Amerindian Groups of Northwest Amazonia.

Their Regional System of Political-Religious

Hierarchies
Author(s): Silvia M. Vidal
Source: Anthropos, Bd. 94, H. 4./6. (1999), pp. 515-528
Published by: Anthropos Institute
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Anthropos94.1999: 515-528

Amerindian
Amazonia
GroupsofNorthwest

Hierarchies
TheirRegionalSystemofPolitical-Religious
SilviaM. Vidal

Abstract.- Throughthecomparisonof Arawakan-,Tukanoan-,

and Makuan-speakinggroupsfromtheNorthwestAmazon,the
articleshowsthatthesepeoples are organizedin a regionalsyshierarchies.This regionalmultiethnic
temof political-religious
systemis characterizedby extensivemultilingualism,
exogarelationships.[Northmy,and variedmodalitiesof interethnic
westAmazon,Arawakan,Tukanoan,and Makuan Amerindian
groups,regionalsystemofpolitical-religioushierarchies]

and 3) the Maku-speaking

populations(Table
numberbetween30 and
3). These Amerindians
40,000individuals
(Chernela1993;Jackson1995;
Vidal 1993) who occupy diverseriverineand
hinterland
areas of the upperNegroand upper
Orinocobasins betweenVenezuela,Brazil,and
Colombia(see map).
in
groups'socialstructure,
Tukanoan-speaking
Silvia M. Vidal, Dr., worksat theDepartmentof Anthropology
the
local
deare
of
order
inclusion,
of the VenezuelanInstituteof ScientificInvestigation(IVIC),
ascending
Caracas. Since 1973 she has done field researchamong the scentgroup,theclan or sib,theexogamous
lanArawakan-speakinggroups of NorthwestAmazon. In 1993 guagegroup,
and
the
Arawakan-speaking
phratry.
she finishedher doctoralstudies at IVIC. - Her publications
inascending
aresociopolitically
structured,
amerndias groups
include:Liderazgo y confederacionesmulti-tnicas
descent
local
of
order
inclusiveness,
group,
by
en la Amazonia luso-hispanadel siglo XVIII (Antropolgica
rankedsib or clan, and
1996); Introduccin.El noroesteamaznico como epicentrode
exogamous,patrilineal,
las matricesculturalesarawakasy tukanasy centroimportante
Makuan-speaking
phratry.
exogamouspatrilineal
dei horizontecivilizatorioOrinoco-Amazonense(in: Alberta
areorganized
clan,
however,
bypatrilineal
groups,
Zucchi and Silvia Vidal [eds.], Historia y etnicidad en el
and
local
(band),
endogamous
group
noroesteamaznico. Mrida 1998). See also ReferencesCited. independent
regionalgroup.
In the anthropological
approachesto theculoftheAmazon-Orinoco
turalhistory
region,these
1 Introduction
typolgroupshave been classifiedintodifferent
ogies and "cultureareas" (Oberg 1973; Steward
Arawakan-,Tukanoan-,and Makuan-speaking1948, 1949; Stewardand Faron 1959) thatprein theircontempoas "trop- supposea greathomogeneity
beenclassified
groupshavetraditionally
as in theirhisas
well
But in thisarticle, rarysocial formations
ical foresttribesor cultures."
modIn
these
theoretical
a macroregional
analysisoftheNorthwesttoricaltransformations.
through
and
ArawakanTukanoan-speaking
Amazon,I will comparethesegroupsto show els, Makuan-,
tribes,"
thattheyare organizedintoa complexregional groupshave beenclassifiedas "marginal
"rankedsocialsystems,"
forest
This "tropical
hierarchies.1
cultures,"
systemof political-religious
the
chiefdoms."
However,
by and"Circum-Caribbean
systemis characterized
regionalmultiethnic
of
Goldman
work
modalities
varied
and
(1968) among
groundbreaking
exogamy,
multilingualism,
I will also discuss theCubeo Indiansbeganto changethispercepof interethnic
relationships.
Amazonianindigenous
evidenceto showthatregional tionof the Northwestern
theethnohistorical
a newgenauthor
this
structures
Moreover,
with
inspired
groups.
complexsociopolitical
systems
Amazonandthat
werecommonin theNorthwest
thecontemporary
regionalsystemof Arawakan-, 1 The idea of Amerindiangroups being organizedinto reand
Tukanoan-, Makuan-speaking
groupswasgengional systemswas firstbroughtto my attentionby Nelly
Arvelo-Jimenez (1980 and in personal communications
eratedin the 16thcentury
by complexprocesses
Morales Mndez, and
1976, 1983, 1987; Arvelo-Jimnez,
of ethnogenesis.
and Biord-Castillo
Arvelo-Jimnez
Biord-Castillo
1989;
MaiMy analysisfocuseson: 1) thenorthern
1994; Morales Mndez and Arvelo-Jimnez1981). She
puranbranchof thetheArawakanfamilyof lanand her associates have studiedthe "System of Orinoco
andmiddlebranch
guages(Table1),2) theeastern
Regional Interdependence"which has organized ancient
Amerindiansocieties.
and contemporary
of theTukanoanfamilyof languages(Table 2),

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SilviaM. Vidal

516

c "

u>

V
.

_n

<m

cvj

'[

'

V
o
I

r*-'

f*

^'"

*o
' *

^r

Map: NorthwestAmazon and Amerindiangroups

Anthropos94.1999

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AmerindianGroups of NorthwestAmazonia
Table 1: Groups of the Maipuran Branch of the Arawakan
Familyof Languages
Wainuma-Yukuna-GuarKabiyar-Piapoco-Achagua
Tariana-Uainambeu
Proto-Kurripako Resigaro
Warekena
Mariat
Kurripako

517
Table 2: TukanoanFamilyof Languages
I. EasternTukanoan
A. North

B. Middle

1. Tucano
2. Wanano
3. Piratapuyo

1. Bar and relatedgroups

1. Macuna
a. Bar
2. Barasano
b. Tuyuca
c. Ppiwa
2. Desano and relatedgroups
a. Desano
b. Sirano
3. Tatuyoand relatedgroups
a. Tatuyo
b. Carapano

C. South

Bare
Madwaka-Guinau-MawakwaJabaana-Anauy
Igneri-Caqueto
Wapishana-Pauishana-AtoraiMapidian
II. Middle Tukanoan
Cauishana
Wirina
1. Cubeo

Proto-Bar

u
North

Proto-Baniva

Proto-Palikur

Baniva-Yavitero-MaipureLokono-Taino-GuajiroParaujano
Manao
Yumana
Pase
Marauha Marawa
Palikur-Marawan
Waur
Yaulapiti
Custenau
Mehinacu
Aru o Arun

