Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Introduction

Compressed air systems generate, store and distribute energy in the form of
compressed air for use throughout a plant. In a compressed air system, a
single set of compressors can supply power to machines all over the plant,
thus eliminating the need for numerous and dispersed electric motors. This
advantage must be balanced against the relative poor energy efficiency of
compressed air systems, which can be as low as 20% when leaks and partload control losses are taken into account.
On a national scale, air compressors rank only behind pumps in terms of
industrial motor drive electricity consumption. Thus, increasing the efficiency
of compressed air systems can result in significant energy savings.

Principles of Energy-Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Energy Balance Approach

To compress air, the power delivered to the fluid (air) dWf is the integral of the
product of the volume flow rate V and the pressure rise dP.
dWf = V dP
The electrical power supplied to an air compressor is:
dWe = V dP / (motor compressor control)
where motor is the motor efficiency, compressor is the compressor
efficiency and control is the control efficiency.
Three types of compression are shown below. The right compression line
represents isentropic compression, in which air is compressed adiabatically
with no internal reversibilities. The left compression line represents isothermal
compression, in which the air is cooled to keep the air temperature constant
during compression. Isentropic compression has no cooling and isothermal
compression has the maximum cooling possible. Actual compression
processes lie somewhere in between isentropic and isothermal compression,
and are called polytropic compression. The area to the left of the compression
lines represents the fluid work dWf = V dP. Thus, isothermal compression
requires less compressor work because the cooling is responsible for part of
the decrease in volume.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.

Some air compressors utilize two stages of compression with intercooling
between the stages to further reduce compressor power. The power savings
from two-stage compression with intercooling are shown graphically below.

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.

Assuming that air can be treated as an ideal gas, it can be shown that
Pvn = constant
during the compression process, where P = absolute pressure, v = specific
volume, n = 1 for isothermal compression, n= k = Cp/Cv = 1.400 for
isentropic compression of air and 1.0 < n < 1.400 for polytropic compression.
Substituting (Pvn = constant) into the equation for fluid work (dWf = V dP)
and solving the differential equation yields the following results:
Wf = R T ln (P2/P1) for isothermal compression
Wf = n R T1 [(P2/P1) (n-1)/n - 1] / (n - 1) for polytropic compression
Rair = 0.06855 Btu/lbm-R
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Example:
Calculate specific capacities (cfm/hp) for isothermal and isentropic
compression of 70 F air to 100 psig.

Actual compressors generate between 4 and 5 scfm/hp at 100 psig. The

difference between the thermodynamic values of scfm/hp computed above
and scfm/hp generated by actual compressors is due to the turbulence and
friction generated within the compressor. Thus, this difference characterizes
the efficiency of the compressor.
Example:
Calculate the efficiency of a compressor with an actual specific capacity of 4.2
cfm/hp if the polytropic specific capacity is 6.0 cfm/hp.
dW = V dP / compressor
compressor = V dP / dW
compressor = 4.2 scfm / 6.0 scfm = 70%

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Motor efficiency is the efficiency of the motor at converting electrical power

into shaft power. The efficiency of a premium-efficiency 100-hp motor is about
92%. Motor efficiency can be improved by specifying premium-efficiency
motors.
Control efficiency is a measure of the losses incurred to vary compressed air
output to match compressed air demand. In air compressors, control
efficiency varies widely depending upon the type of part-load control
employed.
Understood in this light, the energy balance equation serves as a useful guide
for energy saving opportunities. Thus, primary energy savings opportunities
are:

Reducing volume flow rate

Reducing pressure rise
Increasing control efficiency
Increasing compressor efficiency
Increasing motor efficiency.

Opportunities for Improving The Energy-Efficiency of Compressed Air Systems

These principles can be organized using the inside-out approach, which
sequentially reduces end-use energy, distribution energy, and primary
conversion energy. Combining the energy balance and inside-out approach,
common energy-efficiency opportunities in compressed air systems include:

End use
Eliminate inappropriate uses of compressed air (reduce V)
Install solenoid valves to shut off unnecessary air (reduce V)
Install air saver nozzles (reduce V)
Replace timed-solenoid with differential-pressure control (reduce
V)
Use blower instead of air compressor for low-pressure applications
(reduce dP)
Distribution
Fix leaks (reduce V)
Replace timed-solenoid drains with demand-control drains (reduce
V)
Decrease pressure drop in distribution system (reduce dP)
Conversion
Compress cooler outside air (increase compressor efficiency)
Stage compressors with pressure settings or controller (increase
control efficiency)

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Employ on/off, load/unload with auto shutoff, or variable-speed

control for trim compressor (increase control efficiency)
Add compressed air storage to decrease unload power and
increase auto-shutoff (increase control efficiency)
Replace desiccant with refrigerated dryer (reduce V)
Use heat from compressors to heat building during winter

Recurring Energy-Efficiency Concepts

Close inspection of these energy-efficiency opportunities illustrates three
important and recurring energy efficiency concepts.

The equation for air compressor energy use serves as a useful guide for
comprehensively identifying energy saving opportunities.

Like most systems, compressed air systems are designed for peak
conditions, but spend the vast majority of time operating at off-peak
conditions. Thus, several energy efficiency opportunities result from
improving control to reduce unnecessary compressed air use and power
consumption during off peak conditions. Careful attention to control
efficiency is vital to achieving energy efficiency.

To achieve energy savings, many end-use and distribution system

savings opportunities must be coupled with modifications to the
conversion equipment, which in this case is the air compressor plant.
Thus, the whole-system inside-out approach is vital to maximizing
energy-efficiency potential.

Air Compressors

The three basic types of air compressors are reciprocating, rotary screw and
centrifugal compressors.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Reciprocating

Rotary Screw

Centrifugal

Reciprocating compressors use pistons to compress air in cylinders. Singleacting compressors compress air on one-side of piston, and double acting
compressors compress on both sides of piston. Large reciprocating
compressors may employ multiple stages with intercoolers and double acting
pistons to achieve high compression efficiencies. Single-stage compressors
control compressed air output by stopping the pistons when compressed air is
not needed. Multi-stage compressors control compressed air output by
sequentially reducing the number of stages in use.
Rotary-screw compressors compress air by forcing air between rotating screws
with decreasing volume between the screws. Most rotary-screw compressors
control compressed air output by modulating the air intake valve, and or
alternating between full open and fully closed operation.
Centrifugal compressors compress air by accelerating air from the tips of
impellors rotating at high speeds into a volute. Centrifugal compressors are
typically 250-hp or larger, and frequently employ multiple stages to achieve
the desired compressed air output pressure. Centrifugal compressors control
compressed air output by modulating an inlet valve or variable inlet vanes on
the air intake, loading and unloading, or blowing off compressed air to
atmosphere rather than into the compressed air system.

Compressor Controls
Compressor controls typically match compressed air output to compressed air
demand by maintaining discharge air pressure within a specified range. There
are five primary control strategies for maintaining the pressure within the
desired range.
On/Off Control
In on/off control, the compressor turns on and begins to add compressed air to
the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure.
The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the system until
the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure when the
compressor shuts off. Typical lower and upper activation pressures would be
90 psig and 100 psig. On/off control may also employ a timer to reduce shortcycling. Reciprocating compressors typically employ on/off control. On/off
control is the most efficient type of part-load control, since the compressor
draws no power when it is not producing compressed air.
Load/Unload Control
In load/unload control, the compressor loads and begins to add compressed
air to the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation
pressure. The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure. It
then unloads and does not add compressed air to the system until the
system pressure drops to the lower activation pressure. Typical lower and
upper activation pressures would be 90 psig and 100 psig. When unloaded,
rotary screw compressors typically partially close the air inlet valve and bleed
the remaining compressed air in the sump to atmosphere.
Power draw when fully unloaded varies from about 60% of full load power to
about 30% of full-load power, depending on compressor design and on the
length of time the compressor runs unloaded. To fully unload, the load/unload
cycle time must be long enough to allow the compressed air in the sump to
bleed to atmosphere when the compressor unloads. Thus, load/unload control
works best when coupled with adequate compressed air storage, which
lengthens load/unload cycles while modulating pressure variation to end uses.
Most compressors with load/unload control also have an automatic shutoff
option, in which the compressor shuts itself off if it runs unloaded for about 5
to 10 minutes. The compressor will remain off for a specified period of time
before restarting to avoid short-cycling. Running the compressor in
automatic shutoff mode can result in significant energy savings during
periods of low compressed air demand. In addition, adequate compressed air
storage increases load/unload cycle time, and the likelihood that the
compressor shuts off after running unloaded for a few minutes.
Modulation Control
In modulation control, the position of the inlet air valve is modulated from full
open to full closed in response to compressor output pressure. Modulation
control typically employs PID control with a narrow control range about + 2
psig. Inlet modulation is a relatively inefficient method of controlling
compressed air output.
Variable-Speed Control
Rotary-screw air compressors can be equipped with variable frequency drives
to vary the speed of the screws and the corresponding compressed air output.
As in other fluid flow applications, the variation of speed to vary output is
extremely energy efficient.
Blow-off Control
In centrifugal compressors, the quantity of air flow through the compressor
can only be controlled by modulating the inlet air valve over a relatively small
range. When flow is reduced below this range, the flow becomes unstable in a
surge condition. To avoid surge, centrifugal compressors may discharge
compressed air to the atmosphere to control compressed air output to the
system. Blow-off control is the least efficient method of controlling compressed
air output, since input power remains constant as the supply compressed air
to the system decreases.
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

Power / Output Relationships by Control Type

The following figure shows typical relationships between fraction input power
to the compressor (FP) and fraction compressed air output (FC) for various
types of control. At full output capacity (FC = 1.0), compressors draw full
power (FP = 1.0). The power draw at less than full output capacity is a
function of the type of part-load control. The figure shows that at part load,
most energy efficient control mode is on/off, followed by variable speed,
load/unload, modulation and blow-off control.

Assuming linearity, fraction power, FP, can be calculated from fraction

capacity, FC, and fraction power at no load, FP0, according to the following
relationship:
FP = FP0 + (1 FP0) FC
Some compressors use a combination of basic control modes described above.
For example, the figure below shows the relationship between fraction of fullload power and fraction of full-load output capacity for a compressor using a
combination of modulation and load/unload control. The top line shows full
modulation control, in which the compressor continues to draw 70% of full
load power even when producing no compressed air. The bottom line shows a
combination modulation and load/unload control, in which compressed air
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

output is modulated by the inlet valve down to 40% of total capacity. Below
40% of full output capacity, the compressor loads and unloads to vary
compressed air output. In this example, the compressor draws 25% of fullload power when fully unloaded.

Centrifugal compressors typically employ three primary methods to control

compressed air output to meet demand: inlet modulation by a flow control
valve or variable inlet vanes, load/unload and blow off. Inlet modulation by a
flow control valve or variable inlet vanes varies the quantity or rotation of inlet
air to the compressor, which reduces compressed air output and input power.
In most cases, however, the control range using inlet modulation is limited to
between about 70% and 100% of compressed air output. If flow is reduced
below about 70% of full output capacity, an unstable flow condition called
surge may result. To control flow below about 70% of full output capacity,
some compressors can load and unload to match compressed air demand.
When fully unloaded, the compressor generates no compressed air and can
draw as little as 15% of full load power. Centrifugal compressors without
load/unload capability continue to generate compressed air, but blow off the
excess compressed air to the atmosphere. Because compressor power
remains constant while compressed air output falls, blow-off control is the
least efficient method of controlling compressed air output.
Many centrifugal compressors employ some combination of these basic
control options. For example, the figure below shows the fraction power to
fraction capacity curves for a centrifugal compressor with Constant Pressure
and Auto-dual control modes. In Constant Pressure mode, variable inlet
vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full load
capacity, and compressor power draw follows linearly. If compressed air
demand falls below 70%, blow off valves discharge compressed air to the

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

atmosphere and power draw remains constant. Alternately, the compressor

could be set to run in Auto-dual mode. In Auto-dual mode, the variable inlet
vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full load
capacity, just as in Constant Pressure mode. However, in Auto-dual mode, the
compressor will unload when compressed air demand falls below 70% of fullload capacity and compressor power draw will be reduced to about 15% of full
load power. The plot below shows fraction of full load power draw (kW) on the
vertical axis and fraction of full load capacity (cfm) on the horizontal axis for
Constant Pressure and Auto-dual modes.

Lubrication

In reciprocating and flooded-screw compressors, lubricating oil comes in direct

contact with the compressed air. Most the oil is removed from the compressed
air stream in the sump and by a separator. However, trace amounts of oil are
carried forward in the compressed air. In oil-free screw and centrifugal
compressors, no oil comes in contact with the compressed air.

Cooling

The temperature of air increases during compression and from irreversibilities

within an air compressor. Removing heat during compression reduces the
work required to raise the pressure of the air.
Heat can be removed from the air compressor to the surrounding air or to
water. Air-cooled compressors pass the hot lubricating oil from the
compressor and compressed air through finned-tube heat exchangers and
force ambient air across the heat exchangers using a cooling air fan. Cooling
fan horsepower is typically about 5% of the power of the compressor motor.
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
10

Water-cooled compressors use water-to-air heat exchangers to remove heat

from the lubricating oil and compressed air. In many applications, this heat is
eventually rejected to the atmosphere by a cooling tower. Increasing cooling
by decreasing the temperature of the cooling air or water improves
compressor efficiency and output capacity.
In many cases, the relatively low temperature of the cooling air or water
leaving an air compressor limits its usefulness for other process-heating
applications. However, the temperature is typically high enough to provide
useful space heating during winter. Thus, an excellent application for
reclaiming heat from air compressors is to direct hot air into the plant during
winter. About 70% of the electrical power input to an air compressor is
typically removed by the cooling system.

Compressed Air Storage Tanks

Stored compressed air dampens variation in supply and demand and stabilizes
compressed air pressure within the system. Primary compressed air storage
refers to tanks located near the air compressor that dampen pressure
variations for the entire compressed air system. Secondary compressed air
storage refers to tanks located near individual compressed air loads with
variable demand. The typical price for compressed air storage tanks is about
$4 per gallon.
Primary compressed air storage tanks are generally sized to hold at least 10
seconds of compressor capacity. For example, the recommended minimum
volume of the primary storage for a 25-hp air compressor generating 4 cfm/hp
would be about:
25 hp compressor x 4 cfm/hp = 100 cfm x 10/60 min = 17 ft 3
Primary storage tanks can be located upstream or downstream of the dryer.
Locating the primary storage tank downstream of the dryer reduces the
variation in compressed air flow through the dryer caused by large variations
in end-use demand. In many cases, this eliminates problems of excess water
in the compressed air lines due to excess flow through the dryer during
periods of high compressed air demand.

Dryers
The two most common types of dryers for removing moisture from
compressed air lines are refrigerated dryers and desiccant dryers. Dryers are
typically sized to handle the peak air compressor air flow.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

11

Desiccant Dryer

Refrigerated Dryer

Refrigerated Dryers
Refrigeration dryers cool the air to a dew-point temperature of about 35 F and
remove the resulting condensate. According to manufacturer data, the typical
power required for a refrigerated dryer is about 6 W/scfm. For example,
assuming a 200-hp compressor generates 4.2 scfm of compressed air per
horsepower, the output capacity of the compressor at full load is about 840
scfm. The power draw of a refrigerated dryer sized for this application would
be about:
840 scfm x 0.006 kW/scfm = 5.0 kW
Desiccant Dryers
Desiccant dryers adsorb water into desiccants and reduce the dew point
temperature of the compressed air to about -40 F or lower, which is much
dryer than the compressed air leaving refrigerant dryers. Desiccant dryers
typically have two tanks. Compressed air flows upward through the left
desiccant tank where moisture is adsorbed by the desiccant (in an exothermic
reaction which warms the desiccant and air). After the desiccant becomes
saturated with water, the flow of compressed air is directed upward through
the right desiccant tank. The left desiccant tank is then purged of water.
Desiccant dryers employ three methods to purged water from the desiccant:
compressed air purge, heated compressed air purge and heated blower purge.
In compressed air purge, about 15% of the dry compressed air leaving the
dryer is expanded to about 45 psig and directed downward through the wet
tank to purge moisture from the tank.
Example
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
12

Calculate the power requirement for compressed air purge for a 200
hp compressor generating 840 scfm of compressed air if the
compressor generates 4 scfm/hp.
Assuming the efficiency of the motor is 90%, the power required for
purging the desiccant in an unheated purge-type dryer would be
about:
840 scfm x 15% / 4.2 scfm/hp / 90% x 0.75 kW/hp = 25 kW
25,000 W / 840 scfm = 30 W/scfm
This example shows that the drying power requirement or compressed air
purge is about 30 W /scfm. This is about five times as much electricity as a
refrigerated dryer would use; thus, desiccant dryers should be used only in
applications that require very dry air.
In heated compressed air purge, about 7% of the dry air leaving the left
desiccant tank is expanded, then heated by electrical resistance heaters to
about 375 F, and then directed downward through the right tank to purge
moisture from the tank. According to product literature, heating requires about
7 W /scfm. Thus, the total power required for heated compressed air purge
drying is about 22 W /scfm.
In heated blower purge, a blower supplies ambient air to an electric resistance
heater that heats the air to about 375 F. The heated air is directed downward
through the right tank to purge moisture from the tank. According to product
literature, blowers require about 3 W/scfm and heaters require about 13 W
/scfm. Thus, the total power required for heated blower purge drying is about
16 W /scfm.
The purge cycles are initiated by a timer or by a humidity sensor that
determines the whether the on-line tower has additional adsorptive capacity.
Timers are generally set to handle peak conditions when the air is the most
humid. In many parts of the country, the summer air contains 4 more times
more humidity than winter air; thus, timed cycles typically use for more
energy for purging than is necessary during much of the year.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

13

Condensate Drains

As compressed air cools, water vapor can condense out of the air and should
be removed from the compressed air system through drains. Condensate
drains should be located:

After the after cooler

Underneath the receiver tank
At low points in the system
After filters, regulators and other devices that result in a large pressure
drop.

Condensate is typically removed from compressed air systems by timedsolenoid or demand- activated drains. Timed-solenoid drains are controlled by
a solenoid valve on a timer that opens at a prescribed interval to discharge
condensate. Although simple, reliable and inexpensive, timed solenoid drains
typically discharge excess compressed air because the timer is typically set for
peak condensate conditions during hot and humid summer months. Demandactivated drains function like steam traps and remove condensate only when
needed.
If the condensate removal system does not function properly, cocks may be
left partially open so water doesnt accumulate in the compressed air lines.
This is a major waste of energy. The dryer and condensate drains should be
inspected, evaluated, and repaired or replaced.

