Dt-01/06/2015

Comparisons

of mechanical and metallurgical properties of GMAW,

FCAW & MCAW weldments of SA516 GR70 steel Material
Sponsored project of Department of
Science and Technology, New Delhi
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University
School of Technology ,Mechanical Engineering

Review Presentation (4th Sem)

Supervisor
Dr. Vishvesh J Badheka, IWE
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Dept
School of Technology,
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University.

Presented By
Pritesh J. Prajapati
Ro.No- 13RME011
PhD Student, PDPU
1

Content of Presentation
PhD journey
Introduction.
GMAW
FCAW
MCAW
Gap Analyses.
Research Plan
Proposed Objectives
Material Selection.
Experimental Procedure.
Acknowledgement.

PhD Journey
Enrolled in July 2013
SEM

WORK DONE

DURATION

REMARK

Sem -I

Course work
1).Fundamentals of Welding (ME-704)
2).Advanced welding processes (ME-701)
3).Research Methodology (PET-701)

July-Dec
2013

Good

Sem -II

Compressive exam and Review of

Literature survey

Jan-June
2013

Good

Sem -III

Experiment-I

July-Dec
2014

Very good

Sem -IV

Experiment-II

Jan-June
2015

Introduction
GMAW is an electric arc welding process

Fig.1

FCAW, has a hollow wire with flux in the center, Just as the name states, a Flux
Core.
The main difference between MIG welding and FCAW is, FCAW gets its shielding
from the flux core, so use at weld outdoors. MIG welding is the way the electrode is
shielded from the air.
Fig.2
6

The internal components of a metal cored wire are composed chiefly of the alloys,
manganese, silicon, and in some cases, nickel. chromium and molybdenum as well as very
small amounts of arc stabilizers such as sodium and potassium, with the balance being iron
powder.

Gap Analyses

Existing literature available in the area of the GMAW and FCAW. Most of research
papers published are the comparison of the solid wire with flux cored wire.

Metal cored wires are the latest development in the area of advances consumables.
There is general comparison of characteristics of wires (solid, flux cored and metal
cored) are available but effect of different wire on mechanical and metallurgical is
not reported.

Conventionally root run are being filled with the GTAW process because it has
excellent weld metal properties and subsequently passes with GMAW or SAW
depending on the size of the job.

In addition to the above mentioned detail there is very little research has been
carried out in the area of application of hybrid welds using GMAW, FCAW &
MCAW process.

Mechanical and metallurgical properties of solid, flux cored wires ,metal cored
wires are also will be compared with hybrid welds.
8

Hybrid Welds
Hybrid welds in which root and filler pass filled with different process.

Hybrid Welding Process

Research Plan
Parameters

Filler Wire diameter = 1.2mm. Welding Current - 200 A,

Voltage - 28 V, Travel Speed 200
Shielding Gas Composition Ar/CO2 =90/10
I

II

III

ROOT SIDE

GMAW

FCAW

MCAW

FILLER PASSES (OP-1)

GMAW

FCAW

MCAW

FILLER PASSES (OP-2)

FCAW

GMAW

GMAW

FILLER PASSES (OP-3)

MCAW

MCAW

FCAW

SAMPLE ID

ROOT RUN

FILLER RUN

GMAW

GMAW

GMAW

FCAW

GMAW

MCAW

FCAW

GMAW

FCAW

FCAW

FCAW

MCAW

MCAW

GMAW

MCAW

FCAW

MCAW

MCAW
11

Root passes and

filler pass filled with
solid wire flux cored
and metal cord wire.

Root passes -solid wire.

filler pass with metal cord
or flux cored wire.

Fig.3

Root passes filled with

metal cord wire and filler
pass with solid wire.

Proposed Objectives

Experiments are made to in single V (60) groove joint design for 10mm thick
SA516 Gr70 carbon steel plate using Solid wire (ER70S6), flux cored wire (E71T1C), and Metal Cored wire (E70C-6M) of 1.2 mm in diameter.

Establishment of Welding Parameters for welding SA516 Gr70 Carbon steel plate
using GMAW ,FCAW and MCAW process.

Destructive and Non-destructive testing and characterization of the welded joint as

per applicable standards is carried out.

Comparison of Metallurgical & Mechanical properties of GMAW, FCAW &

MCAW welded Joints.

