Knitting Basics

There are two broad categories of knit textiles: weft and warp. Weft knits are
made by feeding yarn to all needles horizontally to construct a course. Weft knits
can be produced on either a circular knit machine or a flat bed machine. In warp
knitting, one yarn is used for each knitting needle. Each stitch in a course is
made by a different yarn.
Alamac uses circular knit machines to manufacture weft knit fabric for apparel
manufacturers.

Basic weft knit fabric

Course: Row of loops

or stitches running
across the knit fabric

Wale: Vertical chain of

loops in the lengthwise
direction of the fabric,
formed by one needle

Glossary of Knitting Terms

Single knit

Knit fabric produced using a single set of

knitting needles. It is usually a thin
lightweight fabric.

Double-knit

Knit fabric produced on two sets of opposed

needles. It is thicker and heavier than a
single knit fabric.

Technical Face

The outside of the tube of fabric produced

by a circular knitting machine. This may or
may not be the outside of a finished
garment made from the fabric.

Technical Back

The inside of the tube of fabric produced by

a circular knitting machine. This may or may
not be the inside of a finished garment
made from the fabric.

Knit Stitch

An interlocking series of loops used to

construct fabric. See the diagram above of
the basic weft knit fabric.

Tuck Stitch

A needle receives a new yarn without losing

its old loop. A tuck loop always faces the
technical back of the fabric.

Welt, Miss, or Float

Stitch

These terms describe the same formation.

The stitch is created by not allowing the
needle to raise high enough to receive a
new yarn, causing the yarn to float behind
the face stitches.

Inlay Stitch

Combination of float and tuck stitches. In a

3x1 inlay, three needles float and one tucks.
Commonly used in Fleece and French Terry
fabrics.

Jersey Fabric

The basic singleknit construction (T- shirt

fabric) with the appearance of tiny V s on
the face of the fabric and wavy courses on
the back of the fabric.

Rib Fabric

This doubleknit fabric draws some wales to

the front and others to the back for a ridge
effect. Ribs have a higher stretch and
recovery than most knits and they are used
for trim and body goods.

Interlock Fabric

Two yarn feeds are required to create one

course. The knitting on front and back gives
interlock a smooth surface on each side of

the fabric. Selected needles can be pulled

out for poor boy looks.
Lacoste Fabric

The original stitch configuration used in

Lacoste shirts. The tucking pattern creates
a tiny honeycomb look on the technical
back of the fabric, which is used as the face
for garments.

Pique Fabric

The combination of knit and tuck stitches

gives a small diamond appearance to the
face of the fabric. It is the most popular
fabric used in collar/placket shirts.

Industrial Knitting Process

It is a known fact that the main material for fabric construction is yarn. Knitting is the
second most frequently used method, after weaving, that turns yarns or threads into
fabrics. It is a versatile technique that can make fabrics having various properties such as
wrinkle-resistance, stretchability, better fit, particularly demanded due to the rising
popularity of sports wear and casual wears. As of present day, knitted fabrics are used
widely for making hosiery, underwear, sweaters, slacks, suits and coats apart from rugs
and other home furnishings.
Knitting Industry
knitting industry is a very complex one. It has two primary areas having their own sub
divisions of specialization. One of the key segments of knitting industry manufactures
knitted goods for garment manufacturers, sewing centers, and consumers among others.
The other one produces finished apparels such as hosiery, sweaters, underwear etc.
Basic Principle of knitting
A knitted fabric may be made with a single yarn which is formed into interlocking loops
with the help of hooked needles. According to the purpose of the fabric, the loops may be
loosely or closely constructed. Crocheted fabric is the simplest example of knitting where
a chain of loops is constructed from a single thread with the help of a hook. As the loops
are interlocked in a knitted fabric, it can stretch in any direction even when a low-grade
yarn having little elasticity is used.
Basic Construction Process of Knitted Fabric
The construction of knitted fabric is assessed by the number of stitches or loops per
square inch. When the interlocking loops run lengthwise, each row is called a wale that
corresponds to the direction of warp in woven fabrics. When the loops run across the
fabric, each row is called a course that corresponds to the filling or weft in woven fabrics.
A knitted fabric having 50 loops or stitches in one inch of width and 60 loops in one inch

of length will be said to have 50 wales and 60 courses.