III. WesternTukanoan

Table 3: Makuan Familyof Languages

2
Group
Group1
1.Hupd Jupda
1.Kamaa
2. Dao o Dow
Group 4
1. Nadd

3
Group
1.Yuhup
o Yuhpde

Group 6
Group 5
1. Kakwa o Bar-Mak 1. Nukak

Proto-Amuesha
Proto-Piro-Apurin
Proto-Ashaninca(Campa)
Proto-Harakbut

rein thepast.Furthermore,
culturalcomplexity
studiesof indigenous
centethnohistorical
groups
thearea betweentheOrinocoand the
occupying
facts(Rooserivers
revealthreeimportant
Amazon
Proto-Moxo
velt1994;Vidal 1993;Whitehead
1994): 1) there
Proto-Shani
South Maipuran
betweenancientand conare markeddifferences
Paressi
socialformations;
Amerindian
2) these
temporary
weregenerated
differences
by complexprocesses
is cultural
there
and
of
3)
continuity
ethnogenesis;
to further
erationof sociocultural
anthropologists
and
and
ancient
between
contemporary
systems
studyamongTukanoan,Makuan,and Arawakan ethnohistorical
for
such
a
statethe
basis
data
is
former
transformed
whoseresults
radically
groups,
ment.
aboutthesepeoples.2Thesegroups
understandings
Socioculturalanthropologists
generallyhave
tribes
as marginal
ofpeoplescannotbe categorized
of
the
historical
as
defined
emergence
ethnogenesis
an interor as chiefdoms.
Rather,theyrepresent
Hill
to
a culturally
But,
according
different
people.
organization
political-religious
nallyhierarchized
thesynthesis
1 f.),ethnogenesis
(19962?:
represents
societies
Amazonian
the
whichis uniqueamong
of a people
and
cultural
the
of
struggles
political
thatsurvivedthecolonialsystem.3
Moreover,in
in
identities
create
to
generalcontexts
enduring
there
and rankedsocial system,
thismultilingual
and to build
and
radical
of
discontinuity,
change
whichseemto
stillprevailsociocultural
patterns
is
it
"a creative
conscience.
historical
their
Thus,
suggestthatthesesocietieshad a greatersocioof violentchanges
to a generalhistory
adaptation
- including
collapse,forcedrelocademographic
2 Arhern1981; Chernela 1983; Hill 1983; Jackson 1983; tion,enslavement,"
andethnicsoldierepidemics,
Journet1980-81, 1988; Silverwood-Cope 1990, Sorensen
- "imposedduringthehistorical
expansionof
ing
1972; Vidal 1987, 1993.
statesin theAmericas"(Hill
3 Chernela 1983, 1993; Goldman 1968; Jackson 1983; Hill colonialandnational
1996:1; 1998: 166).
1983, 1989, 1993; Vidal 1987, 1993; Wright1981.
Pre-AndeanMaipuran

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Silvia M. Vidal

518

to facecolonialsystems:1) open
threestrategies
resistance;
2) politicalandeconomicallimilitary
anceswithsectorsofoneormorecolonialpowers;
and3) avoidanceofdirectcontactwithEuropeans.
2.1 Ethnogenesis
and the CulturalHistoryof the
resistanceforcedthe redefinition
Northwest
Amazon
Open military
of
and theestablishment
of theethnicidentities
the
alliances
Economic
alliances.
new
Ethnohistorical
evidenceof Amerindian
promoted
groups
thearea locatedbetweentheOrinoco emergenceof new alignments
amongEuropean,
occupying
and the Amazonrivers,revealstwo importantCriollos,andAmerindian
(forexample,as partners
material
and
of
slaves
in
trade
factsthatchallengeformer
resources).The
approaches
simplistic
and interneto theculturalhistory
of Amazonia.4First,there latteroriginated
strongcompetition
are markeddifferences
betweenancientand con- cine wars amongnativesforthe controlof the
routesof Europeangoods,as well as
andsec- commercial
socialformations;
Amerindian
temporary
or "martial
weregenerated
ond,thedifferences
by complex theappearanceof "ethnicsoldiering"
(Whitehead1990: 357). Avoidingdirect
tribefs]"
processesofethnogenesis.
ofthecultural
history contactwithEuropeansfollowedby migrations,
interpretations
Simplistic
in realigningof indigenousand Inob- influenced
thatthedifferences
of Amazoniaconsidered
formationsdian-European
servedbetweentheolderAmerindian
politicalalliancesas well as the
Each of thesethree
of
recentones redefining groupidentities.
andtherelatively
(16- 18thcenturies)
ofthem,gaverise
or
combination
the
weremainlythe alternatives,
(19thand early20thcenturies)
formations.
and
new
ethnic
to
and
sociopolitical
productof Europeanintervention disruption
which
rise
to
(colonialexpansion),
processes
gave
in Amerand "detribalization"
of "acculturation"
arebased 2.2 The HistoricalBackgroundof Contemporary
indianpopulations.
Theseinterpretations
AmerindianSociopoliticalFormations
and essentialist
on: 1) static,reductive,
portrayals
and
ofculture,
and
Ferguhistory, society(Gupta
theanson 1997);and2) projections
of theethnographicFromthe 16thto themid-17thcenturies,
of
the
forefathers
cient
into
the
Arawakan-,
19936;
1993,
contemporary
present
past (Whitehead
Rooselvelt1994).
Tukanoan-,and Makuan-speaking
groupswere
totheManoaandOniFor otherauthors,
however,thesedifferencespartofthegroupsbelonging
werethe resultof complexprocessesof socio- guayal(or Omagua)MacroPolities(also known
culturalcontinuity
and changewhichgenerated as macroregional
politicalandeconomicsystems;
andCentralAmthe emergenceof new and ancientindigenous see Vidal1993)oftheNorthwest
mulformations
(Whitehead1988, 1989, azon.Thesemacropolitiesweremultiethnic,
sociopolitical
and economicsystems,
1993a; Vidal 1993; Vidaland Zucchi 1996),and tilingual,sociopolitical,
led
of the progressive
of Indianecono- whichhad an internalinterethnic
substitution
hierarchy
a
or
and
a
chief
miesand geopolitical
and social interconnections
("lord" "king")
by paramount
was
withthe Europeancolonial pattern(Whitehead powerful
eliteof secondary
chiefs;leadership
1993a:286).
(Whitehead1994; Vidal 1993). Early
hereditary
of thegreatriverbasinsof
of theNegro Europeandocuments
Although
Europeancolonization
totheexistence
River basin began in the middleof the 17th theOrinocoandtheAmazonrefer
the
of
extensive
connections
and
the
definitive
control
century, occupation
amonggroups(riverine
oftheAmazonregiondidnotoccuruntilwellinto and hinterland
peoples)withinand amongmacro
the18thcentury.
to Whitehead
Indeed,itis onlybythemid-18th polities.5
(1993a), these
According
when
one
can
of
the
connections
were
based
on
century,
speak
implantation
regionaltradesystems.
ofthecolonialsystem
andoftheintensification
to be
of But I considertheseregionaltradesystems
sociocultural
between themostvisibleprobeofAmerindian
social,ethnic,and culturalrelationships
connections
andpoliticalrelations.
EuropeansandIndians.
In thecontextof long-term
oftheNegroRiverbasin
processesof ethEuropeancolonization
theindigenous
However,Portunogenesis,
peoplesadoptedat least beganin themid-17thcentury.
2 The NorthwestAmazon as a Regional
System

