREMOVABLE DISK DRIVE C: WILL BE LOST. Proceed with Format (Y/
N)?.
Dont worry about the message as you do not have any data in the new hard
disk. Choose Y. The format will proceed and would show you a progress
56
Computer Hardware
indicator. The time it takes to format a hard disk depends on the size and speed
of the drive. This could be around 5-30 minutes. Once the format is complete
you need to reset your system. You are now ready to install an operating system
4.1.3 DOS Installation

1.
2.
3.
4.
Run Z:\INSTALL
Read Copyright agreement
Click on OK
Choose the hard drive on which you want to install the program and
click on NEXT
5. Choose the directory (Default \BIBLE) and click on NEXT
6. Click on INSTALL DATA FILES TO HARD DRIVE and click on
NEXT
7. Click on MS-DOS and click on NEXT
8. Click on each versions you wish to install, ensuring that it is
highlighted. Click on the right-hand arrow and repeat procedure for
each version you wish to install. Use the scroll bar on the right to view
all available versions. Please note that you are restricted to a maximum
of nine versions under DOS. When you have completed your choices,
click on NEXT
9. Repeat the above procedure with the Notes. You are restricted to
eight Notes under DOS. When you have completed your choices,
click on NEXT
10. Repeat the procedure for the Topics. When you have completed your
choices, click on NEXT
Click on FINISH to complete the installation
4.1.4 Windows 98 Installation

This is what you will need before installing windows 98.
1. Windows 98 CD.
2. Computer with CD-ROM Access.
Configuring your BIOS for the Install:
To find out how to access the BIOS please refer to your motherboard
manual or the manufacturer of your computer. (The system bios can usually be
entered on
Chapter -1
57
boot, usually by pressing the F1, F2, F8, F10 or DEL key. Make sure you save
the settings before exiting. If you are unsure or dont want to enter the BIOS
then just test the computer by putting the CD-ROM in the drive and rebooting
the computer.
This is the recommended way to install windows 98.
Starting The Setup:
1. Insert CD and restart PC.
2. Once the Windows 98 Setup Menu comes up choose option 2 (Boot from
CD-ROM)
3. Then the Windows 98 Startup Menu will come up. Select Option 1. (Start
Windows 98
Setup from CD-ROM)
4. Now your computer will install some drivers so please wait a few moments.
5. Now a blue setup screen will come up. Press enter.
6. Setup then wants to do some system tests. Just press enter.
7. Scandisk will now run, please wait.
8. After ScanDisk completes Windows will copy a few important files for
setup.
9. Now the graphical Windows 98 Setup Screen will come up.
10. Click continue and wait for the setup wizard to complete.
11. Now it will ask you in which directory to install Windows to. The default
directory is
just fine so click next.
12. Setup will now prepare the directory, please wait.
13. Setup will now check for installed components and disk space, please
wait.
14. Setup will now prompt you what type of install. Choose typical if you have
a desktop
computer or portable if it is a laptop.
15. Windows will prompt you to install components, just choose continue.
16. If a network card is detected a network information screen will appear.
Type in the
required information and click next
17. Select your country settings, United States should be chosen by default.
18. Now finally the main part of Setup is here. Setup will start copying files.
This will
take a pretty long time, be patient.
58
Computer Hardware
19. Once setup is done copying files Windows will restart automatically.
20. The Windows 98 Startup Menu will appear. Select option 1 (Boot from
Hard Disk)
21. The Windows 98 booting screen will appear!
22. Now Windows will prompt you for user information, enter it and click
continue.
23. Now the License Agreement. Read and if you agree click on I accept the
Agreement and click next. If you select I dont accept the Agreement
then setup
will end.
24. Now input your product key computer. Click next to continue.
25. Next click on Finish.
26. Setup will now finalize the hardware and install settings.
27. Setup will now install plug and play devices.
28. Your computer will restart automatically.
Hard Disk)
30. Windows will start booting for the second time.
31. Setup will continue installing hardware.
32. Now setup will prompt you to enter in your time, date, and time zone.
Once selected
click on apply and then ok.
33. Windows will continue to setup Windows items.
34. The computer will restart automatically once again.
Hard Disk)
36. Windows will boot for the third time.
37. Windows will update system settings.
38. Now finally you have reached the Windows Desktop!
39. You also may need to install your hardware drivers. If everything is
working properly
then you shouldnt worry about them.
Enjoy your new freshly installed Windows
Chapter -1
59
Summary:
1. Operating system is an interface between the user and the computer.
2. There are two types of softwares, they are System software which is
used to make the system usable for ex : Windows 9X, compilers etc
and Application software is used to solve users problems for ex: MSWord, Spreadsheet, Accounting packages etc.
3. Before an Operating system is installed a hard disk has to be partitioned using FDISK and FORMAT commands.

1.
2.
3.
4.
What is an operating system and give examples?

Expand DOS?
Define system and application software?
Briefly explain the procedure to install DOS?

1. Briefly explain the procedure to install windows?
2. Briefly explain the procedure to create partitions in hard disk?
60
Computer Hardware
1.2.1 Introduction
There are several types of diagnostic software available for PCs. This software
some of which is included with the system when purchased, assist user identifying many problems they can occur with a computer component. The types of
diagnostic software are as follows.
POST. The power on self-test operates whenever any PC is switched on.
What is tested in POST ?
Whenever you startup your computer it automatically performs a series of checks
that check the primary components in the system, such as CPU, ROM, Memory
and major peripherals. These tests are brief and are designed to catch hard
errors. It detects sever motherboard problems. If the POST encounters the
problem that prevents the system from operating properly, it halts the boot process and generate an error message that often identifies the cause of the problem. The POST detected problems are called the fatal errors.
On detecting the problem POST reports the problem in three ways. 1
1) Audio codes
2) On screen text messages
3) Hexa-decimal numeric codes
Manufactured supplied diagnostic software. This manufacturer specific
software normally consists of a suit of tests that thoroughly examines a system.
In some cases, the diagnostic software is installed on a special partition on the
hard drive and can be accessed during a start up. For example IBM,Compaq,
Hewlett- Packard, Dell and others make diagnostic software that is designed for
their system.
Peripheral diagnostic software: Many hardware devices come with specialized diagnostic software designed to test their particular functions. For example
SCSI drives.
Operating system diagnostic software: Operating systems such as windows
9x and windows NT include a wide variety of software designed to identify and
monitor the performance of various components in the computer.
Unit IV Chapter -2
Name : Troubleshooting through software
61
For example we have Windows 9x device manager from the system

control panel, you see list of types of devices found in the system. Expanding
each type displays the actual hardware installed in the computer. Each entry has
a properties dialogue box that enables you to configure the device, view the
hardware resources that it is using, and update its driver.
Fig 4.2.1 Device Manager

Windows 9x System/Performance Monitor
The windows 9x system monitor and the windows NT system monitor
performes the same function. Both programs track specific elements of a system
performance and display them in graphical format.
62
Computer Hardware
Fig 4.2.2 System Monitor

Windows 9x Resource Meter
This application continuously monitors the windows 9x system, user ,
GDI(Graphics Device Interface) resources.
Fig 4.2.3 Resource Meter

System Information and diagnostics
Windows 98 system information program is an excellent addition to the
operating system that provides detail information about the computer
hardware and software.
Chapter -2
Name : Troubleshooting through software
63
Fig 4.2.4 Microsoft System Information

After market diagnostic software: There are a number of manufacturers making
general-purpose diagnostic software for PCs. This type of software is often
bundled with other system maintenance and repair utilities to form a general PC
software tool kit.
For example
AMIDiag(AMI) American Megatrends, Inc: is one of the largest
manufacturers of PC ROM BIOS software today. The AMI BIOS is found on
many PCs, and has numerous features and enhancements which are not found
on the simpler ROM version. AMIDiag is an extensive reporting and diagnostics
functions support virtually all hardware found in PCs today.
Checkit Pro. Offers an excellent suite of testing capabilities, including tests of
the system CPU; conventional, extended and expanded memory; hard and floppy
drives; and video adapter and monitor.
Norton Utilities Diagnostics: This comes with Norton Utilities, which is an
essential collection of system data safeguarding, troubleshooting, testing, and
64
Computer Hardware
repairing utilities.
There are three other disk utilities available which are Speedisk, Disk Doctor
and Calibrate that help in hard drive diagnostics and software level repair.
And there are several other diagnostic tools like Micro-Scope, PCTechnician, QAPlus/FE etc.
Summary :
1) Troubleshooting stands for identifying the source of problem.
2) Different methods of troubleshooting include POST, Third
party general-purpose softwares.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Expand POST?
How do POST report errors?
What is trouble shooting?
List the various types of Softwares available to troubleshoot?
Give examples of third party softwares to troubleshoot?