Importance of Needles in Knitting Process
The needle quality also affects the knitted fabric's quality. If the thickness of the hook
differs from one needle to another then the stitches will also vary in width. Same is the
case with loops which will vary in length with the needle lengths. Various types of
needles are used for making different knitted fabrics including latch needle, spring-beard
needle, and compound needle. Latch needle has a latch or swinging finger that closes
onto the hook of the needle as it pulls the yarn through a loop in order to form a new
loop. It is used for jersey and rib knitting. A spring-beard needle has a fine, springy hook
looking like a beard. This hook has to be used with a sinker to hold the fabric down and a
presser to close the hook as it forms the loop. It is used for making more fine fabrics with
smaller loops. A compound needle made up of a hook and a sliding closing element is
used for faster knitting with lesser fabric distortion.
Types of knitted Fabrics
There are various types of knitted fabrics and each type has different appearance and
characteristics. The construction of a knitted fabric depends upon the type being
constructed. A knitted fabric that has more wales will be rigid and stable in width
while a fabric that has more courses will be rigid and stable in length. A fabric having
many wales and courses per square inch will have better recovery from stretching
than a fabric having lesser wales and courses. Such fabric that will have fewer wales
and courses will be less rigid, stretch more easily, fit to body shape in a better way but
will have poorer recovery ability. All the knitted fabrics are classified into two general
categories:

Weft knit fabric, where one continuous yarn forms courses across the fabric.
Warp knit fabric, where a series of yarns form wales in the lengthwise direction of
the fabric.

Weft Knitting
There are three basic stitches in weft knitting

Plain-knit stitch
Purl stitch
Rib stitch

Any other stitch is a variation of these three stitches. Hand knitting is basically weft
knitting. When done on weft knitting machines, individual yarn is fed to a single or
multiple needles at a time.
Plain-knit stitch: Plain knit, the basic form of knitting can be produced in flat knit or in
tubular (or circular) form. It is also called jersey stitch or balbriggan stitch. A row of latch
or beard needles is arranged in a linear position on a needle plate or in a circular position
on a cylinder. The side by side evenly spaced needles are moved by cams, which act on
the needle butts. The spacing of the needles is called gauge, gage or cut which refers to

the number of needles in one and a half inches, for example, a 60 gauge machine will
have 40 needles per inch. The needles intermesh loops drawn to one side of the fabric,
forming vertical herringbone like ribs or wales on the right side or technical face of the
fabric. On the reverse side or the technical back, courses are visible as interlocking rows
of opposed half circles. These fabrics have the tendency of curling up at the edges which
is controlled to a level through certain finishes.
Plain knit allows the use of single or plied yarns produces comparatively lightweight
fabrics than produced by other stitches. The production rate is higher, about 5 times more
than weaving. It is inexpensive and a variety of designs may be produced including
stripes, multicolored patterns, textured surfaces produced by raised designs and pile
effects. Plain-knit fabrics stretch more in the width than in the length and as such, they
are widely used for making underwear, gloves, hosiery and sweaters.
Purl stitch: Purl stitch, also called link-and-link stitch, is made on flat bed knitting
machines and circular machines by needles using hooks on both ends to alternately draw
loops to the front of the fabric in one course and to the back in the next course. The
fabrics look similar on both the sides resembling back of the plain knit. Heavy, jumbo
stitch is also possible which gives a bulky effect to the fabrics. However, It is
comparatively slower and a costly technique. The fabric doesn't curl at the edges. Purl
stitch is widely used in infant wear and kids clothing due to its crosswise stretch and
excellent lengthwise stretch.
Rib stitch: Rib stitch produces alternate lengthwise rows of plain and purl stitches and as
such the face and back of the fabrics are a look-alike. Rib stitch can be produced on a flat
rib machine as well as circular rib machine. In the flat rib machine, one set of needles is
placed opposite the other set of needles in an inverted V position. In the circular rib
machine, one set of needles is placed vertically in a cylinder and the other set of needles
is placed horizontally on a dial. In both the machines, one set of needles pulls the loops to
the front and the other set of needles pulls the loops to the back of the fabric. Each set of
needles alternately draws loops in its own direction, depending on the width of the rib
desired. For instance, rib stitches can be 1X1, 2X2, 2X1, 3X1, and the like. Accordion rib
is the combination of 1x1 and 2X2. As a greater amount of yarn is required for rib stitch
and the rate of production is also slower, it is an expensive method of fabric construction.
The fabric doesn't curl at the edges and as the fabric possess an excellent widthwise
elasticity, it is widely used for making such clothing that needs an excellent fit such as
wristbands of sleeves and waistbands of garments, underwear and socks for men and
children.
Warp Knitting
Warp knitting is different from weft knitting in the sense that in it each needle loops its
own thread. The needles of warp knitting machines produce parallel rows of loops that
are interlocked in a zigzag pattern. The stitches on the front side of the fabrics appear
vertically having a slight angle. The stitches on the backside appear horizontally as floats
at a slight angle. These floats are called laps or underlaps and are a distinguished features
of warp knit fabrics. Warp knitting machine Warp knitting may be flat or tubular that can

produce a variety of patterns. It is a very fast technique that can produce fabric with a
dimensional stability almost equal to that of a woven fabric. It can also use yarns of man
made fibers very efficiently. There are basically seven types of warp knitting- Tricot knit;
Milanese knit; Simplex knit; Raschel knit; Ketten Raschel knit; Crochet and Weftinsertion warp. Warp knit fabrics are very popular due to their many properties such as
smoothness, sheerness, wrinkle resistance, shrink resistance, strength and abrasion
resistance.
Comparison of Weft Knitting and Warp Knitting
Warp knit fabrics have certain advantages over weft knits

Warp knit fabrics do not ravel easily.