13

Material Selection

SA516Gr70 carbon steel materials are widely used in heavy fabrication application
in which cost saving factor and high strength are most important.
SA516 Grade 70 offers greater tensile and yield strength when compared to ASTM
SA516 Grade 65 and can operate in even lower temperature service.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of consumables
Metal Cored
Wire

Base metal

Solid Wire

Flux Cored Wire

(ER70S-6)

(E71T-1C)

Yield Strength

427 MPa

605 MPa

448 MPa

446.9 MPa

Tensile Strength

529 MPa

579 MPa

549 MPa

590.60 MPa

Elongation

26%

31 %

31 %

CVN Impact Value

80J (-20C) 103J

48J (-29C) 62J

(Temp. C)

35 J (
30C)

(-30 C)

(-18C)

Shielding Gas

---

100% CO2

75% Ar-25%
CO2

Mechanical Properties

(SA516Gr70)

(E70C-6M)

24.8 %
---

---

14

Table 2. Chemical composition of the filler wire and SA516 Gr70 carbon steel material.
Contents

Solid Wire
(ER70S-6)

Flux cored
wire

Metal cored wire

Base metal

(E70C-6M)

(SA516Gr70)

(E71T-1C)

0.07

0.03

0.048

0.186

Si

0.86

0.56

0.582

0.322

Mn

1.44

1.29

1.375

1.112

0.014

0.011

0.014

0.014

0.008

0.005

0.012

0.009

Cr

0.025

0.04

0.023

0.030

Ni

0.014

0.02

0.014

0.026

Mo

0.002

0.01

0.001

0.019

0.002

0.02

0.004

0.001

Nb

N/A

N/A

0.002

Nil

Cu

0.15

0.01

0.015

0.033
15

Experiment Procedure.

16

Photograph of Experimental Setup

Ar/CO2
Gas Mixer
Power Source Equipment
Standard
Gas
Cylinders
Fume
Extractor

SPM
Head

Welding
Torch

Data Monitoring System

Fig.4 Above setup available at PDPU( Research work carried out under sponsored project of
Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi)

Experimental Condition

Base metal
: SA516Grade70
Size
: 30010010 mm
Joint Design : V- groove (60 angle, Root Gap= 04 mm)
Wire Type : 1.2 mm Solid (ER70S6), Flux cored (E71T-1C/M), MetalCored(E70C-6M)
Welding Variable:
a)
Normal Fe mode
b)
Welding Current -200 A
c)
Welding Voltage 28 V
d)
Travel Speed 200mm/min
e)
Nozzle to Plate Distance -15 mm
f)
Electrode Extension -8 to 10 mm
g)
Shielding Gas -90%Ar + 10% CO2

18
Fig.5 Joint Design

Fig.6.Photographs of welded plates

FF

FS

FM

Carbon steel plate SA516Gr70 welded using FF shows that both root pass and filler
pass filled with flux cored wire.
FS indicate Hybrid welds in which root pass filled with flux cored wire and filler
pass with solid wire.
FM indicate Hybrid shows that root pass filled with flux cored wire and filler pass
with metal cored wired.
19

Table 3. Full plate Experimental Data

ID

Current in Amp

Welding
speed in
mm/min

Voltage in Volt

Heat input KJ/mm

Set

1 (*)

2 (*)

Actual
Avg.(*)

Set

1 (*)

2 (*)

Actual
Avg.(*)

Set

Cal.

Cal.1 (*)

Cal.2 (*)

Actual
Avg.(*)

FF

200

273

282

277.5

28

27.9

28

27.95

200

1.68

2.28

2.36

2.32

FS

200

234

272

253.0

28

27.9

28.1

28.00

200

1.68

1.95

2.29

2.12

FM

200

228

271

249.5

28

27.9

28

27.95

200

1.68

1.90

2.27

2.09

1: First Trial
2: Second Trial
.
ctual (*): Values recorded by online data monitoring system (During Welding).

KJ/mm

Where,

V- Voltage,
I- Current,
S- Welding Speed
-Welding Efficiency 0.9
20

Angular Distortion
Dial Indicator

Fig.7 Schematic diagram of angular distortion measurements [30]

Angular distortion measurement were carried as per the following procedure.
21

Table 4. Angular Distortion and peck temperature Data

Root run
Temp.

Filler run
Temp.