1) Briefly explain Operating system diagnostic software with examples ?
Unit V Chapter -1
Name : VIRUSES
65
5.1.1 Viruses
Theyre the common cold for computers; well show you how they
operate and how to protect your PC.
Virus: A virus is just a computer program. Like
any other program, it contains instructions that
tell your computer what to do. But unlike an
application, a virus usually tells your computer
to do something you dont want it to do, and it
can usually spread itself to other files on your
computerand other peoples computers.
What is a virus?
A virus is a malicious piece of software with the following characteristics. It is:
Hidden
: You cannot see it with the normal DIR command.
Self-Replicating : It automatically copies itself, thus infecting other files and disks.
Delayed action : Thus you wont know youve got it until you have been infected
for a considerable time, possible with your backups also infected.
They can spread very fast across open networks such as the Internet, causing
billions of dollars worth of damage in a short amount of time. These software
pranks are very serious; they are spreading faster than they are being stopped,
and even the least harmful of viruses could be life threatening. For example, in
the context of a hospital lifeSupport system, a virus that simply stops a computer and displays a message
until a key is pressed, could be fatal. Further, those who create viruses cannot
halt their spread, even if they wanted to. It requires a determined effort from
computer users to be virus-aware, rather than continuing the unawareness that
has allowed computer viruses
to become such a problem.
Five years ago, very rarely computers used to get infected by virus i.e once in a
year, where as the chance you receive a virus today is increased.
5.1.2 Most common entry points :

The first question that you should ask yourself is: How do viruses get into a
66
Computer Hardware
computer, or attack it? If you know the answer to this question you can prevent
infection by protecting these possible virus entry-points.
The most common entry-points used by viruses are the following:

Removable disk drives
Computer networks
Internet
-E-mail
-Web pages
-File Transfers (FTP)
-Downloads
-Newsgroups
5.1.3 Types of Viruses:

Worms:
Worms are different to other viruses since they do not infect other files. Their
sole objective is to propagate or spread to other systems as quickly as possible.
They do however make use of replication (propagation) techniques. In fact,
their objective is to copy themselves and then infect other systems. Their infections
or replications usually take place through e-mails, computer networks and Internet
IRC Channels. They could also replicate inside the memory of a PC.
Trojan Horses (or Trojans):
Chapter -1
Name : Viruses
67
Trojans cannot be considered viruses as such. They take their name from Greek
mythology (the famous wooden horse in which Greek soldiers hid so that they
could enter the city of Troy undetected and then attack it). Trojans work in a
similar way. They seem to be harmless programs which get into a computer
through any channel. When that program is executed (they have names or
characteristics which trick the user into doing so), they install other programs on
the computer which could be harmful.
Logic Bombs:
These activate and damage an infected system only when one or more condition/
s are met. They are not considered viruses as such, since they do not replicate,
but rather depend on the actions taken by the user (the user usually copies and/
or executes them unintentionally).
Encrypted:
Rather than a virus category, this is a technique that viruses could use. A virus
could belong to another category and be also encrypted (if it uses this technique).
The virus encodes or encrypts itself so that antivirus programs cannot easily
detect it. In order to perform these activities, the virus de-encrypts itself and,
when it is finished, encrypts itself again.
68
Computer Hardware
Polymorphic:
These are virus that use a new technique to avoid detection by antivirus programs
(they are usually the hardest viruses to find). They change with every infection
they carry out. In this way, they create a large number of copies of themselves.
5.1.4 Symptoms of Virus

It may appear that you have a virus in your computer, but you cannot be sure
that this is the case until it is detected using an antivirus tool (programs that
detect and eliminate viruses). Some actions that can be carried out by a virus are
obvious enough to be recognized and could include: messages displayed onscreen, operations slowing down, the properties of some files change, files and/
or folders disappear, the computer will not start, the content of the infected disk
is lost, etc.
5.1.5 What do virus infect.

The main targets of viruses are files located in storage devices such as hard and
floppy disks. They target program files, although other types of files and documents can also be infected. A program is simply a file with an EXE or COM
extension, which can be run to perform specific operations.
As we have already mentioned, there are viruses designed to infect files that are
not programs. However, these documents contain elements known as macros.
Macros are small programs that the user can include in certain types of files.
Other elements prone to virus attack are the storage devices themselves,
especially boot sector. By attacking the places in which files are stored, the
damage produced by the virus will affect all of the information they contain.
5.1.6 Advent of Antivirus Software
Chapter -1
Name : Viruses
69
Virus experts have recorded more than 40,000 viruses and their variant strains
over the years, though only about 200 of those viruses are actively spreading in
the wild. While most viruses are just annoying time-wasters, the ones that do
deliver a destructive payload are a real threat.
Viruses have been around since the early 1960s, almost since the earliest
computers existed, though until the 1980s they were largely laboratory specimens,
created by researchers and released in a controlled environment to examine
their effect.
When viruses first appeared in the wild in the 1980s, they spread slowly and
passed via the sneaker net: floppy disks traded by people and shared between
computers. But widely available Internet and e-mail access hastened their spread.
Two years ago, the advent of viruses that spread via e-mail
(MelissaLoveLetter, for example) significantly increased the odds that
the average computer user would confront a virus because they spread
so rapidly. E-mail viruses today account for about 81 percent of virus
infections and can infect thousands of machines in a matter of minutes.
5.1.7 Virus Detection and Prevention Tips:
1. Do not open any files attached to an email from an unknown, suspicious or
untrustworthy source.
2. Do not open any files attached to an email unless you know what it is, even
if it appears to come from a dear friend or someone you know. Some viruses
can replicate themselves and spread through email. Better be safe than sorry
and confirm that they really sent it.
3. Do not open any files attached to an email if the subject line is questionable
or unexpected. If the need to do so is there always save the file to your hard
drive before doing so.
4. Delete chain emails and junk email. Do not forward or reply to any to them.
These types of email are considered spam, which is unsolicited, intrusive mail
that clogs up the network.
5. Do not download any files from strangers.
70
Computer Hardware
6. Exercise caution when downloading files from the Internet. Ensure that the
source is a legitimate and reputable one. Verify that an anti-virus program
checks the files on the download site. If youre uncertain, dont download the
file at all or download the file to a floppy and test it with your own anti-virus
software.
7. Update your anti-virus software regularly. Over 500 viruses are discovered
each month, so youll want to be protected. These updates should be at the
least the products virus signature files. You may also need to update the
products scanning engine as well.
8. Back up your files on a regular basis. If a virus destroys your files, at least
you can replace them with your back-up copy. You should store your backup
copy in a separate location from your work files, one that is preferably not on
your computer.
9. When in doubt, always err on the side of caution and do not open,
download, or execute any files or email attachments. Not executing is the
more important of these caveats. Check with your product vendors for
updates which include those for your operating system web browser, and
email . One example is the security site section of Microsoft located at http: //
www.microsoft.com/security.
Chapter -1
Name : Viruses
71
Summary:
1. Virus is a self replicating code which can cause lots of damage.
2. Types of viruses are worms, Trojans, logic bombs, encrypted and
polymorphic.
3. Symptoms of viruses are change in file sizes, system slowdown, files
disappear, system does not start.
4. Common entry points of viruses are infected floppies, Internet,
Compact Disks.
5. Viruses usually infect the storage devices and the files stored on that.
1) What are computer viruses? And why should I worry about them?
2) How does a computer get infected with virus?
1) What are the types of Viruses? Explain them in detail?
2) What are the symptoms and indications of a virus infection?
3) How do you detect and prevent virus?
72
Computer Hardware
5.2.1 Introduction:
Its a good idea to make scans with an antivirus program regular part of
your preventive maintenance programs. Although both Microsoft and IBM
provide antivirus software in MS and PC DOS respectively, if you run windows
9x or windows NT, you must obtain a third party program to scan your system.
There are many antivirus software available for example Norton, e-Scan, AVG,
McAfee. Pccillin etc.
No matter which of these programs you use, you should perform a scan
for virus programs periodically, especially before making hard disk backups.
This will help ensure that you catch any potential virus problems before it spreads
and becomes a major catastrophe.
In addition it is important to select an antivirus program from a vendor
that provides regular updates. These updates are essential because there are
new viruses constantly being introduced.
5.2.2 Before You Start
If any anti-virus program is currently installed on your computer, uninstall it before proceeding, including Norton AntiVirus (click Start,
Settings, ControlPanel, Add/Remove Programs).
Print this document for reference during software installation.
Close this window before you begin the software installation.
Close all other programs.
5.2.3 Installing and Configuring Norton AntiVirus
These instructions may not reflect the exact appearance of Windows on your
computer due to differences in Windows releases.
1. Start the Norton Anti-Virus installer.
To continue, click Next.
Unit V Chapter -2
Name : Installation of Norton - Antivirus
1. To continue, accept the terms of the License Agreement and click

Next.
73
74
Computer Hardware
Select any snap-ins to install, and click Next.
1. The Destination Folder is the location on your hard drive where

Norton AntiVirus will be installed. Click Next.
1.In the Norton Setup Type window, select Unmanaged and click Next.
Chapter -2
75
1. In the Initial Settings window, put a check-mark in the File System

Realtime Protection box, and click Next.
1. To continue, click Install.
76
Computer Hardware
1. If an Old Virus Definition File window appears after the file copy
and installation processes are through, click Close.
1. Read the Technical Support window, then click Next.
Chapter -2
1. Read the LiveUpdate window, then click Next.
1. In the Run Options window, select whether or not to Run
77
78
Computer Hardware
LiveUpdate after installation based on the following criteria:

