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Lecture 1 : Introduction
Objectives
In this lecture:
We will provide an overview of electrical energy systems.
of protection system.
1.3
Types of Protection
Protection systems can be classified into apparatus protection and system protection.
Transformer Protection
Generator Protection
Motor Protection
Busbar Protection
1.3.2 System Protection
System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable operating region and
consequent control actions to restore stable operating point and/or prevent damage to equipments.
Loss of system stability can lead to partial or complete system blackouts. Under-frequency relays, outof-step protection, islanding systems, rate of change of frequency relays, reverse power flow relays,
voltage surge relays etc are used for system protection. Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are
also being deployed for system protection. Control actions associated with system protection may be
classified into preventive or emergency control actions.
protecting a system is not just apparatus protection but something much more. Since we cannot define
this "much more" clearly, it is complex and challenging. Monitoring of system behavior, taking corrective
measures to maintain synchronous operation and protecting the power system apparatus from harmful
operating states is referred as system protection.
To monitor the health of the apparatus, relay senses current through a current transformer (CT), voltage
through a voltage transformer (VT). VT is also known as Potential Transformer (PT).
The relay element analyzes these
inputs and decides whether (a) there
is a abnormality or a fault and (b) if
yes, whether it is within jurisdiction
of the relay. The jurisdiction of relay
R 1 is restricted to bus B where the
transmission line terminates. If the
fault is in it's jurisdiction, relay sends
a
tripping
signal
to
circuit
breaker(CB) which opens the circuit.
A real life analogy of the jurisdiction
of the relay can be thought by
considering transmission lines as
highways
on
which
traffic
(current/power) flows.
If there is an obstruction to the regular flow due to fault F1 or F2 , the traffic police (relay R 1 ) can sense
both F1 and F2 obstructions because of resulting abnormality in traffic (power flow). If the obstruction is
on road AB, it is in the jurisdiction of traffic police at R1; else if it is at F2 , it is in the jurisdiction of R 2 . R 1
should act for fault F2 , if and only if, R 2 fails to act. We say that relay R 1 backs up relay R 2 . Standard
way to obtain backup action is to use time discrimination i.e., delay operation of relay R 1 in case of doubt
to provide R 2 first chance to clear the fault.
Numerical Relays
1.5.1 Electromechanical Relays
When
the
principle
of
electromechanical
energy
1.5.3Numerical Relays
The block diagram of a numerical
relay is shown in fig 1.5.
It involves analog to digital (A/D)
conversion of analog voltage and
currents obtained from secondary of
CTs and VTs. These current and
voltage samples are fed to the
microprocessor or Digital Signal
Processors
(DSPs)
where
the
protection algorithms or programs
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Necessity of a protection system.
2.1
Overcurrent Protection
2.2
In contrast, there can be situations where for the purpose of selectivity, phase angle information (always
relative to a reference phasor) may be required. Fig 2.2 shows such a case for a radial system with source
at both ends. Consequently, fault is fed from both the ends of the feeder. To interrupt the fault current,
relays at both ends of the feeder are required.
In this case, from the magnitude of the current seen by the relay R 2 , it is not possible to distinguish
whether the fault is in the section AB or BC. Since faults in section AB are not in its jurisdiction, it should
not trip. To obtain selectivity, a directional overcurrent relay is required. It uses both magnitude of current
and phase angle information for decision making. It is commonly used in subtransmission networks where
ring mains are used.
2.3 Distance Protection
Consider a simple radial system, which is fed from a
single source. Let us measure the apparent impedance
(V/I) at the sending end. For the unloaded system, I =
0, and the apparent impedance seen by the relay is
infinite. As the system is loaded,
the apparent
impedance reduces to some finite value (ZL +Z line)
where Z L is the load impedance and Z line is the line
impedance.
In presence of a fault at a per-unit
distance m', the impedance seen by the relay drops
to a mZline as shown in fig 2.3.
The basic principle of distance relay is that the apparent impedance seen by the relay, which is defined as
the ratio of phase voltage to line current of a transmission line (Zapp ), reduces drastically in the presence
of a line fault. A distance relay compares this ratio with the positive sequence impedance (Z 1 ) of the
transmission line. If the fraction Z app /Z1 is less than unity, it indicates a fault. This ratio also indicates the
distance of the fault from the relay. Because, impedance is a complex number, the distance protection is
inherently directional. The first quadrant is the forward direction i.e. impedance of the transmission line to
be protected lies in this quadrant. However, if only magnitude information is used, non-directional
impedance relay results. Fig 2.4 and 2.5 shows a characteristic of an impedance relay and mho relay'
both belonging to this class. The impedance relay trips if the magnitude of the impedance is within the
circular region. Since, the circle spans all the quadrants, it leads to non-directional protection scheme. In
contrast, the mho relay which covers primarily the first quadrant is directional in nature.