2.68

420

394

2.66

367

411

389Co

1.72

287

358

322.5 Co

Vertical
Horizontal
Displacemen Displacement
t Z in mm
X in mm

Welding
process

FF

4.66

100

FS

4.98

100

FM

3.94

100

407.0 Co

Contact type
thermocouple
(K-Type- Nibase
,chromel & alumel)

5
% Angu Dist

Avg. Peck
Temperature

4
3
2
1
0
FF

FS
Consumables

Fig.(8) Calculated Angular Distortions

FM

Average pick temperature with flux cored

wire is higher compare to other welds, because
of high input recorded using flux cored wire, as
shown in table 4
That may be the reason for higher angular
distortion in FF and lowest in FM.
22

Macro preparation

The test specimen were cut from the welded plate after removing run on and run
off.

Each metallographic specimens were prepared by:

- Mechanical grinding.
- Polishing (120 and 320 grit silicon carbide),
- Etching (solution of 35% concentrated HCL (60%) and 35%
concentrated HNO3 (40%) for 2-3 min to produce a bright surface.

FF

FS

Fig.9

FM

23

Table 5. Radiography Test Results of Full Plate.

Sample Id

Film Size (inch)

Position

FF

3 X 15

A/B

FS

3 X 15

A/B

FM

3 X 15

A/B

Observation
Miner defect are
reported and
accepted within
standard

FF

FS

FM
24

Figure 10. . Plate less than 19mm Thickness Procedure Qualification(Pressure

vessel and boiler code. ASME, Section IX) [25]

25

Destructive Testing
Table 6. Tensile Test Specimens

Sample Id

Tensile test photos

First set

Remarks

FF

Specimen break from parent metal

FS

Specimen break from parent metal

FM

Specimen break from parent metal

26

Table- 7. Yield Strength and Tensile Strength for Welded joints.

Sample Id

Set of
Experiments

Yield
Strength
(MPa)

Avg. Yield
Strength
(MPa)

387
FF

359

385

568

Broken from
parent

559

Broken from
parent

562
379

382

Broken from
parent

619

375
3

565

517

388

FM

Observation

519

382
2

Avg. Tensile
Strength
(MPa)

611

330

FS

Tensile
Strength
(MPa)

555

Average yield strength and tensile strength values are higher for FS hybrid weld.
27

TS in MPa

YS in MPa

600

420
400
380
360
340
320
300

580
560
540
520
500

FF
FS
Consumables

FM

FF

FS
FM
Consumables

Fig.12 Effect of wires on mechanical Tensile

Fig.11 Effect of wires on mechanical yield
strength.
strength
This may be due to the externally fine microstructure (ferrite, Widmansttten
ferrite, and acicular ferrite) developed.
Additionally, it is future conform through the weld metal chemical analysis as shown in
table 9.it was found that C-Mn-S for FS weld metal is higher compared to filler metal.
The variation in properties across the weld can be attributed

28

Table-8 %Elongation Area for welded Joints

Sample
Id
FF

FS

Set of
specimen

%
Elongation

25

21

08

22

20

FM

% Elongation

26

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Avg. %
Elongation
23
15

23

Result:- Percent elongation is higher for

flux cored weld (FF) as compare to hybrid
welds
FF

FS
FM
Consumables

Fig.(13) Effect of wires on % Elongation

29

Table-9 Joint efficiency of welded joint.

Sample Id Weld Joint Strength
in MPa
565.05
FF
FS

568.00

FM

558.20

Joint Efficiency in %
96
96
95

Joint Efficiency

100

Result:- Joint efficiency of welded

joint is defined as a ratio of strength
of weld metal to the strength of
parent metal.
Strength of parent metal is
590MPa.

95
90
85
80
FF

FS
FM
Consumables

Fig. (14) Different wires on joint efficiency

Joint efficiency is very by 2%

only.
30

Table -8 Bend test photos

Bend Test
ID

FF

FS

FM

Face bend

Root Bend

Set. 1

Set. 2

Remarks

Pass

Pass

Pass

31

Table -9 Impact Test Results.

