Spirituality

Definition[edit]

There is no single, widely-agreed definition of spirituality.[1][2][note 1] Surveys

of the definition of the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad range of
definitions, with very limited similitude.[3]

According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of reformation which "aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To
accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the
original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity Christ, in Buddhism Buddha,
in the Islam Muhammad."[note 3]

In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience.[7] It may denote

almost any kind of meaningful activity[4][note 4] or blissful experience.[5] It still
denotes a process of transformation, but in a context separate from organized
religious institutions, termed "spiritual but not religious".[6] Houtman and Aupers
suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical
and esoteric traditions and eastern religions.[8]

Waaijman points out that "spirituality" is only one term of a range of words which
denote the praxis of spirituality.[9] Some other terms are "Hasidism,
contemplation, kabbala, asceticism, mysticism, perfection, devotion and piety".
[9]

Etymology[edit]

The term spirit means "animating or vital principle in man and animals".[web 1]
It is derived from the Old French espirit[web 1] which comes from the Latin word
spiritus (soul, courage, vigor, breath)[web 1] and is related to spirare (to
breathe).[web 1] In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the
Greek pneuma and Hebrew ruah.[web 1]

The term "spiritual", matters "concerning the spirit",[web 2] is derived from Old
French spirituel (12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from
spiritus or "spirit".[web 2]

The term "spirituality" is derived from Middle French spiritualit,[web 3] from

Late Latin "spiritualitatem" (nominative spiritualitas),[web 3] which is also
derived from Latin spiritualis.[web 3]

Development of the meaning of spirituality[edit]

Classical, medieval and early modern periods[edit]

Words translatable as 'spirituality' first began to arise in the 5th century and only
entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages.[10] In a Biblical context
the term means being animated by God,[11] to be driven by the Holy Spirit, as
opposed to a life which rejects this influence.[12]

In the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the
mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, "the
ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter".[13][note 5] In the
13th century "spirituality" acquired a social and psychological meaning. Socially
it denoted the territory of the clergy: "The ecclesiastical against the temporary
possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authority, the clerical class
against the secular class"[14][note 6] Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the
inner life: "The purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dispositions, the
psychology of the spiritual life, the analysis of the feelings".[15][note 7]

In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made between higher and lower
forms of spirituality: "A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly
and deeper than others'."[15][note 8] The word was also associated with
mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning.[citation needed]

Modern spirituality[edit]

Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism[edit]

Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a

distinct field.[16] He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism, an early
19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted in English and
German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and
the skepticism of Hume.[web 4] The Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive,
experiential approach of religion.[web 5] Following Schleiermacher,[17] an
individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth.[web 5] In the
late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared,
which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking.
[web 5] They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to
Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other religions as
well, since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians.[web
5][web 6]

Neo-Vedanta[edit]

Main article: Neo-Vedanta

An important influence on western spirituality was Neo-Vedanta, also called neoHinduism[18] and Hindu Universalism,[web 7] a modern interpretation of
Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It
aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"[19] with Advaita
Vedanta as its central doctrine.[20] Due to the colonisation of Asia by the
western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking
place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western
religiosity.[21] Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought to India
by missionaries, and had a major influence on neo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan
Roy's Brahmo Samaj and Brahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reform
Hinduism, from the idea of Universalism.[22] This universalism was further
popularised, and brought back to the west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami
Vivekananda.[22]

Theosophy, Anthroposophy, and the Perennial Philosophy[edit]

See also: Esotericism

Another major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society,

which searched for 'secret teachings' in Asian religions.[21] It has been
influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably Neo-Vedanta,
the revival of Theravada Buddhism, and Buddhist modernism, which have taken
over modern western notions of personal experience and universalism and
integrated them in their religious concepts.[21] A second, related influence was
Anthroposophy, whose founder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in
developing a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways that such a spirituality
could transform practical institutions such as education, agriculture, and
medicine.[23][24]

The influence of Asian traditions on western modern spirituality was also

furthered by the Perennial Philosophy, whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was
deeply influenced by Vivekanda's Neo-Vedanta and Universalism,[25] and the
spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after World War Two.