They are less prone to sagging.
Quality is generally better than weft knits..
Stitch definition, texture and fabric cover are also usually better than weft knits.
Warp knits have superior dimensional ability.

Dyeing
Dyeing is the process of imparting colors to a textile material in loose fibre, yarn, cloth or
garment form by treatment with a dye.

Dye types
For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorate
clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the
dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced
artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, and to render the dyes more stable to
resist washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of
fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through
yarn and cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk
are dyed with acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a
range of dye types, including vat dyes, which are similar to the ancient natural dyes, and
modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

Methods
Dyes are applied to textile goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing from dye
pastes.

Direct application
The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented
as in the case of some natural dye or chemically reduced as in the case of synthetic vat
and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be
absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantively to the fiber.
Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water soluble and can be
applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic
dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way.
The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use of mordants to fix the dye once it
is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and
improve their color fastness. Chromium salts were until recently extensively used in
dying wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color
fastness dark shades such as black and navy. Environmental concern has now restricted
their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes which need
no mordant.

Yarn dyeing
There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the at package form and the at
hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are
dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are
always dyed at package form, while viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form
because of technology.
The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as
follows:
1. The raw yarn is wound on a spring tube to achieve a package suitable for dye
penetration.
2. These softened packages are loaded on a dyeing carrier's spindle one on another.
3. The packages are pressed up to a desired height to achieve suitable density of
packing.
4. The carrier is loaded on the dyeing machine and the yarn is dyed.
5. After dyeing, the packages are unloaded from the carrier into a trolly.
6. Now the trolly is taken to hydro extractor where water is removed.
7. The packages are hydro extracted to remove the maximum amount of water
leaving the desired color into raw yarn.
8. The packages are then dried to achieve the final dyed package.
After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.

Removal of dyes
In order to remove natural or unwanted color from material, the opposite process of
bleaching or discharging is carried out.
If things go wrong in the dyeing process, the dyer may be forced to remove the dye
already applied by a process that is normally known as stripping. This normally means
destroying the dye with powerful reducing agents (sodium hydrosulphite) or oxidizing
agents (hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite). The process often risks damaging the
substrate (fiber). Where possible, it is often less risky to dye the material a darker shade,
with black often being the easiest or last option.

Fabric Dyeing Tips

We recommend RIT dyes to get good results.
Fiber content will affect true color.
Easiest fabric to dye is 100% cotton.
Wear Rubber gloves to avoid staining.

Methods:

Washing Machine - Most convenient.

Stovetop - For very dark colors like black, where the amount of fabric will fit in a large pot.
Sink or Bucket - Suitable for small or delicate items being dyed a light color.

Washing Machine Method:

STEP 1

Take 1 package or a bottle of RIT dye (2 packs or a full bottle will give a full color
particularly for medium, bright or dark colors) and place it in an old sauce pan with a
quart of water (1 pint of water per package used).
Place sauce pan on the stove and heat it up, stirring while it heats. The purpose here is
to totally dissolve the dye into the water.

STEP 2

Fill your washer with hot water (140 degrees is best for dark colors), add the dye/water
from your saucepan, plus a splash of vinegar to help set the dye, and turn on the agitator
for several minutes- to mix in the dye solution.

STEP 3

Take a piece of rag and put it in the washer for a few minutes. Pull it out and look at the
color to see if its what you want. If its too light then add more dissolved dye.
Never add more than 4 packages or 2 bottles per washer load when dyeing a large
amount of fabric.

STEP 4

Turn machine on again, and let it agitate for another 3 minutes. --This will assure that all
the dye is thoroughly mixed in.
Never pour dye directly on fabric.

STEP 5

Wet the garments to be dyed and place them loosely into washer and turn machine on.

STEP 6

Take garments out of machine after the cycle and either line dry or put in dryer.
If you use the dryer, be sure to wipe it out with a bleach cloth after use to remove any
dye.

STEP 7
Clean-Up

Fill washer to highest water level.

Add a small amount of detergent plus a cup of bleach.
Run a complete cycle.
Finish by wiping the top of the tub and inside lid with bleach.
Clean out lint trap.
Plastic or rubber machine parts may be tinted but wont stain future laundry loads.
Clean up saucepan and any other items used.

The yarn count expresses the thickness of the yarn, and must be known before calculating
the quantity of yarns for a known length of fabric. The yarn count number indicates the
length of yarn in relation to the weight.
Three systems of yarn count are currently in use: the fixed weight; the fixed length and
the Tex systems. The foxed weight can be used with British and American weights and

systems. The fixed length system and the Tex system are based on metric weights and
measures. Tex is an internationally agreed system of yarn numbering that applies to all
types of yarns, regardless of the method of production.

