Human Universals, Human Nature &Human Culture

Author(s): Donald E. Brown

Source: Daedalus, Vol. 133, No. 4, On Human Nature (Fall, 2004), pp. 47-54
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences
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E. Brown

Donald

Human

human nature

universals,

& human culture

dreds have been

those

of which hun
consist of
identified

universals

JLluman

features

of culture, society, lan

and mind
behavior,
that, so far as
guage,
are found
the record has been examined,
among all peoples known to ethnogra
some
phy and history. After presenting
of the basic conceptions
and problems
such
universals
per se their
concerning
kinds and causes and the methodologi
that
cal and disciplinary
considerations
have shaped their study -1 will explore
some of the issues in how human univer
sals relate

to human

nature

and human

culture.

In
Iwill begin with some examples.
the cultural realm, human universals
include myths,
legends, daily routines,
rules, concepts of luck and precedent,
and the use and pro
body adornment,
duction of tools ; in the realm of lan
include grammar, pho
guage, universals
nemes,

polysemy,

metonymy,

antonyms,

Donald E. Brown isprofessor emeritus of anthro

pology at theUniversity of California, Santa Bar
bara. His books include "Hierarchy,History, and
Human Nature: The Social Origins of Historical
Consciousness" (1988) and "Human Universals"
(i99i)
? 2004 by the American
& Sciences

Academy

of Arts

and an inverse ratio between

quency of use and the length

the fre
of words

;
include a
realm, universals
of labor, social groups, age grad
division
the
systems, ethno
ing,
family, kinship
centrism, play, exchange,
cooperation,
in the behavioral
and reciprocity;
realm,
in the social

universals

include aggression,
and
facial expressions;
gossip,
realm of the mind, universals

gestures,
in the
include

dichotomous
emotions,
thinking, wari
ness around or fear of snakes,
empathy,
and psychological
defense mechanisms.
do not fall neatly in
Many universals
to one or another of these conventional
ter
realms, but cut across them. Kinship
set
terms
the
of
(in English,
minologies
that includes
'brother,'
'father,' 'mother,'
are
'sister,' 'cousin,' etc.)
simultaneously
social, cultural, and linguistic. The con
is social and cultural.
cept of property
Revenge

is both behavioral

and social.

and conversational

Lying
turn-taking
are
behavioral,
social,
simultaneously
and linguistic. Many behavioral
univer
sals almost certainly have distinctive,
even dedicated,
neural underpinnings,
too.
and thus are universals
of mind
A distinction

that
among universals
in
figures large
anthropological
thought
is that between
'emic' and 'etic' These
terms
(derived from the linguistic
and
'phonemic'
'phonetic')
distinguish

words

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47

Donald
Brown
on
human
nature

E.

that are overtly or consciously

own cultural
in a people's
represented
from
features
that are pres
conceptions
ent but not a part of the overt or con
features

scious

local cultural conceptions.

Thus
a
every people has
language with gram
mar, but not all peoples have an overt
cultural

representation

of the idea of
is an

etc. ;everyone
classi
er,' 'part/whole,'
fies ;everyone has likes and dislikes.
to distinguish
between
It is important
kinds of universals.
The formally dis
tinct kinds include absolute universals,
near universals,
conditional
universals,
statistical

universals,

and universal

grammar. Merely
having grammar
as
etic fact. If it is culturally represented
an
too.
it
is
emic
then
fact
well,
Etically,
everyone has a blood type, but the cul

pools.
The universals

tural practice of distinguishing

between
blood types (as in the case of those Jap
anese beliefs that link blood type with
marital
is far from uni
compatibility)

and history. A near univer

ethnography
is one for which
there
contrast,
sal, by
are some few known
or for
exceptions
which
there is reason to think there

versal.
much

are
Emic universals
probably
rarer than etic universals.

into yet
subdivide
Many universals
and
others. Thus tools are a universal,
so too are some
of
tools
kinds
general
cutters, containers,
etc.). The
(pounders,
is a univer
facial expression
of emotion
sal, and so too are smiles, frowns, and
other particular
expressions.
are or seem to
some universals
While
are
be relatively
simple, others
complex.
and romantic
love are
Ethnocentrism
:both are best understood
as
examples
or
rather
than
complexes
syndromes
or behaviors.
simple traits
have a collective
rath
Many universals
er than individual
referent. Thus music
and dance are found in all societies, but
not all individuals
dance or make music.
are found in all
Yet other universals
some
individuals,
(normal)
although
times only in one sex or the other or in
ev
age ranges. Thus women
particular
in child-care
and
erywhere predominate
on average are younger
than their mates.
Children
acquire language
everywhere
with prodigious
skill, but adults do not.
On the other hand, above the age of in
fancy everyone
such elementary
'not,'

'and,'

'or,'

48 D

employs

gestures

logical

concepts

'kind

of,'

and
as

'greater/less

I listed at the start of

this essay are absolute universals
they
are found among all
to
peoples known

Fire making
might be some exceptions.
are near uni
and keeping domestic
dogs
versals, as there are good reports of a
very few peoples who used fire but did
not know how to make
it, or who did not
are described
traits
possess dogs. Many
as 'universal or
to ex
nearly universal'
sam
press a note of caution
(given the
to
be
described
below).
pling problems
or
Thus the emphasis
of percussion
instruments
and
of
the
deep-noted
and black in rituals
red, white,
the world
should probably be
as
described
'universal or nearly univer
colors

around
sal.'

A conditional
an
implicational
: if a
universal

universal
universal)

(also called
is an if-then

is
condition
particular
ac
then the trait in question
always
are
it.
Such
universals
analo
companies
of
gous to the facultative
adaptations

met,

evolutionary
biology, of which
callusing
:not all individuals
is an example
have
friction
calluses, but if there is sustained
on
locations of the hand, say,
particular
then calluses develop. An example from
is that
culture of a conditional
universal
if there is a cultural preference
for one
hand over the other, then itwill be the
(as inWest
right hand that is preferred
ern culture, where
the right hand is used

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It is the
in greetings
and taking oaths).
rule or underlying
causal mechanism
in such cases.
that is the real universal
A statistical universal
is one that may
universal but that
be far from absolutely
occurs in unrelated
societies at a rate
that seems well above chance. An exam
name different
ple is the
peoples give to
the pupil of the eye. In a surprisingly
it
large number of unrelated
languages,
is a term that refers to a little person
the
;
for this is the com
apparent explanation
mon experience
of seeing a small reflec
tion of oneself

in other people's
eyes.
of a stretch to

it is something
Although
think of such phenomena

for them
the explanation
from cultural particularities
universal
experience.

as universals,
is drawn not
but from

pool refers to those situa

a limited set of options
the possible
variations
from

in which

exhausts

one society

to another.

The

in each distinct

language.

An

analysis
showed that a quite
ship terminologies
accounts
contrasts
small set of semantic
in kin terms in all or
for the differences
(a few further con
nearly all societies
trasts have been added since).1 Examples
of the semantic contrasts are sex, which
distinguishes
'father' from

'brother'
'mother,'

Relationship,
cal Institute

Systems

: 77 - 84.

in studying even a sin

this range of problems will

involved

gle society,

about what

is common

to two

:one's own mod

societies
highly
ern
a
and
uncontacted
society
previously
society. Austra
highland New Gui?ean
lian prospectors

took the footage for this

in
the
1930s, when
documentary
they
were the first outsiders
to enter a high
and isolated valley.2 The differences
be
tween the Australians
and the isolated

al charge
uniquely
identify

of

"
Journal of theRoyal Anthropologi

39 (1909)

the costs

trace to cultural borrowing.

In spite of anthropology's

from 'sister,'
etc. ;and genera

"Classificatory

descriptions
provided by
at widely
sometimes
observers,
con
in
time.
intervals
the
Thus
spaced
one
can
in
fidence
have
claims
particular
is quite variable. Given
of universality
different

much of which would be difficult to

limi
JLhere are severe methodological
tations on what can be known about uni
versals in general. No one can really
L. Kroeber,

the original

were

are
New Guineans
striking, and yet the
two groups also have a lot in common,

'son' from
tion, which distinguishes
etc.
'father,' 'father' from 'grandfather,'

i Alfred

in part because

be desired,
reports or

diverse

of kin

early-twentieth-century

been

a real or
alleged universal has
to
often leaves much
described

servations

international

phonetic
alphabet, which does not really
cover all the
nonetheless
possibilities,
serves to express the idea : it consists of
a finite
set of speech sounds or
possible
a selection
sound contrasts,
from which
is found

which

persist.
it should be noted that a
However,
as small as two societies - so
sample
long
as
are very different - can be
they
highly
Thus one can view the docu
suggestive.
film First Contact and make ob
mentary

A universal
tions

so
in all societies,
the conditions
statement
is
about
any
universality
In most
based on some sort of sampling.
cases this
not
has
been
sampling
rigor
ous. Furthermore,
the precision with
know

profession
to study all cultures, which
to both
the discipline
qualifies
some an
and verify universals,

practices have not been

to
the study of universals.
congenial
attention
has
Notably,
anthropological
been riveted more
differences
surely by
societies
between
than by their com
thropological

2 The

making

of

in Bob

Connolly
tact: New Guinea
side World

is described

this documentary
and Robin
Anderson,

First

Encounter

Highlanders
:
York
Penguin,

(New

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1987).

49

Con

the Out

Human
universals,
human
nature &
human
culture

Donald
Brown
on
human
nature

E.

monalities.
tended

has
that attention
or mani

Moreover,
to be limited

to surface

to
fest universals,
those readily available
or
their
observation
readily expressed by
have tend
Innate universals
informants.
ed to be neglected
(in extreme cases,
their existence was even denied). This
was to a
large extent overt and
neglect
to follow

seeming
principled,
from the view of culture

logically
that anthropol
much of the

ogists held throughout

twentieth
century, a view that seemed
to be supported by exaggerated
(and in
some cases false) reports of the extraor
cultures both dif
dinary extent to which
fer from one another and yet decisively
a view that was
shape human behavior,
construed

to indicate

that there must

be

features of the hu
few, if any, universal
man mind. As a result, the
anthropologi
has been spotty at
cal study of universals
nor
neither
unified
best,
by theory
by
is
There
thus
sustained
ample
inquiry.
reason to suspect that a great many uni
have yet to be identified.
to anthropologists,
psy
have
been much more open
chologists
to the discovery
universal
of presumably
features of the human mind. But only

versals

In contrast

conducted
rarely have psychologists
their research outside the modernized
Western

so

world,

the

cross-cultural

va

numerous mental
lidity of the
and traits they have identified
been

in doubt.

Some

processes
has often
re
cross-cultural

search has indeed

shown that psycholog

think are
that one might
ical phenomena
the
unaffected
by cultural differences
of certain optical illusions,
perception
- are in
fact not universal.
for example

of physical
structure,
operation,
the human mind.
reflection

Some universals
(the well-authenticat
are
ed examples
tool making,
the use of
fire, and cooking food) seem to have
existed in the very earliest human popu
lations and to have spread with humans
to all their subsequent
habitats.3
As for the cultural reflection
of physi
I
the
cal facts,
have already mentioned
as
case of terms for the
pupil of the eye,
as the cultural

for the
preference
which
reflects
the
hand,
right
probably
observation
that in all societies most
are
I have also
people
right-handed.
kin
mentioned
terms, which
everywhere
created through
reflect the relationships
sexual reproduction
sib
parent-child,
as
and
marital/mate
relationships,
ling,
of these
well as the various compounds

well

Kin terms often include

relationships.
or
more
sometimes
than,
partially omit,
what such relationships
entail, but in
every language there is a substantial
of the locally named
(emic)
mapping
onto
the
actual
(etic) kin
relationships
In all these cases, the
relationships.
'world out there,' so to say, is reflected
in the cultural conceptions
of each peo
- even
vary
though the reflections
ple
in many ways from one society to an
other.

are those universals

Finally, there
causes lie more or less
in
whose
directly
or that
the nature of the human mind,
are features

of the human

ter in turn trace causally

tionary past of humanity
These

universals

of mind

mind.

The

lat

to the evolu
as a species.
amore
require

discussion.

extended
small number of causal
relatively
or
conditions
appears to
processes
account for most
if not all universals.
or conditions
are : 1) the
These processes

facts; and 3) the

of
and evolution

i\

diffusion
useful,

of ancient, and generally very

cultural traits; 2) the cultural
SOD

3 It is sometimes
beliefs

that

times

earliest
useful,

but

to expose

suggested
been with

have

there

are

from

some
the

are
they
obviously
little or nothing
there was
and thus to hinder
their
falsity

not

because

because
their

that
humans

spread.

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what was

Recalling

said earlier

about

The

it should be
differences,
disciplinary
noted that those sociocultural
anthro
are most
to doc
who
pologists
qualified
are not as a rule well
ument universals
to explain them. By training,
qualified
most
are
sociocultural
anthropologists
nor
neither psychologists
But
biologists.
and
psy
evolutionary
psychobiology
are crucial in
chology surely
explaining
many

innate universals

(and in provid
in the search for further

ing guidance
such universals).
is sim
The reasoning
:
is
constant
whatever
ple
through all hu
man societies must be due to
something
that goes with people wherever
they go ;
that would
include human na
certainly
ture - and
and evolution
psychobiology
are the tools for under
ary psychology
standing

human

nature.

binary discriminations,
classification,
elementary
defense
logical concepts,
psychological
or
ethnocentrism
mechanisms,
in-group
as amechanism
for
bias, and reciprocity
one
to
individuals
another.
bonding

are

ing mechanism,
thinking about

tions from

the apparent
Among
the latter mechanism

human
culture

most anthropolo
the sentiments

long recognized
as
generated by kinship and reciprocity
a
but they only received
sound
universal,
theoretical
when
evolu
understanding
their cru
illuminated
tionary biologists
cial role in providing
Darwinian

solutions
of how

puzzle

to the
could

altruism

evolve.

The determination

and causal

of innate universals,
illuminated
by evolutionary

nation

expla
or

predicted
is

theory,
area in the
at present. But a pur

active

in the other direction

too : since it fol
underway
lows that features of human nature must
a continuous
and pervasive
provide
human
of
structuring
thought and activ
and
hence
of
ity
society, culture, and
much
variation
however
history,
they
the findings of psychobiology
exhibit
and evolutionary
have clear
psychology

for

breaking
into the universal
elements
are
they
compounds.

projec
is a

inmales
for skin colors in
preference
females that are lighter than the observ
able average (because
in the past relative
lightness of skin correlated with female
fecundity).

gists

analysis

mechanism

taboo. Similarly,

for sociocultural
implications
too. In the next section Iwill

'human kinds,' and a

mecha
facial-template-constructing
nism that averages the facial features in
as a baseline
the observable
population
calibration
from which
of
optimums
attractiveness
for each sex and age are
calculated.

incest

in

a social-cheater-detect

amental

universals,
human
nature &

phenomenon
in many animal species as well as hu
mans - is an evolution-minded
rethink
ing of what had long been one of the
most
and prototyp
discussed
frequently
: the
cultural
human
universals
ically

is vigorously

emotions,

propositions

Human

suit of causation

or

the universals
formulated
Among
more
(and more
recently
tentatively)
the light of psychological-evolutionary

- a
of incest avoidance
now shown to be present

the most
probably
of
universals
study

of universals
of psyche or
Examples
mind
that have been identified
through
broad cross-cultural
studies are dichot
omization

concept

particulars
discuss
or
that involves partitioning
down sociocultural
particulars

now
turning
Iwill
universals,
that presumably

to culture

In

ancient

of which

in relation

to

ignore those universals

are cultural (such as the

and useful

inventions

and the

cultural reflections)
and will focus in
on
or may be innate
are
those that
stead
universals.
'universals' will
Hereinafter,
refer to those only.
Anthropologists
usually define culture
in terms that distinguish
it from nature,
D

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51

Donald
Brown
on
human
nature

E.

:culture

contrast

in radical

often

nature. Definitions

versus

of culture

generally
stress patterns of behavior,
thought, feel
on extra are
ing, and artifact that
passed
to individ
from individual
somatically

to gener
ual, group to group, generation
ation
that are not in
patterns
meaning
our genes, patterns
that must be learned.
In this vein, culture has often been asso
ciated with variability,
indeterminacy,
arbitrariness
all in contrast to the fixity
of nature.

no human

tually

views, there is vir

nature :culture is the

In extreme

of human
determinant
overwhelming
can
little
and
be
with
studied
behavior,
or no attention
to the human mind.
of culture correctly
definitions
a continuous
intermixing
acknowledge
of culture with nature. The philosopher
Other

for exam

David

Bidney,
anthropologist
at least
ple, argued that culture should,
in part, be understood
"as the dynamic
process and product of the self-cultiva
tion of human nature."4 Others
speak of
as
a
that is,
culture within nature
prod
uct of human nature. Some see culture
as a control or correction
of certain fea
tures of human nature.
culture as an extension
mind

and body.
is good

Yet others see

of the human

cultural

everything
to insist on either culture or nature as the
source as it is to insist that water
is either
hydrogen
But how
nature

or oxygen.
can the constants

be reconciled

with

of human
the manifest

of cultures or, for that matter,

variability
of human
with the manifest
variability
Let me give five answers.
behavior?
of human
First, in any discussion
nature a particularly
crucial distinction
must be made between
and ef
functions

function may have side ef

particular
fects or by-products.
Thus, the shape of
to gather
the outer ear was designed
sound waves

but may also be used to

support glasses or pencils. The anthro
has pro
pologist Lawrence Hirschfeld
on the basis of
evi
posed,
experimental
a
is
in
the
that
there
mechanism
dence,
to processing
human mind dedicated
information

on human

types,

(1947)-.387.

in conditions
racial dif
where
was
ever
if
rarely
perceived
our Stone
(due to the short distances
it
could have traveled),
Age ancestors
evolved

ferentiation

has left the human

mind effectively
'pre
races in particular

to think about

pared'
ways. Thus racial thinking has flourished
a
it 'parasitizes'
in recent times because
for other
mechanism
that was designed
Human
numerous

the Cul
49

are
mechanisms
which pre
and their effects
include a great many emergent
mental

sumably
from the interac
properties
stemming
tion of the various
individual mecha
- are
nisms
infinite or
either potentially

infinitely divisible. In spite of the infinity

of possible behavioral
effects, the mech
:
anisms leave traces of their existence
some are relatively obvious
in
the
(as
some
of
smiles
and
frowns),
uniformity
possess
irregularity
enough observable
to fuel the nature-nurture
sex differences),

with many

A. Hirschfeld,
and

Culture,
Cognition,
Human
Kinds
(Cambridge,

Race
the Child's
Mass.

1996).

52 D

such as

kin types, the sexes, and occupational

must have
this mechanism
types.5 While

5 Lawrence
and
"Human
Nature
Bidney,
American
Process,"
Anthropologist

4 David
tural

mechanisms

the human mind,

and that
that comprise
are thus fundamental
to human nature,
were
to
designed
by natural selection
were re
solve particular
that
problems
current in our evolutionary
past and that
are
in
How
finite
number.
presumably
to
ever, amechanism
discharge
designed

purposes.

reason

to distinguish
the
in human affairs
but in almost
that humans do it is as useful

There

set of mental

fects. The

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debates

(as
and some

in the Making

Construction

of

:MIT

Press,

to another. In this
from one population
context
to note that re
it is important

only through unusual

situations
observational
(as in extensive
or in
cross-cultural
comparison
psycho
At
any rate,
logical experimentation).
the range of effects that may become
reveal

themselves

cent human

is thus large.
culturally patterned
mental
mechanisms
Second, many
us toward
in
motivate
goals (mating,
we may meet
which
food,
etc.),
gesting
a
infinite variety of
through
potentially
means. While
are ob
the many means
servable, the few goals must be inferred.
The range of means
that may become
is, again, large.
culturally patterned
in
Third, some mental mechanisms
volve

to environing
resulting behaviors

calibration

tions. The

condi
are vari

able by design,
though the underlying
is unitary. These variable
mechanism
sponses may well appear
as mentioned
For example,
to suggest
is evidence
an evolved mechanism

in almost all
environments,
of
the
world, present many condi
parts
tions that are quite unlike those that pre
vailed over the long period in which
human nature evolved. Many modern
in environ
behaviors
epidemic
obesity
ments
rich in processed
foods comes to
mind as an example
may have their
more
in
the
bizarre behaviors
analogues
in zoos than in what the same
of animals
animals

do in their natural

habitats.

account for
Clearly, local environments
are
seen
as
of
what
cultural
dis
many
one society and an
tinctions between
other.

re

to be cultural.

earlier, there
that humans have

for detecting
and
are
that
projections
preferring
from the average of what one sees. Since
that average may vary from one popula

In sum, observable
variation
in behav
ior or culture is entirely compatible
with
a
(bar
panhuman
design of the mind
sex and age differences
of
course,
ring,
that are equally likely to reflect evolu
tionary

design).

faces

tion to another, the resulting

standards
of beauty would vary too, and this could
as cultural differ
easily be interpreted
ence.

Fourth, many adaptations may in

some circumstances
conflict with each
are
so
that
the resulting behaviors
other,
compromises.
Purely local conditions
in one direction
may favor compromises
rather

than another. Various peoples

thus ignore the pangs of hunger and
thirst for a time, in order to maintain

the approval of their fasting fellows.

as
Fifth, as wondrously
precise
genetic
the
that
is,
genes
program
replication
the structure and operation
of our minds
and bodies do so in interaction with the
can and does
which
genes' environment,
structures
in
in
results
turn,
vary. This,
and operations
that differ in varying de
to another and
grees from one individual

let us return to the notion

that
jTinally,
innate human universals
continuously
structure human cul
and pervasively
ture. To the extent that this is so, we
be able to do a sort of back engi
or culture
neering on features of society
us
to
that allows
break them down into
elements
their component
and to trace
should

their roots back

to the aspects of human

is
that gave rise to them. What
to conclud
the alternative,
for example,
the printing press, the
ing that writing,
the
and the word
telephone,
telegraph,

nature

processor

are

extensions

tions of speech?
And what would

or

augmenta

be the alternative

for literally millions

of
explanation
of art,
and
works
stories,
songs, poems,
from many parts of the world and over
the
long periods of time, that celebrate
attractions
between men and women
with
except the mind's
preoccupation
the topic? Perhaps the entire cosmetics
D

dalus Fall 2004

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53

Human
universals,
human
nature &
human
culture

Donald
Brown
on
human
nature

E.

from the same cause.

a historian
of colonial

industry flows
Ronald Hyam,
ism, has even
drive was
nialism

argued that the sexual

as potent amotivator
of colo
as was economics.6
The virulent
and racisms

nationalisms

of modern

of an
'hypertrophies'
that for many millennia
itself out on amuch
smaller scale.

times may well

ethnocentrism
played
What

be

was one of anthropolo

- an
achievements
of
gy's great
assembly
about where
and when
cul
information
arose around the world
tural inventions
in Ralph Linton's mid-centu
appeared
on
book
culture
ry
history, The Tree of
Culture.7 Missing
there, however, were
the roots of that tree in human nature.
in liter
The task of tracing those roots
ature, the arts, history, and human af
is now well begun. We
fairs in general
can look forward to the time when a
I believe

great many cultural features are traced

the time and place of their in
beyond
to the specific features of human
nature that gave rise to them. The study
of human universals will be an impor
tant component
of that task.8

vention

6 Ronald

Britain

's Imperial
1815
Century,
and
(Lon
Expansion
Study of Empire
Em
don: B. T. Batsford,
1976). See also Hyam,
:The British
(Man
Experience
pire and Sexuality
:
chester
of Manchester
Press,
1990).
University
Hyam,

:A

-1914

The Tree

7 Ralph
Linton,
Alfred
A. Knopf,
8 This
Donald
made

paper

has

Symons.
here may

Human
1991)

Universals
;Brown,

of Culture

(New

York

1955).
benefited

from

References

for

comments
the

by

assertions

in Donald
E. Brown,
found
:
(New York McGraw-Hill,
"Human
Nature
and History,"
be

History and Theory 38 (4) (1999) : 138-157 ;

Brown,
cations,"

"Human

Universals

in Neil

Roughley,

Anthropological

Universality

Transdisciplinary
Gruyter,

2000),

54 D

Perspectives
156-174.

and Their
Impli
ed., Being Humans:
in
and Particularity
(Berlin

:
Walter

de

dalus Fall 2004

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions