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Japanese Journal ofAdministrative Science

Volume17, No.3, 2004, 133-138.

Invited Lecture

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Abraham Maslow's Life and Unfinished Legacy"


Edward Hoffman**
(Yeshiva University)

white rats in laboratory settings. Although Maslow

Summary

adopted this view for a time, he decided that monkeys

Abraham Maslow was a visionary who saw psychology

made better research subjects because of their similarity

as having great potential importance for management

to our own species. His doctoral research examined

and organizational achievement. This article presents an

dominance and sexual behavior in monkeys' social order.

overview of Maslow's life, together with a synopsis of his

At Wisconsin, too, Maslow came to recognize the innate,

major concepts related to management theory. Maslow's

biological influences that affect animal behavior, a

unfinished projects are also highlighted, particularly his

perspective that remained central to his later humanistic

interest in methods of assessing self-actualization in the

theorizing.

workplace. The author presents a new psychometric

Returning to New York City in the mid-1930s, Maslow

instrument for assessing self-actualization at work and

gained a faculty position at Brooklyn College. He taught

offers empirical results with this instrument in Brazil.

courses and continued his research on dominance,

Finally, future avenues for research based on Maslow's

although he shifted his focus from monkeys to humans.

His pioneering study of women's sexuality preceded

unfinished legacy are discussed.

Alfred Kinsey's famous sexological studies by several

Maslow's Contributions: An Overview

years. "I thought that working on sex was the easiest

Abraham Maslow was born in New York City in 1908,

way to help humanity," Maslow later recalled, "If I could

the oldest child of Russian-Jewish immigrants. Because

improve the sexual life by even 1 percent, then I could

his father was a successful small businessman, Abeas

improve the whole species." In his viewpoint, Alfred

everyone called himworked only occasionally in

Adler's approach to both sexuality and dominance was

positions such as delivery boy and hotel kitchen aide. He

far more accurate than that of his arch-rival Sigmund

had plenty of leisure time in his teenage years, which he

Freud.

spent reading. Eventually, young Maslow developed

During this period, Maslow had the wonderful

strong idealistic notions to improving the world through

opportunity to become personally close with Adler, who

science. After floundering somewhat at New York City

had immigrated to New York City and been giving

College and Cornell University, he chose to major in

lectures and seminars to interested professionals. Adler

psychology and transferred to the University of

strongly influenced Maslow in arguing that people have

an inborn impulse to be caring, helpful and altruistic

Wisconsin. There he earned his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D.

At Wisconsin, Maslow was trained as an experimental

what Adler called social feelingand are not inevitably

psychologist. All his professors were fervent behaviorists

seething with repressed selfish, sexual, and aggressive

who believed that meaningful theories of human nature

impulses as Freud had contended. A humanitarian

could best be developed by studying lower animals like

thinker, Adler insisted that modern civilization needed to

create social institutions that strengthen social feeling.


*This is a revised version of a lecture at JAAS

This was a view that Maslow found especially compelling

international meeting, which was held on July 3,2004.

after he conducted anthropological fieldwork sponsored

* * Department of Psychology, Yeshiva University, 500

by Ruth Benedict in 1938 among the Canadian Blackfoot

West 185 Street, New York, NY 10025.

native tribe.

e-mail address! elhoffma@yu.edu

After this experience, Maslow became convinced for

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the rest of his life that humans are more alike than

the ones who are already tallest and study them. If we

different around the world, and that universal (species-

want to know how fast can a human being run, then it is

wide) criteria are discoverable for determining mental

no use to average out the speed of the population*, it is far

health as well as pathology. In his report to the

better to collect Olympic gold medal winners and see

foundation that funded his research, Maslow declared,

how well they can do. If we want to know the

"It would seem that every human being comes at birth

possibilities for spiritual growth, value growth, or moral

into society not as a lump of clay to be molded by society,

development in human beings, then I maintain that we

but rather as a structure which society may warp or

can learn most by studying our most moral, ethical, or

suppress or build upon...I am now struggling with the a

saintly people."