Important early 20th century western writers who studied the phenomenon of
spirituality, and their works, include William James, The Varieties of Religious
Experience (1902), and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea of the Holy (1917).
James' notions of "spiritual experience" had a further influence on the modernist
streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western
audience.[17]

"Spiritual but not religious"[edit]

Main article: Spiritual but not religious

After the Second World War spirituality and religion became disconnected,[15]
and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of
"attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context."[26] A new
discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric
traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the true self by selfdisclosure, free expression and meditation.[8]

The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in
the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the
advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley
MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the

development within New Age circles of what he called "seminar spirituality":[27]

structured offerings complementing consumer choice with spiritual options.

Among other factors, declining membership of organized religions and the

growth of secularism in the western world have given rise to this broader view of
spirituality.[28] The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which
the term "religious" was formerly employed.[29] Both theists and atheists have
criticized this development.[30][31]

Traditional spirituality[edit]

Abrahamic faiths[edit]

Judaism[edit]

Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rabbinism) (Hebrew: "Yahadut

Rabanit" - ) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th
century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief
that the Written Torah ("Law" or "Instruction") cannot be correctly interpreted
without reference to the Oral Torah and by the voluminous literature specifying
what behavior is sanctioned by the law (called halakha, "the way").

Judaism knows a variety of religious observances: ethical rules, prayers, religious

clothing, holidays, shabbat, pilgrimages, Torah reading, dietary laws.

Kabbalah (literally "receiving"), is an esoteric method, discipline and school of

thought of Judaism. Its definition varies according to the tradition and aims of
those following it,[32] from its religious origin as an integral part of Judaism, to
its later Christian, New Age, or Occultist syncretic adaptations. Kabbalah is a set
of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging,
eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his
creation). While it is heavily used by some denominations, it is not a religious
denomination in itself. Inside Judaism, it forms the foundations of mystical
religious interpretation. Outside Judaism, its scriptures are read outside the
traditional canons of organised religion. Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of
the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence, and
various other ontological questions. It also presents methods to aid
understanding of these concepts and to thereby attain spiritual realisation.

Hasidic Judaism, meaning "piety" (or "loving kindness"), is a branch of Orthodox

Judaism that promotes spirituality through the popularisation and internalisation
of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspect of the faith. It was founded in
18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against
overly legalistic Judaism. His example began the characteristic veneration of
leadership in Hasidism as embodiments and intercessors of Divinity for the
followers.[citation needed] Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the
sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their
equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Immanent Divine presence
in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside
Rabbinic supremacy of study, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) and
ethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with optimism,[citation needed]
encouragement, and daily fervour. This populist emotional revival accompanied
the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through
intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought.

Christianity[edit]

Main articles: Catholic spirituality and Christian mysticism

Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

Catholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out a personal act of faith
(fides qua creditur) following the acceptance of faith (fides quae creditur).
Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are many
different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the
centuries. Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other lay
groupings have their own unique spirituality - its own way of approaching God in
prayer and in living out the Gospel.

Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory

within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in
the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which
Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic

visions of the soul's mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of
Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).

Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the

supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post-critical
understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research. It
focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims,
and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction, and that
spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful.

Islam[edit]

Five pillars[edit]

Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five
basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents
them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They
are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4)
fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a
lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the
performance of these acts.[33]

Sufism[edit]

Main article: Sufism

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the Sufi tradition (famous
through Rumi and Hafiz) in which a spiritual master or pir transmits spiritual
discipline to students.[34]

Sufism or taawwuf (Arabic: )is defined by its adherents as the inner,

mystical dimension of Islam.[35][36][37] A practitioner of this tradition is

generally known as a f (
) . Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan
(perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad,

Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet
truly He sees you.

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original
form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and
against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by their
coreligionist brothers the Wahhabi and the Salafist. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were
forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to the Sudan and Libya.[38]

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the
reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".[39]
Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a
science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the
Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of
praiseworthy traits".[40]

Jihad[edit]

Main article: Jihad

Jihad is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihd translates as a noun
meaning "struggle". There are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad: an
inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle.[41] The "greater jihad" is
the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties.[41][42] This nonviolent meaning is stressed by both Muslim[43] and non-Muslim[44] authors.

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement

by the companion of Muhammad Jabir ibn Abd-Allah:

The Prophet [...] returned from one of his battles, and thereupon told us, 'You
have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come from the Lesser Jihad to
the Greater Jihadthe striving of a servant (of Allah) against his desires (holy
war)."[unreliable source?][45][46][note 9]

Asian traditions[edit]

Buddhism[edit]

Main article: Buddhism

Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, which literally means "development"

or "cultivating"[47] or "producing"[48][49] in the sense of "calling into
existence."[50] It is an important concept in Buddhist praxis (Patipatti). The word
bhavana normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound
phrase such as citta-bhavana (the development or cultivation of the heart/mind)
or metta-bhavana (the development/cultivation of lovingkindness). When used
on its own bhavana signifies 'spiritual cultivation' generally.

Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed throughout the ages. Best-known

is the Noble Eightfold Path, but others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.

Hinduism[edit]

Jna marga

Jna marga

Bhakti marga

Bhakti marga

Rja marga

Rja marga

Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious

authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus
can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic.[51] Within this
diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual
experience, and referred to as ksaitraja (Sanskrit: [52]). It defines spiritual
practice as ones journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of
higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and
content.[53][54]

Four paths[edit]

Hinduism identifies four ways - mrga[55] or yoga[56] - of spiritual practice.[57]

The first way is Jna yoga, the way of knowledge. The second way is Bhakti
yoga, the way of devotion. The third way is Karma yoga, the way of works. The
fourth way is Rja yoga, the way of contemplation and meditation.

Jna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher) in ones spiritual

practice.[58] Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the
spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music - such as in kirtans in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the
holy.[59] Karma marga is the path of ones work, where diligent practical work or
vartta (Sanskrit: , profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work
in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material

rewards.[60][61] Rja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, selfdiscipline, tapas (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with
isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called samdhi.[62]
[63] This state of samdhi has been compared to peak experience.[64]

There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these

theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that
those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their
spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will succeed;
Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a
longing for truth, but warns of becoming false ascetic who go through the
mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and
universal Truths.[65] In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars
such as Vivekananda, the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a
persons proclivities.[54][66] Other scholars[67] suggest that these Hindu
spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths
of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese
Hinduism, where it is called Catur Marga (literally: four paths).[68]

Schools and spirituality[edit]

Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices. In Tantric

school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as sdhan. It
involves initiation into the school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha
liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.[69] The Hare Krishna
school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual practice.[70] In Advaita Vedanta
school, the spiritual practice emphasizes jna yoga in stages: samnyasa
(cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) and dhyana
(nididhyasana, contemplate).[71]

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism

An 18th Century Sikh Raja

Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined:[72] "In the Sikh
Weltanschauung...the temporal world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes
of its characteristics."[73] Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and
practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher
than a purely contemplative life.[74]

The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri)
and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent.[75] According to the 9th Sikh
Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides
in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed
into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.[76]

According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain the "attendant balance of

separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the
course of daily life",[77] the polar opposite to a self-centered existence.[77]
Nanak talks further about the one God or Akal (timelessness) that permeates all
life[78]).[79][80][81] and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the
'heart', of a human being.[82]

In Sikhism there is no dogma,[83] priests, monastics or yogis.

