CE2155 - Combined Loadings

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials
Combined Loadings
by
Assoc Professor T. H. Wee
Department of Civil Engineering
Email: cveweeth@nus.edu.sg
Bar Subjected to Torsion

Torsion refers to the twisting of a straight bar
when it is loaded by moments that tend to
produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of
the bar.
A straight bar supported at one end and loaded
by two pairs of equal and opposite forces is an
idealized case of torsional loading. The pair of
equal and opposite forces forms a couple that
produces a moment which causes the twisting of
the bar. The moments T1 (= P1d1) and T2 (=
P2d2), are called torques or twisting moments.
The moment can be represented by a vector in
the form of a double-headed arrow drawn
perpendicular to the plane containing the couple.
The direction of the moment is indicated by the
right-hand rule for moment vectors.
An
alternative representation of a moment is a
curved arrow acting in the direction of rotation.
Bar Subjected to Torsion (Example)

If T1 = T2 = 4kNm, twisting moment at
the support will be equal to zero. There
will be no torsion and rotation between
the support A and point B. Every crosssection between BC will be subjected to
the same torque 4kNm and there will be
rotation in section BC.
If T1 = 4kNm and T2 = 3kNm, twisting moment at the support will be

equal to 1kNm. Every cross-section between AB will be subjected to the
same internal torque 1kNm. Every cross-section between BC will be
subjected to the same internal torque 3kNm. There will be rotation
between both the sections AB and BC.
If T1 = 3kNm and T2 = 4kNm, twisting moment at the support will be
equal to 1kNm. Every cross-section between AB will be subjected to the
same internal torque 1kNm. Every cross-section between BC will be
subjected to the same internal torque 4kNm. There will be rotation
between both the sections AB and BC.
Example Member subjected to Twisting Moment
The cantilever roof at entrance of Busan Exposition Centre,

connected to the horizontal member, will produce a twisting
moment on the horizontal cylindrical member.
Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

Assume a prismatic bar of circular cross section twisted by torques T
acting at the ends. The bar is in pure torsion since every cross section
of the bar is identical and subjected to the same internal torque T.
In other words, when the prismatic bar is sectioned anywhere

between p and q, the torque at the sectioned plane, known as the
internal torque, will be equal to the external torque, T at p and q to
satisfy conditions of equilibrium.
If point p of the bar is assumed fixed, then under the action of torque,
T, the end q will rotate through a small angle, , known as the angle
of twist.

For the prismatic bar of length L shown, is also equal to the total
angle of twist.
The angle of twist changes along the axis of the bar and at
intermediate cross sections it will have a value (x) that is between
zero at p and at q.
If under pure torsion, i.e., every cross section of the bar has the same
radius and is subjected to the same torque, the angle (x) will vary
linearly between the ends (that is d/dx = constant).

Now consider an element of the bar between two cross-sections
distance dx apart.
A small element abcd is identified on its outer surface with sides ab
and cd.
During twisting of the bar, the
element twist through a small
angle of twist, d so that points b
and c move to b and c,
respectively.
The lengths of all the four sides
of abcd do not change during
this small rotation.
However, the angles at the
corners are no longer equal to
90.

The element is therefore in a state of
pure shear and the magnitude of the
shear strain, being the decrease in
angle bad is given by:
max =
bb'
ab
where max (maximum at surface) is

measured in radians. The equation can
also be expressed as:
max =
rd
dx
This equation relates the shear strain at the outer surface of the bar of
radius r to the angle of twist.

The quantity d/dx is the rate of change of the angle of twist with respect to the
distance x measured along the axis of the bar. This rate of change d/dx is denoted
by the symbol and is referred to as the angle of twist per unit length, or the rate of
twist:
d
dx
The shear strain at the outer surface can

now be written as:
max =
rd
= r
dx
In general, both and vary with the distance x along the axis of the bar. However,
in the special case of pure torsion, the rate of twist is constant and equal to the total
angle of twist divided by the length L of the bar, that is, = /L. Therefore, for
pure torsion only, we obtain
r
max = r =

The shear strain within the interior of the
bar can be found by the same method used
to find the shear strain max at the surface.
Because radii () in the cross sections of a
bar remain straight and undistorted during
twisting (for elastic, homogeneous and
isotropic material), the corresponding shear
strains in the interior of the bar may be
expressed as
= =
max
r
note : =
max
r
This equation shows that the shear strains in a circular bar vary linearly
with the radial distance from the center, with the strain being zero at
the center and reaching a maximum value at the outer surface.