YARN COUNT
Count is very important factor for the Textile Yarn Manufacturing. Maintaining the yarn
count is mandatory to retain the quality of a yarn and fabrics. Now read the basic things
about yarn count at below:
Definition of Count: According to the Textile Institute Count is a number of indicating
the mass per unit length or length per unit mass of yarn.
There are several count system of yarn. These count systems have been divided in two
ways. One is Direct System where length is fixed and another is Indirect system where
weight is fixed.
1. Direct System (Length Fixed):
A). Tex: Weight of yarn in gm present in 1000 meter length. It is a universal system of
counting the yarn.
B). Denier: Weight of yarn in gm present in 9000 meter length. It is basically used for
man made fiber.
C) Pounds Per Spindle: Weight of yarn in lbs present in 1440 yards length.
1. Indirect System ( Weight Fixed):
A). English Cotton Count: No. of hanks of 840 yds present in 1 lb of yarn.
B) Metric Count: No. of hanks of 1000 meters present in 1 kg of yarn.
C) Worsted count: No. of hanks of 560 yds present in 1 lb of Yarn. It is basically used
for Wool.

Yarn is very broad term. Like most things, yarns can have many different
characteristics. This is an overview of the different types of yarns used to make
sweaters, knit fabrics and woven fabrics.
Ends: 1 thread or strand of yarn. Usually a yarn will have at least 2 ends to form a plied
yarn.

Ply: Refers to the number of ends that make up a yarn. Yarns can be 1 ply (single ply),
2 ply, 3 ply or 4 ply. Most yarns are 2 ply.
Yarn Count: Refers to the size of the yarn including the ply. A typical sweater yarn can
be 2/30. This means it is a 2 ply and the size of the yarn is 30. This is a fairly fine yarn
for sweaters. A 2/20 yarn count is bigger than 2/30. Both are 2 ply, but 20 is a larger
yarn size than 30. It works the same as wire gauges, the higher the number the smaller
the size.
When analyzing the yarn count, the ply and yarn size are import. 2/30 is bigger that
1/30. 2/30 is 2 ply of 30 yarn size while the 1/30 is only 1 ply of 30 yarn size. 2/30 is
twice the size of 1/30.

Yarn Count:
Count is the numerical expression of coarseness or fineness of the yarn.

Types of Yarn Count:

Count is basically two types- 1. Direct Count 2. Indirect Count.

Direct Count:
In direct system length unit is fixed but weight unit is variable. In this system the
weight of fixed length of yarn is calculated and expressed by different weiht unit
especially gram. In this system yarn will be coarser if the number is increased.
Direct system is classified normally into two- 1. Denier 2. Tex.

Denier Yarn Count System:

In this system, the length of yarn is 9000 m. if weight of 9000 m length of yarn is 40
gram the count of that yarn will be 40 denier.

Tex:
In tex system weight of 1000 m length of yarn is considered and expressed by gram.
Such as, if weight of 1000m length of yarn is 20 gram, the count of that yarn will be
20 tex.

Lbs/ Spindle:
Weight of 14,400 yds jute yarn is calculated and expressed by lbs. That means, if
14,400 yds jute yarn weight is 8 lbs, the count of that jute yarn will be 8 lbs/ spindle.

Indirect Count:
In indirect system the count is classified into two groups. One is English cotton
count system and another is Metric system.

English Cotton Count System:

Here weight unit is fixed but length unit is variable. In this system the number of
hank of 840 yds yarn in one lbs is the number of English cotton count. Higher the
number of count, finer the yarn. the lower the number of count, the coarser the
yarn. It is expressed by (Ne).

Metric System:
In this count system number of hank of 560 yds yarn in one kg is the number of
metric count. It is expressed by (Nm).
During dyeing the most well-known knit fabric like Single Jersey, 1*1 Rib, PK Fabric the
following dyeing process flowchart can be followed. I have tried my best to note here the
contemporary dyeing process and chemicals. So that you will be able to easily manage
your chemicals and other production related accessories.
>Firstly take the solutions given below and mixed itCk-10.3%
DMB0.3%
FFC1.0%
C0.3%
FFC0.8%
Soda Ash2.0%
>Continue this process at 95C for 45 minutes. Liquor Ratio will be 1:12. Machine speed
should be fixed with 180 RPM.
CK-1-0.3%
DMB0.5%
C0.8%
Hydrogen per Oxide-3.0%
PH-1000.8%
FFC0.1%
Caustic-2.0%

>Again continue this process at 95C for 45 minutes. Liquor Ratio will be 1:12. Machine
speed should be remained at 180 RPM.
>Use PS-601.0% continue it at 90C for 10 minutes.
Croaks-N 1.0%
Acetic Acid -1.0%
Continue it at 70C for 10 minutes.
44L1.0% (Single Jersey Fabric)
0.8% (1*1 Rib, PK Fabric)
CK-1 0.1%
Acetic Acid-0.2%
>This process should be carried out at 58C for 40 Minutes.
200B -1.5%
C-0.8%
Acetic Acid-0.1%
>Continue this process for 10 minutes within normal temperature.
Apply Dyes now.
>Salt Dosing
>Soda dosing
>Use acetic acid1.0%
>PS-60-1.0% at 80C for 10 Minutes
>Fixing -process continue for 20 minutes
>Apply softener
>Eventually unload the product.
>To dye the Single Jersey (S/J), 1*1 Rib, PK fabric, using above mentioned dyeing
procedure will be easier. Hope this flow chart will help you lot.

Process Flow-Chart of Wet Processing Technology |

Dyeing Flowchart
The way a fabric is dyed is called process flowchart of wet processing technology.
Actually some of the steps of a dyeing process can be removed or added as per buyer
requirement. Suppose your buyer wants the more precised dyed fabric; so in this fact you

should mercerize your fabric during the dyeing pre-treatment process. Basically if the
buyer dont want that so called particular fabric there is no need to mercerize your fabric.

The dyeing or wet processing flow chart is given below.

Before dyeing a fabric or yarn some pre-treatment and after treatment is needed. A
flowchart is drawn here by combining these:
Grey Fabric Inspection

Sewing or Stitching

Singeing

Desizing

Scouring

Bleaching

Mercerizing

Dyeing

Printing

Finishing

Final Inspection

Delivery

Different Dyes Which Are Used To Dyeing The Fabric &

Yarn
Dyeing Fabric using different dyestuff is the most common things that every Textile
Engineers should have to know. There are many kind of dyes are used to dyeing fabric.
Maximum of them are suitable for fabric dye and yarn dyeing.

Dye staffs used to fabric dyeing are:

Direct dyes:
These dye staffs are generally sodium salt of sulphonic acid. They have direct affinity to
cellulosic fibre. They are water soluble and needs salt addition in the dye bath. Should be

applied at alkaline or neutral condition. Poor fastness to wash but cheaper for fabric
dyeing.

Basic dyes:
These are generallyu ammonium, sulphonium or a uxonium salt. Famous for bright shade
during dyeing fabric. Water soluble and application on cotton and other cellulosic fibre
and leathers.

Acid dyes:
chemically acid dyes belongs to various subclasses such as nitro nitroso, monoazo, diazo,
xanthance azine, quinoline, anthraquinone etc. they are water soluble and have affinity to
wool, silk and nylon fibres to dyeing. They are applied to the fibres through neutral or
acid dye bath.

Mordant dyes:
They are the oldest natural dyes. They have no affinity to textiles but can be applied to
cellulose or protein fibres in order to dyeing fabric when they have been mordented
previously with metallic salt. These dye staffs are capable of combining with metallic
oxides to form insoluble colour on the fibre .

Sulpher dyes:
These are complex organic compounds containing sulphur. They are insoluble in water
but sluble under reduced condition . they are usually applied cotton for cheaper shades,
have high wet fastness but poor light fastness during dyeing fabric.

Azoic dyes:
These are not ready made dyes. Fibres are firstly impregnated with a coupling component
like bita nepthol and then combined with a diazotized base to producer insoluble dye
staffs into the fibre. Their main use on cotton but also can be used to dyeing wool silk
and fur.

Vat dyes:
These are very fast color on cotton and insoluble in water. They are reduced by strong
reducing agent to pr9oduce leuco vat and at this stage they are soluble in water. After
impregnation they are again oxidized to their original insoluble form.

Reactive dyes:
These dye staffs directly combinds with cellulose by chemical bonding i.e. covalent
bonds are produced. They have excellent wash fastness. Mainly used on cotton dyeing .
can also be applied on wool, silk and nylin dyeing. Dyeing is carried out in an alkine
bath.

Disperse dyes:
These dye staffs are very suitable for synthetic fibres for example polyester, nylon,
acrylic, cellulosic acetate, etc. high temperature dyeing methods are suitable for these dye
staffs but carrier dyeing method can also be applied.
In the above mentioned dyestuff, the Reactive Dyestuff is mostly used in todays Textile
Industry.

Physico-chemical aspects of dyeing

Physico-chemical aspects of Dyeing is a process which shows us how a dye penetrates
into the fiber and how many process and time a dye molecules follow to enter completely
onto the fiber.
Before going to dyeing process we just need to know some basics of Fiber surface on
which the dye molecules work.
A textile fiber has three phase; these are- Fiber surface, Diffusion Layer and Electrical
Double Layer. Dyes firstly come to in surface then go to diffusion layer; and at the last
step it concentrate onto the fiber.
Now here is the physic-chemical of dyeing process number-wise:1. Dye In Solution - Here convective diffusion is happened.
2. Dye In Diffusion Layer Here Molecular Diffusion is happened.
3. Dye in the Electrical Double Layer - Here adsorption is occurred.
4. Dye at the Fiber Surface -here Dye Diffused into the Fiber.
5. Dye in the Fiber Here fixing is done and dye physically or chemically bound with
the fiber polymer. Chemical bond only happens in Reactive Dyeing and on other dyes;
the physical bonding is required.

JERSEY FABRIC

Jersey fabric is a type of knit textile made from cotton or a cotton and synthetic blend.
Some common uses for jersey fabric include t-shirts and winter bedding. The fabric is
warm, flexible, stretchy, and very insulating, making it a popular choice for the layer
worn closest to the body. Jersey also tends to be soft, making it very comfortable.
A knitting machine is used to make jersey, since it can create the small, even, close
grained stitches associated with jersey fabric. Like many other knit fabrics, jersey fabric
has a right side and a wrong side. The right side of the material is marked by a series of
very small lines which run vertically, and the wrong side has a horizontal grain. In most
cases, a garment made from jersey fabric is sewn with the right side facing out, unless the
seamstress is making a deliberate stylistic choice.
One of the reasons many people like to wear jersey fabric is the stretch factor. The fabric
can stretch up to 25% percent along its grain. Garments made from the material have
plenty of give as their wearers move, and also tend to cling to the body, since the fabric
contracts as well as expanding. Knit dresses are usually made from jersey fabric,
exploiting the clingy characteristic of the fabric. Jersey fabric is also available in a large
assortment of colors and patterns to suit all tastes.
Care directions for jersey fabric vary, depending on whether the fabric is entirely natural
or partially synthetic. As a general rule, jersey fabric can be washed in warm water with
like colors, and tumble dried on a medium setting. Bright colors will stay brighter longer
if they are washed on a cold setting and dried on low. Try to avoid mixing bright colors
and whites in the wash, as the colors may bleed.
When sewing jersey fabric, it is recommended that the fabric be washed first, especially
if it is cotton. All knits tend to shrink when they are washed, and washing beforehand
eliminates shrinkage issues. It is also important to use a pattern specifically designed for
knit fabrics, as the pattern will account for the stretch factor of the material. Most
seamstresses also use a double layer of stitching or an overlock stitch on jersey fabric, to
prevent unraveling.

A knitting Machine
A knitting machine knits yarn automatically, after being set or programmed to knit a
specific pattern. A knitting machine saves time compared to hand knitting, but the
machine knitter must still pay close attention to the knitting machine as slipped or tangled
stitches are common. Yarn thickness is the single most important consideration when
choosing a knitting machine.
If the yarn used in a knitting machine is too thick, the hooks that hold and knit the yarn
automatically will split right through the yarn. When choosing a knitting machine, the
knitter must decide what kind of knitted items the machine will be used to make. There
are three kinds of knitting machines: flat bed for lightweight items, mid gauge for midweight items, and bulky or chunky for heavy items.

A flat bed knitting machine has small hooks placed .45 centimeters (4.5mm) apart. These
machines are good for Fairisle patterns, cables, and lace. Baby weight or sometimes even
thinner yarn can be used. The thickest yarn that can usually be used on a flatbed knitting
machine is sport or DK.
A mid gauge knitting machine produces garments that look the most like hand knitting.
The hooks are placed .65 centimeters (6.5mm) apart. Sometimes baby weight or chunky
yarns may be used, but not always. Common worsted, sport, and DK yarns usually work
best, but check with the manufacturer's instructions.
A bulky or chunky knitting machine has hooks placed .9 centimeters (9mm) apart and is
perfect for making heavy sweaters. Cables and Fairisle patterns usually work well. Sport
or DK are the smallest weight of yarns that should be used on a bulky knitting machine,
but will not work on some models. Bulky or chunky style yarns work best.
Although no knitting machine made so far can replicate every hand knitting stitch, a
knitting machine is a fast, reliable way to knit products for home use or for sale. It is
important to remember, however, that machine knitting is not necessarily easier than
hand knitting. A knitting machine needs much more attention to detail than a sewing
machine and can require regular untangling of caught yarn and pick-ups of slipped
stitches.
The type of knitting machine patterns youll most likely be looking for will depend on the
type of machine you have. Some machines hold many more stitches and needles than
others, so making large blankets and throws are easier. Smaller machines are usually used
for making personal garments or other crafts. Circular knitting machines are most often
used for knitting in the round to create garments like hats, socks, or even skirts. Most
knitting machine patterns will specify the type of machine they are intended for and how
many stitches are needed so you know if your machine is big enough.
The best way to tell the quality of the pattern is by how easy it is to follow. Knitting
machine patterns with clear instructions and details are important, especially for
beginners. Abbreviations of common knitting terms, such as cast on, slip stitch, and cast
off, are found in a large majority of patterns, but instructions should not be more abstract
than necessary. Graph or charted patterns are a solid choice for visual learners and can be
programmed in computerized machines easily or set up on standard machines as well.
Patterns which also detail how your machine should be set up before casting on are also a
very good idea.
Normally, those who are just learning how to machine knit will want to start with easy
projects such as scarves, tote bags, or even table runners. Lace patterns are very popular
for these types of projects, but may be hard to reproduce without detailed pattern
instructions. Lessons may also be a good idea to get the most out of your machine. It is
important to know that machine knitting is very different from hand knitting, so even
those who have been knitting for years may have to take some time learning. The best
knitting machine patterns should help you do this.

4 point Inspection method

Fabric Quality Inspection:
The quality of a final garment depends on the quality of a fabric when it is received
as a roll. Even the most outstanding manufacturing methods cannot compensate for
defective materials. Normally, we inspect 10% of the rolls we receive and evaluate
them based on a four-point system. This way, we can avoid fabric related quality
problems before it is put into production
Four- Point System:
Amount to select: Inspect at least 10% of the total rolls of the shipment.
Selection of rolls: Select at least one roll of each color. If more than one role must be
selected, then choose the additional roles in proportion to the total number of roles
per color received.
Defect Classification (Four- Point System):
Size Defect Penalty .
3 inches or less 1 Point
Over 3 inches, but less than 6 2 Points
Over 6 inches, but less than 9 3 Points
Over 9 inches 4 Points
The length of the defect is used to determine the penalty point. Only major defects
are considered. No penalty points are assigned to minor defects. (A major defect is
any defect that would cause a final garment to be considered a second.)
Major Defects:
Major woven fabric defects include but are not limited to slubs, holes, missing
yarns, yarn variation, end out, soiled yarns, and wrong yarn.
Major dye or printing defects are out of register, dye spots, machine stop, color
out, color smear, or shading.
Acceptance Criteria and Calculation:
40 points per 100 yards is the acceptable defect rate
# of Points per 100 yds = # of penalty points x 100
Yds inspected
Inspection Procedure:
Determine the amount to inspect 10%).
Select the rolls to inspect.
Put the rolls on the inspection machine or other viewing device.
Cut off a 6 inch piece across the width off the end of the roll. Mark the right and
left side of the strip. Stop the inspection process every 50 yards and use the strip to
check for any shading problems. Also make sure to check the end of the role.
Inspect for visual defects with the light on at a speed slow enough to find the
defects. (The fabric must be checked at a slow rate in order to effectively find flaws).
Sometimes you may have to turn the light off to see how a flaw will affect the
appearance of a garment.
Check that the roll contains the correct yardage as stated by the piece goods

source.
Check for skewed, biased, and bowed fabric.
Mark any defects to the side with colored tape so that they can be easily found and
noted.
Record any defects.

Inspection fabric 4 point

INSPECTION SYSTEM - 4 - POINT SYSTEM
The Four-point system will be used to determine the lot acceptance of fabrics for adidasSalomon. This numeric grading system is endorsed by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM), The American Apparel Manufacturers Association (AAMA) and
the European Clothing Manufacturing Association (ECMA).
A) Demerit points shall be assigned as follows (Defects in any direction):
1 point - Defects of size exceeding 0 inches but not exceeding 3 inches (7.5cm)
2 points - Defects of size exceeding 3 inches (7.5cm) but not exceeding 6 inches (15cm)
3 points - Defects of size exceeding 6 inches (15cm) but not exceeding 9 inches (22.5cm)
4 points - Defects of size exceeding 9 inches (22.5cm)
B) No yard shall be penalized more than 4 points.
C) All holes regardless of size, shall be penalized 4 points. There must be two or more
yarns broken at the same place, for the defect to be considered a hole.
D) No piece shall be accepted as first quality where the usable width (which is the width
between the insides of the selvages or between the stenter pinholes) is less than the
minimum usable width stated on the purchase agreement. Unless otherwise stated, the
fabric width specified on the adidas-Salomon material specification sheet is for minimum
fabric width, measured inside the selvages.
E) No piece shall be accepted as first quality that exhibits a noticeable degree of shading
from side-to-side or side-to-center.
F) No piece shall be accepted as first quality exhibiting a noticeable degree of shading
end-to-end, when checked by laying panels, cut from the beginning of the roll, across the
opposite end.
G) Fabric bowing or bias should be within the following tolerances.
i) Yarn-dyed in checker pattern: No piece shall be accepted as first quality exhibiting
more than 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) of bow or bias on 60 inch (152cm) goods.
ii) Printed in checker or stripe pattern: No piece shall be accepted as first quality
exhibiting more than 1.2 inches (3cm) of bow or bias on 60 inch (152cm) goods.

iii) Single jersey knitted fabrics within 5%. Note that fabric should be within 5% skew
after washing.
H) No piece shall be accepted as first quality exhibiting a noticeable degree of looseness
(waviness) or tightness along either or both selvages, nor ripple or puckers within the
body of the fabric, which would prevent the fabric from lying flat when spreading in a
conventional manner.
J) Any defect found to repeat and or run in a continuous manner will constitute a running
defect.
i) Any piece having a running or repeating defect through more than three (3) continuous
yards shall be rejected regardless of the point count.
ii) More than one occurrence, in excess of three (3) yards, in an audit can cause the dyelot
to be rejected.

Job of a Merchandiser
Introduction
The textile and garment industry is booming in India, especially after elimination of the
global quota system. Presently India is exporting garments to more than 100 countries
including US, EU, Latin America, and Middle East. Last year, garment export was nearly
$5000 million and about 1200 million pieces. The main competitors of India are countries
like China, Korea, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Sri-Lanka.
The Indian garment industry is gaining ground in the world market at breakneck speed,
but still not flourished at its fullest extent. Although the resources are available plentiful
with a powerful foundation of fabric and spinning sector to support. The key factors
behind this are low technological development, lower output, cut throat competition, high
raw material cost, inadequate infrastructure, traditional productivity, unfavorable
regulatory policies, and globalization impact. However, there is a fair list of the
producers, suppliers, and exporters that are fully acknowledged with regulatory policies

and formalities, international marketing policies and procedures. The only concern is in
executing their productivity initiatives, and meeting with order deadlines.
Now days, major companies are adopting merchandising concepts, which comply with all
procedures to execute and dispatch the shipment on time, considering quality, cost and
time. Merchandisers are serious in the success of any garment retail business. They
provide the right products at the right time, enabling a company to match with latest
market trends and meet the market demand. In the merchandising concept, time
management is a gig to manage one's time properly, so he can focus on value adding
actions.
Today's garment merchandisers have to move with frequent changes in demand and the
developing technologies utilized in manufacturing and production. To find out customer
requirements, they regularly visit retail outlets, and come up with latest updates from
frontline staff. In order to keep an eye on developments in sourcing, site visits are made
every week to mainland factories to meet suppliers and study production.
In garment merchandising, there is no specific rule, so it's important to be able to think on
one's feet.
The main procedures of merchandisers are as followed:
Understanding Sample Order
Merchandiser has to understand the buyer's requirements after receiving specification in
the sample order. In many cases, there are modifications pertaining to the specifications
in the order to dispatch on time and the right quality.
He has to talk with the in-house veterans on the execution problems of sample orders, as
the right information is required in decision making.
Managing order route card and production timetable
Merchandiser has to manage every single production schedule and order route card that
helps to follow-up the execution in the planned way. It is expected to be acknowledged of
the various descriptions like: design, no. of modules, no. of operators, how many
processes, date of dispatch, quantity, output capacity, and deadlines in the schedules.
The sub-ordinates are normally assigned to follow-up with execution of the plan.
Merchandiser plans the activities depending on the essentials or non-essentials, and top
priority are given to the most essential tasks. This is customary that the essential activities
are handled personally or with the support of junior merchandisers/sub-ordinates.
In a "daily schedule", merchandiser has to carry-out and categorize which is the most
significant and urgent task. The activity that has to be focused with full attention to
sweep-off non-essential activities and have to be to be corrected by prioritizing to meet
the deadlines.

Using route card to reschedule activities

To get updated on the current status on the order, the route cards should be utilized. The
latest status can be fed into the computers. In case, the buyer ask for the goods prior to
the deadline, then merchandiser has to reorganize the schedules to accomplish tasks,
output capacity, no. of pieces to be produced daily, substitute arrangements, time
availability, supply time, scheduling critical ratio, etc.
Submitting pre-production samples
The pre-production samples should be provided on time to the concerned buyers. Quality
of the sample must be verified. If required, revised samples should be made available to
the buyers. Merchandiser should adjust to the required changes demanded by the buyer.
The execution of bulk orders should be made only after samples are approved by the
buyer.
In-process inspection denote between any tasks in order-execution. In case of nonconformation, it is better to focus on the concerns of quality. Merchandisers that works
on complete orders have to check deviation to the production teams so that any
amendments can be done to avoid the non-conformities.
Solving shortage problem
The merchandiser should know about the dearth of any commodity such as fabric, yarn,
etc... from the beginning. Actions should be taken immediately to arrange required
materials, after discovering the shortage. It is expected that the merchandisers should
verify quality of the goods prior to execution of the order. If the material is found
unavailable, the superior should be informed about the concern.
Communicating with associated people and buyer
It is essential to communicate with the buyers regarding the order. It is expected to give
some time to the buyer to read the sent messages. Merchandiser should to go through the
messages received from the buyer and reply on time. In many cases, merchandisers have
to provide order status to the buyers. Also, merchandiser has to communicate with the
people that are in-house, venders, contractors and job-workers. Only through the right
communication can one meet deadline for the concerned orders.
Conclusion
Apart from the above mention procedures, merchandiser has to assign subordinates to
help him in the order execution, and direct the procedures. He has to revise his
knowledge from time-to-time to know current market trends. To record preferences for
all the planned activities, use daily or time log systems.

The Merchandiser should find out exact reasons for time consumption. It is necessary to
keep record of time value and keeping it safe, as it is going to be shared with concerned
parties/buyers. It is certain that merchandising jobs need huge time planning.
Last but not least, KEEP YOUR EYES & EARS OPEN.