notion of a 'fundamental' <or biologically-shaped>

In this research, among Maslow's most intriguing

personality structure." In seeking to organize all-his

findings was that such individuals reported the frequent

observations into a single coherent theory of personality,

presence of supremely joyfuleven blissful-moments in

Maslow studied the writings of such European

their daily lives. For instance, these might arise during

psychologists as Adler, Erich Fromm, Kurt Goldstein,

intensely creative work. Such episodeswhich Maslow

Karen Homey, and Max Wertheimer.

called "peak-experiences" were not necessarily religious

During the 1940s, Maslow steadily advanced a new

at all, yet self-actualizing persons gave descriptions

explanation of human nature. Its foundation was his

about these experiences that were amazingly similar to

radical theory of motivation, which has come to be

the verbiage of the world's great sages and mystics. In

known as the "hierarchy of inborn needs" with its famous

Maslow's eventual view, peak-experiences are natural

pyramidal structure. Maslow contended that we all have

psychological phenomena that are characteristic of

innate motivational needsconstituting a hierarchy

excellenteven superiormental health.

starting with physical safety, then belongingness, then

As chairperson of the psychology department of

self-esteem, self-respect, love, and finally what he called

newly-formed Brandeis University, Maslow in 1954

self-actualization: the desire to become all that one is

wrote Motivation and Personality. It exerted a powerful


impact on the growing field of management theory.

capable of becoming in life.


In articles published in 1942 and 1943, Maslow outlined

Presenting such ideas as the hierarchy of inborn needs,

his theory. "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone-

self-actualization, and higher motivations, Maslow

when there is no bread. But what happens to <our>

offered an innovative and optimistic approach to human

desires when there <is> plenty of bread and <our>

nature.

belly is filled? At once, other and 'higher' needs emerge

"The science of psychology has been far more

and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate

successful on the negative than on the positive side," he

<us>. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new

insisted. "It has revealed to us much about man's

and still 'higher' needs emerge, and so on. This is what

shortcomings, his illnesses, his sins, but little about his

we mean by saying that basic human needs are organized

potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or

into a hierarchy."

his psychological health. It is as if psychology had

Although Maslow's theory has become tremendously

voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful

influential, it initially attracted little attention.

jurisdiction...We must find out what psychology...might

Undeterred due to strong self-confidence, Maslow began

be, if it could free itself from the stultifying effects of

exploring the traits of self-actualizing men and women.

limited, pessimistic and stingy preoccupations with

He believed that only by studying the emotionally

human nature."

healthiest, most highly achieving people in all creative

Douglas McGregor, a professor at the Massachusetts

fields ranging from mathematics and music to literature

Institute of Technology, was among those influenced by

and lawcan we really begin to understand our true

Maslow's work. McGregor's landmark book, The Human

nature and potential as humans.

Side of Enterprise, published in 1960, highlighted two

"If we want to answer the question, how tall can the

distinct managerial perspectives! Theory X, which views

human species grow, then obviously it is well to pick out

people as inherently lazy and selfish, and Theory Y,

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Abraham Maslow's Life and Unfinished Legacy

which regards them as innately productive and

who delighted in generating plans for original, never-

cooperative. In outlining Theory Y, McGregor clearly

before-initiated projects. Many of Maslow's unfinished

subscribed to Maslow's optimistic view of human nature.

pursuits were inter-disciplinary in focussuch as

During the 1960s, Maslow's name became closely

humanistic education and managerial training, cross-

linked with the burgeoning movement known as

cultural factors affecting employee motivation, peak-

humanistic psychologyand in the business world as

experiences among various professions, and work styles

enlightened management. His books including Toward a

of self-actualizing men and women. Maslow was

Psychology of Being (1962), Religions, Values, and Peak

convinced that maximizing individual and organizational

Experiences (1964), and especially Eupsychian


Management (1965) brought Maslow praise from

achievement was a field in its infancyand that among

America's leaders in management training and

self-actualization more effectively.