Thus, the trip law for the impedance relay can be written as follows:
, then trip; else restrain. While impedance relay has only one design parameter, Z set ;
'mho relay' has two design parameters Z n ,
2.3.1 Example
1. (a)
Find out the value of Zn for a mho relay with torque angle
which has to give 100% protection to a
50 km long
110kV transmission line with impedance
per km and angle
.
Ans: The two design parameters of a mho relay are Zn and
been selected as
as on primary
where
load? CT ratio is
1000:5
Ans: Maximum Load current
= 1000A
Since this value will not fall within the operating circle, the mho relay will not trip for this load.
2.4 Principle of Differential Protection
Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an electrical equipment would cause the
current entering it, to be different, from the current leaving it. Thus by comparing the two currents either
in magnitude or in phase or both we can determine a fault and issue a trip decision if the difference
exceeds a predetermined set value.
2.4.1 Differential Protection for Transmission Line
Fig 2.6 shows a short
transmission line in which
shunt charging can be
neglected. Then under no
fault condition, phasor sum
of currents entering the
device is zero i.e.
Thus, we can say that
differential current under no
fault condition is zero.
However in case of fault in
the line segment AB, we get
This principle of checking the differential current is known as a differential protection scheme. In case of
transmission line, implementation of differential protection requires a communication channel to transmit
current values to the other end. It can be used for short feeders and a specific implementation is known
as pilot wire protection. Differential protection tends to be extremely accurate. Its zone is clearly
demarcated by the CTs which provide the boundary.
2.4 Principle of Differential Protection
2.4.1 Differential Protection for Transmission Line (Tapped Line)
Differential protection can be used for tapped lines (multiterminal lines) where boundary conditions are
defined as follows:
Under no fault condition:
Faulted condition:
Consider
an
ideal
transformer with the CT
connections, as shown in
fig 2.8. To illustrate the
principle let us consider
that current rating of
primary winding is 100A
and secondary winding is
, it is the magnetization
current or (no load) current. Thus, a differential current always flows through the overcurrent relay.
Therefore overcurrent relay pick up is adjusted above the no load current value. Consequently, minute
faults below no load current value cannot be detected. This compromises sensitivity.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the basic idea. If the fault is external to the bus, it can be seen that algebraic sum of
the currents entering the bus is zero.
On the other hand, if fault is on the bus (internal fault), this sum is not zero.
Why is phase angle information required to protect a radial system with source at both ends?
2.
3.
For the tapped line (fig 2.6), no relays are provided at the tapping point. Can you explain reasons for the
same?
Recap
Differential protection.
Introduce system protection relays like underfrequency relays, rate of change of frequency relays, reverse
- power flow
relays etc.
Figure 3.1 shows the various time scales involved in modelling system dynamics. The dynamics involved in
switching, lightening, load rejection etc have a high frequency component which die down quickly. In
analysis of such dynamics, differential equations associated with inductances and capacitances of
transmission lines have to be modelled. Such analysis is restricted to a few cycles. It is done by
Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP).
At a larger time scale (order of seconds), response of the electromechanical elements is perceived. These
transients are typically excited by faults which disturb the system equilibrium by upsetting the generatorload balance in the system. As a consequence of fault, electrical power output reduces instantaneously while
the mechanical input does not change instantaneously. The resulting imbalance in power (and torque) excites
the electromechanical transients which are essentially slow because of the inertia of the mechanical elements
(rotor etc).
Detection and removal of fault is the task of the protection system (apparatus protection). Post-fault, the
system may or may not return to an equilibrium position. Transient stability studies are required to
determine the post fault system stability. In practice, out-of-step relaying, under frequency load shedding,
islanding etc are the measures used to enhance system stability and prevent blackouts. The distinction
between system protection and control (e.g. damping of power swings) is a finer one. In the today's world of
Integrated Control and Protection Systems (ICPS), this distinction does not make much sense. In this
lecture, we discuss these issues from distribution system perspective. In the next lecture, a transmission
system perspective will be discussed.
Distribution systems are radial in nature. This holds true for both utility and plant distribution systems. If
there is a fault on the utility's distribution system, it may trip a breaker thereby isolating plant from the
grid. This plant may still remain connected with downstream loads as shown in fig 3.4 and 3.5.