Impact Test in J

Welding
process

Charpy impact test at -49 C. energy absorbed in Joule

set of specimen

set of specimen

II

II

Avg.
Weld

FF

46

44

38

43

32

FS

44

50

52

49

26

FM

20

24

18

21

24

60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10

WELD
HAZ
FF Consumables
FS
FM

Fig.(15) Impact test results Weld and HAZ

Avg.
HAZ

III

38

36

35

22

22

24

28

22

25

(G) Impact test results Weld and HAZ

Result:- Highest Impact value reported for
FS welds and lowest for FM welds. While
in HAZ highest impact values reported for
FF.
.
32

Vickers Hardness Measurement

Specimens prepared for macrostructure observation were utilized for VHN measurement.
Specification of the machine as follow.
Vickers hardness was measured as per standard ASTM,A 370-07 in both in both
transverse(weld metal, HAZ, and parent metal) direction and vertical(root to filler pass)
direction.
Each indentation was separated by 1mm at 10 Kg for macro hardness and 300grms for
micro hardness.

Equipment
Load
Dwell Time
Objective

: ESEWAY-4000.Modal-4302
: 10 Kg & 300grm
: 15 Sec.
: 20 X

Fig- 16: Vicker hardness tester - (ESEWAY-4000.Modal-4302) at PDPU

33

Fig17. VHN at different (transverse direction) zones at (HV10)

FF
FS
FM

-15
-14
-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

HV 10

280
265
250
235
220
205
190
175
160
145
130
115
100
Dist. from Center of weld to both side

Fig 18. VHN at different (vertical direction) zones at (HV10)

300
285

Root side

Filler side

270
255
240

FF

HV 10

225
FS

210
195

FM

180
165
150
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Dist. from Center of weld to both side

34

Fig 19. VHN at different (transverse direction) zones at (HV0.3)

FF
FS
FM

-15
-14
-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

HV 0.3

400
385
370
355
340
325
310
295
280
265
250
235
220
205
190
175
160
145
130
115
100
Dist. from Center of weld to both side

Fig 20. VHN at different (Vertical direction) zones at (HV0.3)

400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120

HV 0.3

Root side

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Filler side

FF
FS
FM

Dist. from Center of weld to both side

35

TABLE 10. Chemical analysis of weld metal

FF

Content
in %

Filler

FS

Wire

Welded
Sample

Carbon

0.07

0.112

Manganese

1.44

1.510

Silicon

0.86

= increased and

0.618

FM

Filler Wire

Welded
Sample

Filler Wire

Welded
Sample

0.03

0.092

0.048

0.108

1.29

1.415

1.375

1.309

0.56

0.674

0.582

0.391

= decreased compared with filler wire %.

From above table , C-Mn-Si for FS welds metal is higher compared to filler metal.
In second cases, C-Mn % for FF welds metal is higher compared to filler metal, while Si is
low record. C for FM weld higher while Mn-Si is lower compared to filler metal.
36

 From table 10, in some cause % for Manganese and % of silicon in weld metal is
reduced as compared to filler wire because of all this element react with oxygen
strongly during welding.
The loss of manganese and silicon may be caused by oxidation reactions in the
weld pool: [20]
Carbon, decreases. the ductility, formability, weldability and increases the strength
and hardenability.
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed. This
also makes the steel more stable in the quench
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel.
It slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other
alloys can help increase the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.

37

Microstructure of the FF Samples at (200X)

(a) Microstructure of
FCAW
Parent

(b) Microstructure of PM &HAZ

left (interface)

(c) Microstructure of
Top run

Normal
weld

Hybrid
weld

(d) Microstructure of
Middle run

(g) Microstructure of
PM &HAZ Right
(interface)

(f) Microstructure of Root run

38

Microstructure of the FS Samples at (200X)

(a) Microstructure of
Parent

(b) Microstructure of PM &HAZ

left (interface)

(c) Microstructure of
Top run

Hybrid
weld

(f) Microstructure of PM &HAZ Right

(interface)

(d) Microstructure of
Middle run

(e) Microstructure of Root run

Microstructure of the FM Samples at (200X)

(a) Microstructure of
Parent

(c) Microstructure of
Top run

(b) Microstructure of PM &HAZ

left(interface)

Hybrid
weld

(d) Microstructure of
Middle run

(g) Microstructure of
Root run
(f) Microstructure of
Middle run (50 X)

(h) Microstructure of
PM &HAZ
Right (interface)

The properties of the steel depends upon the microstructure. Decreasing the size of the
grains and decreasing the amount of pearlite improve the strength, ductility and
toughness of the steel
Microstructure investigation reflects the extremely fine grain structure of weld and as
well HAZ of FS weld.
It has two major constituents, which are ferrite and pearlite.
Its major components include allotriomorphic ferrite, Widmansttten (called side plate
ferrite) ferrite, and acicular ferrite.
The dark regions are the microstructure is the pearlite. it is made up from a fine
mixture of ferrite and iron carbide.
The light coloured region is the ferrite. boundary ferrite is called allotriomorphic
ferrite.