African spirituality[edit]

Main article: Traditional African religion

In some African contexts, spirituality is considered a belief system that guides

the welfare of society and the people therein, and eradicates sources of
unhappiness occasioned by evil.

Contemporary spirituality[edit]

The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which the term
"religious" was formerly employed.[29] Contemporary spirituality is also called

"post-traditional spirituality" and "New Age spirituality".[84] Hanegraaf makes a

distinction between two "New Age" movements: New Age in a restricted sense,
which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in
Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and "New Age in a general sense, which
emerged in the later 1970s

...when increasing numbers of people [...] began to perceive a broad similarity

between a wide variety of "alternative ideas" and pursuits, and started to think
of them as part of one "movement"".[85]

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as

spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of different
"spiritual paths," emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individual
path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about 24% of the United States
population identifies itself as spiritual but not religious.[web 8]

Characteristics[edit]

Modern spirituality is centered on the "deepest values and meanings by which

people live."[86] It embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial
reality.[87] It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence
of his/her being.

Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. Secular

spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as
love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility,
harmony, and a concern for others).[88]:22 These are aspects of life and human
experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without
necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or divine being.
Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. Bertrand Russell) who value the nonmaterial, communal and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term
spirituality as being overly-broad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying
"everything and anything that is good is necessarily spiritual")[citation needed]

Personal well-being, both physical and psychological, is an important aspect of

modern spirituality.

Contemporary authors suggest that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a
foundation for happiness. Meditation and similar practices may help any
practitioner cultivate his or her inner life and character.[89][unreliable source?]
[90] Ellison and Fan (2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive
health outcomes, including "morale, happiness, and life satisfaction."[91]
Spirituality has played a central role in self-help movements such as Alcoholics
Anonymous:

...if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and
self-sacrifice for others, he could not survive the certain trials and low spots
ahead....[92]

Spiritual experience[edit]

Main article: Religious experience

"Spiritual experience" plays a central role in modern spirituality.[93] This notion

has been popularised by both western and Asian authors.[94][95]

William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his The
Varieties of Religious Experience.[94] It has also influenced the understanding of
mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge.[web 4]

Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further
back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (17681834), who
argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious
experience" was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing
scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of
which William James was the most influential.[96]

Major Asian influences were Vivekananda[97] and D.T. Suzuki.[93] Swami

Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretitistic Hinduism,[98][95] in which the
authority of the scriptures was replaced by an emphasis on personal experience.
[95][99] D.T. Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the

west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless,

transcendent reality.[web 9][web 10][21] Another example can be seen in Paul
Brunton's A Search in Secret India, which introduced Ramana Maharshi and
Meher Baba to a western audience.

Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality, yielding a

more comprehensive self; joining with other individuals or the human
community; with nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.[100]

Spiritual practices[edit]

Main article: Spiritual practice

Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:[101]

1.Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. The deprivation
purifies the body. Diminishment concerns the repulsement of ego-oriented
impulses. Examples are fasting and poverty.[101]
2.Psychological practices, for example meditation.[102]
3.Social practices. Examples are the practice of obedience and communal
ownership reform ego-orientedness into other-orientedness.[102]
4.Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying the ego-centeredness, and direct the
abilities at the divine reality.[102]

Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness, prayer, the

contemplation of sacred texts, ethical development,[88] and the use of
psychoactive substances (entheogens). Love and/or compassion are often
described as the mainstay of spiritual development.[88]

Within spirituality is also found "a common emphasis on the value of

thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation
for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of
authority within the social sciences."[103]

Science[edit]

Antagonism[edit]

Since the scientific revolution, the relationship of science to religion and

spirituality has developed in complex ways.[104][105] Historian John Hedley
Brooke describes wide variations:

The natural sciences have been invested with religious meaning, with
antireligious implications and, in many contexts, with no religious significance at
all."[105]

It has been proposed that the currently held popular notion of antagonisms
between science and religion[106][107] has historically originated with "thinkers
with a social or political axe to grind" rather than with the natural philosophers
themselves.[105] Though physical and biological scientists today avoid
supernatural explanations to describe reality[108][109][110][note 10], many
scientists continue to consider science and spirituality to be complementary, not
contradictory,[111][112] and are willing to debate.[113]

A few religious leaders have also shown openness to modern science and its
methods. The 14th Dalai Lama has proposed that if a scientific analysis
conclusively showed certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then the claims must
be abandoned and the findings of science accepted.[114]

Holism[edit]

Main article: Holism

During the twentieth century the relationship between science and spirituality
has been influenced both by Freudian psychology, which has accentuated the
boundaries between the two areas by accentuating individualism and secularism,
and by developments in particle physics, which reopened the debate about
complementarity between scientific and religious discourse and rekindled for
many an interest in holistic conceptions of reality.[105]:322 These holistic
conceptions were championed by New Age spiritualists in a type of quantum

mysticism that they claim justifies their spiritual beliefs,[115][116] though

quantum physicists themselves on the whole reject such attempts as being
pseudoscientific.[117][118]

Scientific research[edit]

Health and well-being[edit]

In keeping with the growing scientific interest in spirituality and complementary

and alternative treatments, prayer has garnered particular attention among
some behavioral scientists. Masters and Spielmans[119] conducted a metaanalysis of the effects of distant intercessory prayer, but detected no discernible
effects.

Although psychology of religion research findings have led many to suggest that
spirituality might protect believers' mental health, most of this research is of a
poor scientific standard. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that
past statistical findings are difficult to interpretin large part because of the
ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and
measured[120] and also because of evidence that positive emotions might be a
necessary precursor for having a spiritual experience in the first place.[121][122]
[123] If true, this implies that spirituality is not the cause of higher well-being,
but rather both well-being and spirituality may result from positive
emotionality[124] and a sociable disposition.[125][126][127]

Nevertheless, a negative correlation between spiritual well-being and depressive

symptoms has been found among the elderly that is, those who felt "good"
spiritually were less depressed.[128] Similarly, cancer and AIDS patients who
were more spiritual had lower depressive symptoms than religious patients. If
spirituality is a cause of health and well-being it may possibly be because
spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic and also report greater social support,
[129] higher intrinsic meaning in life,[130] strength, and inner peace.[131] These
factors are all especially important for very ill patients.[132] However recent
research shows the claimed association between spirituality and social support is
spurious. Specifically, the positive correlation between spirituality and social
connectedness found when examined in isolation can no longer be found if the
effects of agreeableness and conscientiousness personality traits common in
many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the
spiritual are also taken into account.[133] Similarly, the health and well-being

effects typically attributed to spirituality have been found to be moderated by

these same personality traits.[134]

Additionally, some studies have reported beneficial effects from spirituality in the
lives of patients with schizophrenia, major depression, and other psychological
disorders. Indeed a few cross-sectional studies have shown that more religiously
involved (which is not necessarily identical to spiritual) people had less instance
of psychosis,[135] but again this may reflect little more than the well-established
health effects of having close social ties and/or religious directives regarding
health behaviors (i.e. not to use drugs etc.) and may not be due to spiritual
experiences themselves. This possibility cannot be dismissed lightly because a
recent study that separately measured virtues (such as hope, kindness, etc.) and
spiritual experiences found that although spirituality was positively correlated
with well-being, this association vanished (even became negative) after
controlling out the effects of virtues.[136]see independent review That is, virtue
(not spirituality) predicted well-being.

In summary the underlying associations among well-being, other psychological,

and spiritual variables appear especially complex. This makes the task of
identifying the true causal relationships among them particularly onerous.
Nevertheless, presently the science seems to be indicating that living a
purposeful, conscientious and sociable life, whether this be done in relation to
some form of spirituality or not, may be sufficient to explain the health and wellbeing benefits many mistakenly believe arise from spiritual experience