Consequently, power will flow from the plant generator to these loads.
If in the prefault state, power was being fed to the plant, then this reversal of power flow can be used to
island the plant generation and load from the remaining system. This approach is useful to detect loss of
grid supply whenever the difference between load and available generation is not sufficient to obtain an
appreciable rate of change of frequency but the active power continues to flow into the grid to feed the
external loads.
Example
In fig 3.4, consider that the plant imports at all times a minimum power of 5 MW. Studies indicate that for
various faults in utility side, minimum power export from the plant generator is 0.5 MW. Deduce the
setting of reverse power relay. If the plant generator is of 50 MW capacity, what is likelihood of
underfrequency or rate of change of frequency relay picking up on such faults?
Ans: Reverse power flow relay can be set to 0.4 MW. Since minimum reverse power flow is 1% of plant
capacity, it is quite likely, that utility disconnection may not be noticed by underfrequency or the rate of
change of frequency relays.
Vector shift relays and system protection schemes in transmission systems will be discussed in more
details in later lectures.
Induced overvoltages which occur when lightning strokes reach the ground near the line.
Overvoltages due to shielding failures that occur when lightning strokes reach the phase conductors.
Overvoltages by back flashovers that occur when lightning stroke reaches the tower or the shield wire.
The most commonly used devices for protection against lightning surges are the following:
Shielding by earth wires: Normally, transmission lines are equipped with earth wires to shield against
lightning
discharges. The earthwires are placed above the line conductor at such a position that the lightning
strokes are intercepted by them. In addition to this, earthing of tower is also essential.
Lightning Arrestors: An alternative to the use of earthwire for protection of conductors against direct
lightning strokes is
to use lightning arrestors in parallel to insulator strings. Use of lightning arrestors is more economical
also.
ZnO varistor is commonly used as lightning arrestor because of its peculiar resistance characteristic. Its
resistance varies with applied voltage, i.e, its resistance is a nonlinear inverse function of applied voltage.
At normal voltage its resistance is high. But when high voltage surges like lightning strokes appear across
the varistor, its resistance decreases drastically to a very low value and the energy is dissipated in it,
giving protection against lightning.
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Recap
Various system protection relays like underfrequency relays, rate of change of frequency relays, reverse
power flow
Security.
Sensitivity.
Selectivity.
Reliability.
Security
4.1
Dependability
A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it is expected to trip. This happens either when the
fault is in it's primary jurisdiction or when it is called upon to provide the back-up protection. However,
false tripping of relays or tripping for faults that is either not within it's jurisdiction, or within it's purview,
compromises system operation. Power system may get unnecessarily stressed or else there can be loss
of service. Dependability is the degree of certainty that the relay will operate correctly:
False trips do not just create nuisance. They can even compromise system security. For example, tripping
of a tie-line in a two area system can result in load-generation imbalance in each area which can be
dangerous. Even when multiple paths for power flow are available, under peak load conditions, overloads
or congestion in the system may result. Dependability and security are contrasting requirements.
Typically, a relay engineer biases his setting towards dependability. This may cause some nuisance
tripping, which can in the worst case, trigger partial or complete blackout! Security of the relaying system
can be improved by improving selectivity of the relaying system.
4.2.1 Selectivity
Like
sensitivity,
selectivity also
implies an ability to discriminate. A
relay should not confuse some
peculiarities of an apparatus with a
fault. For example, transformer when
energized can draw up to 20 times
rated current (inrush current) which
can confuse, both overcurrent and
transformer differential protection.
Typically,
inrush
currents
are
characterized
by
large
second
harmonic content.
This discriminant is used to inhibit relay operation during inrush, there by, improving selectivity in
transformer protection. Also, a relay should be smart enough, not just to identify a fault but also be able
to decide whether fault is in it's jurisdiction or not. For example, a relay for a feeder should be able to
discriminate a fault on it's own feeder from faults on adjacent feeders. This implies that it should detect
first existence of fault in it's vicinity in the system and then take a decision whether it is in it's jurisdiction.
Recall that directional overcurrent relay was introduced to improve selectivity of overcurrent relay.
This jurisdiction of a relay is also called as zone of protection . Typically, protection zones are classified
into primary and backup zones. In detecting a fault and isolating the faulty element, the protective
system must be very selective. Ideally, the protective system should zero-in on the faulty element and
only isolate it, thus causing a minimum disruption to the system. Selectivity is usually provided by (1)
using time discrimination and (2) applying differential protection principle. With overcurrent and distance
relays, such boundaries are not properly demarcated (see fig 4.1). This is a very important consideration
in operation of power systems.