The equations for the shear strains also
apply to circular tubes. The variation in the
shear strain between the maximum strain
at the outer surface and the minimum
strain at the interior surface is linear.
The minimum strain is related to the
maximum strain by the equation:
min
r1
= max
r2
Shear Stresses in a Circular Bar in Torsion

Knowing the shear strain in a circular bar in torsion, the directions and magnitudes of
the corresponding shear stresses can be determined. For the example shown below, it
can be observed that the torque T rotates the right-hand end of the bar counterclockwise when viewed from the right, and therefore the shear stresses act in the
directions shown:
The magnitude of the shear stress can be determined

from the stress-strain relation for the material of the bar.
If the material is linearly elastic, we can use Hookes law
in shear
= G
Where G is the shear modulus of the material and is the

shear strain in radians. Since
= r therefore,
max
max = Gr
in which max is the shear stress at the

outer surface of the bar.
= and
= G = max
r
On the other hand, substituting the equation
max = Gr
into
= G
gives
in which is the shear stress at an interior point at a

distance from the centre. This equations show that the
shear stresses vary linearly with the distance from the
center of bar.
The shear stresses acting on a cross-sectional plane are

accompanied by shear stresses of the same magnitude
acting on longitudinal planes as equal shear stresses
always exist on mutually perpendicular planes.
Also the state of pure shear at the surface of a bar is
equivalent to equal tensile and compressive stresses
acting on an element oriented at angle of 45o.
(Slide 17 of Stress and Strain Transformation (Part I)

3.When a bar is subjected to only torsion (T), the element abcd would be in a state of pure
shear.
However, by transformation it can be shown that the

maximum normal stress exist in a plane orientated 45 to
pure shear stress ( = 0) plane and also equal to . For
brittle material which fails in tension, failure would result
in a plane perpendicular to the direction of maximum
normal stress (tensile stress).
The Torsion Formula

Next, to calculate the stresses and strains in a bar due to any set of applied torques, the
relationship between the shear stresses and the torque, T have to be determined.
When the bar is subjected to torsion, shear stress will be induced at all points on any
cross-section of the bar. For rotational equilibrium, the shear stresses must have a
resultant in the form of a moment equal to the torque, T acting on the bar. To
determine this resultant, we consider an element of area dA located at radial distance
from the axis of the bar. The shear force acting on this element is equal to dA, and the
elemental moment about the axis of the bar is given by
dM = dA =
max 2
dA
r
The resultant moment (equal to the torque T) is the

summation over the entire cross-sectional area of all such
elemental moments:
T = dM =
A
J = 2 dA
in which
max
dA =
2
max
is known as the polar moment
of inertia.
The Torsion Formula

Recall that the resultant moment obtained by the summation of all elemental moments
over the entire cross-sectional area is
max =
T = dM =
Tr
J
max
r
dA =
2
max
J
r
from which
is known at the torsion formula. For a circle of radius r,
the polar moment of inertia is
2
J = r dA
A
since
therefore
and hence
A = r 2
dA = 2rdr
J = 2r 3dr
r
Finally, we obtain
J=
r 4 d 4
=
2
32
where d is the diameter of the circle.

Total Angle of Twist

Now, combining the torsion formula with
max
r
distance from the center of the bar can be deduced as
obtained earlier, the shear at
T
. Once again it is
J
seen that the shear stresses vary linearly with the radial distance from the center of the bar.
Next, combining the equation

formula, max =
max = Gr
obtained earlier (slide 12), with the torsion
Tr
T
we obtain =
which shows that the rate of twist is directly
J
GJ
proportional to the product GJ, known as the torsional rigidity of the bar. For a bar in
pure torsion, the total angle of twist is equal to
= L =
TL
GJ
Circular Tube in Torsion