41

FF sample

FS sample

Figure13. Fracture morphology (SEM image) of tensile specimen fractured at room temperature, (a) FF sample,
(b) FS sample. (C) FM sample. The inclusion is indicated by the arrow. The EDAX spectra of the inclusions are
shown in Fig
42

In all sample, the results of the EDX

analyses indicated that the inclusions
contained manganese, iron, carbon and
nickel, silicon as shown in Fig .

FM sample

Small spots within the ferrite grains. These inclusions are silicon oxides and manganese
oxides, and sulphides etc.
The difference in composition of the inclusions is due to the different sources of the
inclusions.
In MAG, the Impurities mainly arose from the shielding gas. In FCAW, the impurities
mainly arose from the ux and shielding gas. [18]
43

Scanning Electron
Microscope - PDPU

Image Analyser
ERDA, Baroda

Model : ZEISS ULTRA 55

Model: Olympus

44

CONCLUSIONS
The angular distortion is higher with flux cored wire compare to hybrid weld.
Pick temperature reported with flux cored wire is higher compare to hybrid weld
which shown that high hear input with welding with flux cored wire.
Yield strength and tensile strength values are higher for with FS hybrid weld.
Percent elongation is higher for flux cored wire as compare to hybrid welds
During tensile test all specimens failed from parent material; means welded joints
are stronger then parent metal.
Samples welded with different consumables shows good integrity of welded
joints during bend test.
Excellent impact toughness of the weld metal reported for the FS hybrid welds
compared to other cases.
Higher macro and micro hardness value reported for flux cored welds compare to
others hybrid welds.
Weld metal microstructure confirm the presence of allotriomorphic ferrite,
Widmansttten ferrite, and acicular ferrite in the weld metal.

45

 While comparing the mechanical properties of the FF welds with FS and FM. It was
found that FS weld is better compared to others in terms of YS, TS JE and weld
impact. This may be due to the externally fine microstructure (ferrite,
Widmansttten ferrite, and acicular ferrite) developed.
Additionally, it is future conform through the weld metal chemical analysis as
shown in table 9.it was found that C-Mn-S for FS weld metal is higher compared to
filler metal.

46

Paper submitted
1.International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping (ELSEVIER).
Impact Factor: 1.532,Date-26/12/2014, DC ON 12/12/2014
Title: The effect of welding consumables on the Mechanical and Metallurgical
properties of carbon Steel Material.
Current Status: Paper under review.
2. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology ,ASME
submitted on Date-13/04/2015

Title: The effect of Hybrid Weldments on the Mechanical and Metallurgical.

Properties of carbon Steel Material.
Current Status: comments received from reviewer.
47

Reviewer 1:
Originality

Acceptable

Significance

Acceptable

Scientific relevance

Acceptable

Completeness

Acceptable

Acknowledgment of the Work of others by References

Acceptable

Organization

Marginal

Clarity of Writing

Marginal

Clarity of Tables, Graphs, and Illustrations

Marginal

In your opinion, is the technical treatment plausible and free of technical

errors?

Yes

Have you checked the equations?

No

Are you aware of prior publication or presentation of this work?

No

Is the work free of commercialism?

Yes

Is the title brief and descriptive?

Yes

Does the abstract clearly indicate objective, scope, and results?

Yes

Recommendation

The work appears to be original and meaningful.

This paper is Not Acceptable (Revision required; resubmit as Tech. Brief) . The quality
of the paper is Good.

48

Reviewer 2:
Originality

Acceptable

Significance

Acceptable

Scientific relevance

Acceptable

Completeness

Marginal

Acknowledgment of the Work of others by References

Marginal

Organization
Clarity of Writing
Clarity of Tables, Graphs, and Illustrations

Acceptable
Poor
Marginal

In your opinion, is the technical treatment plausible and free of technical errors?

Yes

Have you checked the equations?

Yes

Are you aware of prior publication or presentation of this work?

No

Is the work free of commercialism?