However with a differential protection the CT location provides 'crisp' demarcation of zone of protection of
CT (see fig 4.2). The fault F1 is in the relay's zone of protection, but fault F2 is not in its jurisdiction.
Because differential protection scheme do not require time discrimination to improve selectivity, they are
essentially fast. These aspects will be discussed in more detail in the later lectures.
4.3 Reliability
A relaying system has to be reliable. Reliability can be achieved by redundancy i.e. duplicating the
relaying system. Obviously redundancy can be a costly proposition. Another way to improve reliability is
to ask an existing relay say, protecting an apparatus A to backup protection of apparatus B. Both the
approaches are used (simultaneously) in practice. However, it is important to realize that back-up
protection must be provided for safe operation of relaying system. Redundancy in protection also depends
upon the criticality of the power apparatus. For example, a 400 kV transmission line will have independent
(duplicated) protection using same or a different philosophy; on the other hand, a distribution system will
not have such local back-up. A quantitative measure for reliability is defined as follows:
Note that even though dependability and security are individually above 80%, overall reliability much
poor (only 70.55%).
4.3
Reliability
Note that number of desired trips can be greater than or equal to number of correct trips. A desired trip
may not happen for various reasons like, the fault level being below the relaying sensitivity, stuck circuit
breaker, incorrect setting of relays poor maintenance of circuit breaker etc.
Zone of Protection
4.4
A relay's zone of protection is a region defined by relay's jurisdiction (see fig 4.3). It is shown by
demarcating the boundary. This demarcation for differential protection is quite crisp and is defined by
CT's location. On the other hand, such boundaries for overcurrent and distance relays are not very crisp.
It is essential that primary zones of protection should always overlap to ascertain that no position of the
system ever remains unprotected. It can be seen in fig 4.3. This overlap also accounts for faults in the
circuit breakers. To provide this overlap additional CTs are required.
Necessity of Speed in Relaying
To maximize safety, and minimize equipment damage and system instability, a fault should be cleared as
quickly as possible. This implies that relay should quickly arrive at a decision and circuit breaker
operation should be fast enough. Typically, a fast circuit breaker would operate in about two cycles. A
reasonable time estimate for ascertaining presence of fault is one cycle. This implies approximately three
cycle fault clearing time for primary protection. On the other hand, if five cycle circuit breaker is used,
fault clearing time increases to six cycles. So long as short circuit fault exist in a transmission system, the
electrical output of generator remains below the mechanical input. If a bolted three phase fault occurs
close to generator terminal (fig 4.4), P e = 0. Thus, as per equation (1) with input P m; the generator
accelerates.
--- (1)
4.4 Necessity of Speed in Relaying (contd..)
Fig 4.5 shows the pre and post fault
characteristics for the single machine
infinite bus system shown in fig 4.4. Initial
operating point A is on the pre fault
characteristic. Occurrence of fault reduces
P e to 0. The power generation imbalance
accelerates generator and hence its
(power angle) increases. At point C the
fault is cleared by tripping the faulted line
and the system moves to post fault
characteristics. The power output jumps to
point D. Now P e > P m and the machine
decelerates.
At point E,
is equal to zero
and the extreme point of swing is reached.
As P e > P m, the deceleration continues
and hence the rotor starts retarding. At
point O, P e = P m the acceleration is zero,
but machine speed is lower than nominal
. Consequently, the
speed
angle
However, as
reduces further, P e also
reduces, therefore P m - P e > 0 and the
generator starts accelerating. This arrests
at point F and the swing
the drop in
reverses,
again
a
consequence
of
acceleration. In absence of damping, these
oscillations will recur just like oscillation of
a simple pendulum. However, because of
damping provided by generator, the
oscillations reduce in magnitude and finally
system settles to equilibrium at point O.
Click Here for Simulation
If the swing of generator exceeds beyond point G, the generator moves from deceleration to acceleration
region. Then, its angle
continues to rise indefinitely, and the machine is said to go out-of-step. If any
machine goes out-of-step with rest of system it has to be islanded. Out-of-step condition in a multi
machine system can be simulated by transient stability program. Detection in real-time is a much more
challenging task and it is dealt by out-of-step relaying' schemes. When a multi machine system is
islanded in to different sub-systems, then for stable operation of each sub-system, it is necessary that
each sub-system should have generation load balance. Fig 4.6, however it should be obvious by now that
from the stability perspective, transmission system protection should be made as fast as possible. As the
fault clearing time increases, the stability margin (area EE 1 G) reduces. The fault clearing time at which
the stability margin reduces to zero is called the critical clearing time.
