Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
"
Practical work is
!
Characteristics of living organisms include;
ovement
espitation
ensitivity
rowth
eproduction
xcretion
"
utrition
(DNA) and
. Finally, all
.
#
1. Multicellular organisms
2. Cells contain chloroplasts
photosynthesis
and
are
able
to
carry
out
3. Cells have
cell walls
!
1. Multicellular organisms
2. Cells
contain chloroplasts and are
photosynthesis
3. Cells have
cell walls
%
1. They
are
"
and
feed
by
excreting
digestive
photosynthesis
3. Cells are joined together to form threads,
called
(a protein)
"
from
1. Made from
2. Cells
!
contain a nucleus, but have a small piece of
).
"
#
Basically, everything that doesnt fit into the other kingdoms! Most
are single celled organisms which can either;
1. Have animal4like characteristics (e.g. Amoeba)
2. Have plant4like characteristics (e.g. Chlorella)
However, some protoctisis are multicellular (e.g. seaweeds, yes
theyre NOT plants!)
&
1. Much smaller than bacteria.
"
2. Totally
and reproduce inside host cells.
3. They infect every type of living cell
The
The %
) contain the
'
%
!
*(
intracellular
structures
that carry
out specific
"
*
You need to know the differences between plant and animal cells,
the functions of the organelles and be able to recognize them in a
microscope picture or drawing.
!
Chloroplast
%
X
Cell Wall
Sap Vacuole
Chlorophyll
Size
Found in
chloroplast
Roughly 150m
Shape
No fixed shape
longRectangular
). One micrometer is
permeable)
'
site of respiration
site of photosynthesis
to be
made from
!
)
Food Tests:
Lipids are tested for using the
Proteins are tested for using the
Starch is tested for using
7
Vitamins and
Minerals
Used as a
!.
!"
(much easier
to store
than
carbohydrates). Also
have a
role in
Made from single sugars or chains of sugars. They
are used in
to provide
!".
Broken down into
, which our body absorbs
and assembles into new proteins. The proteins are
used for !
and
.
Regulates bowel movement. Sloughs off old lining
of intestine.
Essential as a solvent for chemical reactions (e.g.
cytoplasm), heat loss (e.g. transpiration), transport
(e.g. blood) etc
Essential for the normal function of some enzymes
2+
and proteins e.g. Fe is an essential part of /
!
2+
# and Mg is part of %
"
and , " !
are both
"
of ,
)
Proteins are polymers of
Lipids are made from one ! "
molecules joined together.
"
Enzymes:
4 Are proteins
4 Are biological
"
the
is reached the
enzyme begins to change shape
and the
$
stops being
able to bind to the #
.
3. The
after
enzyme
becomes
1. Initially,
increasing
the
pH
/ is
3. The
enzyme
becomes
O2
2H2O
the
movement
of
molecules
from
low
!".
The molecules constantly bounce off each other all the time,
gradually spreading out. Eventually there will be an even mixture of
molecules, which is called an
by;
4 temperature (increases Kinetic energy)
1
0
1
1
water
they
become
Flaccid
plants
lose
their
*"
'
! +
Plants are
3
(i.e. they generate their own food using
+
+
Water
6H2O
Oxygen
6O2
+
+
Gluco
C
se6H12
O6
Rate
of
p/s
Light intensity
You need to know the parts of the leaf and their adaptations.
5
Cuticle
Epidermis
Palisade cells
Air Spaces
Stoma
Guard Cells
Vein (containing 6"
"
Stops the leaf from losing water
(remember, water is used in photosynthesis)
Transparent protective layer. Protects the
leaf without inhibiting photosynthesis.
Are packed full of chloroplasts. Are long
and thin so light has to pass through as
many chloroplasts as possible.
Increase the surface area inside the leaf to
maximise gas exchange across the surface
of the Spongy Mesophyll cells
Allow exchange of CO2 and O2
Allow the stoma to open and close to stop
the leaf losing too much water
Brings a steady supply of water to the leaf.
You need to know an experiment that shows how the rate of p/s
is affected by rate4limiting factors. The best example is using
pond weed (
) which produces bubbles of O2 as it
photosynthesizes. The rate of bubble production is approximately
proportional to the rate of photosynthesis. Therefore, when you
add light or give it more CO2, the rate of bubble production
increases.
You also need to know an experiment that proves that light and
CO2 are essential for the production of starch. A good example is
the
,
plant. Its leaves normally turn blue4black in the presence
of iodine solution showing starch is present (you have to boil it in
ethanol first to remove the chlorophyll to show the colour).
However, if one leaf is put in aluminum foil and another is kept
with lime water both
turn blue4black, implying both CO2 and
light are essential for starch production and, therefore,
essential for p/s.
'
"
keep
our
bodies
Calories a day
Calories a day
You need to know an experiment that can show how much energy
there is in food. The easiest way of doing this is to burn a sample
of food and use it to heat a fixed volume of water. If you record
the change in temperature of the water you can use the equation
below to find out the energy the food gave to the water;
Energy = change in temp. x volume of water x 4.2J/g/C
A potential problem is that not all the food will burn. To control
this, you measure the start and end mass of the food and
calculate the mass that actually burned. To standardize this, you
can divide your calculated energy value by the change in mass to
give you the change in mass
!
(which will allow you to
compare values fairly between different food samples)
Present in
,
and
!! . It forms an
essential part of the pigment in
and
that detects light. Lack of Vitamin A can
lead to blindness.
Present in
. It forms an essential
part of !
protein, which makes up skin,
hair, gums and bones. Lack of Vitamin C
causes scurvy.
Present in , but made naturally by our body
when sunlight shines on the skin. It is
essential for regulating the growth of bones.
Lack of Vitamin D can cause rickets.
Present in
1,
& dairy foods. It is
essential for bone growth and muscles. Lack
of calcium can lead to osteoporosis.
Present in
and some $ !
#
(e.g.
spinach). Is part of ! # . Lack of iron
causes anaemia.
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Calcium
Iron
0 !
"
0 !
0 !
Salivary Glands
Stomach cells
Liver
9"
Mouth
Amylase
Starch
Maltose
Stomach
Protease
Protein
Amino Acids
Small Intestine
Pancreas
Small Intestine
Small Intestine
Small Intestine
Bile
Salts
Amyla
se
Protea
se
Malta
se
Protea
Fat
Star
ch
Prote
in
Malto
se
Prote
Fat droplets
Maltose
Amino
Acids
Glycerol &
Glucose
Amino
Acids
. They help by
as
soon
1
as
the stomach.
: "
3
!
0 !
(having
because
the
poo!). This
unwanted
food
is
has
,
never,
a#
Thin wall
Rich blood supply
Intestine length
Surface Area
Respiration is the process that releases energy into every living cell
of every organism. The energy is essential for keeping the cell alive
as it powers processes like protein synthesis, growth, repair,
division etc.
Oxygen
6O2
Wat
er 2
6H
O
Some cells have the ability to respire without using oxygen. This is
called
+
+
Glucose
C6H12O6
Carbon
Dioxide
6CO
2
+
+
Lactic Acid
2CH3CHOHCOOH
(interest only
*
)
, which is poisonous.
Lactic acid builds up inside muscle cells and quickly leads to muscle
fatigue and cramp. Eventually the muscle cell will stop working.
During recovery the lactic acid is transported to the liver via the
bloodstream. The liver breaks the lactic acid into CO2 and water.
Oxygen is required for this, which is called the
"! 0 # .
; also respire anaerobically, except they do not produce lactic
acid like humans. Instead they make ethanol. This type of anaerobic
respiration is also called
. It is used in the
Carbon Dioxide
2CO2
(
")
You need to know an experiment that shows that living organisms
produce CO2 through respiration. The best example is to suspend
some maggots or seeds near the top of a test tube sealed with a
Ethanol
2CH3CH2OH
+
+
of
in the bottom of the test tube will turn milky over
time, indicating that CO2 has been produced.
*
,
"
'
! +
! +
<
Total production
Edexcel
notes IGCSE Revision
5
Air Spaces
Stoma
Mesophyll cells
Leaf shape
Stomata distribution
!
!
Increase the surface area inside the leaf to
maximise gas exchange across the surface
of the Spongy Mesophyll cells
Allow exchange of CO2 and O2
Have a large surface area and moist
surfaces, which speeds gas exchange
Leaves are thin, which increases diffusion
speeds and leaves also have a very large
surface area, which also increases diffusion
Stomata are spread out over leaves, which
means waste gases produced by the leaf can
diffuse away quickly, this stops the build4up of
excreted products, which would slow gas
exhange
2
0
3
Larynx (voicebox)
Thachea
Ribs
Bronchiole
Bronchus
Alveolus
Intercostal Muscle
Thoracic Cavity
contained within
Diaphragm
How breathing
works
1.
,%
and
%
Tar
Nicotine
Carcinogens
Carbon Monoxide
Poisons
circulatory system.
Multicellular organisms: cannot exchange gases directly through
their skin. Their surface area is very small compared to
their
volume
have
3)
);
therefore,
they
need
to
specialized gas exchange organs (e.g. leaf, lung and gill) and a
" "
: transports
: transports
and
and
is on the
>
>
"
In the Roots:
Water enters root hair cells by
"
".
In the Stem:
1. Water evaporates out of the top of the xylem
2. This generates a low pressure at the top of the xylem (a mini
vacuum, if you like)
3. This sucks water molecules up the xylem 4.
This is called
Extension (not on syllabus, but very interesting)
Water molecules are slightly charged ( ). The oxygen atom is
slightly negative and the hydrogens are slightly positively charged.
This means that water molecules tend to stick to each other.
Therefore, when transpiration pull sucks at the water molecules in
the top of the xylem, the entire column of water moves up the
xylem, not just the molecules at the top!
In the leaf:
Water enters the leaf in xylem vessels in veins (basically, another
name for a leaf vascular bundle). The water moves by
into
leaf mesophyll cells, where it
$
into the air spaces and
finally
out of the stomata into the air.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration:
Temperatur
e (increases
transpiratio
Humidity
(decreases
transpiratio
Wind
(increases
transpiratio
Increasing
temperature
increases
the
1
!" of molecules. This makes diffusion, osmosis
and evaporation happen faster
When the air is humid then there is more water
vapour in it. Humid air is less able to accept
more water molecules by evaporation.
Wind blows water vapour away from the
stoma, keeping the concentration gradient
high.
Light
intensity
(increases
You need to know an experiment that can show the effect of the
above factors on the rate of transpiration. The best experiment
is a
, which measures how quickly a little bubble of air
moves up a glass tube attached to the bottom of the stem.
Adding a fan, changing the humidity, increasing the temperature
etc will all change the speed the bubble moves up the tube.
@A B
body (i.e. %
,
and
!".
adapted to carry O2
attaches to
help clot the blood. This stops blood loss and also
5"
"
Engulfing
called
! "
and
destroying
is
CO2+
H2O
HCO 3
of the heart
and 2 $
Vena Cava
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
Semi4lunar Valve
Cuspid Valve
Vena Cava
3
4
# >
=
5 C 4
=
5 C 4
=
)
1. Blood enters the atria
.
During exercise
$ "
2
9
Heart Rate
Stroke Volume
3
0
"> )
Artery:
"3
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
lumen (blood)
0.1 10mm
Arteries carry
Key Points:
1. Thick muscle layer to withstand high pressure blood
2. Elastic tissue allows artery to stretch when blood is forced
into it
3. Protective collagen layer
4. Round shape
5. Relatively small lumen
Vein:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
semilunar valve
lumen (blood)
0.1 20mm
Veins carry
the heart.
Key Points:
1. Thin muscle layer (low pressure blood)
2. Valve to stop # 1
3. Protective collagen layer
4. Not a round shape (wall not thick enough to hold shape)
5. Large lumen (decreases effect of friction)
3
0
Capillary:
Small hole
basement
membrane
(collagen)
endothelium cell
"
"
gut directly to the liver because if there are any poisons in what
youve eaten they get broken down by the liver #
the body. Cunning, eh?
going around
* 3
#
$ !
and other
wastes.
Extension 4
, which is harmless.
#
"3
homeostasis)
A Nephron:
Glomerulus
PCT
Bowmans Capsule
DCT
Efferent Vein
(join to form renal
vein)
Collecting Duct
Afferent Artery
(branch of renal
artery)
Loop of Henl
).
.
"
in the brain.
"
Hormone ( 0/)
detects
2. +
3.
hormone
5. The collecting duct becomes
6. Water is draw
.*
called
Examples
of
homeostasis
include
the
"
and the
$ .
1. A
is detected by a
"
in the spine
5. The motor nerve (which runs from the spine to a muscle in the
same limb as the receptor) passes the message onto the
muscle
6. The effector muscle carries out the
Cornea
Iris
Pupil
Lens
Ciliary muscle
Retina
Fovea
Optic nerve
Sclera
Choroid
Light is detected by
form the (the inner lining of the eye). There are two types of
photoreceptor;
4 4
4 %
There are two types of reflex you need to know about in the eye;
1. Responding to different light levels
2. Focusing the eye
Responding to different light levels:
In the
In the !
1. Photoreceptors detect
2. Reflex occurs
3. Muscles in the
are
the effectors
44
in Iris contract
4%
"
in Iris
relax
4. Pupil diameter opens
5. More light enters the eye
6. Photoreceptors detect
7. Reflex occurs
8. Muscles in the
are
the effectors
44
in Iris relax
4 %
"
in
Iris contract
9. Pupil diameter closes
10.Less light enters the eye
- Object
1. Incoming light is
2. %
"
relax
3.
" !
are
tight
4. Lens is pulled
5. Light is
less
Light converges on the retina
' Object
5. Incoming light is $ !
6. %
"
contract
7.
" !
are
loose
8. Lens becomes
9. Light is
more
Light converges on the retina
Too
When you are cold the
following happen (controlled
by reflexes);
1. Hairs on skin stand up
(more
!
trapped) 2.
!
stops
3.
$ ! starts, so muscles
respire more, producing more
heat
4. Blood is diverted away from
arteriole closes
arteriole opens
vasoconstriction
vasodilation
vasoconstriction
vasodilation
Pituitary
Adrenal glands
Insulin
Testosteron
Progesterone
Pancreas
Testes
Ovaries
Oestrogen
Ovaries
"
E
4
0
.
.
of the shoot. Only the tip makes the hormone. If you remove the
tip, the shoot stops growing. The hormone made by the tip is
called
.
/
*
to the parents.
"
to
the parent.
3
-
to form a zygote
F"! : a cell that is the result of fertilization. It will divide by
mitosis to form an
4
# " .
!
Part
Anther
Function
Colourful part of the flower. Attracts insects
in insect4pollinated plants
Male part of the plant. Makes pollen.
Filament
Stigma
Ovary
Ovule
Pollen
Male gamete
Nectary
Petal
Sepal
(
4 No nectary
down the
of the
(fertilisation).
following conditions;
4 Presence of water
4 Presence of O2 (seed needs to respire)
4 Correct temperature (recall enzymes work at optimum temp)
When a seed germinates the cells inside it start to grow rapidly and
form the new shoot and root. The seed contains a limited store of
#
"
and
provide the energy for growth. During this stage the seed must
produce leaves so it can begin to photosynthesize. The danger is
that the seed will run out of stored energy before it makes leaves.
If this happens it will die.
Plants can also reproduce asexually;
'
methods
methods
4
a root from one plant
grows a separate shoot, which
grows into a new plant. Eventually
the original root connecting the
two plants breaks down, separating
the plants
See also
9
,
, # #
and
#
(not mentioned on syllabus)
(not mentioned
44
4
5
Pregnancy:
When the egg and sperm fuse (fertilisation) the resulting 9"!
begins to divide by
mothers blood supply very close to the foetus blood supply. The
two blood streams
cells would attack the foetus!), but they are close enough for
diffusion to occur
Diffuse from foetus to mother 4 CO2, water, urea
Diffuse from mother to foetus4 O2, glucose, amino acids, minerals
The placenta is adapted for diffusion in much the same way as
other exchange organs, i.e. it has;
4 Huge surface area (it has lots of villi4like projections)
4 Only a few cells thick
4 Blood supplies keep the concentration gradients high
4 Counter4current system (this ones an A4level idea look it up?!)
As well as the
placenta
the
embryo
also
develops
an
). This helps
in their $
in their
.
3
4 Causes testes to drop & penis to enlarge
4 Triggers spermatogenesis (sperm manufacture)
4 Causes growth of pubic and body hair
and girls
! 3
4 Triggers menstruation to begin
4 Causes maturation of vagina
4 Causes breasts to grow
4 Causes growth of pubic and body hair
4 Causes hips to widen
!
Menstrual
Cycle:
Causes
the
(uterus lining) to grow.
FSH Inhibits the release of FHS (so no more eggs ripen)
Made by the
".
Madebythepituit
Causes the ova (egg) to ripen inside a
in the ovary.
Causest
Ova starts to release oestrogen as it ripens
released (
Day 14
'=
Period
Corpus luteum
dies.
Progesterone levels fall
Endometrium is no longer
maintainedanditfalls away (this is a
Ovu
You only need to know
about
! and
Egg
is
released
into the
+ !
# , where it stands t
)
+ !
Corpus Luteum
Maintains endometrium.
The emptyInhibitsFSHrelease
follicle turns into a corpus luteum, wh
*
The nucleus of every cell contains 0' . DNA is a !
Each instruction in the code is called a !
cell how to make a
for iris pigment, but there are different colours of iris pigment,
same gene but different alleles)
DNA is a very long molecule. To stop it from breaking it is coiled up
inside the nucleus. The coiled up DNA forms a
. Humans
The
is
the
number
of
different
"
>
= 5
: Coiled up DNA
: the number of
chromosomes in a cell
(23)
0
# : the
Cell Division:
There are two types of cell division;
4 &
4 &
&
1. Produces
&
1. Produces !
3. Gametes
"
4. Gametes
"
are
to each other
are
to parent cell
F"!
"
capital letter)
4 4
. If
this comes up you get loads of marks for it, but only if you
use the genetic diagram!
A,
0 !
Parents Phenotype:
Brown eyes
Brown eyes
Parents Genotype:
Bb
Bb
Gametes:
F1 Genotype:
F1 Phenotype:
BB
Bb
b
Bb
bb
'
"
5
1