Yes

Is the title brief and descriptive?

Yes

Does the abstract clearly indicate objective, scope, and results?

No

Recommendation
This paper is Not Acceptable (Revision and resubmitted required) . The quality of the
paper is Average.
49

Internal Assessment seminar topics

(1) Non- Destructive testing of welds- all.(Delivered on 05/09/2013)
(2) Heat Flow during welding.
(3) M.Tech presentation.
(4) Destructive testing of welds- all.
(5) Welding symbol
(6) Welding Metallurgy

(Delivered on 10/10/2013)
(Delivered on 27/01/ 2014)
(Delivered 15th May 2014)
(Delivered 29th Des 2014)
(will be deliver before 11nd June2015)

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

American Welding Society - Welding Hand book, Welding Processes, Eighth Edition - Vol.II, pp 110, pp 157-190.
American Society of Metals Handbook, Vol. 6 Welding, Brazing and Soldering, Published in 1993, pp 582-583.
www.esabna.com, "Advantages and Disadvantages of metal cored wire".
Nasir Ahmed, "New development in advance welding", Pub. Wood Head publishing limited Cambridge, England; pp 23.
Stanley E. Ferree, Michael S, Sierdzinski, "Stainless steel metal cored wires for welding automotive exhaust systems" ESAB
Welding and Cutting Products, Hanover (PA) USA. Svetsaren nr i , 2000, pp 15-18.
6. Kevin A. Lyttle, Praxair, Inc Senior Development Associate; "Metal Cored Wire: Where Do They Fit In Your Future?" Reprinted
from Welding Journal, Oct. 1996, pp 35-38.
7. www.esabmanualcom, "Flux Core arc Welding, ESAB".
8. David Widgery; Tubular wire welding, Jaico Publishing House.
9. Washington alloy co. www.weldingwire.com.
10. Avesatar welding www.avestarwelding.com.
11. BOC, IPRM 2006: Section 4: Welding processes.
12. BOC, AU: IPRM 2007: Section 8: Consumables.
13. M. Suban, J. Tusek, "Dependance of melting rate in MIG/MAG welding on the type of shielding gas used", Journal of Materials
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14. American Society of Metals Handbook, Vol. 6 Welding, Brazing and Soldering, Published in 1993, pp 163-174.
15. Tom Myers,"Choosing a shielding Gas for FCAW", A senior application engineer, The Lincoln Electric Co; Cleveland, Ohio.
16. John Norrish, -Advanced welding processes technologies and process control", Pub. Wood.
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18. V. V. Vaidya, "Theory and practice of shielding gas mixtures for semiautomatic welds", Director, welding Technology and Business
Development, Air Liquide Canada Inc., Canada.
19. M Menzel, "The influence of individual components of an industrial gas mixture on the welding process and the properties of
welded joints". Linde Gas Poland; Welding International 2003 17 (4) 262-264.
20. .S. Mukhopadhyay and T.K.Pal.; "Effect of shielding gas mixture on gas metal arc welding of HSLA steel using solid and flux-cored
wires". Welding Technology Centre, Metallurgical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata.
21. AMOS DAVIS, business development manager, "Optimizing Metal Cored Performance" Hobart Brothers Company, Feb 1, 2009;
12:00 PM.
22. W. F. Garth Stapon, "Using Flux cored and Metal Cored Wire". Praxair. Inc. Marketing Manager Metal Fabrication; Reprinted from
Practical Welding Today Jan/Feb 2000.
23. V. Vel Murugan and V. Gunaraj, "Effect of process parameters on Angular Distortion of gas metal arc welded structural steel plates",
Welding Journal, November 2005.
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University of Parana, Campus Curitiba, Brazil.
Cicero Murta Diniz Starling, Paulo Jose Modenesi, and Tadeu Messias Donizete Borba, Comparison of operational performance and bead characteristics
when welding with different tubular wires, Welding international, Vol. 24, No 8, August 2010, 579-592.
R. M. Mirza and R. Gee;Effects of shielding gases on weld diffusible hydrogen contents using cored wire; Science and Technology of welding and
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Ravi Menon,; Recent advances in cored wires for hardfacing. Vice President, Technology, Stoody Co; a Thermadyne company, Bowling Green.
N. M. Ramini DE Rissone; H. G. Svoboda; E. S. Surian, and L. A. DE Vedia; Influence of procedure variables on C-Mn-Ni-Mo metal cored wire ferrites
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analysis, Welding International, Vol.23, No.4, Aprial 2009, 261-269.
D. D. Harwig; D. P. Longeneker and J. H. Cruz; Effect of welding parameters and electrode atmospheric exposure on the diffusible hydrogen content of
shielding flux cored arc welds, AWS welding Journal, September 1999.
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Technology of welding and joining, 2008, vol. 13, no.6, 509.
T. Kannan & J. Yoganandh, Effect of process parameters on clad bead geometry and its shape relationships of stainless steel claddings deposited by
GMAW, Int Adv Manuf Technology (2010), 30: 1083-1095.
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Her-Yueh Huang; Effects of activating flux on the welded joint characteristics in gas metal arc welding. Department of Materials Science and
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The ABC's of Arc Welding; KOBELCO WELDING TODAY.
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Flux Cored Arc Welding Equipment, Setup, and Operation Chapter no 3.
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53