4.4.1 Speed Vs. Accuracy Conflict
Intuition tells us that quickness is an invitation to disaster. The possible consequences of quick tripping
decisions are:
Nuisance Tripping
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following desirable attributes of protection system viz:
Dependability
Security
Sensitivity
Selectivity
Reliability
Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 4. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side
menu of the page
5.1 Introduction
Practically all electrical measurements and relaying decisions are derived from current and voltage signals.
Since relaying hardware works with smaller range of current (in amperes and not kA) and voltage (volts
and not kV), real life signals (feeder or transmission line currents) and bus voltages have to be scaled to
lower levels and then fed to the relays. This job is done by current and voltage transformers (CTs and
VTs). CTs and VTs also electrically isolate the relaying system from the actual power apparatus. The
electrical isolation from the primary voltage also provides safety of both human personnel and the
equipment. Thus,
CT and VTs are the sensors for the relay.
CT and VT function like ears' and the eyes' of the protection system. They listen to and observe all
happening in the
external world. Relay itself is the brain which processes these signals and issues decision commands
implemented by circuit breakers, alarms etc.
Clearly, quality of the relaying decision depends upon faithful' reproduction on the secondary side of the
transformer. In this module, we will learn a lot more about these devices. In particular, we will answer the
following questions:
How is a CT different from the normal transformer?
Protection CTs
A measurement grade CT has much lower VA capacity than a protection grade CT. A measurement CT has
to be accurate over its complete range e.g. from 5% to 125% of normal current. In other words, its
magnetizing impedance at low current levels. (and hence low flux levels) should be very high. Note that
due to non-linear nature of B-H curve, magnetizing impedance is not constant but varies over the CT's
operating range. It is not expected to give linear response (secondary current a scaled replica of the
primary current) during large fault currents.
In contrast, for a protection grade CT, linear response is expected up to 20 times the rated current. Its
performance has to be accurate in the range of normal currents and upto fault currents. Specifically, for
protection grade CT's magnetizing impedance should be maintained to a large value in the range of the
currents of the order of fault currents.
When a CT is used for both the purposes, it has to be of required accuracy class to satisfy both accuracy
conditions of measurement CTs and protection CTs. In other words, it has to be accurate for both very
small and very large values of current. Typically, CT secondary rated current is standardized to 1A or 5A
(more common).
However, it would be unreasonable to assume that the linear response will be independent of the net
burden on the CT secondary. For simplicity, we refer to the net impedance on the secondary side
(neglecting magnetizing impedance) as the CT burden. It is quite obvious that the driving force
required to drive the primary current replica will increase as this burden increases. If this voltage exceeds
the designer's set limits, then the CT core will saturate and hence linear response will be lost. Hence,
when we say that a CT will give linear response up to 20 times the rated current, there is also an implicit
constraint that the CT burden will be kept to a low value. In general, name-plate rating specifies a voltage
limit on the secondary (e.g., 100 V) up to which linear response is expected. If the CT burden causes this
voltage to be exceeded, CT saturation results.
Class C CT
5.3.1.1Class T CTs
. When
When the CT is saturated, coupling between primary and secondary is reduced. Hence large ratio errors
are expected in saturation. The current in the secondary is also phase shifted. For measurement grade
CTs, there are strict performance requirements on phase angle errors also. Error in phase angle
measurement affects power factor calculation and ultimately real and reactive power measurements. It
.
is expected that the ratio error for protection grade CTs will be maintained within
Letter designation 'C' indicates that the leakeage flux is negligible. Class C CTs are the more accurate bar
type CTs. In such CTs, the leakage flux from the core is kept very small. For such CTs, the performance
for
can be evaluated from the standard exciting curves. Also, the ratio error is maintained within
standard operating conditions. For such CTs, voltage rating on the secondary is specified up to which
linear response is guaranteed. For example, a class C CT specification could be as follows: 200:5 C 100.
The labeling scheme indicates that we are dealing with a 200:5 class C CT which will provide linear
response up to 20 times rated current provided the burden on the secondary is kept below
ohm. Similarly, a corresponding class T CT may be labeled as 200:5 T 100.
For class C CTs, standard chart for
This provides the protection engineer data to do more exact calculations (refer fig 5.7). e.g., in
determining relaying sensitivity.
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
What are the consequences of CT saturation on large AC current? How can it be avoided?
4.
By mistake someone has interchanged the terminals of measurement CT and protection CT. Both CT are
at the same
place and having same current ratings. What will happen in normal condition and abnormal condition?
