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CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:Will

Will
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(Latinvoluntas,Greekbolesis,"willing"GermanWille,Frenchvolont).
Thisarticletreatsofwillinitspsychologicalaspect.
WillandKnowledge
WillandFeeling
EducationofWill
WillandMovement
ExperimentalWillPsychology
ThetermwillasusedinCatholicphilosophy,maybebrieflydefinedasthefacultyof
choiceitisclassifiedamongtheappetites,andiscontrastedwiththosewhichbelong
eithertothemerelysensitiveortothevegetativeorder:itisthuscommonlydesignated
"therationalappetite"itstandsinanauthoritativerelationtothecomplexoflower
appetites,overwhichitexercisesapreferentialcontrolitsspecificact,therefore,whenit
ifinfullexercise,consistsinselecting,bythelightofreason,itsobjectfromamongthe
variousparticular,conflictingaimsofallthetendenciesandfacultiesofournature:its
objectisthegoodingeneral(bonumincommuni)itsprerogativeisfreedominchoosing
amongdifferentformsofgood.Asemployedinmodernphilosophy,thetermhasoftena
muchwidersignification.Itisfrequentlyusedinaloose,genericsenseascoextensive
withappetite,andinsuchawayastoincludeanyvitalprincipleofmovementabintra,
eventhosewhichareirrationalandinstinctive.ThusBainmakesappetencyaspeciesof
volition,insteadofviceversa.Wecannotbutthinkthisanabuseofterms.Inanycase
whateveropiniononeholdsonthefreewillcontroversysomespecificdesignationis
certainlyrequiredforthatcontrollingandsovereignfacultyinman,whicheverysane
philosophyrecognizesasunmistakablydistinctfromthepurelyphysicalimpulsesand
strivings,andfromthesensuousdesiresandconationswhicharetheexpressionsofour
lowernature'sneeds.Andcustomhasconsecratedthetermwilltothismorehonourable
use.
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Willandknowledge
Thedescriptionofwill,asunderstoodinCatholicphilosophy,givenabove,referstothe
willinitsfullestandmostexplicitexercise,thevoluntasdeliberataorvoluntusut
voluntas,asSaintThomasspeaks.Thereare,however,manymanifestationsofwillthat
arelesscompletethanthis.Formalchoice,precededbymethodicaldeliberation,isnotthe
onlyorthemostfrequenttypeofvolition.Mostofourordinaryvolitiontakestheformof
spontaneousandimmediatereactionuponverysimpledata.Wehavetodealwithsome
narrow,concretesituationweaimatsomeendapprehendedalmostwithoutreflectionand
achievedalmostatastrokeinsuchacase,willexpressesitselfalongthelinesofleast
resistancethroughthesubordinateagenciesofinstinctiveaction,habit,orruleofthumb.
Will,likethecognitivepowers,originatesinandisdevelopedbyexperience.Thisis
expressedinthewellknownScholasticaxiom,"Nilvolitumnisiprcognitum"(Nothing
canbewilledwhichisnotforeknown),takeninconjunctionwiththeothergreat
generalizationthatallknowledgetakesitsriseinexperience:"Nilinintellectuquodnon
priusfueritinsensu".Allappetition,accordingtothistheory,emergesoutofsome
consciousstate,whichmaybeanythingfromaclearanddistinctperceptionor
representationofanobject,toamerevaguefeelingofwantordiscomfort,withoutany
directrepresentationeitheroftheobjectorthemeansofsatisfaction.TheAristotelean
philosophersdidnotneglectorignorethesignificanceofthislatterkindofconsciousness
(sometimescalledaffective).Itistruethathere,asindealingwiththepsychologyofother
faculties,theSchoolmendidnotattemptageneticaccountofthewill,norwouldthey
admitcontinuitybetweentherationalwillandthelowerappetitivestatesbutintheir
theoryofthepassions,theyhadworkedoutaveryfairclassificationofthemain
phenomenaaclassificationwhichhasnotbeensubstantiallyimproveduponbyany
modernwriterandtheyshowedtheirappreciationofthecloseconnectionbetweenwill
andemotionsbytreatingbothunderthegeneralheadofappetition.Itisstilladebatable
questionwhethermodernpsychology,sinceKant,hasnotunnecessarilycomplicatedthe
questionbyintroducingthetripledivisionoffunctionsintoknowledge,appetitesand
feeling,inplaceoftheancientbipartitedivisionintoknowledgeandappetite.
Thedoctrinethatwillarisesoutofknowledgemustnotbepressedtomeanthatwillis
simplyconditionedbyknowledge,withoutinturnconditioningknowledge.Therelationis
notonesided."Thementalfunctionsinteract,i.e.actreciprocallyoneuponanother"
(Sully)or,asSaintThomasexpressesit:"Voluntasetintellectusmutuoseincludunt"
(SummatheologiI.16.4ad1).Thus,anactofwillistheusualconditionofattentionand
ofallsustainedapplicationofthecognitivefaculties.Thisisrecognizedincommon
language.AgaintheSchoolmenwerefondofdescribingthewillasessentiallyablind
faculty.Thismeanssimplythatitsfunctionispractice,notspeculation,doing,not
thinking(versaturcircaoperabilia).Butontheotherhandtheyadmittedthatitwasan
integralpartofreasonaccordingtotheScotistsindeed,thesuperiorandnoblerpart,as
beingthesupremecontrollerandmover("Voluntasestmotorintotoregnoanim",
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Scotus).Itisalsorepresentedasrulingandexercisingcommand(imperium)overthe
lowerfaculties.St.Thomas,however,withhisusualpreferenceforthecognitivefunction,
putstheimperiuminthereasonratherthanthewill(imperiumrationis).Hencearose
disputesbetweentheThomistsandotherschools,astowhetherinthelastresortthewill
wasnecessarilydeterminedbythepracticaljudgmentofthereason.Thepoint,sohotly
debatedinthemedievalschools,concerningtherelativedignityofthetwofaculties,will
andintellect,isperhapsinsolubleatalleventsitisnotvital.Thetwointeractsocloselyas
tobealmostinseparable.HenceSpinozacouldsaywithsomeplausibility:"Voluntaset
intellectusunumetidemsunt".

Willandfeeling
Anactofwillisgenerallyconditionednotonlybyknowledge,butalsobysomemodeof
affectiveconsciousnessorfeeling.Thewillisattractedbypleasure.Thecapitalerrorof
theHedonistschoolwasthedoctrinethatthewillisattractedonlybypleasure,that,inthe
wordsofMill,"tofindathingpleasantandtowillitareoneandthesame".Thisisnot
true.Theobjectofthewillisthegoodapprehendedassuch.Thisiswiderthanthe
pleasant.Moreover,theprimarytendencyofappetencyordesireisoftentowardssome
objectoractivityquitedistinctfrompleasure.Thusintheexerciseofthechase,or
intellectualresearch,ortheperformanceofactsofbenevolence,theprimaryobjectofthe
willistheaccomplishmentofacertainpositiveresult,thecaptureofthegame,the
solutionoftheproblem,thereliefofanother'spain,orthelike.Thismayprobablyawaken
pleasantfeelingasaconsequence.Butthispleasureisnottheobjectaimedat,naythe
"Hedonisticparadox",asitisstyled,consistsinthis,thatifthisconsequentialpleasurebe
madethedirectobjectofpursuit,itwilltherebybedestroyed.Thus,analtruisticactdone
forthesakeofthepleasureitbringstotheagentisnolongeraltruismorproductiveofthe
pleasureofaltruism.
Indeed,theobjectsofmanyofthepassionswhichmostpowerfullyimpelthewill,are
ordinarilynotpleasures,thoughtheymayincluderelieffrompain.Emotionsorfeelings
associatedwithcertainideastendtoexpressthemselvesinaction.Theymaydominatethe
fieldofconsciousnesstotheexclusionofeveryotheridea.Thus,thesightorthethought
ofextremesufferingmaycarrywithitemotionsofpitysointensethatconsiderationsof
justiceandprudencewillbebrushedasideintheefforttobringrelief.Suchactionis
impulsive.Animpulseisessentiallytheforciblepromptingofasingle,stronglyaffective
idea.Thewillis,inthiscase,asitwere,bornedownbyfeeling,andactionissimplythe
"release"ofanemotionalstrain,beingscarcelymoretrulyvolitionalthanlaughteror
weeping.Bain'sdescriptionofvoluntaryactionas"feelingpromptedmovement",
therefore,destroystheessentialdistinctionbetweenvoluntaryandimpulsiveaction.The
samecriticismappliestoWundt'sanalysisofthevolitionalprocess.Accordingtohim,
"impulsiveaction"is"thestartingpointforthedevelopmentofallvolitionalacts",from
whichstartingpointvolitionalacts,properlysocalled,emergeastheresultofthe
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increasingcomplicationofimpulseswhenthiscomplicationtakestheformofaconflict,
thereensuesaprocesscalledselectionorchoice,whichdeterminesthevictoryinone
directionoranother.Fromthisitisclearthatchoiceissimplyasortofcircuitousimpulse.
"Thedifferencebetweenavoluntaryactivity(i.e.acompleximpulse)andachoice
activityisavanishingquantity."ComparewiththisthedictumofHobbes:"Iconceivethat
inalldeliberations,thatistosay,inallalternatesuccessionofcontraryappetites,thelast
isthatwhichwecalltheWill".
Theessentialweaknessofboththeseaccountsandofmanyothersliesintheattemptto
reducechoiceordeliberation(thespecificactivityofwill,andapatentlyrationalprocess)
toamerelymechanicalorbiologicalequation.Catholicphilosophy,onthecontrary,
maintains,onthecertainevidenceofintrospection,thatchoiceisnotmerelyaresultantof
impulses,butasuperaddedformativeenergy,embodyingarationaljudgmentitismore
thananepitome,orsummingup,ofprecedingphenomenaitisacriticismofthem(see
FREEWILL).Thisaspectthephenomenistpsychologyofthemodernschoolfailsto
explain.Thoughwerejectallattemptstoidentifywillwithfeeling,yetwereadilyadmit
theclosealliancethatexistsbetweenthesefunctions.St.Thomasteachesthatwillactson
theorganismonlythroughthemediumoffeeling,justasincognition,therationalfaculty
actsuponthematerialofexperience.("Sicutinnobisratiouniversalismovet,mediante
rationeparticulari,itaappetitesintellectivusquidiciturvoluntas,movetinnobismediante
appetitusensitivo,undeproximummotivumcorporisinnobisestappetitussensitivus",
SummatheologiI.20.1.)Justasthemostabstractintellectualideahasalwaysits"outer
clothing"ofsenseimagerysovolition,itselfaspiritualact,isalwaysembodiedinamass
offeeling:onsuchembodimentdependsitsmotivevalue.Thusifweanalyzeanactof
selfcontrolweshallfindthatitconsistsinthe"checking"or"policing"ofonetendency
byanother,andintheactofselectiveattentionbywhichanideaoridealismadedynamic,
becomesanideforce,andtriumphsoveritsneglectedrivals.Hencecontrolofattention
isthevitalpointintheeducationofthewill,forwillissimplyreasoninact,orasKantput
it,thecausalityofreason,andbyacquiringthispowerofcontrol,reasonitselfis
strengthened.
Motivesaretheproductofselectiveattention.Butselectiveattentionisitselfavoluntary
act,requiringamotive,aneffectivestimulusofsomekind.Whereisthisstimulustocome
frominthefirstinstance?Ifwesayitisgivenbyselectiveattention,thequestionrecurs.
Ifwesayitisthespontaneousnecessaryforceofanidea,wearelandedindeterminism,
andchoicebecomes,whatwehaveabovedeniedittobe,merelyaslowandcircuitous
formofimpulsiveaction.Theanswertothisdifficultywouldbebrieflyasfollows:
(1)Everypracticalideaisitselfatendencytotheactrepresentedinfact,itisabeginning
orrehearsalofthesaidact,and,ifnotinhibitedbyothertendenciesorideas,wouldinfact
passintoexecutionatonce.Attentiontosuchanideaaffordsreinforcementtoits
tendency.
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(2)Suchreinforcementisgivenspontaneouslytoanytendencywhichisnaturally
interesting.
(3)Thelawofinterest,theuniformprinciplesgoverningtheinfluenceofthefeelingsupon
thewillinitsearlierstages,theseareanenigmawhichonlyanexhaustiveknowledgeof
thephysiologyofthenervoussystem,ofheredity,andpossiblyofmanyotherasyet
unsuspectedfactors,couldenableustosolve.Leibnizappliedhisdoctrineofpetites
perceptionstoitssolution,andcertainlyunconsciouselements,whetherinheritedor
storedupfrompersonalexperience,havemuchtodowithouractualvolitions,andlieat
theverybottomofcharacterandtemperamentbutasyetthereisnoscience,noreven
prospectofascience,ofthesethings.
(4)Asregardsthedeterministhornofthedilemmaproposedabove,thepositivetruthof
humanlibertydrawnfromintrospectionistoostrongtobeshakenbyanyobscurityinthe
processthroughwhichlibertyisrealized.Thefactsofconsciousnessandthepostulatesof
moralityareinexplicableonanyotherthanthelibertarianhypothesis(seeCHARACTER
andFREEWILL).Freedomisanecessaryconsequenceoftheuniversalcapacityof
reason.Thepowerofconceivingandcriticallycontemplatingdifferentvaluesoridealsof
desirableness,impliesthatdetachmentofwillinselection(indifferentiaactiva),inwhich,
essentially,freedomconsists.

Educationofwill
Aswehavesaid,controlofattentionisthevitalpointintheeducationofwill.Inthe
beginning,thechildisentirelythecreatureofimpulse.Itiscompletelyengrossedforthe
timebyeachsuccessiveimpression.Itexhibitsplentyofspontaneityandrandomaction
butthedirectionoftheseisdeterminedbytheliveliestattractionofthemoment.As
experienceextends,rivaltendenciesandconflictingmotivescomemoreandmoreinto
play,andthereflectivepoweroftherationalfacultybeginstowakenintoexistence.The
recollectionoftheresultsofpastexperiencerisesuptocheckpresentimpulses.Asreason
develops,thefacultyofreflectivecomparisongrowsinclearnessandstrength,andinstead
oftherebeingamerestrugglebetweentwoormoremotivesorimpulses,theregradually
emergesajudicialpowerofvaluingorweighingthosemotives,withtheabilityof
detainingoneorotherforalongerorshorterperiod,inthefocusofintellectual
consciousness.Herewehavethebeginningofselectiveattention.Eachexertionof
reflectionstrengthensvoluntary,asdistinguishedfrommerelyspontaneous,attention.The
childbecomesmoreandmoreabletoattendtotheabstractorintellectualrepresentation,
inpreferencetourgentpresentfeelingwhichseekstoexpressitselfinimmediateaction.
Thisisfurtheredbyhumanintercourse,injunctionsfromparentsandothersinregardto
conduct,andthelike.Thepowerofresistancetoimpulsegrows.Eachpassinginclination,
inhibitedforthesakeofamoredurablegoodormoreabstractmotive,involvesan
increaseinthepowerofselfcontrol.Thechildbecomesabletowithstandtemptationin
obediencetopreceptsorinaccordancewithgeneralprinciples.Thepowerofsteady
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adhesiontofixedpurposesgrowsand,byrepeatedvoluntaryacts,habitsareformedwhich
intheaggregateconstituteformedcharacter.

Willandmovement
Thestructureofthenervoussystemofman,ithasbeenwellsaid,preparesusforaction.
Longbeforethewill,properlysocalled,comesuponthescene,awholemarvellousvital
mechanismhasbeenatworkthusithappensthatwefindourselvesattheveryoutsetof
ourrationallifepossessedofathousandtendencies,preferences,dexteritiestheproduct
partlyofinheritanceandpartlyofourinfantileexperienceworkingbythelawsof
associationandhabit.Thequestion,therefore,astohowthisearlyorganizationandco
ordinationofmovementtakeplace,thoughanessentialpreliminarytothestudyofwill,is
neverthelessonlyapreliminary,andnotaconstituent,branchofthatstudy.Hencewecan
dealwithithereonlybriefly.Bain'stheoryisperhapsthebestknownthetheoryof
randomorspontaneousmovement.Accordingtothisaccount,thenervoussystemisinits
natureanaccumulatorofenergy,whichenergyundercertainobscureorganicconditions
breaksoutintumultuous,purposelessfashion,withoutanysensiblestimulationeither
fromwithoutorfromwithin.Theresultofsuchoutpouringsofenergyissometimes
pleasurable,sometimesthereverse.Nature,bythelawofconservation,preservesthose
movementswhichproducepleasurewhilesheinhibitsothermovements.Thus"nature"
reallyworkspurposively,forthesepleasantmovementsarealsoforthemostpart
beneficialtotheanimal.Theprocessisverymuchthesameas"naturalselection"inthe
biologicalfield.Asregardsthistheorywemaybrieflynoteasfollows:
(1)Itistrue,asmodernchildpsychologyshows,thatmovementsarelearntinsomeway.
Thechildhastolearneventheoutlinesofitsownbody.
(2)Thereisagooddealofapparentlypurposelessmovementinchildrenandallyoung
animals,which,nodoubt,constitutestheir"motoreducation".
(3)Atthesametime,itisnotsoclearthatthesemovementsaresimplyaphysical
dischargeofenergy,unattendedbyconsciousantecedents.Somevaguefeelingof
discomfort,ofpentuppowers,someappetitionorconscioustendencytomovementin
short,mayverywellbesupposed.Therewouldthusbethegermofapurposeinthe
creature'sfirstessaysatrealizingthetendencyandsatisfyingafeltneed.

Experimentalwillpsychology
Oneoftheleastpromisingdepartmentsofmentallifefortheexperimentalpsychologistis
will.Incommonwithallthehigheractivitiesofthesoul,thesubjectionofthephenomena
ofrationalvolitiontothemethodsofexperimentalpsychologypresentsserious
difficulties.Inaddition,thecharacteristicprerogativeofthehumanwillfreedomwould
seemtobenecessarilyrecalcitrantagainstscientificlawandmeasurement,andthusto
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renderhopelesslyinapplicablethemachineryofthenewbranchofmentalresearch.
However,theproblemhasbeencourageouslyattackedbytheWrzburgandLouvain
Schools.Differentpropertiesofchoice,theformationandoperationofvariouskindsof
motives,theprocessofjudgingvalues,thetransitionfromvolitiontohabitorspontaneous
action,thereactiontimeofactsofdecisionandtheirrealizationandotherincidentalwill
phenomenahavebeenmadethesubjectofthemostcarefulinvestigationand,where
possible,calculation.
Bythemultiplicationofexperimentalchoices,andthetakingofaverages,resultsofan
objectivecharacterhavebeen,itiscontended,secured.Thepsychologicalvalueofthese
researches,andthequantityofnewlighttheyarelikelytoshedonallthemoreimportant
questionsconnectedwiththehumanwill,isstillasubjectofcontroversybutthepatience
skill,andingenuity,withwhichtheseexperimentsandobservationshavebeencarriedout,
areindisputable.

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Aboutthispage
APAcitation.Maher,M.,&Bolland,J.(1912).Will.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.New
York:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15624a.htm
MLAcitation.Maher,Michael,andJosephBolland."Will."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.
Vol.15.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15624a.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyRickMcCarty.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.October1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
webmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatly
appreciateyourfeedbackespeciallynotificationsabouttypographicalerrorsand
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