Filters, Regulators and Lubricators

Filters, regulators and lubricators are frequently located in a grouped F-R-L

sequence. The filter removes particulates entrained in the compressed air and
may have a trap or drain at the bottom. Filter cartridges should be replaced
when the pressure drop across the filter exceeds about 7 psig. According to a
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
14

compressed air service company, a filter cartridge for a filter on a 1-inch line
passing about 170 scfm costs about $30 and takes about 10 minutes to
replace. Most filters have float drains that open to discharge condensate
when the condensate level reaches a set point in the filter. The seats on these
drains can become damaged or dirty allowing compressed air to continually
leak through the drain. According to a compressed air service company,
replacement float drain assemblies cost about $18 and take about 10 minutes
to replace. According to a compressed air service company, a good
preventative maintenance program would replace filter cartridges about every
1 year or 8,000 hours of service.
Regulators reduce downstream air pressure. Regulators have pressure gauges
and valves to adjust the downstream pressure.
Lubricators add lubricating oil. Lubricators look like filters, but have a clear
bubble or screw assembly on top for adding oil.
F-R-L groups are common locations for leaks and should be inspected
regularly. In addition, if the all machines in a plant or area use regulators to
reduce air pressure, it would save energy and compressor wear and tear to
reduce the operating pressure of the compressor instead of reducing line
pressure with regulators.

Distribution System
The air distribution system includes headers, branch lines, hoses, valves and
fittings. The distribution system should be designed so that the total pressure
drop from the compressor to the farthest air-using machine is no more than 10
psi. Large headers serve both to minimize pressure drop and increase
storage. The most efficient layout utilizes a loop design for the header pipe
and a single compressor entry location. Typical rules for sizing compressed air
distribution lines are:
Main line: size from average cfm to get P < 3 psi
Branch line: size from cfm peak to get P < 3psi
Feed lines: size from peak cfm to get P < 1 psi
Hose: can generate P = 4 to 5 psi (proper selection of hoses is important!)
In addition, it is important to connect multiple compressors into the system
using a piping design which does not cause excess turbulence. For example,
the diagram below shows 10 psig of unnecessary pressure drop caused by a
straight T-connection between compressors. The pressure drop could be
eliminated using curved or 45-degree connections.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

15

Pneumatic Tools

Most pneumatic tools are designed to operate at 90 psig. Operating at a

higher pressure shortens tool life. Operating at a lower pressure may
compromise the ability of the tool to perform its task.

Low-Pressure Blowers

Low pressure blowers provide compressed air at pressures up to 20 psig using

much less electrical power than traditional air compressors, which generate 45 scfm/hp when compressing air to 100 psig. For example, a positive
displacement blower requires 43 bhp to provide 310 scfm at 20 psig, and 17.7
bhp to provide 423 scfm at 5 psig. The The specific capacities (scfm/hp) at
these operating conditions are:
20 psig: 310 scfm / 43 hp = 7.2 scfm /hp
5 psig: 423 scfm / 17.7 hp = 24 scfm /hp

Compressor Sizing

The determine the required output capacity of a compressor, find the sum of
the scfm requirements of all the individual equipment, add 10% for leakage,
and then size the compressor to meet this load. As an example, consider the
following case:

Tool Type

Number
Tools
10

scfm/to
ol
20

Diversity
factor
20%

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

16

Total
scfm
200

Average
scfm
40

A
Tool Type
B
Total

10

40%

15

50

20

250

60

Most compressors deliver about 4 scfm per brake hp. Sizing for the average
and peak loads results in very different compressors:
Average load: 60 scfm / 4 scfm/hp = 15 hp
Peak load: 250 scmf / 4 scfm/hp = 60 hp
This example demonstrates why compressors are regularly oversized.
Oversizing compressors typically results in large first costs and large operating
costs since many compressors have poor part-load efficiencies. Partial
solutions to the part-load dilemma are:

Size AC for average load, but add storage capacity in system for peaks.
Buy multiple smaller compressors so the baseload compressor is
generally fully loaded and the part-load penalty is small for the trim
compressor. This also adds redundancy for machine failure and
servicing.
Buy a variable-speed compressor or reciprocating compressor with
excellent part-load efficiency.

Inside-Out Approach to Energy Efficient Compressed Air

Application of the whole-system inside-out approach leads to the greatest
savings for the least first cost. First, develop a baseline of the current
compressed air system. Next, minimize end-uses of compressed air. Next,
investigate the distribution system for leaks and excess pressure drops.
Finally, investigate the compressors and dryers for energy saving
opportunities.
Minimize End Uses Of Compressed Air
Is compressed air the best source of power for the job?
Use blowers instead of compressed air.
Use valves and sensors to shut of compressed air when not needed
Use Venturi nozzles that amplify flow by up to 20 to 1 to reduce compressed
air flow.

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

17

Fix Leaks In The Distribution System

Leaks are expensive! Most compressed air systems lose between 5% and 20%
of compressed air to leaks. We recommend inspecting the compressed-air
system for leaks once a week by listening for leaks when all machinery is off
except the air compressor.

Tagged compressed air leak.

To estimate leakage rates from compressed air systems at 100 psig, we use
the following table.
Equivalent Hole
Leakage Rate
Diameter
scfm
1/64 "
0.25
1/32 "
0.99
1/16 "
3.96
1/8 "
15.86
1/4 "
63.44
3/8 "
142.74
Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.
The values in this table were computed from the S.A. Moss equation (IngersollRand Condensed Air Power Data, 1998)
W(lb/s) = 0.5303 x A (in2) x C x P (psia) /

T (R)

where C = 0.97 for a smooth edged hole and C = 0.61 for a sharp edged
orifice. The equation can be modified to show air leakage in standard cubic
feet per minute at T = 70 F = 530 R and the density of air at 70 F is 0.7494
lb/ft3 such that:

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

18

530( R ) x 0.07494
V (scfm) = 0.5303 x / 4 x [D (in)]2 x 0.61 x P (psia) / [
lb/ft3] x 60 s/min
V (scfm) = 8.8356 x [D (in)]2 x P (psia)
Example:
Calculate the annual electricity cost savings from fixing a leak if a) the
compressor is a reciprocating compressor, and b) the compressor is a screw
compressor running in modulation mode.
Input Data:
Leak: single 1/16-inch diameter
Compressor that uses 0.25 hp per scfm of compressed air
Compressor runs 8,000 hours per year
Electricity costs $0.06 /kWh.
Motor efficiency = 90%
FP0 for reciprocating compressor = 0.0
FP0 for screw compressor with modulation control = 0.70
Calculations:
Unadjusted: 4 scfm x 0.25 hp/scfm x 0.75 kW/hp / 90% x 8,000 hr/yr x $0.06
/kWh = $400 /yr
Adjustment for part-load efficiency: = Unadjusted savings x (1-FP0)
Savings for reciprocating compressor = $400 /yr x (1 - 0.00) = $400 /yr
Savings for screw compressor with modulation control = $400 /yr x (1 - 0.70)
= $120 /yr
Use Outside Air For Compression
Theory
W = m cp (T2 - T1)
For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)k
W = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1]
Fraction savings = (WT1high - WT1low) / WT1high
Fraction savings = (T1high - T1low) / T1high
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback from compressing outside air instead of
indoor air.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo
Avoided cost of energy = $0.02
/kWh
50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480
V.
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
19

Compress outside air if inside air = 90 F when outside air = 65 F and avg
outside air = 50 F
Cost of 16 ft of 3" PVC pipe w/ fg insulation = $50 + (4 hr x $25 /hr labor) =
$150
Calculations:

3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Wunloaded = 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Waverage = (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
Wloaded = 53 A x 480 V x

Tout = 65 F, Tin = 90 F, dT = 90 65 = 25 F = constant

Toa,avg = 50 F hence T1lo = 50 F, T1high = 75 F
Fraction savings = [(75 + 460) R (50 + 460) R ] / (75 + 460) R = 4.7%
Wloaded,new = 37 kW x (1-0.047) =35.3 kW
Waverage,new = (60% x 35.3 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.6 kW
Demand savings = 33 kW 31.6 kW = 1.4 kW
Demand savings = 1.4 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $246 /yr
Usage savings = 1.4 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $140 /yr
Total savings: $246 /yr + $140 /yr = $386 /yr
Simple payback = $150 / $386 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 5 months
Reduce Operating Pressure
Theory
W = m cp (T2 - T1)
For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)k k = 0.2857 for isentropic expansion
of air
W = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1]
Fraction savings = (WPhigh - WPlow) / WPhigh = [(P2high/P1)k - (P2low/P1)k] / [(P2high/P1)k 1]
Fraction savings = (P2highk - P2lowk) / (P2highk - P1k)
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback from reducing operating pressure.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo
Avoided cost of energy = $0.02
/kWh
50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480
V.
Reduce pressure from 110 psig to 100 psig

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Calculations:

3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
Percent full-load power when unloaded: 26 kW / 37 kW = 70%
Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x

P1 = 14.7 psia
P2high = 110 psig + 14.7 psi = 124.7 psia
P2low = 100 psig + 14.7 psi = 114.7 psia
Fraction savings: (3.9700 3.8763) / (3.9700 2.1553) = 5.1%
Loaded power, new: 37 kW x (1-0.051) = 35.1 kW
Average power, new: (60% x 35.1 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.5 kW
Demand savings: 33 kW 31.5 kW = 1.5 kW
Demand savings: 1.5 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $263 /yr
Usage savings: 1.5 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $150 /yr
Total savings: $263 /yr + $150 /yr = $413 /yr
Implementation cost: none
Simple payback: immediate
Reduce Unloaded Run Time
Rotary screw, centrifugal and some reciprocating compressors run
continuously, but only add air to the compressed air system when the
pressure of the system is between the activation pressures (typically 100 psig
to 110 psig). When a compressor is running, but not adding compressed air to
the system, it is said to be unloaded. Unfortunately, rotary screw compressors
typically draw between 50% and 70% of full-load power even when running
unloaded. Thus, there is a huge energy penalty for running unloaded.
The fraction of time a compressor runs unloaded is determined by the
relationship between the capacity of the compressor and the demand for
compressed air. If the compressor is under or properly sized, it will run loaded
most of the time. If a compressor is oversized for the load, it will quickly raise
the pressure to the upper bound of the activation pressure and then run
unloaded for an extended period of time.
There are two primary strategies for minimizing the time that compressors run
unloaded. The first is simply to purchase or operate a smaller compressor. In
our experience, this is frequently cost effective whenever a compressor is
loaded less than half the time.
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for replacing 50-hp screw compressor
with 25-hp reciprocating compressor.

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21

Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo
Avoided cost of energy =
$0.02 /kWh
50-hp screw compressor generates 4 scfm/hp and runs 2,250 hr/yr
Loaded 10 sec and unloaded 35 sec.
Loaded = 71 Amps PF = 0.84 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 Volts
Unloaded = 45 Amps PF = 0.78 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 Volts
Calculations:
Compressor loaded 10 sec / 45 sec = 25% of the time, thus compressor is
oversized.
Loaded power: 71 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.84 kW/kVA = 49.6 kW
Unloaded power: 45 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.78 kW/kVA = 29.2 kW
Average power: (25% x 49.6 kW) + (75% x 29.2 kW) = 34.3 kW
Annual elec: 34.3 kW x 2,250 hr/yr = 77,175 kWh/yr
Percent full-load power when unloaded: 29.2 kW / 49.6 kW = 59%
Power output at full load: 49.6 kW x 90% eff / .75 kW/hp = 59.5 hp
Service Factor: 59.5 hp / 50 hp = 1.19
Average compressed air output: 59.5 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 25% = 59.5 scfm
Percent time loaded for 25-hp recip to supply same output:
59.5 scfm / (25 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 60%
25-hp recip power: 25 hp x .75 kW/hp / 88.5% = 21.2 kW
25-hp recip elec: 21.2 kW x 60% x 2,250 hr/yr = 28,620 kWh/yr
Demand savings: (34.3 kW 21.2 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr =
$2,298 /yr
Elec savings: (77,175 kWh/yr 28,620 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $971 /yr
Total savings: $2,298 /yr + $971 /yr = $3,269 /yr
Cost of 25-hp air cooled recip: $7,000
Simple payback = $7,000 / $3,269 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 26 months
The second strategy for reducing the time that compressors run unloaded is to
stage multiple compressors so that unneeded compressors are turned off
when not needed, rather than running unloaded. To stage multiple
compressors, set the lower activation pressure of the baseload compressor a
few psi higher than the lower activation pressure of the lag compressor.
Additional lag compressors should activate at increasingly lower pressures.
For example, the baseload compressor may be set at 105 psig, the first
lag compressor at 103 psig and the second lag compressor at 101 psig. If
the compressors are staged in this manner, the lag compressors never load
unless the baseload compressor cannot meet the plants demand for air.
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
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This alone, will not result in energy savings since the lag compressors will
continue to run unloaded while drawing a significant fraction of full-load
power. However, most compressors have a sleep or automatic mode in
which the compressor will turn off if it runs unloaded for 5 or 10 minutes.
Staging activation pressures and setting the compressors to run in sleep
mode can dramatically reduce energy use while delivering the same system
performance. This can be done manually or using dedicated compressor
control equipment, which can also be programmed to rotate baseload duty.
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for running 30-hp reciprocating as base
compressor instead of 50-hp screw compressor.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo
Avoided cost of energy =
$0.02 /kWh
Compressors generate 4 scfm/hp and run 6,000 hr/yr
Current: primary comp is 50-hp screw with 30-hp reciprocating backup.
50-hp cycle time: 5 minutes loaded and 10 minutes unloaded
Fraction time loaded: 5 min / 15 min = 33%
Recommend: baseload 30-hp and run 50-hp in automatic mode as lag for
peaks
Loaded power = 61 Amps x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 42.6 kW
Unloaded power = 44 Amps x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 28.5 kW
Average power: (33.3% x 42.6 kW) + (66.6% x 28.5 kW) = 33.2 kW
Annual energy: 33.2 kW x 6,000 hr/yr = 199,200 kWh/yr
Power output at full load: 42.6 kW x 90% eff / 0.75 kW/hp = 51.1 hp
Service Factor: 51.1 hp / 50 hp = 1.02
Average compressed air output: 51.1 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 33% = 67.5 scfm
Percent time loaded for 30-hp recip to supply same output:
67.5 scfm / (30 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 56%
30-hp recip power: 30 hp x .75 kW/hp / 89% eff = 25.3 kW
30-hp recip elec: 25.3 kW x 56% x 6,000 hr/yr = 85,008 kWh/yr
Demand savings: (33.2 kW 25.3 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr =
$1,386 /yr
Elec savings: (199,200 kWh/yr 85,008 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $2,284 /yr
Total savings if 50-hp lag never loads: $1,386 /yr + $2,284 /yr = $3,670 /yr
Total savings if 50-hp lag loads and increases demand: $2,284 /yr
Implementation cost: none
Simple payback = immediate
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
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Use Cooling Air For Space Heating

Adiabatic compression of air to 100 psig results in outlet air temperatures of
350 F to 500 F. When the air is cooled to room temperature, about 80% of the
work added to the air is removed as waste heat. In air-cooled compressors,
the temperature of the exiting cooling air is typically between 80 F and 120 F
and can be used for space heating or other low-temperature heating
applications. To use this heat for space heating, we recommend equipping aircooled compressors with ducts and dampers to direct warm air from
compressor into the plant during winter and out of the plant during summer.
This damper system would also keep the compressor room cool, thereby
increasing the lifetime and efficiency of the compressor.
The net amount of heat added to a plant from an air compressor that is
currently exhausting the cooling air depends on the way the air compressor is
ventilated. For example, consider the two scenarios below where warm air
from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant.
The first scenario is shown below. Figure 1A is the current ventilation in which
outside air is brought to the compressor then exhausted to the outside during
winter. Figures 1B and 1C show two possible ways of changing the ventilation
system to use heat from the compressor to reduce the space cooling load. In
Figure 1B, outside air is still used for cooling, and then directed into the plant.
Figure 1C shows an alternate system with no outside air.

Qc

Qc

Qc

Figure 1A, 1B and 1C. 1A is the current ventilation, 1B is proposed ventilation

using outside air, and 1C is proposed ventilation with no outside air.
If the compressor cooling air is currently coming from the outside and is
exhausted to the outside as in Case 1A, then the net heat from the air
compressor to the plant is zero. If the proposed ventilation system is to
Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
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continue to draw cooling air from outside and then direct the warm air into the
plant, as in 1B, then the net heat into the plant, Qnet, is
Qnet = Qc [V x pcp x (Tp To)]
where pcp is the product of air density and specific heat (0.018 Btu/ft3-F), V is
the volume flow rate of cooling air through the compressor, Qc is the heat
from the compressor, Tp is the temperature of air in the plant ad To is the
outside air temperature. The second term in this expression, V x pcp x (Tp
To), is a penalty for bringing more cold outside air into the plant. Depending
on the outside and plant air temperatures, this penalty could exceed Qc, in
which case the ventilation system would actually be increasing space heating
requirements. The preferred system is shown in 1C. In this case, no additional
outside air is brought into the plant and the Qnet heat gain from the
compressor is simply Qc.
Another scenario where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted
from the plant is shown below. In Figure 2A, cooling air is supplied from inside
the plant then exhausted to the outdoors. The recommended system is shown
in Figure 2B, where plant air is recirculated through the compressor.

Qc

Qc

Figure 2A and 2B. 2A is the current ventilation system, and 2B is the proposed
ventilation system that recirculates plant air through the compressor.
In Figure 2A, the compressor is actually adding to the space heating load by
increasing infiltration into the plant. The net space heating energy loss is:
Qloss = V x pcp x (Tp To)
If the ventilation system were changed to B, then the net heating energy gain
would be the sum of the heat added by the compressor, Qc, and the
elimination of the previous loss.
Qnet = Qc + [V x pcp x (Tp To)]

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

25

Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for using heat from air compressor to
displace space heating.
Input Data:
50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 V
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time
Initial ventilation as in 1A and proposed as in 1C.
Assume can capture 70% of input energy for space heat for 2,500 hr/yr
Natural gas costs $7 /mmBtu and gas furnace is 80% efficient
Calculations:

3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x

Space heat: 33 kW x 70% x 2,500 hr/yr x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 197 mmBtu/yr

Gas cost savings: 197 mmBtu/yr / 80% x $7 /mmBtu = $1,724 /yr
Implementation cost for ducts and dampers: $1,000
Simple payback: $1,000 / $1,724 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 7 months

References
1) Compressed Air Systems, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.
2) Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.
3) Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

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