ACADEMIC WRITING LDB 1042

2 credit hours (2-hour lecture per week)

ASSESSMENT
Students assessment will be based on the following components:
COURSEWORK
Test 1 (In-text citation, Summarizing &
Paraphrasing)
Test 2 (Synthesizing)

20%

Academic Paper

30%

FINAL EXAMINATION

COURSE SYNOPSIS
and
facts,
also be
paraphrasing,
texts. In
of grammar and
will also be emphasized.
introduced to parts of
produced by students at

1 | Page

(60%)

10%

(40%)

This course emphasizes on the theory and

practice of academic writing. Students will
be introduced to the writing process
writing supporting details using
quotations and citations. They will
exposed to summarizing,
synthesizing and analyzing
addition, accurate use
mechanics of English
Students will also be
reports
commonly
tertiary level.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, students should be

able to:

apply the process of writing when producing

written texts.
produce coherent and cohesive written texts.
use English accurately and effectively in
producing written texts

ATTENDANCE:

Please take note that under University regulations, you are required to attend 90% of the
course to qualify for the Final Examination. Failure to meet this requirement will result in
barring.

2 | Page

ACADEMIC WRITING
WEEK
WEEK 1
18/5-22/5

TOPIC

ACTIVITY
Class Activity: Formal and

INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC
WRITING

Informal articles on Mozarts

music
- Assignment (formal &
informal letters)

WEEK 2
25/5-29/5

DOCUMENTING SOURCES WITHIN

THE TEXT
(In-text citation)

Class Activity:

WEEK 3
1/6 5/6

REFERENCING

Identifying errors.
Author in subject position and
Information or Research given
prominence.
Class Activity: Referencing
exercise

WEEK 4
8/5 12/5

SUMMARIZING AND
PARAPHRASING

Class Activity: Rural Tourism

WEEK 5
15/6-19/6

SYNTHESIZING

TEST 1 (20%)
-IN-TEXT
CITATION/REFERENCING
-SUMMARIZING
-PARAPHRASING

WEEK 6
22/6 -26/6

SYNTHESIZING
Introduce Research theme

Class Activity: Books &

Nanotechnology

Homework Assignment Malaria

Class Activity: Discuss on

WEEK 7
29/6 -3/7

SYNTHESIZING

WEEK 8
6/7 10/7

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
DISCUSSION ON STUDENTS
PROPOSED TOPIC AND IDENTIFIED
ARTICLES

WEEK 9
13/7-17/7

SYNTHESIZING TEXTS
3-5 Articles (2 Journal Articles and
Other Academic Articles): Title,
Introduction, Lit Review,
Discussion, Conclusion

Concept Matrix

WEEK 10
20/7-24/7

PRESENTATION OF CONCEPT
MATRIX

Each presentation 5 mins

3 | Page

Assignment - Malaria

WEEK 11
27/7-31/7

PRESENTATION OF CONCEPT
MATRIX

Each presentation 5 mins

WEEK 12
3/8-7/8

WRITING ACADEMIC PAPER - Draft

1

TEST 2(10%)
SYNTHESIZING

WEEK 13
10/8-14/8

WRITING ACADEMIC PAPER- Draft

2

WEEK 14
17/8-21/8

FINALISING DRAFT AND

SUBMISSION OF ACADEMIC PAPER

4 | Page

ACADEMIC PAPER (30%)

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS

Take home assignment 1

Here are two jumbled letters. One is written to a hotel, and the other to a friend.
Decide which sentences go with which letter, and put them in the right order.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

I would like a single room with a shower.

