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First OFDM patent filed at Bell Labs in 1966, initially only as analog. In 1971, Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) was proposed. Later in 1980, application of the Winograd Fourier Transform (WFT)
or Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was employed. OFDM then became modulation of choice for ADSL
and wireless systems.
OFDM tended to focus broadcast systems such as - Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) and Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB), and WLANs. Main thing to control in OFDM was PAPR and thats why in
low power WLAN it was good. First cellular mobile based on OFDM was proposed in 1985 by IEEE
to LTE downlink. Other benefits of OFDM was to operate in different bandwidth according to spectrum
availability.
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the frequency domain: Rk[m] = Xk[m] H[m] + Zk[m]. As a result the equalization is much simpler than
for single-carrier systems and consists of just one complex multiplication per subcarrier.
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to prevent ISI,
to keep ICI due to Doppler sufficiently low,
for spectral efficiency.
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downlink; remaining subframes are used for uplink or for special subframes which allow
switching between DL & UL. In the centre of the special subframes a guard period is provided
which allows UL timing to be advanced.
Signal Structure
Physical layer translate data into reliable signal for transmission between eNodeB and UE. Each
block of data is first protected against transmission errors, first with a Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC), and then with coding; The initial scrambling stage is applied to all DL channels and helps
interference rejection. Scrambling sequence uses order- 31 Gold code, which are not cyclic shifts of
each other.
Scrambling sequence generator is re-initialized every subframe (except PBCH), based on cell-id,
subframe number (within a radio frame), UE identity and codeword id.
Scrambling sequence generator is similar to pseudo-random sequence used for Reference Signals,
only difference is the method of initialization. A fast-forward of 1600 places is applied at initialization to
ensure low cross-correlation between sequences used in adjacent cells.
Following scrambling, data bits from each channel are mapped to modulation symbols depending on
modulation scheme, then mapped to layers, precoded, mapped to RE, and finally translated into a
complex-valued OFDM signal by IFFT.
To communicate with eNodeB cells, UE must first identify the DL from one of these cells and
synchronize with it. This is achieved by means of special synchronization signals embedded into the
OFDM structure by cell search and synchronization. Then UE estimates DL radio channel to perform
demodulation of received DL signal, based on pilot signals (reference signals) inserted into DL signal.
The channel designs are explained next.
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The sync signals are transmitted periodically, twice per 10 ms radio frame.
th
th
In FDD cell, PSS is always located in the last symbol of the 0 and 10 slots of each frame,
thus enabling UE to acquire the slot boundary timing independently of the CP. SSS is located
in the symbol immediately preceding PSS, for coherent detection of SSS relative to PSS.
nd
nd
th
In TDD cell, PSS is located in 2 symbol of the 2 and 12 slots, while the SSS is located 3
symbols earlier and falls in previous slot.
Position of SSS changes depending on CP length of the cell. At this stage, CP length is unknown and
SSS is blindly detected by checking for SSS at expected positions.
PSS in a given cell is same in every subframe, SSS may change & thus UE knows the position of the
10 ms radio frame boundary. PSS and SSS are transmitted in the central six Resource Blocks (RBs),
irrespective of the system BW (6 to 110 RBs), without knowing BW. The PSS and SSS are each
comprised of a sequence of length 62 symbols, mapped to the central 62 subcarriers around d.c.
subcarrier which is left unused. Five REs at each extremity of each sync sequence are not used. Thus
a UE can detect the PSS and SSS with size-64 FFT and a lower sampling rate if all 72 subcarriers
were used.
In case of MIMO at eNodeB, PSS and SSS are always transmitted from same antenna port in a
subframe, while between different subframes they may be transmitted from different antenna ports for
diversity.
PSS and SSS sequence indicate one of 504 unique PCI, grouped into 168 groups of three identities.
The three identities in a group are assigned to cells under same eNodeB. Three PSS sequences are
used to indicate the cell identity within the group, and 168 SSS sequences are used to indicate the
identity of the group.
PSS uses ZadoffChu sequences
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How does the PCI optimization affect my Network? Well, this is the main parameter, by which the
PSS, SSS and reference signals will be generated. Even your scrambling code with which every DL
and UL signal will be scrambled, will depend on this. So, every generated signals uniqueness
depends on this parameter. Lets understand how some of the signals are generated based on PCI.
If PSS, SSS, RS and other generated signals are not unique, then my every operation will be affected
and it may reflect as latency in Synchronization detection, Interference and lower SINR values for
signals, which will end up in low CQI.
j un( n 1)
63
e
d u (n) u ( n 1)( n 2)
e j
63
n 0,1,...,30
n 31,32,...,61
Root index u
(2)
N ID
0
1
2
25
29
34
The mapping of PSS to resource elements depends on the frame structure, FDD or TDD. The
sequence d(u,n) is mapped to the resource elements according to
ak ,l d n ,
k n 31
n 0,...,61
DL RB
N RB
N sc
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For FDD, the PSS is mapped to the last OFDM symbol in slots 0 and 10. For TDD, the PSS is apped
to the third OFDM symbol in subframes 1 and 6. Resource elements (k,l) in the OFDM symbols used
for transmission of the primary synchronization signal where
DL RB
N RB
N sc
2
n 5,4,...,1,62,63,...66 are reserved and not used for transmission of the primary synchronization
signal. N=0,1,61 are used with above formulae.
k n 31
PSS is constructed from a freq-domain ZC sequence of length 63, with middle element punctured to
avoid transmitting on d.c. subcarrier.
This set of roots for ZC sequences was chosen for its good periodic autocorrelation and crosscorrelation properties. These sequences have a low-frequency offset sensitivity (maximum undesired
autocorrelation peak /desired correlation peak) at a certain frequency offset, giving best robustness.
Also the ZC sequences are robust against frequency drifts. Thus, PSS can be easily detected during
the initial synchronization with a frequency offset up to 7.5 kHz.
The selected root combination satisfies time-domain root-symmetry, sequences 29 and 34 are
complex conjugates of each other and can be detected with a single correlator. UE must detect PSS
without any prior knowledge of the channel, so noncoherent correlation is required for PSS timing
detection.
with m1 m0 m 31 1 mod 31
s1( m1 ) (n)c1 n z1( m0 ) n in subframe 0
N (1) q(q 1) 2
d (2n 1) ( m )
(1)
(m )
m N ID(1) q(q 1) 2 , q ID
, q N ID 30
s0 0 (n)c1 n z1 1 n in subframe 5
30
Thus UE determines the 10 ms radio frame timing from a single observation of a SSS. SSC2 is
scrambled by a sequence that depends on the index of SSC1. Sequence is then scrambled by a code
that depends on the PSS. Scrambling code is mapped to the PCI within the group corresponding to
the target eNodeB.
The resource mapping is done as per the following:
LTE Physical Layer- 3PCA-L1 Certification
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ak ,l d n ,
k n 31
n 0,...,61
DL RB
N RB
N sc
2
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Normalized Least-Mean-Square(NLMS)
An adaptive estimation approach can be considered which does not require knowledge of secondorder statistics of both channel and noise. A feasible solution is the Normalized Least-Mean-Square
(NLMS) estimator. It can be observed that the TD-NLMS estimator requires much lower complexity
compared to TD-MMSE as no matrix inversion is required, as well as not requiring any a priori
statistical knowledge.
Other adaptative approaches could also be considered such as Recursive Least Squares (RLS) and
Kalman-based filtering.
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