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENT IN STEEL .[53]

Carbon (C):
Carbon is an element whose presence is imperative in all steel. Indeed, carbon is the
principle hardening element of steel.
That is, this alloying element determines the level of hardness or strength that can
be attained by quenching. Furthermore, carbon is essential for the formation of
cementite (as well as other carbides) and of pearlite, spheridite, bainite, and ironcarbon martensite, with martensite being the hardest of the microstructures.
Carbon is also responsible for increase in tensile strength, hardness, resistance to
wear and abrasion.
However, when present in high quantities it affects the ductility, the toughness and
the machinability of steel.
They are described as follows:
Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent
Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent
High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5
percent Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.
54

Manganese (Mn):
Increases the strength, shock resistance, toughness, hardenability, weldebility, hot
formability, no change in ductility.
In addition Mn is a strong austenite former by reducing the eutectoid temperature
below to room temperature.
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed. This also
makes the steel more stable in the quench.
Sulfur (S):
The excess sulfur reduces the ability for hot (900C) deformation of steel forming the
brittle FeS phase at the grain boundaries (hot brittleness).
The solubility of S is higher than C therefore it restricts the formation of pearlite in the
zones with higher S contents, leading a banded structure of pearlite and ferrite.
(Macroscopy experiment: flow lines). This causes severe anisotropy in the mechanical
prop of steel therefore S content is limited 0.035%.
However, 0.3% S may be added to free cutting steels to increase the chip formation
thus the machinability
55

Silicone (Si):
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel.
It slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other
alloys can help increase the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.
It increases strength, decreases the weldability, magnetic losses, oxide formation
affinity, no change in ductility.
In addition Si has higher affinity to O than carbon therefore used as deoxizing agent
(semi-killed steels).
It is also austenite former agent leading the nucleation of austenite grain in many
size yielding finer grain size.
Copper (Cu):
Copper The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves
steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It should be noted that with respect to
knife steels, copper has a detrimental effect to surface quality and to hot-working
behavior due to migration into the grain boundaries of the steel.
Copper (Cu): restricted to max. 0.35%. Up to 0.2 % provides some resistance
against to atmospheric corrosion. Not desired in spring steels.

56

Chromium (Cr):
As the Cr content increases, strength, hardenability, corrosion resistance, high
temperature strength, decreases the oxide formation tendency. (forms a very
coherent oxide layer on the surface preventing further oxidation-- in stainless
steels).
It is also strong carbide former as an essential factor behaving as a strong second
phase particle, therefore, obstructs the dislocation motion particularly at elevated
temperatures. Also nitride former and used in nitriding steels.
Chromium As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness
penetration. This element has many interesting effects on steel.
Phosphorus
It increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch impact
toughness of steel.
The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are greater in quenched and
tempered higher-carbon steels.
Nickel
Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It remains
in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel
increases the harden ability and impact strength of steels.
57

The Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram

A map of the temperature at which different phase changes occur on very
slow heating and cooling in relation to Carbon, is called Iron- Carbon
Diagram.
Iron- Carbon diagram shows
the type of alloys formed under very slow cooling,
proper heat-treatment temperature and
how the properties of steels and cast irons can be radically changed
by heat-treatment.
Plain carbon steels are generally defined as being those alloys of iron
and carbon which contain up to 2.0% carbon
The pure metal Iron, at temperatures below 910C, has a
body-centred cubic structure, and if we heat it to above this
temperature the structure will change to one which is face centred
cubic.