Circular tubes are more efficient than solid bars in resisting torsion.
This is because, the shear stresses in a solid
circular bar are maximum at the outer
boundary of the cross section and zero at the
center. Therefore, most of the material in a
solid shaft is stressed significantly below the
maximum shear stress.
Furthermore, the stresses near the center of
the cross section have a smaller moment arm
and hence resist lower torque.
To illustrate, consider the total torque in a solid
circular bar as T = T1 + T2 where T1 and T2 are
the torque at the inner (i.e. near the center)
and outer portion of the solid shaft. Then,
T=
A inner
inner inner dA +
A outer
outer outer dA
T=
A inner
inner inner dA +
A outer
outer outer dA
Since shear stress varies linearly with the

maximum at the surface and minimum at the
center of the solid shaft,
innerinner <<
outerouter therefore the torque that the inner
portion of the shaft can resist is much lower
than the outer portion of the shaft. Note that
reaction would be equal and opposite to the
applied action.
By contrast, in a typical hollow tube most of the material is near the
outer boundary of the cross section where both the shear stress and
moment arms are highest. Thus, if weight reduction and savings of
material are important, it is advisable to use a circular tube.

The relationship between the torque and the maximum stress can be
obtained from the torsion formula but the limits on the integral for the
polar moment of inertia are = r1 and = r2. Therefore, the polar
moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of a tube is
r1
J = 2r 3 dr
J=
r2
(r
2
4
2
r14 ) =
32
(d
4
2
d14 )
If the wall thickness t is small compared to

the radius, the following approximate
formula may be used for the polar moment of
inertia:
J 2 r 3t =
d 3t
4
where r and d are average radius and

diameter.
Circular Tube in Torsion - Example Problem

Steel shaft (either bar or tube) to transmit
torque of 1200Nm without exceeding allowable
shear stress of 40 MPa, nor allowable rate of
twist of 0.75o/m (Assume G=78 GPa).
Determine d0 and d2
Solid Shaft: Based on allowable stress:

16T
d o3 =
allow
16(1200N-m)
= 152.8x106 m3
(40MPa)
d o = 0.0535m = 53.5mm
J=
T
G allow
d o4 =
32 J
1200Nm
= 1175x109 m 4
(78GPa)(0.75o /m)( rad /180o )
32(1175x109 m 4 )
= 11.97x106 m 4
Tr
J
TL
d
=
=
GJ
dx
max =
Based on allowable rate of twist:
d o = 0.0588m = 58.8mm
This is governing dimension

Circular Tube in Torsion - Example (Contd)

For Circular Tube:
J=
32
(d 24 d14 ) =
d1 = d 2 2t = d 2 2(0.1d 2 ) = 0.8d 2
Based on allowable stress: allow =

d 23 =
d 24 (0.8d 2 ) 4 = (0.5904d 24 ) = 0.05796d 24

32
32
Tr
T (d 2 / 2)
T
=
=
4
J 0.05796d 2 0.1159d 23
T
1200Nm
=
= 258.8x106 m3 d 2 = 0.0637m = 63.7mm
0.1159 allow 0.1159(40MPa)
Based on allowable rate of twist: allow =

Solving the above equation gives:
Ratio of tube/bar diameters:
T
T
=
GJ G (0.05796d 24 )
d 2 = 67.1mm
d 2 67.1 mm
=
= 1.14
d 0 58.8 mm
Circular Tube in Torsion - Example (Contd)
d 2 67.1 mm
=
= 1.14
d 0 58.8 mm
Whollow
= 0.47
Wsolid
These results show that the hollow shaft uses only 47% as much material as
does the solid shaft, while its outer diameter is only 14% larger
hollow bar are more efficient in the use of materials than are solid bars.
Example Member subjected to Twisting Moment
The cantilever roof at entrance of Busan Exposition Centre, connected to the

horizontal member, will produce a twisting moment on the horizontal
cylindrical member.
Bending Deformation of a Straight Member

Consider the undeformed bar Fig (a) subjected to a bending moment,
the bar tends to distort as shown in Fig (b). It can be seen that
longitudinal lines becomes curved and vertical transverse lines remain
straight and yet undergo a rotation.

The behaviour of any deformable bar subjected to a bending moment causes
the material within the bottom portion of the bar to stretch and the material
within the top portion to compress.
Consequently, between these two regions there must be a surface, called the
neutral surface, in which longitudinal fibres of the material will not undergo a
change in length.
Note that in the bending of the rubber bar, the

top line stretches, the bottom line compresses
and the centre line remains the same.

In bending deformation three assumptions are made:
The longitudinal axis
x, which lies within
the neutral surface,
does not experience
any change in length.
All cross sections of
the beam remain
plane & perpendicular
to the longitudinal
axis
during
the
deformation.
Any deformation of
the cross section
within its own plane
will be neglected.

To show how this distortion will strain the material, consider a
segment of the beam that has an undeformed thickness x. The
normal strain along s is determined from
s s
s 0
s
= lim
After deformation, x has a radius of curvature with centre of

curvature at point O. The deformed length of s becomes
s = ( y )
Therefore, by substitution,
= lim
s 0
( y ) = y

In other words, for any specific cross section, the longitudinal normal strain will
vary linearly with y from the neutral axis. The maximum strain occurs at the
outermost fibre. Hence the normal strain can be expressed as a factor of the
maximum strain as
y
= max
c
A linear variation of normal strain must then be the

consequence of a linear variation in normal stress.
Hence will vary from zero at the members neutral
axis to maximum value, max a distance c farthest
from the neutral axis.
y
= max
c
The Flexure Formula

The neutral axis on the cross section satisfies the condition that the resultant
force produced by the stress distribution over the cross section area must be
equal to zero. Noting that the force dF = dA acts on element dA, and
summation of moment about z-axis is zero,
M = ydF = y (dA) = y max dA

A
A
A
c
M = max y 2 dA
c A
Since moment of inertia, I = y 2 dA
A
max =
Mc
I
The Flexure Formula
Since
max
=
c
y
The normal stress, at any distance y from the neutral axis is given by
My
I
where M = moment
I = moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area computed about the
neutral axis
Example Problem:
The simply supported beam has the cross-sectional area as shown. Determine the
absolute maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress distribution over the
cross section at this location.
Example Problem:
Solution:
The maximum internal moment in the beam
M=
wL2 5 6 2
=
= 22.5 kN.m
8
8
By symmetry, the centroid C and thus the neutral

axis pass through the mid-height of the beam, and
the moment of inertia is
I = I + Ad 2
1
1
3
2
3
= 2 (0 .25 )(0 .02 ) + (0 .25 )(0 .002 )(0 .16 ) + (0 .02 )(0 .3 )
12
12
6
4
= 301 .3 10 m
Example Problem:
Applying the flexure formula where c = 170 mm,
Mc
22 .5(0 .17 )
; max =
= 12 .7 MPa (Ans)
I
301 .3 10 6
My B
22 .5(0 .15 )
; B =
=
= 11 .2 MPa
I
301 .3 10 6
max =
max
Combined Loadings
Most often, the cross section of a member is subjected to several types of

loadings, such as bending and torsion, simultaneously.
The method of superposition can be used to determine the resultant stress
distribution caused by the loads provided a linear relationship exists between
the stress and loads.
For application, the stress distributions due to each loading is first determined,
and then these distributions are superimposed to determine the resultant stress
distribution.
Also, the geometry of the member should not undergo significant change when
the loads are applied. This is necessary in order to ensure that the stress
produced by one load is not related to the stress produced by any other load.
Combined Loadings
Superposition
of
stress
components can be used to
determine the normal and
shear stress at a point in a
member
subjected
to
combined loadings.
To solve, it is first necessary to
determine the resultant axial
and shear, and the resultant
torsional and bending moment
at the section where the point
is located.
Then the normal and shearstress
resultants
are
determined by algebraically
adding the normal and shear
stress components at the
point.
Example Problem:
The solid rod shown had a radius of 0.75 cm. If it is subjected to the loading
shown, determine the state of stress at point A.
8 cm
10 cm
800 N
14 cm
500 N
Example Problem:
Solution: The rod is sectioned through point A. Using the free-body diagram of
segment AB, the resultant internal loadings can be determined from the six
equations of equilibrium.
The normal force (500N) and
shear force (800N) must act
through the centroid of the
cross section and the bendingmoment components (8000
N.cm and 7000 N.cm) are
applied about centroidal
(principal) axes.
800 N (14 cm) = 11200 N.cm
800 N
500 N
10 cm
800 N (10 cm) = 8000 N.cm
500 N (14 cm) = 7000 N.cm
800 N
14 cm
500 N
Example Problem:
Stress Components.
Normal Force: The normal-stress distribution is as shown.
For point A,
A =
P
500 N
=
= 2.83 MPa
A ( 0.75cm 2 )
Shear Force: The shear-stress distribution is as shown. For

point A,
4r
(for semicircle)
y =
3
Q = y A =
2.83 MPa
500 N
4( 0.75cm ) 1
0.75cm 2 = 0.2831cm 3
3
2
V Q
=
A =
I t
800 N ( 0.2813cm 3 )
= 6.04 MPa
4
1
4 (0.75cm ) 2( 0.75cm )
6.04 MPa
800 N
Example Problem:
Stress Components.
Bending Moment: For the 8000 N.cm component,
point A lies on the neutral axis, so the normal
stress is A = 0. For the 7000 N.cm moment, y =
0.75cm, so the normal stress at point A is,
A =
My 7000 N .cm( 0.75cm )

=
= 211.26 MPa
4
1
I
(
)
0
.
75
cm
4
211.26 MPa
8000 N.cm
7000 N.cm
Torsional Moment: At point A, A=0.75 cm. Thus the shear

stress is
A =
Tc 11200 N .cm( 0.75cm )

=
= 169.01 MPa
4
1
J
(
)
0
.
75
cm
2
169.01 MPa
11200 N.cm
Example Problem:
Superposition. When the individual results are superimposed, it is seen than an
element of material at A is subjected to both normal and shear stress
components.
7000 N.cm
8000 N.cm
500 N
800 N
11200 N.cm
2.83 MPa
(500 N)
211.3 MPa
6.04 MPa
(800 N)
6.04 MPa + 169 MPa

2.83 MPa + 211.3 MPa
(8000 N.cm)
(7000 N.cm)
169 MPa
(11200 N.cm)
175 MPa
214 MPa

CE2155 - Combined Loadings

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CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Bar Subjected to Torsion

Bar Subjected to Torsion (Example)

If T1 = 4kNm and T2 = 3kNm, twisting moment at the support will be

Example Member subjected to Twisting Moment

The cantilever roof at entrance of Busan Exposition Centre,

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

In other words, when the prismatic bar is sectioned anywhere

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

where max (maximum at surface) is

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

The shear strain at the outer surface can

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Shear Stresses in a Circular Bar in Torsion

The magnitude of the shear stress can be determined

Where G is the shear modulus of the material and is the

in which max is the shear stress at the

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

On the other hand, substituting the equation

in which is the shear stress at an interior point at a

The shear stresses acting on a cross-sectional plane are

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

(Slide 17 of Stress and Strain Transformation (Part I)

However, by transformation it can be shown that the

The Torsion Formula

The resultant moment (equal to the torque T) is the

is known as the polar moment

The Torsion Formula

where d is the diameter of the circle.

Total Angle of Twist

distance from the center of the bar can be deduced as

obtained earlier, the shear at

Next, combining the equation

obtained earlier (slide 12), with the torsion

Circular Tube in Torsion

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Circular Tube in Torsion

Since shear stress varies linearly with the

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Circular Tube in Torsion

If the wall thickness t is small compared to

where r and d are average radius and

Circular Tube in Torsion - Example Problem

Solid Shaft: Based on allowable stress:

Based on allowable rate of twist:

This is governing dimension

Circular Tube in Torsion - Example (Contd)

Based on allowable stress: allow =

d 24 (0.8d 2 ) 4 = (0.5904d 24 ) = 0.05796d 24

Based on allowable rate of twist: allow =

Circular Tube in Torsion - Example (Contd)

Example Member subjected to Twisting Moment

The cantilever roof at entrance of Busan Exposition Centre, connected to the

Bending Deformation of a Straight Member

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials