Motivation and 1

Motivation and the Brain

John H. Ackerson

Motivational Processes in Human Psychology

PSY/355

Emeka Wolfe-Norman

February 14, 2010

University of Phoenix
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Motivation and the Brain

Introduction

The motivating factors that compel one to do what one does is conceivably the most

important aspect of contemporary psychological study; the study of addiction is perhaps the most

important domain with regard to the study of social interactivity, the thought process, and

motivation (Silventar, 2010). A number of factors influence the brain structures and functions

associated with the motivation to refrain from using drugs. The dynamics involved include

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, heredity, and environmental forces. In general, internal

motivation is considered to be associated with long-term behavior modification, whereas the

successful outcome of external motivation can be short lived (Pubs.niaaa.nih, 2010).

Motivational assessment suggests a considerable challenge. To bring about a transformation of

behavior, one must consider the individual’s internal point of view and beliefs, as well as his or

her external forces and inducements. Although environmental and biological factors play a role

in the desire to refrain from using drugs, the structures and functions of the brain related to

motivation play an enormous role in one’s ability to do so; therefore, the approach must be

multidimensional, with regard to these factors.

Brain Structures and Functions

New insights into the structures of the brain and their functions that reinforce the chronic use

of drugs in those who wish to refrain from using have been provided by imaging studies that

show the role of dopamine (DA) in addiction (Volkow, Fowler, Wang, Swanson, & Telang,

2007). Theses studies provide evidence of not only the reinforcing effects of DA in the forebrain,

“in front of and around the thalamus in each cerebral hemisphere [and] the afferent part of the
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basal ganglia mainly involved in movement planning and control and habit” (Striatum, 2009,

para. 1), but also in the proportion of DA being distributed to the nucleus accumbens (Nucleus

accumbens, 2009), either of the two masses of opiate receptors and neural bodies in the vicinity

of the septum pellucidum. This is a dopamine channel that is implicated in reinforcement and

reward, and is believed to be involved in nearly all addictions. The more rapid the increase of

DA, the higher the intensity and effects of reinforcement (Volkow, et al, 2007). In addition, high

levels of DA present within the dorsal stratum are related to the motivation to gain access to the

addict’s drug of choice when he or she is exposed to stimuli that is associated with his or her

drug of choice.

Contrary to the preceding scenario, a decrease in DA functioning appears to be associated

with long-term use of one’s drug of choice; this reduction in D2-DA receptors has been linked to

a decrease in the orbitofrontal cortex that is concerned with compulsory behavior, motivation,

and salience attribution (Goldstein & Volkow, 2002); furthermore, reductions in D2-DA nerve

endings receptive to stimuli in the striatum and the cingulate gyrus, which is involved in

impulsivity and inhibition, become deregulated and the result is the uncontrollable drug use that

distinguishes addiction (Volkow, et al, 2007). The results of imaging studies indicate that the

inability to refrain from using drugs is the consequence of cerebral regulation that causes one to

place an elevated, unrealistic value on drug reinforcers, a deficiency in the value of surrogate

reinforcers, and a deficit in the neural process that inhibits the control of drug responses

(Goldstein & Volkow, 2002). This impaired response inhibition and salience attribution (IRISA)

alters one’s addiction in a manner that was, until recently, believed to be unknown, and expands

on the long-established hypothesis of dependency that underscores the importance of the

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regulating response of the limbic-system to pleasure and reward as the primary source for one’s

inability to refrain from using drugs.

Extrinsic factors

The desire to refrain from using drugs, with regard to extrinsic factors, involves motivations

that may be unrelated to the task at hand (Florida International University, 2009). An example of

extrinsic motivation may include obtaining a job that requires one to be “clean;” the external

reward would be money; however, coercion, intimidation, duress, force, punishment, and

obligation also can be considered extrinsic motivation (Sung & Choi, 2009). If the individual

desirers to refrain from using drugs, and he or she is in a situation in which another is in control

via incarceration, in-house treatment facility, or some other form of internment, the effectiveness

of the extrinsic motivation is enhanced; however, there are serious drawbacks with regard to

long-term success because of the high probability of resentment, conflict, and subversion (Farris

State University, 2009). Motivational studies by Alfie Kohn (Alexander Kjerulf, 2006) have

provided evidence that demonstrates the unsustainability of extrinsic motivation. Kohn

established that the result of the punishment and reward system is inevitably counterproductive;

although it may be successful in the short term, motivation rapidly diminishes if the rewards are

not increased and frquent. Finally, extrinsic motivation, as the underlying principle for abstaining

from drug use, can impair intrinsic motivation by eradicating the addicts innate desire to take the

action on his, or her, own volition; from that point on, one must be punished or rewarded each

time they either use or refrain from the use of drugs (Alexander Kjerulf, 2006).

Intrinsic Factors
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The intrinsic factors that influence one’s desire to refrain from using drugs vary. The

inherent nature of the act of taking drugs is the desire to “feel good.” Whatever the imbalance or

need, the arousal action is to engage in the use of one’s drug of choice. The intrinsic nature of the

desire to refrain from using one’s drug of choice is the same. The motivation to “use” is based on

one’s needs; those needs produce a behavior that derives satisfaction (Analytic Technologies,

2009). When those needs are satisfied in one who is not addicted, one can then progress to other

wants or needs that become primary; however, with the addicted individual those needs can

become intensified and static As the use of drugs spirals out of control, intrinsic factors are

energized as internal desires; the desire to abstain from drug use is the internal desire to “perform

a particular task” (Florida International University, 2009, para. 1), The internal desire to be a part

of requires one to develop certain skills like attending social activities, becoming gainfully

employed, and mastering behavior that is socially acceptable. The desire to refrain from using

drugs, as with any intrinsic desire, must begin with the fulfillment of psychological needs that

ensure survival; these needs are, according to Maslow, known as deficiency needs. Deficiency

needs can only be realized via external sources originating in the environment, by way of other

people, or by transmissible influences (Florida International University, 2009); however,

intrinsic motivation can only occur once those needs are met, and when the desire to refrain is

coupled with environmental factors that elicit the motivation required for change (Farris State

University, 2009).

Factors of the Environment and Heredity

The predisposing factors involved in the desire to refrain from using drugs involves heredity

and environmental issues such as social factors that include religion, economics, availability, the
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cost of one’s drug of choice, occupation, culture, and traditions (Ganfyd, 2009). Other factors

that may aid or obstruct one’s desire to refrain from drug use are personality factors, as explicate

in the big five theory (DeYoung, Quilty, & Peterson, 2007). Social acceptance plays a key role in

one’s choice to stop using a particular drug, including peer group pressure and the media.

Genetics’ role in addiction and one’s ability to refrain from using drugs is evident in a number of

studies that show a higher concordance for addiction in monozygotic twins (MZ) than Dizygotic

Twins (DZ) (Ganfyd, 2009); however, according to the National Library of Medicine, (2006),

the correlation “cannot be attributed to underlying genetic or shared environmental factors that

influence both personality and [drug] use and must be explained by unique environmental

influences” (National Library of Medicine, 2006, para 1).

The brain structures and functions implicated in the motivation to engage in refraining from

using drugs involve the reinforcing effects of DA in the forebrain, the afferent part of the basal

ganglia concerned with control and habit, and two masses of opiate receptors and neural bodies

in the vicinity of the septum pellucidum. The motivation to refrain from drug use can be extrinsic

or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation rewards or punishes; however, the long-term success of

extrinsic motivation is dubious. The intrinsic nature of one’s desire to refrain from using drugs is

more successful but must begin with the fulfillment of deficiency needs; once this has occurred,

the desire to refrain combined with the need to fulfill obligations to self, context, and

environment generate the motivation required for change. Environmental and heredity issues also

influence one’s desire to refrain from using drugs. These factors include social and cultural

values, occupation, and traditions. Genetics plays a role as a factor in addiction; however, the

correlation has been shown to be limited to specific common environmental factors that produce

both character and behavior. The desire to refrain from using drugs is a choice that is not made
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flippantly. The gravity of the commitment requires change from within if one is to maintain

permanence. The key to success, if one is to refrain from using drugs, is motivation; the key to

motivation is action.
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References

Alexander Kjerulf. (2006). Why “Motivation by Pizza” Doesn’t Work. Retrieved from

http://positivesharing.com/2006/12/why-motivation-by-pizza-doesnt-work/

Analytic Technologies. (2009). Theories of Motivation. Retrieved from

http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm

DeYoung, C., Quilty, L., & Peterson, J. (2007). Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the

Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 880-896.

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880.

Farris State University. (2009). Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation. Retrieved from

http://www.ferris.edu/fctl/Teaching_and_Learning_Tips/Motivation/IntrinsicvsExtrinsic.

htm

Florida International University. (2009). Intrinsic/Extrinsic motivation and Hierarchy of

Needs. Retrieved from http://this causes you to do certain things (behavior), which satisfy

those needs (satisfaction), and this can then change which needs/wants are primary

(either intensifying certain ones, or allowing you to move on to other ones).

Ganfyd. (2009). Alcohol. Retrieved from http://www.ganfyd.org/index.php?

title=Alcohol#Medicinal_Uses_of_Alcohol

Goldstein, R. Z. & Volkow, D. (2002). Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis:

Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. The American Journal

of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1642-52. Retrieved February 11, 2010, from Research Library.

(Document ID: 208003181).

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References

National Library of Medicine. (2006). Personality differences in monozygotic twins discordant

for cannabis use.. Retrieved from http://www.biomedsearch.com/nih/Personality-

differences-in-monozygotic-twins/18031429.html

Nucleus accumbens n., (2009). A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman.

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2010 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?

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Pubs.niaaa.nih. (2010). Motivation for Change and Alcoholism Treatment. Retrieved from

http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh23-2/086-92.pdf

Silventar. (2010). Motivation and the brain. Retrieved from

http://www.silventarphotography.com/psych/articles/Motivation

Striatum. (2009). A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University

Press. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Apollo Group. 10 February

2010 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?

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Sung, S., & Choi, J.. (2009). Do Big Five Personality Factors Affect Individual Creativity? The

Moderating Role of Extrinsic Motivation. Social Behavior and Personality, 37(7), 941-

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References

Volkow, N., Fowler, J., & Wang, G. (2003). The addicted human brain: insights from imaging

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Volkow, N., Fowler, J., Wang, G., Swanson, J., & Telang, F. (2007). Dopamine in drug abuse

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