Im writing to ask you a favor.
I dont mind where you put me. Ill sleep anywhere!
I have a further request.
I would like to make a reservation for the nights of 22 nd, 23rd, and 24th
January.
f. I hope the above is convenient.
g. Write soon and let me know.
h. Im coming down to London at the end of the month to go to a conference.
i. Could I have a bite to eat when I arrive?
j. I hope you are all well, and that youve recovered from the busy Christmas
period.
k. I would be extremely grateful.
l. Could I possibly have a room at the back, as I find front rooms rather noisy?
m. Could you put me up for a few days?
n. Just a sandwich will do.
o. I look forward to your reply.
p. Its the 22nd-24th January.
q. As I will be arriving quite late, could you possibly put a cold buffet in my
room on the 22nd?
r. I hope thats all right.
s. Theres something else Id like to ask you.
5 | Page

(Soars and Soars 1987:53)

Article A
THE MOZART EFFECT: HOW MUSIC MAKES YOU SMARTER

Have you ever noticed how your favorite music can make you feel better? Well, new research
studies now show how music can make you smarter too!
Scientists at Stanford University, in California, have recently revealed a molecular basis for the
Mozart Effect, but not other music. Dr. Rauscher and her colleague H. Li, a geneticist, have
discovered that rats, like humans, perform better on learning and memory tests after listening to a
specific Mozarts Sonata. Recently, a new book called The Mozard Effect by Don Campbell, has
condensed the worlds research on all the beneficial effects of certain types of music.
Some of the hundreds of benefits are:

Improves test scores

Cuts learning time
Calms hyperactive children and adults
Reduces errors
Improves creativity and clarity
Heals the body faster
Integrates both sides of the brain for more efficient learning
Raises IQ scores 9 points (research done at University of California, Irvine)

In 1996, the College Entrance Exam Board Service conducted a study on all students taking their
SAT exams. Students who sang or played a musical instrument scored 51 points higher on the
verbal portion of the test and an average of 39 points higher on math. Major corporations such as
Shell, IBM, and Dupont, along with hundreds of schools and universities use music, such as
certain Baroque pieces, to cut learning time in half and increase retention of the new materials.

6 | Page

In my teacher and parent training seminars, I have been using music for years as a strategy to
reduce learning time and increase students memory of the material. Music activates the whole
brain and makes you feel more energetic.
Listen to these tapes when you study, work or drive in the car to receive the tremendous benefits.
This is the music of such composers as Mozart, Vivaldi, Pachabel, Handel and Bach. I use these
tapes every day and found them to be extraordinarily effective.
Each CD or tape has specially selected music to enhance learning, spatial intelligence, creativity
and body awareness.
Copyright @ 2011 The Center For New Discoveries in Learning, Inc.

Article B
The influence of Mozarts music on brain activity in the process of learning
Jausovec N., Jausovec K, and Gerlic I.
Department of Education, Universza v Mariboru. Pedagoska fakulteta, Koroska 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
Norbert.jausovec@uni-mb.si<norbert.jausovec@uni-mb.si>

OBJECTIVE
The study investigated the influence Mozarts music has on brain activity in the process of
learning. A second objective was to test priming explanation of the Mozart effect.
METHODS
In Experiment 1 individuals were first trained in how to solve spatial rotation tasks and then
solved similar tasks. Fifty-six students were divided into 4 groups: a control oneCG who prior
to and after taining relaxed, and three experimental groups. MMwho prior to and after training
listened to music; MSwho prior to training listened to music and subsequently relaxed; and
SMwho prior to training relaxed and afterward listened to music. The music used was the first
movement of Mozarts sonata (K.448). In Experiment 2, thirty-six respondents were divided into
three groups: CG, MM (same procedure as in Experiment 1), and BMwho prior to and after
training listened to Brahms Hungarian dance No. 5. In both experiments the EEG data collected
during problem solving were analyzed using the methods of event-related
desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS) and approximated entropy (ApEn).
RESULTS
In the first experiment the respondents of the MM, MS, and SM groups showed a better taskperformance than did the respondents of the CG group. Individuals of the MM group displayed
less complex EEG patterns and more alpha band synchronization than did respondents of the
other three groups. In Experiment 2, individuals who listened to Mozart showed a better task
performance than did the respondents of the CG and BM groups. They displayed less complex
7 | Page

EEG patterns and more lower-1 alpha and gamma band synchronization than did the respondents
of the BM group.
CONCLUSIONS
Mozarts music, by activating task-relevant brain areas, enhances the learning of spatio-temporal
rotation tasks.
SIGNIFICANCE
The results support priming explanation of the Mozart effect.
FORMALITY AND INFORMALITY: DIFFERENCES IN ARTICLES
Read the two articles on Mozarts music and describe the features for each in the
table below:

ARTICLE A
Audience

Tone

Vocabulary

Style

Language

8 | Page

ARTICLE B

Content

Organization

IN-TEXT CITATIONS
There are errors in the in-text citation in this Introduction adapted from an article.
Identify the errors and rewrite the complete text with the correct in-text citations using
the APA format or Numbering format:
Student retention has attracted steady attention from scholars and practitioners in the higher
education community (Austin 1993, Bean 1980, Cabrera et al. 1993 & Braxton 2000, Tinto
1993). As such, the literature on college student retention is full with scholarship advancing our
knowledge of what contributes to a students ability or inability to complete college. Researchers
have evaluated retention from a student perspective and shown that high school academic
achievement, socioeconomic status, gender, commitment to earning a degree, and social
academic involvement all influence degree completion (Austin 1993; Cabrera and Nora 1996;
Tinto 1993). In particular, we know that students who are socially disadvantaged, academically
less prepared, and who experience a lack of resources and support from significant others, are
less likely to stay in college (Austin 1993; Seidman 2005; Braxton 2000). We also know that
those who feel isolated or lack a sense-of-belonging during their early years of college are more
likely to leave (Hurtado and carter 1997; Hausmann et al., 2007). We have a wealth of research
available to explain college student retention from an individual, student perspective.
From an institutional perspective, according to (Oseguera 2005; Sjoberg 1999) while there is
information on institutional context factors and their effect on degree completion, organizational
9 | Page

analyses are limited by the fact that they mainly tend to evaluate the influence of structural
aspects of an institution and until recently, the organizational culture of an institution. For
example, size, control, and interactions influence persistence behavior but know less about these
groups collective influence on persistence decisions. What is lacking then is institutional
analyses of degree completion is an attendant emphasis on peer and faculty climates as
suggested by (Berger 2000 & 2001; Braxton 2000 and Kuh 2001). In other words, what affects
do peer and faculty attitudes and behaviors in the aggregate (i.e. institutional climates) have on
student degree completion?

Source: The influence of institutional retention climates on student persistence to degree

completion: A multilevel approach by Leticia Oseguera and Byung Shik Rhee in Research in
Higher Education journal and was published in 2009, volume 50, pages 546-569.

Paraphrase this information in 2 ways:

a
b

Where the researchers are given prominence i.e. subject position

Where the research or information is considered more important

Authors: Malcolm Smith, Noorlaila Ghaali and Siti Faitimah Noor Minhad
There were 1,409 candidates in the program on that date and a sample of around 20 per cent of
the student body was contemplated in order to provide a sufficient number for statistical
comparisons.
80.4 per cent of the respondents acknowledged the source of information in the reference list of
the assignment, but the majority of these (1`30) made no specific citation of authorship
elsewhere in the assignment.
Most seriously 27 students (9.4 per cent of the total) did not state their source of information
anywhere in the assignment, even in the reference list, the incidence of plagiarism among this
group of undergraduate accounting students was perceived as significant

Authors: Niall Hayes and Lucas C.Introna

Carroll (2002) has suggested that as most students are unsure what plagiarism is, they do not
plagiarise with the intent to deceive.
10 | P a g e

Fear of failure generally, especially when students are funded by their family, their government,
or a particular company, also places considerable pressure on the students to do well.
Yet there are some students who feel they cannot improve upon what is already written and
prefer to use the original text rather than their own.
Most students from exam-oriented learning cultures plagiarize intentionally and unintentionally
due to their lack of experience in essay writing as they are still used to relying exclusively on
exams.
There is also a lack of clarity across the university about what constitutes plagiarism and a
discrepancy in the way plagiarism is detected and enforced.

REFERENCING PRACTICE USING THE APA FORMAT AND NUMBERING FORMAT

1. It was written by Abraham Pais, it is called Subtle is the Lord.,the Science and the life
of Albert Einstein. It was published in New York by Oxford University Press in 1982
2. It was written by Herman Bondi and called Relativity and Common Sense: A New
Approach to Einstein. It was published in Mineola, N.Y., By Dover Publishing in 1980
3. The book is called Introducing Einsteins Relativity and was written by R.A. DInverno.
It was published by Oxford University Press in New York, N.Y., in 1992
4. The article was called Einstein in Love and written by Dennis Overbye. It was published
in Time magazine on April 30,1990 on page 108
5. The article was written by Martin C. Gutzwiller called Einstein and published in
Scientific American, volume 266 number 1 on pages 78 to 85 in 1992
6. The article, called A Challenge to Einstein was written by T. Bethell. It was published
in National Review on November 5th 1990 on pages 69-71
7. It was written by Ronald W. Clark and called Einstein:The Life and Times It was
published in 1971 by Avon Books in New York

11 | P a g e

8. Entitled Closing in on Einsteins Special Relativity Theory, the paper was written by
Robert Pool and published in Science in 1990. It can be found in volume 250, edition
number 4985 pp 1207-1209

SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

Summarize and paraphrase the following short article

Selling a product successfully in another country often requires changes in the original product.
Dominos Pizza offers mayonnaise and potato pizza in Tokyo and pickled ginger pizza in India.
Heinz varies its ketchup recipe to satisfy the needs of specific markets. In Belgium and Holland,
for example, the ketchup is not as sweet as it is in the United States. When Haagen-Dazs served
up one of its most popular American flavors, Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough, to British
customers, they left it sitting in supermarket freezers. What the premium ice-cream maker
learned is that chocolate chip cookies are not popular in Great Britain, and children do not have a
history of snatching raw dough from the bowl. For this reason, the company had to develop
flavours that would sell in Great Britain. Because dairy products are not part of Chinese diets,
Frito- lay took the cheese out of Chee-tos in China. Instead, the company sells Seafood Chee-tos.
Without a doubt, these products were so successful in these foreign lands only because the
company realized that it was wise to do market research and make the fundamental changes in
the products.

Source:

BLUEPRINTS COMPOSITION SKILLS FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

Authors:

Keith S Folse, M Kathleen Mahnke, Elena Vestri Solomon, Lorraine Williams

Year of publication:

2003

12 | P a g e

Publisher:

Thomson Heinle

Page:

208-209

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

Good Summary (31 words)

Companies must adapt their products if they want to do
well in foreign markets. Many well-known companies,
including Dominos Heinz, Haagen-Daz, and Frito-Lay,
have altered their products and proved this point.

Comments

1.
2.
3.

It covers the main ideas.

It is a true summary, not an exact repetition of
the specific examples.
It includes some new grammar, for example:

Original text: often requires changes

Summary: modal is used: companies must adapt

4. It includes some new vocabulary, for example:

Original text: Specific country names
Summary: many well-known companies

Poor Summary (174 words)

Changes in a product are important if a company wants

to sell it successfully in another country. For example,
Dominos Pizza offers mayonnaise and potato pizza in
Tokyo and pickled ginger pizza in India. In addition,
Heinz has changed its ketchup recipe to satisfy the
needs of specific markets. In Belgium and Holland the

13 | P a g e

Comments

1.
2.

It is almost as long as the original and,

therefore, not really a summary.
It includes almost the same vocabulary, for
example:

ketchup is less sweet. When Haagen- Dazs served up

one of its most popular Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough,
to British customers, the British customers left it sitting
in supermarket freezers. The luxury ice-cream maker
learned that chocolate chip cookies are not popular in
Great Britain, and children do not take uncooked dough
from the bowl. For this reason, the company developed
flovors to sell in Great Britain. Since dairy products are
not usually eaten in China, Frito-Lay removed the
cheese from Chee-tos in China. In its place, the
company has Seafood Chee-tos. Certainly, these items
were so successful in these countries only because the
company was smart enough to do market research and
implement fundamental changes in the products.

Original text: the premium ice-cream maker

Summary: the luxury ice-cream maker (this is
plagiarism)

3.

It includes almost the same grammar, for

example:

Original text: For this reason, the company had to

develop flavours that would sell in Great Britain.
Summary: For this reason, the company developed
flavours to sell in Great Britain. (this is plagiarism)

SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

Read the passage below on Rural Tourism, then summarize / paraphrase the advantages
and disadvantages in two sentences

Rural Tourism: For and Against

Johnson (1971) has listed two major advantages of tourism in rural areas. The first is economic:
tourism creates employment. The jobs are mainly in the travel industry, hotels, guest houses,
restaurants and cafes. However, visitors spend their money in a variety of ways which affect
other jobs indirectly. For example, by buying local souvenirs and gifts, tourists help to support
local shops. The second advantage of tourism is the support that the income provides for local
services and amenities. As large numbers of visitors use the local buses etc. it makes it possible
to keep these buses running for local people.
As well as advantages there are also three main disadvantages of tourism (Walker, 1982). The
first is erosion of the countryside by so many people: paths, grass and other areas of vegetation
and woodland get worn away. In addition, tourist traffic causes congestion and obstruction and
delays local people doing their work. Finally, an influx of tourists causes pollution problems in
many areas. The pollution can take many forms but the main ones are the exhaust fumes of
vehicles which pollute the atmosphere, and the litter that people leave behind, such as tin cans,
plastic and paper, and bottles.
14 | P a g e

Author:

R.R.Jordan

Source:

Academic Writing Coursed: Study Skills in English (3rd Edition)

Year:

1999

Publisher:

Longman, London

SYNTHESISING 1

Anna-Marie Nasrallah Make Time for Reading Perseus Books, Cambridge MA 2007
People save their books to use them as reference materials. People whose job training includes
studying a lot of textbook material may save some of these books for future reference. A doctor,
for instance, may keep his Grays Anatomy and his pharmacology books: an English teacher will
hold on to The Norton Anthology of English Literature and other anthologies and novels for
reference: a lawyer usually keeps her case books. But it isnt only the professionals who save
their books. Those interested in electronic equipment hold onto their books about stereo,
computers, videotape machines, and the like. Many families keep encyclopedias and almanacs
handy for their children to use for school. Having your own reference book available is so much
more convenient than running to the library every time you want to check a fact.
Elizabeth Johnson, Franco San Giorgio, Katrine Schengen, Alaister MacDonald
Viking Press, Edinburgh 2003

Libraries

Some people save books to make a good impression. Some think that a library full of the literary
classics, dictionaries, and books about art, science, and history makes them look well read and
therefore, sophisticated. Of course, this impression may be inaccurate. Some have never bothered
to read the majority of those books at all! In fact, a few people even have libraries with fake
books. Also, some people like to reveal to visitors their wide range of tastes and interests. They
can subtly reveal their interests in economics, art, politics, philosophy, or animals without saying
a word.
Muhammad Ahmed Al-Khoury The Enchantment of the Literary World
London 2008
15 | P a g e

Penguin Books,

People who enjoy reading have discovered the magic of books. Each book has transported the
reader to another place. Therefore, each book really represents an experience from which the
reader may have grown or learned something. When I sit in my study, I am surrounded by my
whole adult life. The Standard First Aid and Personal Safety manual, in addition to providing
information, reminds me of the first-aid course I took and how more assured I felt as a result.
Bullfinchs Mythology brings the oral history of Western civilization to my fingertips, reminding
me of my link with other times and people. Of course, all of the novels have become part of the
mosaic of my life. In short, saving books makes me feel secure as I hold on to what they have
given me.

SYNTHESISING 2
Below are THREE (3) articles about nanotechnology. Write an informative balanced report of at
least FIVE (5) paragraphs, stating the issues raised for someone with little knowledge of the
subject. Your review should include:
a title,
a thesis statement and supporting information from the articles,
FIVE (5) proper in-text references for information obtained from the articles
using the APA method of documentation and,

an APA reference list for the information you have cited at the end of the review.

Cosmetics companies are taking insufficient steps to ensure face creams and other products that
contain nanoparticles are safe, according to a report by leading consumer magazine Which? The
report, responding to advice from nanotechnology experts, warns that untested particles, which
can be 1,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair, are being used in products without
sufficient safety testing.
Nanoparticles are used in sun screens to block ultraviolet radiation, in emulsions to contain
vitamins in face creams, and in other moisturizers to kill off bacteria. However, of the 67 firms
approached by Which? only eight submitted information on the use of nanotechnology in their
products.

16 | P a g e

Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating matter on the molecular level, generally raises no
new safety issues, but the tiny particles can behave in unusual ways, in some instances becoming
toxic. Existing safety rules do not take into account materials posing risks at the nano scale. A
common use of nanotechnology is the addition of titanium oxide or zinc oxide particles to sun
screens, and European experts have demanded more safety tests to investigate the effects of these
lotions on damaged skin.
Source:

The Guardian

Date of Publication:

5 November 2008

Author:

Ian Sample, Science Correspondent

Title:

Use of nanoparticles in cosmetics questioned

Page:

16

While there are some published studies that suggest that solid lipid nanoparticles penetrate the
skin better than conventional creams, overall it is difficult to find studies showing nanoengineered products are more effective than regular ones or that they are effective at all. The
highly competitive world of cosmetics may have something to do with the lack of published
studies. Publishing the results of scientific tests requires full disclosure of the method by which
the formulation being tested was produced, therefore companies wishing to protect
nanotechnology rights are understandably not anxious to do so. The bottom line is that nanoengineered cosmetics may work well, but we do not have easily available proof that they do
because large-scale studies of them have not yet been made public.

Some experts have voiced concerns about the safety of nanotechnology. For instance, some
sunscreens use nanoparticles of titanium dioxide, and there are experts who have raised the
question of whether these substances remaining in the skin can age it prematurely. According to
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, At the present time, the FDA does not have any
evidence that ingredients manufactured using nanotechnology, as used in cosmetics, pose a
safety risk. However, the FDA and other government agencies are still studying
nanotechnology to see if the products produced with it including cosmetics pose health risks.
So as of yet, there seem to be no definitive answers.
17 | P a g e

Source:

Nanowerk News http://www.scrippsnews.com/node/25586

Date of publication:

24 July 2007

Author:

Paige Herman and Marie Kuechel

Title:

Nanotechnology Skin Deep

Nanotechnology is the general term for a large number of different scientific disciplines dealing
with the characterisation and development of materials on the nanometer scale 1 nanometre is
1 billionth of a metre. The nanos used in cosmetics differ from nanos used in other industrial
sectors in structure; use and environmental interaction. They are nanoemulsions and
nanopigments.

Nanoemulsions are widespread in nature, such as milk. In cosmetics, they are macroscopic
preparations containing oil and water droplets reduced to nanometric size to increase nutritious
oil content while preserving the transparency and lightness of the formulas. Sometimes fragile
active ingredients e.g. vitamins are protected from air inside nanometer-sized bubbles which
release the ingredient upon contact with the skin. Nanoemulsions therefore do not cross the skin
barrier and public health agencies worldwide acknowledge that they are safe. Nanopigments i.e.
titanium oxide and zinc oxide, are minerals already present in our environment. They are used
in sunscreens for their ability to reflect and scatter UV light, thus protecting the skin against
negative effects of UV radiation, including skin cancer.

Numerous studies, including those undertaken within NANODERM, the European Union
research programme, concluded that nanoparticles do not cross the skin barrier, even when the
18 | P a g e

skin is damaged. Furthermore, recent studies carried out by the US FDA and in Europe, have
demonstrated that no adverse effects are observed, even where titanium dioxide nanopigments
are injected into the bloodstream.
Source:

Food and Chemical

Toxicology Vol 45, Issue 11

Date of Publication:

November 2007

Author:

B.Hall, S.Tozer, B.Safford, M.Coroama, W.Steiling,

M.C.Leneveu-Duchemin, C.McNamara and M.Gibney

Title:

European consumer exposure to cosmetic products, a framework for

conducting population exposure assessments (abridged)

Pages:

pp 2097-2108

Take home assignment 2:

1. Below are FOUR (4) articles about Malaria prevention. Write an informative
balanced report of at least FIVE (5) paragraphs, stating the issues raised for
someone with little knowledge of the subject. For your essay:
compose a title,

provide a thesis statement and give supporting information from the

articles,

provide FIVE (5) proper in-text references for information obtained from
the articles using the APA method of documentation and,

at the end of the essay provide an APA reference list for the information
you have cited.

Source

: DEET Finally Exposed as Neurotoxic (abridged)

http://www.naturalnews.com

Date of publication

: July 5 2010

Author

: David Gutierrez

Retrieved

: 3 June 2011

19 | P a g e

New research shows that the insect-repelling chemical DEET functions in the
same way as deadly nerve gases and dangerous pesticides, by attacking the
nervous systems of both insects and mammals. The chemical DEET or N,Ndiethyl-meta-toluamide, is found in nearly every commonly used mosquito
repellent worldwide. Originally developed for jungle warfare in 1946 and made
commercially available in 1957, DEET is popular because it effectively repels a
variety of medically significant insects over longer periods of time than more
natural repellents and can be incorporated into lotions, sprays and liquids.
Researchers have long insisted that the chemical is safe, however consumers
should use the minimum amount necessary to cover exposed skin and not use
on irritated or injured skin.
Researchers remain unsure exactly how DEET functions to repel mosquitoes. It
has long been believed to affect mosquito behaviour probably by interfering with
their sense of smell and their ability to find human prey. However, DEET also
inhibits a key central nervous system enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, as
researchers found in experiments performed on rats and cockroaches. This is
the same mechanism that causes the toxic effects of organophosphate
pesticides and chemical weapons e.g. sarin and VX nerve gas. Like nerve
gases, organophosphates irreversibly inactivate acetylcholinesterase, leading to
excessive salivation and eye watering at low doses and muscle spasms or death
at higher doses. In other words, repellents containing DEET are insecticides and
could damage the central nervous system.
Bahie Abou-Donia of the Duke University Medical Centre said, DEET is a good
chemical for protection against insects, but prolonged exposure results in
neurological damage. The study maintains mosquito repellents with DEET
should not be used by pregnant women and children under six years and AbouDonia advocates warning labels about DEETs potential to cause neurological
harm. The Environmental Protection Agency has a review of DEETs safety
planned for 2012.

20 | P a g e

Source

: Plant-based insect repellents: a review of their

efficacy, development and testing (abridged)
Malaria Journal, Volume 10 Issue 1 pages 1-15

Date of publication

: 2011

Authors

: Marta Ferreira, Sarah J. Moore

Plant-based repellents such as lemon eucalyptus and citronella, have been used
for generations in traditional practice as personal protection against host-seeking
mosquitoes. Lemon eucalyptus, extracted from the leaves of the tree, was
discovered in the 1960s during mass screenings of plants used in Chinese
traditional medicine. It was discovered that the waste distillate remaining after
hydro-distillation of the essential oil was much more effective at repelling
mosquitoes than the essential oil itself. Citronella, used by the Indian Army to
repel mosquitoes at the beginning of the 20th Century, is one of the most widely
used natural repellents on the market today. It is used at concentrations of 5-10%
which is lower than most other commercial repellents because higher
concentrations can cause skin sensitivity.

Many plant extracts and oils repel mosquitoes and are effective for several
minutes to several hours after application. Initially, citronella is as effective dose
for dose as DEET but the active ingredients are highly volatile and rapidly
evaporate, leaving the user unprotected. Citronella-based repellents, for
example, only provide protection for about two hours. It is for this reason that the
essential oil of lemon eucalyptus does not have EPA or Environmental Protection
Agency registration for use as an insect repellent.

Recently, the use of nanotechnology has allowed slower release rates of oils to
be achieved, thus prolonging protection time. Volatile plant repellents can also be
continuously evaporated e.g. citronella candles are widely sold as outdoor
21 | P a g e

repellents although they do not provide significant protection against mosquito

bites. For the time being, travellers to disease endemic areas should not use
citronella-based repellents. However, for those communities in India and Africa
where more effective chemical-based alternatives are unavailable or prohibitively
expensive, the use of citronella to prevent mosquito bites may provide important
protection from disease vectors. Furthermore, as many of these plant extracts
grow in developing countries, local production would remove the high importation
costs of other repellents.

Source

: Genomes of the malaria mosquito and parasite are

sequenced.(abridged)
Student British Medical Journal Volume 10

Date of publication

: November 2002

Authors

: Phyllida Brown

Pages

: 1188-1190

International teams of scientists have sequenced the genomes of the principal

malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and its mosquito host. But the
consensus emerging among researchers is that the greatest barrier to
overcoming malaria, the killer of more than a million children a year, is not a lack
of knowledge but a severe lack of funding to develop new candidate vaccines
and drugs.

Professor Brian Greenwood, a malaria expert at the London School of Hygiene

and Tropical Medicine warned better knowledge of the parasites proteins will
enable immunologists to identify more candidate molecules for vaccines but this
22 | P a g e

will not in itself bring vaccines to the market more quickly. It is not a lack of
candidates that is the problem; it is pushing them through the whole system that
is so costly and time consuming, Professor Greenwood stated.

About 500 million people suffer from malaria each year. The disease is on the
increase in sub-Saharan Africa, where resistance to existing drugs is spreading.
Few major pharmaceutical companies currently invest money in malaria
vaccines because they doubt that the poor countries worst affected could afford
to buy them. The cost of developing a vaccine has been estimated as high as
$500m.
The World Health Organization has estimated that funding for malaria control
alone needs to increase to $3.1bn by 2015 to achieve results. This only covers
existing measures, including bed nets treated with insecticide and prompt
treatment of sick people in endemic areas. If new drugs and vaccines are added
the bill will be higher. Currently the worlds spending on malaria research and
control is only about $200m.

The sequencing of the two genomes is in itself a huge technical feat. Dr Bart
Barrell at the Sanger Institute said P.falciparum had been dreadful to sequence,
partly because of its large repeated sequences. The genome shows that the
parasites capacity to vary its appearance to the immune system is even greater
than previously believed, emphasizing the difficulty of developing effective
medicines.

Source

: Comparative Efficacy of Insect Repellents Against

Mosquito Bites (abridged)
New England Medical Journal Volume 347 Number

1
23 | P a g e

Date of publication

: July 4 2002

Authors

: Mark S. Fradin and John F.Day

Pages

: 1188-1195

Mosquitoes transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually and
malaria alone kills 3 million persons each year, including one child every 30
seconds. Commercially available insect repellents to protect against mosquito
bites can be divided into two categories: synthetic and plant-derived. The best
known chemical insect repellent is DEET.
We compared the efficacy of 16 readily available repellents in a controlled
laboratory environment. These included: 7 botanical repellents; 5 DEET
repellents of differing concentrations and the synthetic repellent IR3535; 3
wristbands impregnated with either DEET or citronella; and a moisturizer
believed to have repellent effects. The duration of protection provided by each
product was tested by means of arm-in-cage studies, in which 15 volunteers
inserted their repellent-treated arms into a cage with 10 unfed, disease-free,
laboratory-reared Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes.
Of the products tested, those containing DEET provided the longest-lasting
protection with protection times correlating positively with the concentration of
DEET in the repellent. IR3535 fared badly, yielding a protection time that was
one-quarter that of the lowest-concentration DEET product tested. Of the nonDEET repellents, only the soybean oil-based repellent was able to provide
protection for a period similar to that of the lowest concentration DEET product.
Other plant-based insect repellents gave very short protection, ranging from a
mean of about 3-20 minutes. While the moisturizer provided a mere 9.6 minutes
of protection against Aedes bites, not one of the wristbands provided any
protection from bites.
Our study shows that certain plant-based repellents may provide short-lived
efficacy, but are not recommended for travel to areas with prevalent mosquito24 | P a g e

borne disease. Only products containing DEET offer long-lasting protection after
a single application, however, it can be washed off by perspiration and rain.
Furthermore, its efficacy decreases with rising outdoor temperatures. DEETs
safety profile is remarkable after 40 years of use with fewer than 50 cases of
serious toxic effects documented, many involving long-term, heavy, frequent, or
whole-body application of the repellent. In 1998, The Environmental Protection
Agency concluded that normal use of DEET does not present a health concern
to the general U.S. population. When applied with common sense, DEET-based
repellents can be expected to provide a safe and long-lasting repellent effect.

25 | P a g e