Recap
Classifications of CTs .
Example 1:
A
, C400 CT with excitation curves shown on above fig 5.7, is connected to a 2.0
burden. Based
on the accuracy classification, what is the maximum symmetrical fault current that may be applied to this
CT without exceeding a 10% ratio error?
Answer:
CT ratio = 1200/5
Secondary resistance = 0.61
Relay burden = 2
For 20 times rated secondary current, i.e., 100A
Secondary voltage = 100 x (2 + 0.61) = 261 Volts which is less than knee point of the CT. Since this
voltage is less than 400V, from electrical perspective, linearity will not be lost at even higher currents.
Approximate limit on secondary current is given by
= 36720A.
fault current
More exact calculation requires usage of fig 5.7. This would involve 'cut and try' approach.
Example 2:
A
, C400 CT is connected on the
tap. What is the maximum secondary burden that can
be used and we can maintain rated accuracy at 20 times rated symmetrical secondary current?
Answer:
The secondary voltage
= 333V
Secondary current
Relay setting,
V s = 2 x (5 + 0.15) = 10.3V
Corresponding exciting current = 0.04A
Total secondary current = 2 + 0.04 = 2.04A
Note that, strictly, phasor addition of currents has to be done. However, algebraic addition simplifies work
and usually leads to conservative estimate of voltages. Hence, this practice is considered acceptable.
Primary current to operate the relay =
= 122A
Example 4:
A relay is expected to operate for 7000A primary current. The class C CT ratio is
Secondary burden is 3.5
Answer:
Secondary current
V s = 58.33 (3.5 + 0.31) = 222.25V.
From the excitation curve (fig. 5.7) of 600/5 CT, we can see that the CT will be in deep saturation and %
ratio error will exceed the limits.
Example 5:
What will be the approximate % error if a 500:5 class C CT is connected to a secondary burden of 2.5
and the secondary current is 68A.
Answer:
For a 500/5 CT, secondary resistance R s = 0.25
Secondary burden R B = 2.5
= 187V
Corresponding exciting current I E = 6A (fig 5.7) (approximate)
% ratio error =
= 8.82%
Example 6:
If a 300:5 class C CT (fig 6.1) is connected to a meter with resistance
the CT is 4.5A find out the primary current, voltage developed across the meter and % ratio error. Lead
secondary resistance
of a 300:5 CT
wire resistance
Answer:
,
Total secondary resistance
Secondary voltage
= 5.0265V
From Fig 5.7,
Exciting current I E for 5.265V
= 0.03A (approximate)
Turns ratio N = 300/5 = 60
= 60(4.5 + 0.03)
= 271.8A
Voltage across meter
= 4.5V
Ratio error
= 0.67%
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Let
2)
3)
(Sine Component)
(Cosine Component)
(d c component)
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following by solving the tutorial problems:
Ratio error increases with secondary burden and there is a maximum limit for secondary burden of a CT.
in fig 7.1.
or
where
is the time constant of the line
= Lline/Rline. Fig 7.2 shows a typical wave form of fault current
containing DC offset current. The fault current can be decomposed into two components. The first
component models the steady state sinusoidal ac response while the second component is the dc offset
current due to the presence of inductance in the circuit. Recall that current in an inductance can not
.
change instantaneously. DC offset current is a consequence of maintaining initial condition
While the dc offset current in theory, would persist till infinity, it's trace in the actual wave form would not
be seen beyond a few time constants. Table - 1 illustrates the values of
up to 10 time constants.
Table 1
Time
t=0
t=
0.3678
t=2
t=4
t=6
t=8
t = 10
0.1353
0.0183
0.0024
0.0003
0.00004
It is more or less obvious that, dc offset is not seen in the waveform after 5 time constants. The peak
value of dc offset current I 0 can be worked out by setting the current i(t 0 ) to zero.
This implies that
Thus
(1)
Clearly, the peak value of dc offset current
depends upon the following parameters:
Time at which fault strikes,
Phase angle
|Zline| and
of ac voltage and
of transmission line.
Voltage V m
, then with
and
sec =
While, in above analysis, we have considered a single phase current, a 3 phase fault on a 3 phase
transmission line
would always induce dc offset current in at least two phases. DC offset has adverse impact on the CT
performance.
In the remaining lecture, we analyze effect of the dc offset current on CT performance.
across CT
For simplicity, let us assume that the initial flux in the transformer core at t = 0 is
Then, we can compute the flux in the transformer core by using Faraday's law,
--- (2)
(3)
Fig 7.5 shows the plot of the flux due to dc offset current as a function of time with
. It can be
maximum value of I 0 is
, it implies that
as
can be as high as
, Since,
by
in equation (2).
Hence,
or
Thus, the peak value of ac flux is given by the following relationship.
Hence, the peak value of instantaneous flux in the core is given by,
In practice, if this flux exceeds the knee-point flux in the core (see fig 7.7), then the CT core will saturate.
cycle time.
Core-oversizing factor =
Note that X/R in above equation is the transmission line X/R ratio. For a 220KV line with X/R
10, this
20,
would imply that transformer core should be oversized by a factor of 11. For a EHV line, with X/R
this would imply an oversizing requirement of about 21 times the usual design. Clearly, this high amount
of oversizing is not practical. Thus, an important conclusion is that, protection engineers have to live with
the saturation problem. Under the situation one should try to quickly reach the decision, before CT
saturates. However, this brings in the picture, the well discussed 'speed vs accuracy conflict'. We will have
more to say on the accuracy aspect of relaying in later lectures.
). With 2
Paralleling of CT's e.g. in differential protection, or with SLG fault can create significant errors in CT
performance. One
should generally ascertain that magnetizing current is kept much below the pick up value.
7.4.1Exercise Problems
1.
If the current ratio is adequate for a protection, but CT burden is high; then the performance of CT may
deteriorate due to
large magnetizing current and/or saturation problem (see fig 7.9). The CT performance can be improved
by connecting the CT's in series (see fig 7.10).
Show the dotted terminals for correct secondary series connection in fig 7.10.
2.
Differential protection can operate on external faults due to the unequal saturation of CT's.
Review Questions
1.
What are the factors on which the peak value of DC offset current depends?
2.
3.
Derive the equation for peak value of total flux developed in a CT core.
4.
5.
Recap
Cautions in CT selection.
Classification of CCVT.
Design of CCVT.
, then voltage
.
For a solid 3 - phase fault say near the CCVT bus at t=t 0 . v(t) = 0 for
governing differential equation is given by
where
and
and
. If
background in network analysis that response of such a circuit to step excitation, depends upon
is natural
and point on the voltage waveform where the fault strikes. Such transients
are known as subsistence transients. Fig 8.7 shows subsistence transients of CCVT. It can be seen that
subsistence transients can reduce the accuracy of distance relays.
8.4 Classification of CCVTs
CCVTs can be classified into following two types:
Class 1
Class 2
Table 8.1 shows the maximum limit for the ratio and phase angle errors. It can be seen that errors of
Class 2 type are double than that of class 1 type.
Table 8.1 : Limits for Ratio and Phase Angle Errors
VT Class
Class 1
Class 2
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Recap
Design a CCVT.
Example 1 :
Design a CCVT for a 132kV transmission line using the following data. Resistive Burden
frequency deviation to be subjected to
= 150VA,
choices of V 2 as 33 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. Transmission line voltage V = 132 kV. The standardized
VT secondary voltage is 110 volts (L - L).
Answer:
Let V 2 (L - N) be the voltage to be produced by the capacitive potential divider with capacitance values C 1
and C 2 . Let L be the value of tuning inductor. Our first task is to come up with a value of L. Here the
specification for phase angle error
At tuning frequency,
from
by
Substituting
Example 1: (contd..)
From figure 9.3,
Using this equation the value L for different values of V 2 is found out.
(1) Let V 2 be 33kV (L - N) Then;
Example 1 : (contd..)
(2)
(3)
, tan
(4)
Example 1 : (contd..)
The values of L,
L in H
33 kV
6722.2
0.00151
11 kV
747.2
0.0136
6.6 kV
269
0.0377
3.3 kV
67.25
0.151
From the above table it is clear that smaller the value of V 2 , the smaller is the value of L and higher the
value of C 1 and C 2 for tuning condition. If we select too low value of V 2 and L then capacitance values
will be beyond available limits, and if we select higher value of V 2 and L, then CCVT's inductor will
become bulky. So a compromise solution is necessary and let us select V 2 = 6.6 kV
For V 2 = 6.6 kV
L = 269 H
Now,
In this design, we have explained the basic concept for CCVT design and we assumed the transformer to
be ideal. However in real life design, the value of magnetizing impedance of transformer, resistance of
reactor etc have to be taken into account, as the ratio error
and the phase angle error
will also
get affected by these values. The next example brings out these issues.