its most pressing tasks was to develop ways to measure

education. Eupsychia was Maslow's term for the ideal

This was not an easy goal, and significantly, Maslow

society or organization, and in this provocative book, he

himself never developed an instrument of self-

presented many innovativeand even visionary-ideas

actualization. This was certainly not due to his lack of

on such topics as communication, leadership, employee

interest in psychometrics, for in the late 1930s and 1940s

development, entrepreneurship, organizational health,

he had published several well-regarded personality

performance appraisal, and synergy (a term coined by

measures! the Social Personality Inventory and the

Ruth Benedict which he popularized for organizational

Security-Insecurity Inventory. In the 1950s, Maslow had

theorists).

also developed an experimental test for measuring

Although gratified by the international response to his

artistic sensitivity. And, late in career, he had called for

writings, Maslow by the mid-1960s remained pragmatic

long-term, longitudinal psychometric research involving

about organizational development. He saw the

the most creative, accomplished students at Brandeis

humanistic approach as depending partly on good

University where he taught. By carefully studying their

conditions, and that a sudden downturn in the

intellectual, emotional, and social growth over a lifetime,

international economy or markets might make the

Maslow was sure that psychology could develop

principles of enlightened management less tenable. But

tremendous insights about the motivations, needs,

he was sure that "enlightened management"-based on

frustrations, and accomplishments of society's most

encouraging employee growth and creativitywas the

talented members. As part of such researchwhich

wave of the future.

Maslow unfortunately did not live long enough to

Never vibrant physically, Maslow suffered a major


heart attack in 1967. He was forced to curtail his

initiatehe emphasized the importance of developing


accurate methods to assess self-actualization.

extensive activities in lecturing, consulting, and writing.

It is important to understand that Maslow did not view

Elected at the time as President of the American

self-actualization as an either-or phenomenon. In this

Psychological Association, he tried to conserve his

regard, his concept has often been misinterpreted.

fragile health by taking an extended medical leave of

Rather, Maslow insisted that each person encompasses

absence from his position at Brandeis University.

varying levels of motivations and needsand that these

Maslow hoped that if his health improved sufficiently, he

levels can be assessed objectively and quantified. For

would be able to travel and conduct managerial research

instance, in a 1966 lecture, Maslow stated, "I <have>

in foreign nations including Japanwhose successful

developed all sorts of mental exercises, and I have shared

emphasis on group achievement and harmony in the

these with my college students over the years. I now

workplace interested him greatly.

think that it is possible for me to look at a person and

Maslow's Unfinished Legacy

clearly state without sarcasm, "That man is a sage to the

degree of 1496...I began to realize that everyone has at

When Maslow died suddenly of a heart attack in 1970,

least some of these higher qualities. So the major

he was at work on a host of unfinished projects. These

question is! How much, to what extent does he or she

reflected his self-described talent as an "idea person"

possess these? How scared is he or she about these

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qualities? How much is he or she repressing them?"

47. Translated into Portuguese, the HSVSA proved to be


a meaningful instrument in Brazil as well as the United

Assessing Self-Actualization at Work

States. Results from this sample included the following!

Based on Maslow's concepts of self-actualization, I

1)Fully 96% rated important or very important

developed the Hoffman Scale of Vocational Self-

vocational self-actualization as a personal goal. This

Actualization (HSVSA) in 2001. It resulted from my

finding is quite encouraging, and reflects the

review of the literature while writing Psychological

influence of humanistic values in Brazil today! a

Testing at Work (Hoffman, 2001), for in producing my

young, dynamic country. Yet, only 60% reported that

chapter on self-actualization I discovered a lack of

they had somewhat or very much found their true

helpful measures regarding this important personality

avocation or "calling" in life. And only 50% reported

dimension. Aside from the Personal Orientation

that their current job gave them a sense of

Inventory (POI), developed in 1963 by Everett Shostrom,

vocational self-actualization.

2) In terms of Maslow's categories of belongingness

nothing worthwhile existed. Though useful, the POI was


not geared specifically to the workplace. Nor did it

and respect, 70% reported that they often or very

contain any items involving peak-experiences and higher

often felt liked and accepted at their current job; and

motivations, such as the need for creativity. It also

64% reported that they felt somewhat or very

seemed much too weighted toward items involving self-

respected. However, only 38% stated that they were

esteem rather than respect and admiration for co

somewhat or very much appreciated at work. This is

workers, mentors, and organizational teachers, leaders,

an interesting, and potentially important distinction.

and heroestraits that Maslow viewed as basic to

It may suggest that these individuals definitely do

healthy personality functioning.

not feel demeaned or insulted, but they are not

Developed closely on Maslow's model of self-

praised enough, in their view, on the job. Within the

actualization as a pyramid of inborn needs and

United States, many studies have shown that a

motivations, the HSVSA is an easy-to-administer

majority of employees feel unappreciated and

inventory of 25 items using a 5-point Likert-type scale.

insufficiently respected in their work.

3) Maslow emphasized that productive employees in

Administration time is no more than 15 minutes. The

items focus solely on the individual's evaluation of one's

successful organizations typically have a mentor as

job and organization-and encompass all the motivational

well as a hero. He felt it important that workers have

levels that Maslow identified. These encompass safety,

at least someone who serves as a teacher and an

belongingness, self-esteem and respect, as well as such

inspiration. In this regard, it is fascinating to note

higher qualities as joyfulness, experiencing growth and

that only 36% reported that they often or very often

creativity instead of boredom and stagnation, having

have a personal hero in their organization', and, 34%

frequent peak-experiences, and feeling a sense of

said that they never have a hero. This finding

contributing to world betterment. Altogether, 12 relevant

suggests that leadership seems to be lacking in Sao

dimensions can be analyzed based on the the individual's

Paulo organizations, at least from the perceptions of

responses.

this sample.

Within the United States, the HSVSA has been used

More encouragingly, 58% of respondents indicated

fruitfully in career planning and counselingsuch as

that they often or very often have a "great teacher" in

during organizational "downsizing" and job reduction

their current organization. Yet, this question produced a

as well as in staff training and development. In addition,

wide range of reactions! for example, 20% stated that

the HSVSA has been used for research purposes.

they never have a "great teacher" and 34% indicated that

Especially relevant is a cross-cultural study the author

conducted in 2001, in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The sample

they rarely or never have such a person in their


organization.

comprised 50 city university students who held full-time

4) In terms of experiencing growth versus stagnation

or part-time jobs while pursuing their degrees. The

at work, the results exhibited wide variability. For

majority were in their 20s, with ages ranging from 19 to

example, 60% reported they often or very often felt

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Abraham Maslow's Life and Unfinished Legacy

personally growing at work, and 42% stated that

in his own psychometric work to fill this vacuum-

they very often felt this way. Yet, 20% related that

especially by studying such phenomena as peak-

they rarely or never felt this way. In addition, 42%

experiences throughout the life-cycle and in diverse

reported that they often or very often felt bored and

work settings. Certainly, there is much to be done in

stagnant in their jobs, and 20% indicated that they

developing measures of self-actualization for a wide

very often felt this way. So, clearly, while most

range of purposes, such as in employee recruitment and

workers considered themselves to be growing

selection, training and development, and career planning.

psychologically at work, about one-fifth definitely

Aside from psychometric issues~but not unrelatedly-

had a negative perception in this regard.

Maslow emphasized the importance of studying "peaks"

5)In Maslow's view, the presence of peak-experiences

for the knowledge they can bring concerning the heights

is an important sign of self-actualization. Those who

of human experience and achievement. He liked to argue

have many "peaks" involving a sense of joy,

that even the most dynamic professional jobs can become

completion, and accomplishment are definitely in

repetitive and routine! often what makes them

the right setting for their true personality or soul. In

worthwhile are peak moments of epiphany, creativity,

this sample, 10% reported they have often or very

and insight. Social scientists need to learn much more

often have a "peak-experience" at work. Intriguingly,

about these moments to fully unleash the human

this data based on self-report, is compatible with

potential that remains latent all around us.

current, rough estimates that approximately 15% of

Finally, Maslow stressed that expanded cross-cultural

the United States workforce is at the "self-

study is vital if we are to truly understand what it means

actualizing" level in Maslow's pyramid! that is,

to be human in the best sense. For example, he

driven by such higher needs as creativity,

contended that

Eastern

insights

about

duty,

knowledge, aesthetics, and world-betterment. In this

responsibility, and self-actualization were necessary in

sample, the majorityinvolving 66%-reported that

order to complement Western viewpoints and thereby

they sometimes or often have a peak-experience at

arrive at a comprehensive model. He was sure that

work. So while encouraging, this finding reveals that

ultimate answers regarding human achievement could be

enlightened managers and leaders for this sample

found only through an accurate knowledge of cultural

still have much to do in

optimizing peak

influences that block and hinderor nurture and

achievement among their employees.

develop-human potential. Today, with dramatic changes

affecting organizations around the world, Maslow

Avenues for Future Research

remains a key thinker for our time.

In this article, the author presented an overview of

References

Maslow's work and legacy for the management field


today. In this regard, Maslow's famous "hierarchy of

Erikson, Eric. Identity and the Life Cycle. New York!


Norton, 1994.

inborn needs" has now stood the test of time for more

Erikson, Eric. Childhood and Society. New York!

than sixty years, and no alternative conception of human


motivation and needs seems likely to overturn it. Such

Norton, 1950.

Maslovian concepts as self-actualization and enlightened

Hoffman, Edward. Peak Experiences in Japanese Youth!

management continue to inspire those seeking to

An Exploratory Study. Japanese Journal of

maximize success in organizational life.

Humanistic Psychology, 2003,21, (1), 112-121.

Yet, these notions have also been frustratingly elusive

Hoffman, Edward. The Right to be Human: A

to managers and executivespartly because of the

Biography of Abraham Maslow, 2nd edition. New

paucity of objective tools of assessment. This was a

York! McGraw-Hill, 1999.

challenge that Maslow himself identified late in career,

Hoffman, Edward. The Drive for Self: Alfred Adler and

but unfortunately did not live long enough to solve.

the Founding of Individual Psychology. Reading,

Recognizing the paucity of such instruments in

organizational psychology today, the author has sought

Massachusetts! Addison-Wesley, 1996.

Hoffman, Edward (Editor). Future Visions: The

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Unpublished Papers of Abraham Maslow.

Thousand Oaks, California! Sage, 1995.

Hoffman, Edward. Visions of Innocence: Spiritual and


Inspirational Experiences of Childhood. Boston!
Shambhala, 1991.

Maslow, Abraham. Farther Reaches of Human Nature.


New York! Viking, 1970.

Maslow, Abraham. Eupsychian Management: A Journal.


Irwin-Dorsey, 1965.

Maslow, Abraham H. Religions, Values, and Peak-

Experiences. Columbus! Ohio State University


Press, 1964.

Maslow, Abraham. Toward a Psychology of Being.


Princeton! Van Nostrand, 1962.

Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New


York! Harper & Brothers, 1954.

McGregor, Douglas. The Human Side of Enterprise.


New York! McGraw-Hill, 1960.

McClelland, David. The Achieving Society. Princeton!


Van Nostrand, 1961.

McClelland, David. The Achievement Motive. Norwalk,


Ct! Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953.

Ueda, Yoshikazu. "A study of the concept of the healthy


personality. Japanese Health Psychology, 1993, (2), 113.

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