A) If your computer has a permanent or semi-permanent high-speed
connection, check the box.
B) If you use modem Dialup Networking to connect to the Internet,
clear (un-check) the box, so that after your computer restarts in later
steps, you can dial into the Internet before running LiveUpdate
manually.
2. Click Next.
1. Click Finish to continue.
Chapter -2
We recommend that you restart your computer at this stage of the process;
click Yes.
16. If you see an Old Virus Definition File dialog box after restarting,
click Close.
79
80
Computer Hardware
Updating Virus Definitions with LiveUpdate

17.
If your computer is already connected to the Internet, and Virus
Protection Update has started already, skip to step #20.
18.
Make sure you computer is connected to the Internet, and then doubleclick the Norton AntiVirus Corporate Edition yellow shield icon in the Windows
System Tray located at the bottom right of the Windows Desktop, near
the clock.
19. In the Norton AntiVirus Corporate Edition window that appears, click
the LiveUpdate button.
Chapter -2
81
20. In the LiveUpdate window that appears, select Internet and click Next.
21. When the LiveUpdate process is through, click Finish in the

LiveUpdate window that appears.
82
Computer Hardware
Scheduling Automatic Virus Scans

22. Double-click the Norton AntiVirus Corporate Edition yellow
shield icon in the Windows System Tray located at the bottom right of
the Windows Desktop, near the clock.
23. In the Norton AntiVirus Corporate Edition window that appears, under
the item Scheduled Scans, click the item New Scheduled Scan, fill in the
Name and Description fields as desired, and click Next.
24. Set the scan to run at a time when you expect your computer to be
powered on, such as at lunch time, and click Next.
Chapter -2
25. Designate the drive(s) you wish to scan by clicking the necessary
checkboxes, and click Save.
26 The Daily Scan job which was created now appears under the
Scheduled Scans folder on the left side of the window.
83
84
Computer Hardware
Summary :
1) Antivirus software is used to scan the Computer for viruses.
2) Frequently used antiviurs software are Mcafee, Norton, AVG
etc.
1) Define Antivirus software?
2) Name few antivirus softwares available?
3) Can Antivurs software be infected? Why?
Long type questions :
1) Briefly explain the installation of Norton Antivirus?
Unit V Chapter -3
Name : Recovery of System through Anti-Virus patches
85
5.3.1 Automatic Updates of Patches:

Many of the newer versions of antivirus programs have an automatic update
feature. To use this feature, just connect to the Internet, start the antivirus
program, and click on the Update button. The Update process is completely
automated. Some programs allow you to choose to update automatically
without having to even click a button. These programs will automatically
update when you connect to the Internet.
Even if your program is set to automatically update, you should always check
to make sure that the update is actually occurring. At least once a week, you
should open your antivirus program and check to make sure that a very recent
date is listed for the time of the last update. Also, when virus activity is
extremely high, you may want to manually update in addition to the automatic
update.
1. Double-click the Norton AntiVirus Corporate Edition yellow shield
icon in the Windows System Tray located at the bottom right of the
Windows Desktop, near the clock.
2. In the Norton AntiVirus window, click File and Schedule

Updates...
86
Computer Hardware
3. In the Schedule Virus Definition Updates window, click the

Schedule button.
4. In the When section of the window, select a day and time you would
normally expect your computer to be powered on (up and running,
already connected to the Internet), and click OK.
5. In the Schedule Virus Definition Updates window that reappears,

click OK to save your changes.
Chapter -3
Name : Recovery of System through Anti-Virus patches
87
6. Exit the Norton AntiVirus program.

5.3.2 Manually Downloading
If you do not have an automatic update feature or if that feature doesnt work
properly (it has been know to happen!), you will have to go to the
manufacturers Web site to manually download the virus updates. Norton
Antivirus users will go to www.symantec.com. McAfee VirusScan users can
surf over to www.mcafee.com. Find the latest update for the operating system
that you are using and download it to your computer. If you have the choice
of opening or saving the file, choose Open and the file will automatically install.
If you have chosen to Save the file, you will have to complete the installation
by finding the file and double-clicking on it.
5.3.3 Scan for Viruses
1. Click on start button and go to programs or click on desktop icon
of Norton antivirus or click on the Norton antivirus icon on
status bar.
2. Click on the options available for your use. Ex: 1) If you want to scan
floppy, click on floppy option. 2) If you want to scan C drive, select
and click on it.
3. It scans and reports if any infected files are present with several
options.
4. They are 1) Clean the virus. 2) If it cannot clean it will ask for
Quarantine or delete the file.
5. This is the time when you have to download the patches form the
vendors site and install. And now again scan the system to clean the
virus, which could not get cleaned in the previous attempt.
88
Computer Hardware
6. If this is not helpful to clean the virus. It is better to report to the

vendor.
Summary:
1. Patches can be updated either manually or
automatically.
2. Schudule scan for viruses must be adopted to
protect your PC from getting infectecd.
1. Give the procedure for manual download of patches?
2. Give the peocedure for autmatic download of patches?
1. What is the procedure to remove virus from a computer?
Table of Contents
1. General dos and Donts about the Computer

2. Important internal devices of CPU
3. Flash Memory & Cache Memory
4. Trouble shooting of Sound and Video Card
5. Troubleshooting Device Manager Issues in Win XP
6. Printers
7. UPS
8. Virus and its threats
9. How to secure Web browsers?
a. Internet Explorer
b. Firefox
10. Frequently Asked Questions - FAQs
Basic Hardware Tips

The troubleshooting tips provided here are to primarily solve an existing problem, not to create a
new one.
In case performing a certain action makes you uncomfortable, call in someone with more
expertise. And if you do decide to proceed with any of our Advanced Steps, please be careful
before proceeding.
Points to remember while troubleshooting
Prior to opening your computer's case, check to see if the machine's warranty is still valid.
If so, send it back to the manufacturer for repair, as digging around inside the case can
void the warranty.
You may also try calling your PC's manufacturer for tech support, especially if you've
already paid for it. Often, tech support can provide quick fixes or will replace faulty
components that are still under warranty. Many manufacturers offer online chat, email
support, and other options in addition to phone support.
Take the appropriate safety measures, before making any hardware adjustments
o
First, purchase an antistatic wrist strap and mat. Static electricity can severely
damage your computer's internal components.
Keep the computer plugged into the wall but the power switch turned off when
working with its internal components.
Remember to hold on to the metal part of the computer's case when handling any
electrical parts.
Before you reseat, remove, or replace any internal components, arm yourself with a
working knowledge of computer components, what they do, and how they interact with
one another.
Location of the computers core internal components (hard disk drive, processor, RAM,
graphics card, etc.) vary from machine to machine, therefore knowledge of the same is
necessary.
Hardware, BIOS (basic input-output system, built-in software that controls the keyboard,
mouse, display, and other hardware and functions), firmware, and other software tools
vary by manufacturer.
Keep all of your computer documentation, driver CDs, and warranty information in a safe
place. Be sure to use your computers manuals before changing any settings.
Unit -1
General Dos and Don'ts
By completing this module, you will be able to understand and learn the following
How to maintain the Computers cleanly
How to take care of the disks
Materials used for Computer cleaning
Cleaning the case & other Plastic materials
Cleaning the key board and Mouse
Do:

Always shut down your computer properly

Do regular Scan disk to check the hard disk surface for damage
Defragment the hard drive periodically
Delete all files and programs you no longer need from your computer
Use an anti-virus program to prevent a virus on you computer
Back up data to floppy disks or zip disks to ensure you have a copy
Don't:
Do not eat around the computer
Do not drink around the computer
Do not use magnets around a computer
Taking Care of disks
Do:
Delete all files you no longer need from your disk
Use an anti virus program to scan for viruses on a disk
Do not try to erase and record information on a disk by write-protecting it
Dont:

Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
not
not
not
not
not
use magnets around a disk

separate the disk
remove the disk while it is in use
store in extremely hot or cold locations
spill liquids on the disk
Cleaning Hardware
Follow instructions in the manual or in help files that came with the computer or other
hardware devices
Before cleaning anything, unplug it from the electrical wall socket
When to clean a computer
Computers do not need to be cleaned too often if they are kept in a clean environment
Clean the computer when it looks dirty or when a device (like a mouse) does not work
right
The two things that need the most cleaning are the screen and mouse
Materials needed for cleaning a computer
Most cleaning materials can be found in a home or any store
o soft lint-free cloths
o soapy water - a drop or two of dishwashing detergent in a gallon of water
o cotton swabs
o eraser
o water spray bottle to hold the soapy water
o used fabric softener cloth
You may have to buy the following at a computer or office supply store
o floppy disk drive cleaner kit
o CD-ROM drive cleaner kit
o compressed air
Cleaning the case and other plastic surfaces
Use a damp lint-free cloth to clean the case
o Spray the water on the cloth. NEVER SPRAY WATER ON A COMPUTER OR
OTHER ELECTRICAL DEVICES!
o Wipe the surfaces with the damp cloth
For more difficult marks use the eraser. An ink eraser works best
For cracks and tight places, use a slightly damp cotton swab
Cleaning a monitor's screen
Wipe the screen with the damp lint-free cloth
Use a dry cloth to dry the screen
Use fabric softener cloth to help remove static charges on the screen
o static charges attract dust to the screen
o a fabric softener cloth has anti-static chemicals on it
o wipe the screen very lightly with the used fabric softener cloth
o Do not use a fresh fabric softener cloth. It will leave streaks.
Cleaning the keyboard
Use a slightly damp cotton swab to clean in-between the keys
Wipe the outside of the keyboard with a damp cloth
Use compressed air to remove paper pieces and dust from under the keys
Do not take a keyboard apart to clean it! You may not get it back together again
Cleaning a mouse
Clean the outside of the mouse with a damp cloth
To clean the inside of the mouse
o Take the mouse apart
turn the mouse upside down
rotate the retaining ring until it comes free
turn the mouse right-side up and catch the ring and ball in your hand
o Use damp cotton swabs to clean the rollers inside the mouse. Be sure to rotate the
rollers to get all of the dirt off them
o Wash the ball in warm soapy water. Wipe dry with a lint-free cloth
o Blow out the inside of the mouse to remove any dust
o Put the mouse back together after it has dried
Inside the computer's case

The inside of the computer rarely has to be cleaned and it is not recommended that this be
done
If you must clean inside your computer follow the following precautions
o Be very careful. You can easily damage the computer or hurt yourself
o Do not touch the chips or other electrical components
o Use a vacuum cleaner to remove dust carefully
o Use compressed air or the blower option on a vacuum cleaner to blow out dust and
other particles
Floppy disk drives and other drives with removable media
Follow the instructions on the cleaning kit
Do not clean your drives too often, especially the floppy disk drive. The cleaning disk is
slightly abrasive and can wear down the drivers read/write heads
Ideal PC CONFIGURATION
By completing this module, you will be able to understand Ideal configuration for the various
purposes.
S No
Item
Processor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
For Normal
Office
applications
Intel or AMD
basic level
processors
Processor
Speed
System Bus
Standard
Memory and
Type
Hard Disk
1.6 GHz onwards
Display
Integrated with
mother board
If networked
As per need
Sound Card
NIC
Keyboard,
Mouse, USB
Devices
800 MHz FSB

400 Mhz and 1
GB Standard
Memory
120 GB SATA
For
Developers
For TV, Video

Conference
Intel or AMD
Dual core
Processors
Intel or AMD
Dual Core
Processor
2.0 Ghz
onwards
800 Mhz FSB
800 Mhz and 1
GB Standard
Memory
160 GB SATA
2.4 Ghz
onwards
800 Mhz FSB
800 Mhz and 1
GB Standard
Memory
160 GB SATA
AGP card
AGP card with

64 MB RAM
Stereophonic
10/100 Mbps
As per need
Integrated
10/100 MBps
As per need
For
Multimedia
Development
Intel or AMD
Core 2 or
Quadra
processors
3Ghz
1024 MHz FSB
800 Mhz and 2
GB Standard
Memory
2X160 GB
SATA
AGP with 256
MB RAM
Stereophonic
10/100 Mbps
As per need
Unit - II
Important internal devices of CPU
By completing this module, you will be able to understand and learn the following
Important parts of CPU
Mother Board and its components
Memory RAM & ROM
Sound card , Video Card and Net work card
Installing Storage device
Main parts of the computer:
Floppy Drive
Net
Net work
work
Card
Card
CD - Drive
Sound Card
Connecting
Cards
Graphics Card
RAM
Processor
System Fan
Mother
Mother Board
Board
Processor:
The processor is the main part of the computer. The greater the number
of GHz the faster the speed of Personal Computer (PC) and the more
expensive the processor will be. The processor is also known as the CPU
or Central Processing Unit.
Mother Board:
If the processor is the main part of the computer and the RAM is the memory, then the
motherboard is the backbone of the computer.
This is the circuit board that contains the slots and sockets that everything else plugs into.
Many motherboards now come with onboard sound, eliminating the need for a sound
card, video, networking ports and USB ports.
Several different types of slots can be found on your board. It is important to know what
these are for, as the number of them on your motherboard will affect the number of hard
disks, memory chips, graphics cards, optical cards, modems, network cards, sound cards.
Note: Diagram of a motherboard. Note that the location of these components vary,
depending on your motherboard.
AGP slot: This is for the graphics card; you only need one AGP slot.
DIMM slot: This is for your memory. There are several different types of memory. 2 slots =
good, 4 slots = better.
PCI slot: This is for cards like sound card, network card, modem etc. These slots will be the ones
you use most often, so make sure that mother board have plenty - at least four.
CPU socket: Make sure that the socket type is right for the processor you have chosen and the
case chosen.
Back panel of CPU:
There will also be a number of ports on the edge of your motherboard, which will form part of the
back panel of your PC.
In the example on the right there are PS/2 ports for connecting keyboard and mouse, a parallel
port for a printer or scanner, serial ports that will rarely be used, a couple of LAN ports, four USB
ports and a sound port. More and more devices like printers and scanners are connecting the
computer using USB.
Memory
RAM-Random Access Memory:
Memory is also known as RAM. The more memory you add to a

computer in theory the faster it will be.
ROM - Read-Only Memory
It is an integrated-circuit memory chip that contains configuration data.
ROM is commonly called firmware because its programming is fully embedded into the
ROM chip.
ROM is hardware and software in one, as data is fully incorporated at the ROM chip's
manufacture, data stored can neither be erased nor replaced.
ROM gives permanent and secure data storage. However, if a mistake is made in
manufacture, a ROM chip becomes unusable / useless.
The most expensive stage of ROM manufacture, therefore, is creating the template. If a
template is readily available, duplicating the ROM chip is very easy and affordable.
A ROM chip is also non volatile so data stored in it is not lost when power is turned off.
RAM versus ROM
RAM
provides the user random access to
stored data
provides only short-term memory, since
data stored in RAM is lost when power
is turned off
RAM's data can frequently and speedily
be altered and changed at will
ROM
provides the user random access to
stored data
Provides long-term storage, since

data is permanently etched into the
ROM chip.
ROM cannot be reconfigured at all
Sound Card:
Responsible for any noise that comes out of your PC

(apart from the whirring of fans and spinning drives).
Most motherboards now come with built in sound
chips.
Video Card:
A video card also referred to as a graphics accelerator card,

display adapter, graphics card, and numerous other terms.
It is an item of personal computer hardware whose function is to

generate and output images to a display.
It operates on similar principles as a sound card or other

peripheral devices.
Network Card:
A network card, network adapter, LAN Adapter or NIC

(network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware
designed to allow computers to communicate over a
computer network.
Installing RAM
Inserting Sound and Graphics card
Storage Device
A Hard drive is the main storage area of the computer. All

software is likely to be stored on it along with all the files.
A hard drive works in a similar method to the floppy disk,

data is stored by magnetizing sections of the disk creating a
one, or not magnetizing sections creating a zero.
Steps in Inserting the Hard Disk:
Place hard disk drive into the HDD mounting slot of

the case;
Ensure the IDE/ATA connector is facing outwards.
Screw the HDD to the case using screws provided

with the HDD or the ATX case.
Insert the ATA 66 cable into the ATA connector of the

HDD.
Make sure the pin 1 on the cable is connected to pin 1

on the HDD connector. Pin 1 is the red or pink strip on
the edge of an ATA cable.
Most new IDE/ATA cables are designed so that it will

only go in one way which will correspond to pin 1.
Push the power cable into the power connector as shown. The power cable is designed to
go in one way, so you shouldn't have any problems.
Connect the other end of the ATA 66 cable to the primary ATA
socket of your motherboard as shown.
Ensure the pin 1 on the cable connects to the pin 1 on the ATA
socket.
Steps in Installation of CD-ROM / DVD-ROM
Connect the IDE cable to the drives IDE connector.
Make sure the pin 1 on the cable is connected to pin 1 on the drives IDE connector. Pin
1 is the red or pink strip on the edge of an IDE cable.
Connect the other end of the IDE cable to the IDE socket on your motherboard as
shown below. Ensure sure you connect the cable to pin 1.
The IDE socket could be your primary or secondary socket depending which socket you
choose. If your HDD is on the primary IDE socket and your secondary IDE socket is
free, then it is better to use your secondary IDE socket for the CD/DVD-ROM.
Optical drive:
An optical drive is a collective term for CD drives, DVD

drives, CD RW burners and DVD burners.
All of these devices read information from an optical disk

which is different from the magnetic media like floppy disks.
Unit- III
Flash Memory & Cache Memory
By completing module you will be able to understand about the flash Memory
and important types of flash memories available in the market
Cache memory and its importance
Flash memory is non-volatile computer memory that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed.
It is a technology that is primarily used in memory cards and USB flash drives (thumb
drives, handy drive, memory stick, flash stick, jump drive, "Cap N' Go") for general
storage and transfer of data between computers and other digital products.
It is a specific type of EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

that is erased and programmed in large blocks.
The application examples include: PDAs (personal digital assistants) and laptop
computers, digital audio players, digital cameras and mobile phones.
It has also gained popularity in the game console market, where it is often used instead of
EEPROMs or battery-powered SRAM for game save data.
Flash memory is non-volatile, which means that it does not need power to maintain the
information stored in the chip.
Flash memory offers fast read access times (although not as fast as volatile DRAM
memory used for main memory in PCs) and better kinetic shock resistance than hard
disks.
Popular flash memory devices
Memory Stick: A Memory Stick is an IC (Integrated Circuit) which is
stored in a compact and rugged plastic enclosure.
Memory Sticks are designed to store data and to enable the transfer of
data between devices equipped with Memory Stick slots.
Compact Flash: A Compact Flash card is an IC (Integrated Circuit) which is

stored
in
compact
and
rugged
plastic
enclosure.
Compact Flash cards are designed to store data and to enable the transfer of
data between devices equipped with Compact Flash slots. Current Compact
Flash capacities range up to 8GB.
SD Card: A SD Card (Secure Digital Card) is an IC (Integrated Circuit)
which is stored in a compact and rugged plastic enclosure.
SD Cards are designed to store data and to enable the transfer of data
between devices equipped with SD Card slots.
Current SD Card capacities range up to 16 GB.
Multimedia Card (MMC): A MultiMediaCard (MMC) is an IC (Integrated
Circuit) which is stored in a compact and rugged plastic enclosure.
Multi Media Cards (MMC) are designed to store data and to enable the
transfer of data between devices equipped with MultiMediaCard (MMC) slots.
Current MultiMediaCard (MMC) capacities range up to 2GB.
Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a special high speed mechanism. It can be either a reserved part of
main memory or an independent high speed storage device.
In Personal Computers, There are two types of caching are commonly used are memory
caching and disk caching.
A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of memory
made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM
(DRAM) used for Main Memory.
Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions
over and over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer
avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors.
Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead of using
high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory.
The most recently accessed data from the disk is stored in a memory buffer. When a
program needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the
data is there.
Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing
a byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a hard
disk.
For example, Internet connection is the slowest link in computer. So the browser
(Internet Explorer, Netscape, Opera, etc.) uses the hard disk to store HTML
pages, putting them into a special folder on the disk.
The first time you ask for an HTML page, the browser renders it and a copy of it is
also stored on your disk. The next time, on your request to access this page, your
browser checks if the date of the file on the Internet is newer than the one
cached.
If the date is the same, your browser uses the one on your hard disk instead of
downloading it from Internet. In this case, the smaller but faster memory system
is your hard disk and the larger and slower one is the Internet.
There are other caches like page cache, L1 cache, L2 Cache, virtual memory.
L2 Cache: If there is some special memory bank in the motherboard which is small but
very fast and two times faster than the main memory access. That's called a level 2 cache
or an L2 cache.
L1 cache: If there is smaller but faster memory system directly into the microprocessor's
chip and this memory will be accessed at the speed of the microprocessor and not the
speed of the memory bus, That's an L1 cache.
If the question that why cant we make all memories at the same speed in such away that there
is no need of cache memory? is rised
The answer would be : Yes, memories can be all made at the same speed. But its too
expensive. To reduce the charges, we have to use a small memory for cache.
Unit - IV
Sound & Video Card Troubleshooting
By completing this module you will be able to understand and learn about the trouble
shooting of Sound and Video card in the system.
Sound card trouble shooting

I. Making sure that you have a card and drivers for the installation
First, be sure that you have a sound card installed on your system and have speakers or
headphones connected to it.
The sound card is usually a card in the back of your machine, although some newer
machines have them installed on the motherboard.
Check that the wire from your speakers or headphones is connected to the "Speaker Out"
or " Spk Out" slot on the back of you machine.
Once you have checked these connections and you know that you have a sound card and
headphones or speakers, follow this guide:
Check that you have the drivers for the card installed:
1. In Windows 95/98/NT, go to "Start" - > "Settings" - >
"Control Panel" and double click the "Multimedia" icon.
This should bring up the "Multimedia Properties" box
2. On the Audio tab, you should see two areas: Playback and
Recording. If these are greyed out and have "None" listed
under preferred device for these sections, then your
sound card drivers have not been installed
3. If you have a device listed here, such as "AWE64 Wave

Out" or "Sound Blaster 16" then your drivers are installed.
Make sure to check the "Show volume control on the
taskbar" option
If you do not have drivers installed.

1. Consult your sound card documentation or follow this basic
guide on how to install drivers for your sound card.
2. You will need the disk or CDROM that was given to you
along with your sound card initially
3. Switch to the "Devices" tab of the Multimedia Properties box
4. Click "Add."
5. Choose "Unlisted or Updated Driver" and
click "OK."
6. Enter the path to the disk or CDROM that came with the Sound Card and hit "OK."
7. Select your card and click "OK"
8. Your machine may need to reboot
II.
Checking Sound Levels and Speaker Volume
Once you know you have a card and drivers installed,

check the volume and make sure it is at an audible level.
1. Go to the system Volume Control by double

clicking the small speaker icon next to the "Time"
field on the taskbar. If you do not have this icon,
follow the instructions above on getting to the
"Multimedia Properties" box and click "Show
volume control on the taskbar."
(Actual Volume Control Options may vary slightly
depending on your configuration.)
2. Make sure the "Play Control" or "Master" and the

"Wave" controls are set to a high enough level
and make sure that your speakers have the
volume turned up high enough
3. If the sound level available from your card is too
low, you may need to use headphones or
amplified speakers. Before doing this you should
ensure that both master volume and "wave" levels are set to their maximum, and not muted.
4. If you add speakers be sure the power supply is plugged in, and the power switch is on
Troubleshooting Video Card
Resolving video card problems can be costly if you opt to replace the hardware when a
problem does occur.
Before you take such drastic measures, you should consider other solutions such as
updating the driver.
Here are some of the common problems that can arise from video cards and some suggested
solutions.
Video Cards
There are several video-related components that are responsible for displaying the characters. The
hardware components include : the monitor, video card (also referred to as the video adapter
card), and the motherboard.
Problems with any of these components can cause problems with your computer's display.
For a quick refresher, the video adapter card is a board that is plugged into your computer's
system board and monitor to provide display capabilities.
There are many different types of video cards available on the market. However, most are
susceptible to the same common types of problems.
A few common video card related problems along with the possible trouble shooting tips are
dicussed below :
No Display on the Monitor
One common problem that occurs is that the operating system, such as Windows XP,
never appears. In other words, the computer starts up but nothing appears on the
monitor.
o
Assuming that you have already ruled out the monitor as being the source of the
problem, your next step should be to take a look at the video card.
This particular problem can be caused from several different things such as a
video card that is not properly seated or a loose connection from the video card to
the monitor.
Troubleshooting this problem will require you to locate the video card inside your
computer and verify the following:
o
Assuming that the video card adapter is separate from the motherboard, you
should check that the card is properly seated.
Sometimes one end of the card may come out of the slot when it is initially
screwed, resulting in no display appearing on the monitor.
Verify the correct jumper settings for video cards that are mounted to the
motherboard. This will require you to check the documentation that was sent with
the hardware.
The cable running from the monitor to the video port may also be the one of the
reason for the problem.
Examine the monitor cable to ensure that there are no broken or bent pins. A bent pin
can usually be straightened using a pair of sharp-nosed pliers. In the case of a broken
pin, you will need to contact the manufacturer of the monitor to determine if the cable
can be replaced.
Also check that the cable running from the monitor to the VGA port is secure.
Although these may seem like simple trouble shooting steps, it is often the simple
ones that people over looked.
Operating System does not appear
If the contents of the start up process appear on the monitor but the display is blank after
it is complete, this would indicate that there is an operating system video related problem.
o
For example, an incorrect video driver may have been installed such as one that is
not compatible with the operating system.
Trouble shooting this problem in Windows XP

o
you will have to start the computer in Safe Mode by pressing [F8] when the
Starting Windows message appears.
From the boot menu select the Safe Mode option. This will force Windows XP
to start using the standard VGA driver, instead of the video driver that is used
when the operating system is started normally.
Once the computer is started in Safe Mode, you can install the correct video driver
using Device Manager. These steps are outlined in detail under the heading
"Updating Video Drivers" later in the article.
The video problem discussed above can also be the result of over clocking. This is
a popular method used to get more performance out of a hardware component
such as a video card adapter. however, it can result in display problems.
The problem can once again be resolved by starting Windows XP is Safe

Mode and configure the video card to operate at its default speed.
Poor Display
A poor display on a monitor can mean a number of different things like
Images may appear to be fuzzy.
Text that appears on the screen may be distorted and difficult to read.
The monitor may flicker.
A poor display can also lead to other problems such as head aches and sore eyes. Therefore, this
is definitely a problem that you are going to want to correct as soon as possible.
A poor display can be caused by a number of different things. You should first verify that the
latest driver for the video adapter has been installed. You can determine which driver version is
currently installed in Windows XP by completing the steps outlined below:
1. Right click the Windows desktop and click

Properties.
2. From the Display Properties dialog box, click the
Settings tab.
3. Click the Advanced button.
4. Click the Adapters tab.
5. Click the Properties button under Adapter Type as
shown below.
6. Click the Driver tab.
Select the Properties button under Adapter Type to locate specific driver information
including the driver version.
You can find the version information beside the Driver Version field. Compare this version
with the latest version on the manufacturer's Web site.
If the driver needs to be updated complete steps four through seven listed under the section
entitled "Updating Video Drivers".
If the latest driver is installed, you may need to adjust the resolution and refresh rate (this is
the rate at which the video card redraws the screen) for the video adapter card. Incorrect
display settings can cause problems with your display.
Screen Resolution
To configure display settings, right click the Windows XP desktop and click Properties to open
the Display Properties dialog box.
Select the Settings tab shown below to change the resolution settings. Use the slider under
Screen
resolution
to
settings. Typically, a 17
monitor
will
have
resolution of 800x600.
adjust
the
inch
default
Use the Settings tab from the Display Properties dialog box to change the resolution.
If you are unable to select the desired resolution that should be supported by the video card,
you will need to again check that the operating system has correctly identified the card.
In Windows XP, you can use Device Manager to make sure the card has been properly
detected. If the card has not been properly identified, you will once again need to check the
driver.
It is usually recommended that you use the drivers supplied by the manufacturer instead of
the drivers included with Windows.
The screen resolution may also be limited if the wrong monitor is selected.
To check the monitor selection, once again open the Display Properties dialog box and select
the Settings tab. Click the Advanced button and select the Monitor tab.
In case the monitor listed is not correct, you will need to update the driver for the monitor.
Refresh Rate
In case the problem still persists after adjusting the resolution, your next step should be to
adjust the refresh rate.
Lower refresh rates tend to cause flickering so it is important to verify this setting.
You can adjust the refresh rate using the Settings tab from the Display Properties dialog box.
Once again, select the Settings tab and click the advanced button.
Select the Monitor tab as shown below. Use the drop down arrow to adjust the refresh rate to
about 70 MHZ. Remember that a higher refresh rate will reduce the amount of flickering.
As with the screen resolution, if you are unable to select the desired refresh rate, go back to
the video driver to make sure the latest one is installed.
Use the Monitor tab to adjust the refresh rate

Note: It is important to verify that the monitor supports the screen resolution and refresh rate
configured in the Display Properties dialog box. The documentation or manual that came with your
monitor should identify the values that are supported.
Problems Displaying Videos or Animations

Problems with videos and animations are usually attributed to a display adapter driver that does
not support DirectDraw.
If videos and animations are not correctly displayed on the monitor, your first step should
be to determine if the video card adapter driver supports DirectDraw.
This can be accomplished using the DirectX Diagnostic Tool.

o
From the Run command type DxDiag.exe and click OK.
From the Display tab, click the Test DirectDraw button.
Windows XP will perform a series of tests.
If your display does not pass each of the tests, you will need to update the video
adapter.
If updating the video adapter driver does not solve the problem, verify that your video
card is indeed supported by the operating system installed on your computer.
If you are running Windows, you can check the Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) to
determine if the video card adapter is supported.
Updating Video Drivers

This is one of the most common problems with video cards.
Faulty or incorrect video drivers can result in such things as operating system instability,
video subsystem problems, and so on
Most video cards are provided with drivers on a

floppy disk or a CD-ROM
One may use the drivers that usually come along

with the hardware or visit the manufacturer's Web
site to obtain a more recent one
The drivers should come with a text file outlining the

installation process
The first step in updating the driver is to identify the

make and model of your video card
In Windows XP, you can see a list of all the hardware

components within Device Manager
The video card should be listed under Display

Adapters as shown
In case it is has not been recognized by Windows XP, it may be listed under Unknown
Devices. Double click on the video adapter listed to identify the make and model. This
information can be used to retrieve the latest driver from the manufacturer's Web site
Device Manager will list the Display Adapter installed

in the computer
If you are running Windows XP, you can update a device
driver using the steps listed below:
1. Right click My Computer and click Properties.
2. From the Hardware tab, click Device Manager.
3. Within Device Manager, double-click the video adapter listed under Display Adapters.
4. Click Update Driver as shown below to open the Hardware Update Wizard.
5. Accept the default option, Install the Software Automatically. Choose the Install from a List
or Specific Location option if you have the updated driver so you can indicate the file
location. Click Next.
6. Windows searches for an updated driver and instructs you if an updated driver has been
found.
7. Click Finish once the updated driver has been installed.
From the Driver tab, click the Update Driver button
The majority of video adapter card problems can be solved by ensuring that the correct
driver is installed and that the display settings are properly configured based on the
capabilities of your hardware.
In case you are unable to resolve the problem using the recommendations described as
given above, chances are the manufacturer of your video adapter card already has a
solution.
Unit -V
Troubleshooting Device Manager Issues in Win XP
By completing this module you will be able to understand and learn the trouble
shooting the device manager.
Device Manager is an OS feature that lets you view and change the properties of all devices
attached to your computer.
When you use Device Manager, you can:
Determine if the hardware on your computer is working properly
Change hardware configuration settings
Identify the device drivers that are loaded for each device and obtain information about each
device driver
Change advanced settings and properties for devices
Install updated device drivers

Disable, enable, and uninstall devices
Reinstall the previous version of a driver
Identify device conflicts and manually configure resource settings
Print a summary of the devices that are installed on your computer
Typically, Device Manager is used to check the status of computer hardware and update device
drivers on the computer.
If you are an advanced user, and you have a thorough understanding of computer hardware, you
can use Device Manager's diagnostic features to resolve device conflicts, and change resource
settings.
To access Device Manager, use any of the following methods:
Click Start, and then click Control Panel
Click Performance and Maintenance, and then click System
Click the Hardware tab, and then click Device Manager
Or
Click Start; click Run, and then type "devmgmt.msc" (without the quotation marks).
Or
Right-click My Computer, clicks Manage, and then clicks Device Manager.
Or
Right-click My Computer, click Properties, click the Hardware tab, and then click Device
Manager
You can view the Details tab to see the following device information:
NOTE: Not all of these properties will be populated for a given device. In other words, although
all of these properties are listed, some may not contain information when viewing a particular
device.
Troubleshooting Device Conflicts in the Device Manager
Troubleshooting Information
If there is a problem with a device, it is listed in the hardware tree. Also, the problem
device has a symbol that indicates the type of problem
A black exclamation point (!) on a yellow field indicates the device is in a problem state.
Note that a device that is in a problem state can be functioning
A problem code explaining the problem is displayed for the device
A red "X" indicates a disabled device. A disabled device is a device that is physically
present in the computer and is consuming resources, but does not have a protected-mode
driver loaded
A blue "i" on a white field on a device resource in Computer properties indicates that the
Use automatic settings feature is not selected for the device and that the resource was
manually selected. Note that this does not indicate a problem or disabled state.
A green question mark "?" in Device Manager Means that a compatible driver for this device is
installed, indicating the possibility that all of the functionality may not be available. Note that this
applies only to Windows Millennium Edition (Me).
NOTE: Some sound cards and video adapters do not report all of the resources that they use to
Windows. This can cause Device Manager to show only one device in conflict, or no conflicts at all.
This can be verified by disabling the sound card, or by using the standard VGA video driver to see
if the conflict is resolved.
Note that this is a known problem with S3 video adapters and 16-bit Sound Blaster sound cards,
or those sound cards that are using Sound Blaster emulation for Sound Blaster compatibility.
When you double click a specific device in Device Manager, you see a property sheet. The
property sheet has a General tab.
NOTE: Some devices may have other tabs besides the General tab. Not all property sheets have
the same tabs; some devices may have a Resources tab, Driver tab, and Settings tab, or some
combination of these.
At the top of the property sheet, there is a description of the device. When you click the
Resources tab, the window in the middle of the tab indicates which resource types are available
for the selected device.
The list box at the bottom contains a Conflicting device list. This list indicates a conflict with an
error code.
Note the Use automatic settings check box. If Windows successfully detects a device, this
check box is selected, and the device should function correctly. However, if the resource settings
are based on Basic Configuration <n> (where <n> is any number from 0 to 9), it may be
necessary to change the configuration by selecting a different basic configuration from the list. If
the particular configuration you want for the device is not listed as a basic configuration, it may be
possible to click the Change Setting button to manually adjust the resource values.
For example, to edit the Input/Output Range setting:
Click the Use automatic settings check box to clear it.

Click Change Setting.
Click the appropriate I/O range for the device
NOTE: To disable a device in Device Manager, right-click the device, and then click Disable.
If the issue continues to occur, you may need to contact the manufacturer of your computer or
motherboard to inquire about how to obtain and install a BIOS update for your computer.
UNIT - VI
General troubleshooting tips for printers
By completing this module you will be able to understand and learn how to manage
general printer problems, that we normally face.
It is not possible to describe all of the steps one might take to fix every make, model, and type of
printer. However in many cases, following these simple set of procedures, and a logical approach
may save your time or money.
1. Refer the User Manual
Read the manual thoroughly and follow the steps to connect the printer to PC
o
o
In general, the printers are having connectivity with parallel port of PC and nowadays
the USB connectivity is also available with the printer.
Also we can connect the printers in the network if they are coming with RJ 45
connectors.
2. Check the manufacturer's web site
Suppose if you have missed somewhere the user manual of printer, you may access the
concerned manufacturers web site for the details of the printer.
3. Check the plug at Power outlet

Ensure the printer is plugged into a live outlet. If it is plugged into a surge protector,
make sure it is on.
4. What if the power is on but there is no print out?
Make sure that the power is on and there is no error lights (LEDs) lit.
If there are error lights, refer to the user manual/manufacturer's web site.
You should hear the print mechanism initialize when power is applied and most printers
have at least one light which will be illuminated when it is on.
5. Check whether it is online or not.
Online means, most of the printers are connected directly to the PC. Please check whether
the connectivity between PC and printer as per user manual or not.
6. In case it is beeping , try to find out the reason for it.
Most printers will beep once or twice during or after initialization. If it beeps more than
that or beeps constantly, it is an indication that something is wrong. Most of the printers
will beep when out of paper or out of ink.
7. Check wether you are able to give a test-print.
Most printers have a built-in diagnostics program which can be very useful for
troubleshooting problems and test-printing without a computer. They are usually initiated
by pressing a button or two while turning on the printer. Check your user manual.
If the printer test-prints OK, you dont have any problem with print mechanism of the
printer. Then you may check the connectivity of the printer.
8. Check wether it has ink or toner

Check wether the ink or toner of the printer is there .
In case it is there check if it is properly filled or not.
Check if the heads of the toners are clean or not. One must have to clean them
periodically.
9. Check wether it has enough paper for printing purpose
Be sure the paper is installed correctly and there is enough of it. Most printers have a
paper-out detector. On most dot matrix printers it is a photo diode. If form-fed paper is
not aligned correctly (usually on the left side) the diode won't see it.
10. Check whether the printer is jammed?
Paper jams are frequently the reason for malfunction in many printers. Always read the
manual on how to clear a jam.
o Don't be in a rush with your printer as you can easily damage a printer or even get hurt, if
you do not follow instructions in the user manual.
o Don't move a print head unless the instructions direct it. You can damage the belt, etc.
Turn the power off & unplug it, before you start doing something .
Laser printers have some very fine wires to remove static charges from the paper near the
fuser mechanism which will break if you are not very careful. Also, the fuser itself can be
very hot (it fuses/melts toner to the paper).
11. Check wether the RAM is sufficient

The printer memory could be full and not getting prints and prints may be stuck in print
queue. Turn-off the printer, wait a few seconds and turn it back on.
12. Check whether the software (print drivers) installed or not
We have to check the correct device drivers (software) of the printer installed in OS.
Refer installation steps in windows, DOS, Linux in to user manual or vendors web site
13. Check the printer connectivity with right port in BIOS settings
Check Cable connectivity with printers Check the following points a) The pins of DB25 connector are properly connected or not
b) Check the various connectivitys of either side (e.g USB, DB25 etc)
c) Many printers now require an IEEE 1284 and Bi-Directional. USB cables shouldnt be
longer than 15 feet.
d) Check for bent pins. Try another cable.
Is there something else connected to the printer port?
Disconnect it and uninstall the device drivers for it.
UNIT - VII
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
By completing this module you will be able to understand various types of UPSs
available in the market.
UPS is an electronic device that continues to supply electric power to the load for certain periods
of time during a loss of main power from electricity board or when the power fluctuates from
normal limits.
The generic standard for UPS system defines the limits on the amplitude and duration of deviation
of the output voltage acceptable for switching power supply loads.
To make a power supply uninterruptable, we need energy storing backup for the period of time in
the form of battery, an AC-DC Charger, and AC-DC Inverter.
Types of UPS
Stand By UPS
Inline UPS
Online UPS
Stand by UPS includes a transfer switch that switches the load to the battery /inverter, in case
the primary AC Power source fails. The transfer time typically is 1-5 ms and the power to the load
will be interrupted.
Inline UPS also called as line interactive UPS which under normal condition smoothes and to
some degree regulates the input AC voltage by a filter and a tap changing transformer.
The bidirectional inverter/charger is always connected to the output of the UPS and uses a portion
of AC power to keep battery charged. When the power fails, the transfer switch from AC to
Battery and provides output power.
Online UPS always delivers all or at least a portion of the output power through its inverter even
under normal conditions. There are two types of online convertors 1) Double conversion and 2)
Delta Conversion.
1) Double Conversion Online UPS is continuously processing the whole power through
series connected AC-DC rectifier /charger and DC-AC inverter.
2) Delta Conversion UPS includes an additional Delta Convertor that delivers a portion of
the output power directly to the load and provides the power
UNIT - VIII
Virus
By completing this you will be able to understand viruses and its threats
Virus and its threats

A virus is a computer program which can copy itself or infect the system without the
knowledge of the user.
A virus can spread from one system to the other system, whenever a file with virus in an
infected system is accessed from another system.
Some viruses may cause damage to the system by infecting the files, deleting the files,
formatting the hard disk etc.
To protect the system from virus one should have knowledge of each program or a file
they download into their computer. Since it is difficult, we can use anti-virus software
which can help the system by protecting it from virus.
Tips and tools to prevent virus into the system

Keep anti-virus software up-to-date and make sure that it is working properly
Scan the files with anti-virus software before you download it from the Internet and
execute it
Be careful while exchanging the files between the systems through disks or through
network .While using the disk make sure that it is write protected, so that it prevents
from accidental deletion and changes made to the files on the disk
While using Microsoft office make sure that macro virus protection option is enabled
Note: A Macro virus is a computer virus that infects Microsoft word and similar application by
inserting some undesirable text into the documents or by making some changes to the
documents
Take backup of the files which you feel important .This will help you in recovering the file
when it is completely affected by virus
Scan the system with anti-virus software daily and keep your operating system up to date
with all the latest patches
Some viruses start executing as soon as they appear on the Outlook Express preview
pane. So disable that option
Beware of the latest virus threats which may help you in detecting them and take the
appropriate action to avoid it
List of anti virus tools available for preventing virus in to the system are given below:
AVG free , Quick Heal, Avira Anti virus , Cleanwin Anti virus,cleaner4.2, AVG Internet security, Bit
defender free edition, Bit defender anti virus 2008, Avast 4 Home edition, McAfee Avert Stinger
3.8.0, CalmWin (open source) free anti virus.
UNIT- IX
Tips to deal with a few common PC problems
1) Problem: Computer does not Power up / start up
Initial Steps:
Make sure that the PC's power cable is plugged firmly into a wall socket or power strip
and that the power strip is on
Try plugging the PC or the power strip into another wall socket
Ensure that the power cable is firmly connected to the PC's power-supply outlet
Check to see that the power supply is switched to the "on" position
Make sure that the power supply is switched to the voltage appropriate to your region
Attach a working power cable to the PC's power supply and plug it in
Unplug all external devices from the PC -- including a CD drive or digital camera -- except
the monitor. If the computer powers on without the devices, add the peripherals back in
one at a time until you can identify the problem device
Unplug all external devices from the PC -- including a CD drive or digital camera -- except
the monitor. If the computer powers on without the devices, add the peripherals back in
one at a time until you can identify the problem device
If none of these steps solves the problem, check to see if your computer is still under warranty
and send it back to the manufacturer. If the warranty has expired and you are comfortable doing
so, proceed to the Advanced Steps below. Otherwise, talk to your volunteer consultant.
Advanced Steps:
Unplug the computer and open the PC's case. Verify that the power supply is connected to
the motherboard
Make sure that all internal cables are connected and that all of the PCI expansion cards
and RAM chips are tightly seated
Examine the motherboard for noticeable signs of damage, such as cracks or burns. If you
see problems, there's a good chance you'll need a new motherboard or a new computer.
Consult a technician for further advice
Remove the RAM and PCI cards and unplug your hard drive(s).
Depending on your drive, you'll see either a wide, flat, gray IDE
cable; a thinner red Serial ATA (SATA) cable; or a round gray or
black SCSI cable. Plug in the power cable. If the computer turns
on, begin plugging in additional cables and modules until you
identify the faulty component
Replace your power supply with a known working one or a with new one.
If none of these steps work, your motherboard or processor is likely fried. Consider taking
it to a repair shop or replacing the computer altogether
Procedure to replace power Supply:
Turn off your computer and all the peripherals (such as your monitor, printer, modem, and
scanner).
Unplug your PC and all the peripherals from their outlets. After that, unplug all peripherals
from the back of the computer.
Move to a well-lit, static-free area, such as a tile floor or a kitchen table. Remove the
computer case or panels to expose the interior of your PC. The power supply is enclosed in a
metal box located in the corner of your computer case.
2) Problem: Computer Powers up/ starts off, but Monitor is blank.

Initial Steps:
Ensure that your computer can boot normally and that all of the usual power lights are on
Make sure that the monitor is plugged firmly into a working wall socket or power strip and
that the power strip is on
Try plugging the PC or power strip into another wall socket
Verify that the monitor's power button is switched to the "on" position
Make sure the monitor's brightness and contrast controls are properly adjusted (check
your monitor's manual for information on how to do this)
Check to see that the monitor cable is plugged firmly into the back of the display and that
the pinned end is tightly screwed into the computer's video output on the back of the case
Remove the existing cable and replace it with a known working monitor cable. Connect it
to the display and to the computer
Obtain a working monitor and hook it up to your PC. If this display works, contact a
technician or buy a new monitor. If the monitor does not work, your video card may not
be working and you'll need to open the desktop's case
If none of these steps solves the problem, check to see if your computer is still under warranty
and find out how to send it back. If the warranty has expired, unplug the computer, open up the
PC's case, and proceed to the Advanced Steps below.
Advanced Steps:
Examine the video card for noticeable damage. If you spot defects or burnt components,
you'll likely need a new video card
Reseat the video card.
Inspect the RAM and all drive cables to make sure they are all tightly seated and
connected. If you find loose components or connections, tighten them.
If your display is still not working, contact a repair shop or consider replacing the video
card (or try swapping in a compatible card). To replace the card yourself.
3) Problem: Computer won't Boot From Hard Drive (not able to get to Windows Splash
Screen)?
Initial Steps:
Make sure that there is no bootable media in your floppy or CD drive
Listen to make sure your hard drive is spinning. If you don't hear or feel motion, or if you
don't see an error message on the screen, proceed to the advanced steps given below:
Remove all external drives or devices and try restarting the computer
If you receive a series of beeps or error messages, write them down, as they could be
instrumental in diagnosing your problem. Beep codes vary by manufacturer, so consult
your BIOS documentation for more in-depth info on what those beeps mean. Otherwise,
proceed as follows
Enter your computer's BIOS (access key varies by machine; usually you'll need to push
the F1 or Delete key as the computer boots) and write down the current settings before
proceeding further
Keep an eye out for any built-in diagnostic tools; you might be able to find an error by
using these
If no diagnostic tools exist, go to the BIOS's hard drive section and make sure it's
configured as "Auto."
If the BIOS has an auto detect feature, run it to make sure that it can actually detect your
hard drive
If your BIOS has an optimized default option, try loading it and rebooting
If the BIOS has a failsafe default option, try loading it and rebooting
Attempt to enter your PC in Safe Mode. (As your computer boots, quickly press the F8
key.) If you can get in, run Windows' built-in diagnostic tool to check your drive for bad
sectors and file system errors
While still in Safe Mode, scan your computer for viruses, Trojans, spyware, and other
threats that could be causing problems
If none of these steps solves the problem, check to see if your computer is still under
warranty and find out how to send it back.
If the warranty has expired, unplug the computer, open up the PC's case, and proceed to
the Advanced Steps.
Advanced Steps:
Make sure that the hard drive is firmly connected to both the power supply and the
motherboard
Reseat the video card
Clear the CMOS by resetting the jumper on the motherboard. Before you do so, consult
the motherboard or computer's documentation and be very careful while handling these
components
If your computer has more than one stick of RAM, remove them all and try adding them
back, starting with the slot closest to the processor. If the PC boots with one and not the
other, you likely have a faulty stick of RAM
Make sure that the correct hard drive is set as the primary (master) drive and that the
proper cable is connected. (See the back of the hard drive to set master and slave
settings
Replace the hard drive cable(s) with known working ones.
Remove the PC's main power supply and replace it with a known working one.
If none of this works you may want to take the drive in for service or replace it altogether. If at all
possible, back up your data first.
4) Problem: Windows won't Boot (After BIOS POST has been completed) orPC crashes.
Initial Steps
Make sure that there isn't a disk in your floppy or CD drive
Remove external drives or devices
Enter the Windows Advanced Options menu by pressing the F8 key during the BIOS's
Power-On Self Test (POST). Select the option for "Last Known Good Configuration." (Note:
if this works, you will lose any recently installed software or newly created files.)
Enter the Windows Advanced Options menu, boot into Safe Mode with networking, and
perform a system restore
While in Safe Mode run your antivirus and anti-spyware programs. Remove any detected
threats
If that fails, attempt to back up your data using back-up software, burn files to a CD, or
consult a professional. You may eventually have to reformat your hard drive and reinstall
Windows
Advanced Steps:
Enter the Windows Advanced Options menu and choose the option that enables the
bootlog.
Restart, then boot into Safe Mode to compare the new bootlog and the original one. If
you get error messages that certain drivers aren't loading correctly, write those down, and
update or remove the faulty devices via Windows' Device Manager. You can then reinstall
the drivers manually or ask Windows to locate a driver for the device
Insert your Windows Emergency Startup disk or the original CD-ROM and go to the
Recovery Console. From there, you can attempt to restore the master boot record, the
first logical sector on your hard drive where the BIOS loads a program to boot your
computer
5) Problem: The PC does not boot, the power and HDD LED does not come on, and
there is no display on monitor.
Check that your main power cable is plugged into the ATX power supply.
Make sure you have connected the ATX power connector to the motherboard.
Check if the cable for the power switch at front of the PC is connected to the correct pins
on the motherboard.
6) Problem: The power LED comes on but the PC does not boot, there is no display on
monitor.
Check if the processor is firmly into the socket. Check CPU jumpers to verify if CPU
frequency is correctly set.
7) Problem: The PC does not boot, but is beeping.
Different BIOS manufacturers use various number of beeps to indicate faults with various
hardware. In an Award BIOS motherboard you will get following kinds of beeps:
1 long 2 short: Graphics card is not securely into place, or faulty.
1 long 3 short: Graphics card is not securely into place, or faulty video memory.
Continuous beeps: No memory, or memory not securely into place, or could be faulty.
Continuous high/low beeps: No CPU, or CPU not securely into place, or could be faulty.
Please refer to your motherboard manual to confirm what the beeps are trying to tell you.
8) Problem: The PC boots but the CPU speed is incorrect.
The CPU frequency jumper setting is incorrect. Refer to your motherboard manual to set
it correctly.
9) Problem: The HDD is not being detected by the BIOS.
Check if you connected the IDE cable to the motherboard correctly.
Check wether the pin 1 on the IDE cable connected to pin 1 on the IDE sockets on both
motherboard connector and HDD connector.
Check if the HDD jumper is set to master and any other device sharing the same cable is
set to slave.
10)
Problem: Cannot access my CD/DVD-ROM in DOS mode, hence cannot install
Windows.
This is because the CD/DVD-ROM device driver is not installed.

Install the manufacturer supplied device driver.
If you do not have a device driver disk, you can use the windows boot disk which will
provide access to your CD/DVD-ROM, so that you can install Windows.

Computer Hardware

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Computer Hardware

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

INDEX

IDENTIFYING COMPONENTS AND THEIR USE

Fig 1.1.1 Components of a Computer System

Fig 1.1.2 ATX Format

Fig 1.1.3 PS/2 Port

16 bit ISA bus

Fig 1.1.4 Motherboard

Fig 1.1.5 Processor Chips

Fig 1.1.6 Memory Chips

Fig 1.1.7 Hard Disk Drive

Fig 1.1.8 CDROM Drive

Fig 1.1.9 Floppy Disk Drive

Fig 1.1.10 Keyboard

Fig 1.1.11 Mouse

Fig 1.1.12 Monitor

Fig 1.1.13 Power Supply(SMPS)

Fig 1.1.14 Cabinet

Fig 1.1.15 Modem

Modems are available in different capacities.

ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps)

higher then expected.

Summary:1. Digital multimeters are used to measure power supply in computer.

Essay type questions: 1. How is multimenter used to measure voltages?

2.1.1 What is a Motherboard?

Fig 2.1.1 Baby AT Design

Fig 2.1.2 ATX Design

2.1.2 Motherboard Form Factors

Backplane systems: One type of proprietary design is the backplane

2.1.3 Motherboard components

CPU (Main Processor)

Bit is a binary digit that is either 0 or 1.

This CMOS memory receives power from a battery accompanying it,

When an AT or higher system is switched on, BIOS matches the information

Short questions :1.

1.2.2 Serial ports

Fig 2.2.1Two serial ports on the back of a PC

tional Semiconductor NS16550D UART chip.

Serial ports rely on a special controller chip, the Universal Asynchronous

Fig 2.2.3 Close-up of 9-pin and 25-pin serial

2.2.3 Parallel ports

How Parallel Ports Work?

Fig 2.2.4 A typical parallel port on the back of your computer

Table 2.2.1 Comparison of DB-25 and Centronics 36 Parallel ports

Table 2.2.2 EPP Pins

Fig 2.2.6 EPP Parallel Port

Table 2.2.3 ECP Pins

2.2.4 What is USB?

Fig 2.2.7 USB Connector

Printers connected to parallel printer ports, and most computers only

How USB Ports Work ?

Fig 2.2.8 USB Connections

Fig 2.2.9A typical A connection

Fig 2.2.10 Typical B connection

A connectors head upstream toward the computer.

Name the different types of ports in a Computer?

BIOS & CMOS

3.1.1 Introduction: All motherboards must have a special chip containing

Fig 3.1.1 BIOS Chip

Unit III Chapter -1

3.1.2 Bootstrap loader

the program that checks the disk drives for a MBR

Short type questions:

Advanced BIOS features includes

Advanced Chipset Settings