4 Chernela1993; Cipolletti1991; Hill 1996a, 1996b; Morales

Mndez 1979; Oostra 1991; Parra 1991; Vidal 1987, 1993;
Vidal y Zucchi 1996; Whitehead1988, 1989, 1990, 1991,
1993, 1994, 1996; Wright1981.

5 Acuna 1864; Almesto 1986; Cuervo 1893-94; Cruz 1986;

Federmann1916; Llanos Vargas y Pineda Camacho 1982;
Simon 1882; Whitehead1988, 1993a.
Anthropos94.1999

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AmerindianGroupsof NorthwestAmazonia

519

andBritish
colonial were devotedto an intensetradeof theirown
guese,Spanish,Dutch,French,
each
other
and commercial
were
among
empires
competing
productsand slaves witheach other
leadergroupsoflocalmac- as well as withPortuguese,
withsomeAmerindian
French,Spanish,and
overtheindige- Dutchcoloniesin exchangeforguns and other
ropolitiesinordertotakecontrol
nouspopulations
andregionaltradesystems
ofthe
OrinocoandAmazonrivers.Although,
Oniguayal
by theearly17thcentury, Table 4: MultiethnicConfederacies(1700-1725)
leadership
disappeared
oftheManoa
itlooksas ifthepowerful
leadership
1. The Manao Confederacy
macropolitywas able to surviveuntilthe late
Manao, Bare, Mak, Tibur,Maba1650swhenit beganto lose itstotalpoliticaland Groups:
zar, Javar,Bumajana, and Mayaeconomicholdon theregion.By theend of the
pena
theManoaandothermacropolities
17thcentury,
warrior-chief:Ayuricawao Ajuricaba
of theNegro,Orinoco,and Amazonriverswere Principal
Otherchiefs:
Debajar, Bejar, Basuriana,Caricu,
processesoftransformation
experiencing
dynamic
Aduana
Camandary,
contraInternalsociopolitical
and disintegration.
decimation 2. The CauaburicenaConfederacy
thedemographic
andconflicts,
dictions
ofAmerindian
Bare and otherpeoples of middleand
(diseases,enslavement,Groups:
populations
lower Negro River
of
and the like),and the Europeancolonization
these Principalwarrior-chief:Curunam
theNegroRiverled to radicaldisruptions;
andregroupingOtherchiefs:
processescausedthemobilization
?
ofindigenous
peoples,andbytheearly18thcentu- 3. The Aranacoacenas
Confederacy
formations
rytheygaveriseto newsociopolitical
Bare and othergroupsof middleand
confederacies"Groups:
whichI coined as "multiethnic
upperNegro River (?)
(Vidal 1993).
and Principalwarrior-chief:?
wereflexible
confederacies
Themultiethnic
?
and wereled Otherchiefs:
variedin theirethnicmembership
Whitehead
chiefs.
shaman-warrior
charismatic
by
(1994: 39) has describedthispoliticalsystemas
mode of leadership. Table 5: MultiethnicConfederacies(1725-1755)
havinga "trading-military"
on
chiefsbasedtheirpoliticalauthority
Powerful
theirabilitytobuilda personalfollowing
(kinfolk, 1. The Demanao Confederacy
in-laws,and allies), on theirskills as regional Groups:
Bare,Manao, Warekena,Cubeo, Mak
traders,especiallyof Europeangoods, and on Principalwarrior-chief:Camanao
theirshamanicknowledgeand power.6European
Maa, Manacaari, Ignacio, loa, Maof Arawakan- Otherchiefs:
written
recordsandtheoralhistory
Immo,Cocui, Daubabire,Jauinuman,
speakinggroupsbothlead to theconclusionthat
ema, Auajari,Juviary,
Cayamu,Mur,
and
chiefsor"captains"
thesepowerful
Caunarao,Mab, Inao, Yune
indigenous
ritual
celebrated
theirfollowings
big multiethnic
2. The Madavaka Confederacy
festivalsthatwererelatedto the Kuw religion
Bare, Mabana, Warekena, Yahure,
andincludedsacredplaces,specialmen'shouses, Groups:
Guinau, Anauy, Baniva, Desana,
and
musical
whippingand fastingceremonies,
Mak, Guariba,Ye'kuana
such as dancing,singing,and the
performances
Guaicana (1725-1745), Amuni(1745
Principalwarrior-chief:
anddrums.
flutes,
playingof trumpets,
-1754), Mavideo (1755-1760)
From1700to 1770 therewereas manyas 15 Otherchiefs:
Mabi, Mar, Amuni, Arucun,Cavi
ledbyArawakan-speakconfederacies
multiethnic
o Caavi, Tape, Guarena, Guaipure,
Guarape,Yurico,Mapure
inggroups(Tables4-6). Between1700and 1730,
mostoftheseconfederated
groupsandtheirleaders 3. The Boape-Pariana-ManivaConfederacy
Groups:
6 Some of these formsof political,religious,and economic
Amazonian
relationshipsstillprevailamong contemporary
groupsand have been namedby Smith(1996: 154- 163) as
"economies of the gift"because as global systemtheyare
essentiallyeconomies of reciprocitywithsocial purposes:
to maintainand reproducelocal societies and to establish
ties among indigenouspeoples.

Baniwa or Kurripako,Mabana, Meoana or Arapao,Mbei, Cubeo, Yapoa,

Mak, Bare, Warekena,Puinave,Desana, Tariana,Chapuena,Guaipunavi

Principalwarrior-chief:
Cunaguarior Cunaguasi
Otherchiefs:

Yavita, Boap, Macapu, Cuceru or

Cruceru

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SilviaM. Vidal

520

over strategicareas of the Negroand Orinoco

basins.Thus,theEuropeancolonialsystemitself
1. TheDarivazanas
Confederacy
and interactions
amongEuropeansand Indians
Puinave,
Warekena,
Bare,
for
Piapoco,
weredecisive thecreationand transformation
Groups:
Cubeo
formations.
ofthesenewethnicsociopolitical
Mara
warrior-chief:
dominion
economic
of
The
Principal
process European
Amerindian
over
the
Mabiu
Otherchiefs:
politicaleconomybeganin
Davipeor Dauipe,Dojo,
untilthelate1770s.Dur1750sandcontinued
the
2. TheAmuisana
Confederacy
of Spainand Portugal
Crowns
the
this
period
ing
Desana
Baniva,Bare,Yavitero,
Groups:
delimitation
a
treatyto demarcatetheir
signed
Amuni
warrior-chief:
Theborderdemaroversea
Principal
possessions.
respective
Yavita
cationimpliedtheexpansionofcolonialfrontiers,
Otherchiefs:
Dauiba,Teyo,Arucun,
territorial
whose goal was to obtaindefinitive
3. TheTariana-Maniba
Confederacy
and competitors.
controlby expellingintruders
Cubeo,others
(?)
Tariana,
Kurripako,
Groups:
and
a forcedpolitical,
legal,economic,
Achieving
warrior-chief:
of
Boap
Principal
culturalamalgamation
impliedtheintegration
crowns.
to imperial
?
Otherchiefs:
populations
indigenous
new sociopolitical
As a consequence,
changes
4. TheGuaipunavis
Confederacy
retookplace in theOrinoco-Negro
violence
and
Guaipuinavi,Parcune, Docionavi,
Groups:
were
there
manyinMa- gion.Between1755and1767,
Warekena,
Puinave,Megepure,
and
middle
in
the
cirinavi
upperNegro
digenousrebellions
rivers.7While
Orinoco
in
the
as
well
as
upper
Cuceru
warrior-chief:
Principal
theirlands
some rebel groupswere defending
Otherchiefs:
Capi,Guayucava
andsacredplacesagainstEuropeanencroachment,
5. TheMarabitana
overstrategic
toregaincontrol
Confederacy
werefighting
others
a deeper
meant
events
these
Yet
networks.
trade
Bare, Manao, Guinao,Catarapene,
Groups:
Yahure,
Mak,Guariba
of theseindigenous
involvement
groupswiththe
involvement
This
Cocui
Immo
colonial
warrior-chief:
(1755-1764),
produceda
Principal
system.
of
some
desertion
continuous
groups
indigenous
Otherchiefs:
Cocui,Cayamu,Inao
fromEuropeantownsandvillages,whileforother
6. TheMadawakaConfederacy
groupsitentaileda declineoftheireconomicand
Bar-Madwaka,Baniva, Haruca, politicalautonomy.
Groups:
Mawakwa,Anauy,Ye'kuana
Between1756 and 1760, both Spanishand
warrior-chief:
Davillapeor Davicape
Principal
to definetheirlimitswere
expeditions
Portuguese
Orinocoregion.MiliCaavi
Otherchiefs:
in the upperNegro-upper
triedto imposesome
taryand civilianauthorities
of theirrespective
changesin the organization
of new townsand forEuropeangoods. Duringthisperiodtherewere colonies;the foundation
began,andmissiontownsweretransformed
manydifferent
Europeancamps,also knownas tresses
arraiales or corrals,whichwere used to keep intosecularvillagesunderthecontrolof imposed
slaves and forthecontrolof Europeanand Indianauthorities.
Europeanseven
captiveindigenous
movewithto
IndianandEuropeantradebetweencolonies.
indigenous
peoples freely
prohibited
On onehand,theinstability
ofthesenewethnic in andbetweencolonialterritories.
offiofPortuguese
of
A greatcontingent
theirpossessionof a greatnumber
soldiers,
formations,
the
traveled
and
their
definitive
and
River,
along Negro
integrationcials,
experts
Europeanweapons,
chiefsand groupsas
withthecolonialcommercial
of Euro- and beganusingindigenous
networks
militia
internecine
and
ethnic
led
to
and
mediators
againstotherindepean goods,
competition
This
Indians
conflicts
of
these
campaign
groups. Portuguese
amongleadinggroups
indige- pendent
in 1757.Indeed,
nousconfederacies.
On theotherhand,European generated
a greatIndianrebellion
and ineconomicambitions
and fearsof thesepowerful several,allied indigenousconfederacies
not
indigenous
peoplespushedcolonialauthorities
theirexplorations
and patrolling
onlyto intensify
ofsomeofthemoreimportant
commercial
routes, 7 Caulin1841;Fernandez
de Bovadilla1964;Ferreira
1885,
butalso to competewiththeAmerindian
polities
1886,1887, 1888; MendoaFurtado1906;RamosPrez
and otherrivalcolonialpowersto gain control
1946.

Confederacies
Table 6: Multiethnic
(1755-1770)

94.1999
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Amerindian
Amazonia
GroupsofNorthwest

521

dividualIndiansand groupsfrommissiontowns Vaups,IsanaandNegrorivers.9

In fact,thereare
confronted
the Portuguesearmyat So Gabriel references
thatindicatethat:a) indigenous
groups
Falls.
as well as the mestizosor caboclos carriedout
ThiswarbrokeIndian-Portuguese
relationshipsin theirtowns,withor withoutthe presenceof
andcausedmanyindigenous
frommid- priests,ritualfestivalsin honorof the Catholic
migrations
dle Negrobasinto the Spanishcolonyin upper saints,andb) theArawakanandTukanoan-speakOrinoco
sacred
ceremoniesof the
However,
region.
Spanish ing groupsperformed
Negro-upper
authorities
causedmorechangeswiththeirinter- religionof Kwaior Yurupari.
In short,
migratory
interac- movements,
ventionin thenatureof Indian-European
revitalization
sociopolitical
processes,
tions.Spaniardstriedto negotiatetheirpolitical and sociopoliticaland religiousreorganizations
and ethnicsol- werestructured
aroundinterethnic
alliances,male
protection
againstthePortuguese
to
the
and
the
secret
of
diersin exchangeforindigenous
societies,
subjection
adoption specificrituals
related
to
the
Catholic
calendar.
Crown.
1759,
many
indigBy
powerful
Spanish
wereperenous leadersof majorconfederacies
Duringthe secondhalfof the 19thcentury,
ofvassalagetoSpanish multiethnic
and theindigereligiousceremonies
forming
publicceremonies
in theemergence
hadmaterialized
This vassalageweakenedArawakan- nousresistance
authorities.
messianic
anddirectly
movements
impacted ofimportant
pan-indigenous
speakinggroups'leadership
dis- (Hill and Wright1988; Wrightand Hill 1986).
theirconfederacies,
causingtheirprogressive
led by TukanoanThese messianicmovements,
integration.
mostof the and Arawakan-speaking
shamans,were able to
By theend of the 18thcentury,
boththephysicalsurvivalandsocioculvillagesitesalongthemajorriverroutes,(upper guarantee
ofthepeoples,theconsolidation
of
unintural
were
Orinocoand upperNegro)
continuity
virtually
of
hierarchies
River
a
of
the
several
and
habited,8
regionalsystem political-religious
Negro
groups
ofthe
had been changedfromgentiles,or independentthatstillpersists
todayandtheorganization
ofthe
societies
and
Makuan
individuals
assimilated
or
into
Tukanoan,
Arawakan,
peoples, abalizados,
Amazon.
and families(Neto 1988),or groupsundergoingNorthwest
intheirpoliticalautonomy
reductions
drastic
(Vidal 1993).Duringthissameperiod,a newkindof
emerged;thatof canicuror 3 The RegionalSystemof Political-Religious
category
indigenous
Hierarchies
52
1988:
traitor
f.; Stradelli1929: 395). It
(Neto
was usedbytheManao,Bare,andothergroupsof
and
ofArawakan,
tobothindividuals 3.1 A Comparison
theupperNegroregiontorefer
Tukanoan,
MakuanModels
andgroupswhowereat theserviceofthecolonial
powers.
ofethnic(trib- A profound
intheliterature
Theintroduction
analysisof Arawakan,
comparative
toreferto indigenous
economic,
groupsof Tukanoan,and Makuansociopolitical,
al) denominations
and
revealbothdistinctive
Amazonbeganin the19thcentury. andreligiousstructures
theNorthwest
The levlevelsofpoliticalintegration.
the indigenouspopulationhad compatible
By thiscentury,
hadincreased els of politicalintegration
andmigrations
decreaseddrastically
amongtheTukanoans
extend
to
a whole area (i.e.,
or
embrace
could
frommajorrivertownstoplacesandcommunities
of
a
control.
the
colonial
locatedin sectorsfarfrom
alliances)buttheir
regionalsystem marriage
to thesib
is
restricted
influence
leaders'
shamanled
However,ethnolinguistic
political
groups by
its
owes
existence
In
this
characteristic
of
level.
ceremonials
conducted
who
chiefs,
part,
important
not only to theTukanoanpracticeof linguistic
Kuwai religion,continuedorganizing,
exogamy.
of the
and/or
butalso military
theiridentities,
religious But it is also relatedto the polarization
eachphratry
andtheirin-laws
between
rebellionsas well as passive resistanceto the relationship
intwogroups:1) in-lawsibswhoareclosekindred
decadentcolonialregimes.
is pracuntilthefirst and withwhoma balancedreciprocity
continued
These ritualactivities
anddistant
sibs
and severalvisitors ticed;and 2) theothernonrelated
threedecadesof thiscentury,
the
with
whom
and
1831
between
andethnographers
that,
(and
negative
reciprocphratries)
reported
norm.10
1851,thenativescontinued
Arawakan-speaking
importantityis theprescriptive
celebrating
in the
ritualand religiousceremonies
multiethnic
1981.
9 Chernela1993;Spruce1996;Wallace1969;Wright
C. 1979;Jackson
8 Ferreira1885, 1886, 1887, 1888; Humboldt1956; Jerez 10 Chernela1983;Hill 1987;Hugh-Jones,
1983.
Ribeirode Sampaio1825.
1960,1960?;
94.1999
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Silvia M. Vidal

522

amongthem.Silverwood-Cope
groups,on theotherhand,practicea nonlinguisticliticalrelationships
that
in
andplaceall theirin-laws("theother") (1990: 81) reports in theregionoftheMacexogamy
a singlecategory,
and Paran,theyand theirriverineneighborgroups
themambivalent
allocating
contradictory
meanings("people,""non-people," (i.e., the Desana) celebrateritualand exchange
whichareattended
"relative"
or"brother-in-law,"
"allied"or ceremonies
byall localgroups
potential
of
the
area.
These
and
so
1987:
190
f.).
on) (Hill
"enemy,"
of
socialrelationships
areaddedtoboththesystem
Althoughcross-cousinmarriageis practiced
to
verticalize
beliefs
and
the
amongthe Arawaks,the systemis focusedon
religious
possibility
other
These wideningalliancesin orderto incorporate
and horizontalize
hierarchical
structures.
affinalkins
factors
have influenced
theirformsof leadership, groupswho are nottheirtraditional
theircontrolandexpansionof theiralliances,and (Hill 1987,1989;Vidal1993).Thisis theresultof
thatexistsbetweenthese
theemergence
of interregional
politicalalliances a complexrelationship
to
andmultiethnic
confederacies.
practicesand the servicepaid by sons-in-law
the localizationof the deOn theotherhand,whenthe Bar Mak de- theirfathers-in-law,
scribetheirsocial structure,
theymakereference scentunits,the rule of patrilocalresidence,the
ofpoliticalnetworks,
andincrement
to thetermkuluor patrilineal
clans(Silverwood- establishment
exchangeofgoodsof
per- andthecycleofceremonial
Cope 1990: 78, 99). Fromtheego-centered
class or value (i.e., smokedfishes,and
spectiveof an individualof a givenclan, any different
animalsforvegetable
or
other
otherclan memberis an agnate(de-wakulu)
aquaticandterrestrial
an in-law(bay'nakulu).Agnateclansare related products)amongaffinalkins.Hill (1987, 1989)
in a hierarchical
as olderor senior has pointedout thatamongthe Wakunai,the
relationship
the only
constitutes
as
or
and
(mata kulu)
younger junior(tsapedit servicepaid by sons-in-law
alliances
of
means
and
brothers.
This
association
between
among
kulu)
establishing
legitimate
junior
it also contribseniorclans is also describedin the same terms affinalsibs of different
phratries;
and the
in the relationship
of the Bar-Makwiththeir utes to balancethe social relationships
of
diverse
resources
of
the
distribution
access
and
clan
members
Tukanoans:
neighboring
younger
bethe
ceremonial
means
of
services
to
are
of
the
older
or
servants
areas,
exchange
(anan)
by
pay
clans(Silverwood-Cope
1990:119).Therearetwo tweenreceiversand suppliersof wives.He also
clanswhich, mentionsthatthe continuousoccupationof the
groupsofexogamicandhierarchized
is based
in some cases, are verysimilarto an organiza- riverine
territories
by sibs and phratries
tionof moieties(119 f.). However,it shouldbe on the rule of patrilocalresidence.Access to
canbe negotiated
territories
ofparticular
emphasizedthatclan exogamyis not rigidand resources
thattheyaredispersed
in theseveralregionsthey amongaffinal
relatives
through
ampleagreements
and father-in-law,
betweenson-in-law
occupy(120f.). These social groupingsof the negotiated
Mak (kulu)and thelargerunitsin whichclans whenthefirstone paysbrideserviceto thesecare hierarchically
to exploit
forthe permission
organized,are diffusedalong ond. Negotiations
havebeen
territories
and
domestic
on
affinal
relatives'
resources
local,
regional,
groups.
and
for
Hohdene
the
Mak
of
different
the
there
is
described
(1981)
Among
regions
byWright
littleifanycontact.
the
Vidal
for
each
the
and
However,
(1987)
regionalgroup
Warperdakna, by
knowstheexistenceof othersfromoraltradition PiapocoandtheAchagua.
the
1990:81). Silverwood-Cope
atAs Silverwood-Cope
(1990: 117)mentions,
(Silverwood-Cope
tributes
the isolationand independence
of each marriagealliancesamongthe Mak are characlevels:
regionalgroupto endogamy;thatis to say, as terizedby endogamyat severaldifferent
a resultbothof the presencein each regionof 1) ethnicgroup(withfewexceptions
theymarry
twopatrilineal
descentgroupstiedby affinity
to otherMak);2) regionalgroup;and3) localgroup
each otherand to theexchangeof sistersamong withbilateralcomposition.
On the otherhand,
themasculinemembers
of each group.However, Oliveira(1995: 70) underwrites
of
theimportance
theregionalgroupis nota limitedpoliticaland linguistic
as a differentiating
element
endogamy11
socialunit,becauseagnaticand affinity
tiesexist
oflocalgroupsfromdifferent11 Like the Mak, Arawakan-speakinggroups do not pracamongthemembers
tice the linguisticexogamy as it is practicedamong the
and
regions.These ties are invokedin conflicts
Tukanoangroups,because theymarrywithintheirlinguisfissionprocesseswithina local groupor when
tic communityor ethnicgroup. In general,the exogamy
thereare notmarriageable
womenin theregion
practicedby the Arawakan-speaking
groupsis at the level
thelocal groupsof a regioncan
(81). In addition,
of sibs and phratries;this is, theydo not marrypeople of
or not,depending
on theexistent
theirsame sib and phratry,and they also emphasize the
gettogether
poAnthropos94.1999

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Amerindian
Amazonia
Groupsof Northwest

523

that
(Mak)and riverine or severalancestral"anaconda(boa)-canoes"
amonggroupsof interfluvial
members
ofdescentunits
areas.
(Tukano)
organizes wereleftbythefounding
Although
patrilineality
and of descent in different
the bonds of ancestralidentity
The
places of theAmazonregion.12
author
also
the
to
the
the
Mak,according Silverwood-Cope
(1990: 134),
highlights
among Mak,
thatguides sharediverseaspectsoftheirreligious
andcosmoexistenceof theruleof uxorilocality
mento marryoutsideof theirlocal groups.This goniebeliefswithArawakandTukano.In effect,
withthe virilocality
of Idn Kamni,or the Creator,forthe Mak, is a
last factoralso contrasts
whosegreatpowersgo handinhandwith
of Arawakan trickster
Tukanoanand the patrivirilocality
his
failures
and difficulties.
On theseand other
1995:
58).
groups(Oliveira
thetrickster
Kwai
The enormouspotentialthat the Arawakan aspects,Idn Kamniresembles
in
of
the
Cubeo
and
Arawak.
Also
their
lore
on the
has
for
networks
of
politico-resystem marriage
the
the
Mak
narrate
of
that
in
the
evident
is
also
alliances
world,
origin
people
prohibition
gional
of marriageamong individualsthatbelong to werecreatedof Idn Kamni's saliva,blendedwith
a stream
locatedsomewhere
descentunitssharingthe same totemicsymbol powderofstonesfrom
ancestors(Vidal at the Isana or Ayaririvers(Silverwood-Cope
and possiblythesame mythical
peoplebegantotravel
1993).Thus,thismeanstheinclusionas kinof a 1990:139f.).Later,thisfirst
anextensive
area
both inanaconda(boa)-canoes
and populations
through
largernumberof segments
at regionallevel in the categoryof "siblings" whichincludesthe regionbetweenthe cityof
ofalliancenetworks ManausandtheVaups,Papur,andMacu-Paran
andtheampliation
("we/us"),
amongaffinalkin of diversegroups("they/therivers.In thatway,IdnKamniallocatedeachclan
on this
inturn, and indigenous
ofregional
Thissystem
groupa place or territory
others").
exogamy,
that
the
indicates
Oliveira
earth.
as
on
their
is relatedto andbased
(1995:80)
Finally,
religioussystem
Arawakanand
do
the
as
the
on
beliefs
well as theirtraditional
Mak,
Tukanoan-speakregarding
Amazon,also perform
inggroupsofthenorthwest
originoftheworldandtheancestors.
of Kwai,He, or Yurupari,
theritualceremonies
oftheArawakan-speaking
Thereligious
system
and restrictions
that
the
same
or
more
in
two
is
divided
patterns
cycles following
mythical
groups
for
this
cult.
established
whose moresalientpersonagesare the Creator theriverine
groups
observed
On the otherhand,the flexibility
and Kwai (Kuai,
or Npiruli(or Inpirrkuli)
Kuw or Yurupari).Each one of these cycles amongtheTukanoan-speaking
groupsto identify
consistsin a corpusof narratives
(ancestral
people'semergence
(stories,myths, theplaceofthefirst
the
of
contrasts
with
so
and
anaconda-canoes),
advice,
on.),
rigidity
songs,prayers,
mythohistories,
are
in
which
men
rank
their
inisecret
masculine
societies,
organized
system
rituals,
knowledge,
This
brothers.
and parties,whichincludea by age betweenolderand younger
tiationceremonies,
order
withthehierarchical
is synchronized
andpractical system
ofideological-symbolic
widevariety
a
codes.Thesecodes containimportant
knowledge of sibs in each linguisticgroupand phratry;
andcloselyrelated
thatis influenced
and guided characteristic
thathave influenced
and information
selectedby thesegroupsin order to Tukanoanpolitical(chiefsof townsor local
the strategies
ritualspecialand ritual(powerful
their communities)
eventsand processesthroughout
to confront
Arawakan
most
In
For the Arawakan-speaking
among
groups,the ists)leadership. contrast,
history.
and
groups(Wakunai,Baniva,Warekena,Tariana),
originof people is linkedwithan unique,
brothers
olderandyounger
between
specialplace thatis sharedby all groups.In this thedistinction
is
since
it
life
in
flexible
is
more
in
a
hierarchical
ancestors
possible
daily
emerged
place,thefirst
to achievea higherstatus
orderfromolderto youngersiblings,and from fora youngerbrother
or ritualspecialist(Hill
theOrino- as chiefof a community
wheretheyweredispersedthroughout
has
co-Amazonregion.This hierarchical
pointedout, howevemergence 1987). Wright(1981)
is notpresentamongthe
butalso er, thatthisflexibility
to thesibsofeachphratry
notonlyrefers
sincetheoldest
Hohdene(a Wakunaiphratry),
to each Arawakan-and non-Arawakan-speaking
the
who
have
the
ones
are
Amazon.
Northwest
of
the
highestpossiblings
group
in ritual
of
access
to
of
have
also
power
positions
sibility
groups
Tukanoan-speaking
Although
the cult of the Kuwai (He), theydon't relate and secularleadership.Vidal (1987, 1993) has
in rankprinciples
the originof the worldand theirancestorsto also foundthissame rigidity
a specificplace. Theiroriginis boundto one betweenolderand youngersiblingsamongtwo
whohavethe
betweenindividuals
of marriage
prohibition
ancestor.
sametotemic
symbolandmythical

12 Chernela1983; Corra1980-81; Goldman1968; Hugh1971.

Jones,C. 1979;Jackson1983;Reichel-Dolmatof

94.1999
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524

Silvia M. Vidal

otherArawakan-speaking
groups:thePiapocoand can perceivethatthesesocietiesare unitedin a
morecomplexsystem.
theBare.
Thus,Jackson
(1983:6) has
theregional
The expansionand contraction
mechanisms indicatedthatin orderto understand
it
Tukanoan
of
Eastern
twoaspectsofthesamedynamic
constitute
groups, is necessary
process system
model
of
a
in sociopolitical
to
envision
Arawakanhunter-gatherers,
dispersed
relationships
among
local groups,flexibleterritorial
speaking
groups.Hill(1983,1984,1987,1989)has withindependent
of local commuthesetwoaspectsamongthe borders,and fluidmembership
clearlydocumented
nities.
with
their
close
74,
78) has men(1990:
Wakunai,
Silverwood-Cope
indicating
relationship
thereligioussystemandritualpower.Thisauthor tionedthatmodeloftheMakucouldbe characterwithhigh
hunters
(1989: 3-5) pointsout thattheWakunaidefine ized as a systemofprofessional
localand
relatedbutindependent
of their circular
two dimensions
ritualpowerthroughout
mobility,
socialrelationships:
borders,and
(or regionalgroups,flexibleterritorial
1) theverticaldimension
of local groups.The Arawakis associatedwith fluidmembership
"developmental-generational")
couldbe defined
thehierarchy
ofdescentunits,themythical
by
groups,however,
powers an-speaking
of creationand the recreation
of life,attributeda model of localizedgroupsof fisher-gatherers
local
withinterdependent
and in continual
to thepatrilineal
ritualspecialists,
ancestors,
expansion,
territorial
to theold menand womenof thegroup;and 2) and regionalgroups,flexible
borders,
oflocalcommunities
the horizontal
dimension(or "of exchangerela- andfluidmembership
(Vidal
closedsocial 1993).
thatopenstherelatively
tionships")
studiesof AraAs we haveseen,ethnological
world of local groupstowarda dynamicand
and
relationof
universe
wakan-,Tukanoan-, Makuan-speaking
groups
political-historical
expansible
relatives(us) and a of the Northwest
Amazon,indicatethat their
shipsamongconsanguineous
kinsofotherdescentgroupsand complex regionalsystemof political-religious
ofaffinal
plurality
is characterized
evidencetheexistence hierarchies
These
dimensions
by thedifferentiation
peoples.
ofmechanisms
andprocessesoffissionandfusion of status(rank),multilingualism,
exogamy,cult
or
of
the
Kuwai
or
of
social
that
form
the
interdepen(Vidal1987)
Yurupari,
reproduc- religion
part
ofindividuals
tionof Arawakan-speaking
(i.e., the denceamonggroups,specialization
populations
and economic
of descent and groupsin certainoccupations
recreation
and constant
reinforcement
and the intenseexchangeor tradeof
unitsandethnicgroups).
activities,
The contraction/expansion
processesand the goods.13
fusion/fission
This is a regionalsystemof intra-and intermechanism
have madepossible:a)
the integration-assimilation
of segments,
descent ethnichierarchies
(Table7), in whicheach ethnic
unitsor completegroupsto Arawakan-speaking
elementsor is socioculunitsharessociocultural
withtheotherunitsor groups.
de- turally
b) thedivisionof sectorsand/or
populations;
compatible
scentunitsof a givenArawakangroup(byfusing Goldman(in Chernela1993: 10f.),afterrevisiting
withanotherArawakanor non-Arawakan
group) the Cubeo in 1981, concludedthatthe Vaups
in orderto progressively
transform
itselfintoa system(EasternTukanoanand othergroups)can
arnew social entity;c) thealternated
or combined be characterized
as an "elementary
hereditary
access to theterritory
thatrank
of a phratry
fromanother istocracy."
Chernela(1993: 6) mentions
of the amongtheEasternTukanoangroups"is manifest
subgroupand groupand the exploitation
resources
the
alliance
of
one
or on a dailybasis in thetermsof relativeaddress
within;
d)
political
moregroupsand subgroups
in warfare
or ethnic used by speakersin conversation
and greeting."
or theseparation
orKurriof Thisis also thecase amongtheWakunai
conflicts;
and)thearticulation
levels
of
inteand
Arawakan
1993)
(an
(Hill
supracommunitarian
sociopolitical
among
pako
group)
theCubeo (a Tukanoangroup)(Goldman1968).
gration.
Hill (1993: 11) statesthatin Northwest
Amazonia
"ritualhierarchy
is intrinsically
connected
to the
3.2 Discussion
riversand to competitive,
ecologyof blackwater
relations
of exchangeamongphratries
egalitarian
studiesof Northwestandlanguagegroups."Thisauthoralso concludes
Althoughanthropological
Amazonian
theexistence
groupshaveunderwritten
of regionalsystems,theyemphasizea regional
1983, 1993; Goldman 1968; Hill
ata givenriverbasin(i.e.,VaupsRiver)or 13 Arhern1981; Chernela
system
C. 1979; Hugh-Jones,S. 1979; Jackson
1983; Hugh-Jones,
fora givenfamilyof ethnolinguistic
groups(i.e.,
1983; Oliveira 1995; Reichel-Dolmatoff
1968, 1971, 1985;
EasternTukanoan).Butevenin theseanalysisone
Vidal 1987, 1993; Wright1981.
Anthropos94.1999

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Amazonia
Amerindian
GroupsofNorthwest

525

Hierarchies
of Northwest
Table 7: Amerindian
RegionalSystemof Political-Religious
Amazonia
Hierarchies
Interethnic
RegionalSystemof Political-Religious
Arawakan

Tukanoan

Makuan

Enwio Maku(chiefs)
wisers)
Tna,dana(masters,
punawa(warriors)
Minani(owners,
specialists)
Mak(servants)
Others(in-laws,
enemies,
allies,foreigners)

hara(chiefs)
singers)
Bayaroa(dancers,
Guaramara
(warriors)
Kumua(shamans)
Munoyorimasa(servants)
others("mak,"foreigners)

?
?
?
Kulu(clan,group)
Anan(servants)

Hierarchies
Intraethnic
Systemof Political-Religious
Arawakan

Tukanoan

Makuan

Ni (people)
-nne(children,
)
-daknai(grandchildren,
S)
-nwi("the/'L)
In-laws

Mahsa(people)
(unnamed)
Hikpon(children,
L.G.)
Kuruao Kuduri(grandchildren,
S)
in-laws

Others

otherpeople

Ho (people)
Kulu(clan)
Matakulu(seniorclan)
kulu(juniorclan)
Tsapedit
-muna("the,"R.G.)
Bay'nakulu(in-lawclans,
in-laws)

L = lineage,S = sib,L.G. = Linguistic

= phratry,
group
group,R.G. = regional

socialandritualhierarchies,
rankedformsof social orga- tiethnicity,
that"hierarchically
exogamy,
relations.
Ama- and variedformsof interethnic
nizationlikethosefoundin theNorthwest
therehave
As discussedin the introduction,
and
morewidespread
zontodaywereundoubtedly
and partialapproachesand intercommoninAmazoniaandadjacentareaspriorthe been simplistic
cultural
andcontemporary
oftheancient
arrivalofEuropeanpeoples. . ." (10).
pretations
ofAmazonia.Mostofthemweretheresult
As we have seen,bothancientand contempo- history
fieldstudieson
in theirethnic of an emphasisof anthropological
differ
formations
raryAmerindian
or on
in theirlevelsof po- a singleIndiangroupas a closed system,
and linguistic
compositions,
in
several
in theireconomicand social a topicor specificprocess
liticalintegration,
groupsof a
of
and in the economicand political givenfamily languages.However,therealso
complexity,
of theirethnicentities.Notwithstand-are studiesthathave centeredtheiranalysison
autonomy
and regionalapproachesand in complexmultiethnic
multiethnic,
ing,theyalso sharemultilingual,
in insightful
haveresulted
Theseefforts
and relations.
hierarchical
systems.Thus, the persistence
Amerindian
of
characterof thesethreecomplex
transformation
peoplesandhistory.
interpretations
Oliveira
For
schemes
in
(1995) has analyzedthe
isticsmustbe included interpretative
example,
Amazon
Northwest
of
Amerindian
of
of theculturalhistory
regionas a "complexborder
peoples
thisauthorto conclude
has
lead
This
culture."
Amazon.
Northwest
the
thatthis"complexborderculture"is theproduct
that
formations
notonlyof singularsociocultural
revealspecificsymbolicand cognitivesystems,
4 Conclusions
but of social actorssuch as indigenous
peoples,
auandMa- missionaries,
officials,
As we haveseen,Arawakan-,
Tukanoan-,
military
governmental
ethnic
of
diverse
individuals
other
and
a
are
thorities,
complex
by
groups organized
kuan-speaking
hierarchiesand socioeconomic
origins.
regionalsystemof political-religious
I
thatin orderto underIn
this
of
from
a
suggest
paper,
ethnogenesis
process
long-term
resulting
Amaof theNorthwest
This regional standtheculturalhistory
whichbegan in the 16thcentury.
Amerindian
of
the
nature
zon
and
mulis
characterized
contemporary
multilingualism,
by
system
94.1999
Anthropos

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SilviaM. Vidal

526

one mustbase theanalysison a Cipolletti,Maria Susana

regionalsystems,
thatincludesthesocio- 1991 Remeros y cazadores. La informacinetnogrficaen
macroregional
perspective
los documentosde la comisin de limitesal Amazoand multiethnic
economic,political,multilingual,
nas (1779-1791). In: P. Jorna,L. Malaver y M. Oostra
in whichethnicidentities
andgroupsare
contexts
(coords.); pp. 83- 101.
createdanddeveloped.
Franois
thatin the his- Corra,
This paperalso demonstrates
1980-81 Por el Camino de la anaconda ancestral. Sobre
Amazonindigenous
groups
toryof theNorthwest
organizacin social entre los Taiwano del Vaups.
are three
RevistaColombiana de Antropologia23: 39-108.
and
flexibility, interdependence
fluidity,
structures
of
their
sociopolitical
important
aspects
Cruz, Laureano de la
thatare alwayspresentin boththeprocessesof 1986 Relacin del descubrimientodel rio de las Amazonas,
of new social
transformation
and theemergence
hoy S. Franciscodel Quito, y declaracindel mapa en
donde esta pintado.In: R. Diaz (ed.), La aventuradel
in different
historical
formations
periods.
231-252. Madrid: Historia 16.
Amazonas; pp.
cas de Amrica,19)

(Crni-

and Werner
I would like to thankNelly Arvelo-Jimnez
Wilbertfor theiruseful academic commentsand the Cuervo, Antonio B.
1893-94 Coleccin de documentosinditossobreIa geografia
Englishrevisionof thisarticle.
e historia de Colombia. Tomo 3. Bogot: Zalamea
Hermanos.

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