IRON IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM

Eutectic
eutectoid
Pearlite and
Cementine
Austenite

Ferrite
Pearlite and
Carbide

Pearlite

Steel

Cast iron

The Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram

The diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate isothermal reactions (on
cooling / heating):

First horizontal line is at 1490C, where peritectic reaction takes place:

Liquid + austenite

Second horizontal line is at 1130C, where eutectic reaction takes place:

liquid austenite + cementite

Third horizontal line is at 723C, where eutectoid reaction takes place:

austenite pearlite (mixture of ferrite & cementite).

61

The solid solution formed when carbon atoms are absorbed into the face-centred cubic
structure of iron is called Austenite and the extremely low level of solid solution formed
when carbon dissolves in body-centred cubic iron is called Ferrite.
For many practical purposes we can regard ferrite as having the same properties as pure
iron.
the symbol ('gamma') is used to denote both the face-centred cubic form of iron and the
solid solution austenite, whilst the symbol ('alpha') is used to denote both the
body-centred cubic form of iron existing below 910C and the solid-solution ferrite

62

Definition of structures
Ferrite is known as solid solution.
It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved
in (BCC) iron.
stable form of iron below 912 deg.C
The maximum solubility is 0.025 % C at 723C and it dissolves only
0.008 % C at room temperature.
It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram.

Definition of structures
Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.80
% C and is formed at 723C on very slow cooling.
It is a very fine platelike or lamellar mixture of
ferrite and cementite.
The white ferritic background or matrix contains
thin plates of cementite (dark).

64

Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of Carbon dissolved in (F.C.C.) iron.

Maximum solubility is 2.0 % C at 1130C.
High formability, most of heat treatments begin with this single phase.
It is normally not stable at room temperature. But, under certain conditions it is possible
to obtain austenite at room temperature.

Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle intermetallic

compound of iron & carbon, as Fe3C, contains 6.67 % C.
It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram,
exact melting point unknown.
Its crystal structure is orthorhombic. It is has
low tensile strength (approx. 5,000 psi), but
high compressive strength.
Martensite - a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite.
It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly that the change from austenite to pearlite is
suppressed.
The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite into a BC-tetragonal structure
(BCT).; responsible for the hardness of quenched steel.
65

Principal phases of steel and their Characteristics

Phase

Crystal structure

Characteristics

Ferrite

BCC

Soft, ductile, magnetic

Austenite

FCC

Soft, moderate strength,

non-magnetic

Cementite

Compound of Iron &

Carbon Fe3C

Hard &brittle

Hypo-eutectoid steels: Steels having less than 0.8% carbon are called hypoeutectoid steels (hypo means "less than").
Hyper-eutectoid steels (hyper means "greater than") are those that contain more
than the eutectoid amount of Carbon.

Cooling Rate is a Function of Heat Input

In arc welding, energy is transferred from the welding electrode to the base
metal by an electric arc.
Heat input is a relative measure of the energy transferred per unit length of
weld.
It is an important characteristic because, like preheat and interpass temperature,
it influences the cooling rate, which may affect the mechanical properties and
metallurgical structure of the weld and the HAZ (see Figure 1).
Heat input is typically calculated as the ratio of the power (i.e., voltage x
current) to the velocity of the heat source (i.e., the arc) as follows:

H = heat input (kJ/in or kJ/mm)

E = arc voltage (volts)
I = current (amps)
S = travel speed (in/min or mm/min)

67

The effect of heat input on cooling rate is similar to that of the preheat
temperature.
As either the heat input or the preheat temperature increases, the rate of cooling
decreases for a given base metal thickness.
These two variables interact with others such as material thickness, specific
heat, density, and thermal conductivity to influence the cooling rate.
The following proportionality function shows this relationship between preheat
temperature, heat input and cooling rate:

R = cooling rate (F/sec or C/sec)

To = preheat temperature (F or C)
H = heat input (kJ/in or kJ/mm)

68

The cooling rate is a primary factor that determines the final metallurgical structure of the
weld and heat affected zone (HAZ), and is especially important with heat-treated steels.
When welding quenched and tempered steels, for example, slow cooling rates (resulting
from high heat inputs) can soften the material adjacent to the weld, reducing the loadcarrying capacity of the connection.
69