Example 2:
The equivalent circuit of a CCVT
is shown in fig 9.4. The values of
and
C 1 and C 2 are 0.0018
0.0186
respectively. Tuning
(b)
(c)
If the frequency drops from 50Hz to 47Hz, what would be the values of ratio error and phase angle error?
(a)
Answer (a):
If
and
where
and
The value is also same as the selected value of C m. Hence, the selection of both L and C m is appropriate.
Answer (b):
= 11.33
V = 11.33 x 6.6
Thus, this VT is connected to a 132 kV bus.
Example 2: (contd..)
Answer (c):
Core loss = 20 W
at
= 50 Hz
Example 2 : (contd..)
The frequency of interest is 47Hz. Hence values of X m and other impedance can be calculated at 47Hz.
Figure 9.5 can be simplified as figure 9.6.
Where
source is nothing but open circuit emf. V T is the terminal voltage on load. Hence % ratio error
=1.81%
Phase angle error
.
Clearly, the phase angle error is on the higher side.
Review Questions
1.
Assume that the primary voltage of a CCVT is 400 kV and the voltage to be produced by the capacitive
potential divider is
3.3 kV. If C 2 is taken as 0.02
2.
and X m = 1.2 M
values of tuning
inductance and capacitance to be connected across CCVT's secondary for compensating X m. Standardized
secondary voltage of a VT is 110V (L-L).
3.
Design a CCVT for a 400 kV transmission line using the following data. Secondary resistive burden (3
= 300VA.
Core loss (3
angle error
) = 50W.
Recap
In this lecture by solving the tutorial problems we have learnt the following:
How to decide V 2 .
How to choose
Synthesize a
Analyze
unbalanced phasors.
10.1 Introduction
Electrical systems occasionally experience short circuits. These short circuits are hazardous to the safety
of both equipment and people. Though the protective devices will isolate the faults safely, the parts of the
system should withstand the resulting mechanical and thermal stresses. Fault impedance and fault current
estimates also form input for the setting and coordination of protective devices like overcurrent relay,
distance relay etc. Hence it is very important to estimate the magnitude of the fault currents. The
equipment rating are decided based on this value. Fault currents can be estimated either by hand
calculation or by fault analysis program.
Sources of Fault Current
The fault current in a system can be contributed by any of the following.
Synchronous Motors and Condensers
Induction Machines
Synchronous Generators
Distributed Generation
For a three phase system with phase sequence a-b-c, the three sets of balanced phasors are called
positive, negative and zero sequences.
and
Where
a' is cubic root of unity. Multiplying a phasor by a'
causes a rotation of
in the anticlockwise
direction (lead of
arbitrarily.
induction motor is subject to negative sequence voltage the rotor will rotate in a
clockwise direction. i.e. in exactly opposite direction to that obtained with the positive sequence voltage.
(6)
and
Matrix [T] defines a linear transformation of phasors from sequence domain to phase domain. Matrix [T]
enjoys some interesting properties. For example, every pair of rows or columns of matrix [T] are
orthogonal. For example,
If c 1 = (1, 1, 1) t and c 2 = (1, a 2 , a)t
Then, (c1 ) H c 2 = (c2 ) H c 1 = 0 where H is Hermitian operator defined as transpose and conjugate of a
vector or matrix.
Similarly,
In other words, T H T = T T H = D, where D is a diagonal matrix
With
and
(7)
and
in a-b-c domain,
then superposition
and
sequence domain. Conversely, if we superpose phasors in sequence domain, then in a-b-c domain also it
amounts to equivalent superposition of phasors. Thus,
Where
and
and
Similarly,
Sequence components provide a methodology to view unbalanced phasors as a set of balanced phasors.
If a network is balanced, then the resulting analysis gets extremely simplified. This is because we are
able to break a three phase network into three decoupled sequence networks (under some acceptable
symmetry assumptions). We now elaborate on this concept of decoupled sequence networks.
10.4 Modeling Network in Sequence Components
We now show that corresponding network modeling can also be simplified in sequence domain. If the
three phase network elements enjoy a particular symmetry (circulant structure) then, application of
sequence component transformation diagonalizes three phase impedance or admittance matrix. Thus, we
achieve decoupling in positive, negative and zero sequence networks, provided that network is balanced.
Hence, sequence component analysis is used when network is balanced but phasors or loads are
unbalanced. To begin with, consider a transposed transmission line whose three phase model is given by
the following equation. Z s is the self impedance of transmission line and Z m is the mutual impedance
between two phases. These quantities can be evaluated from GMD and GMR of transmission line.
and
is the drop in phase voltage across the line due to currents I a , I b and I c respectively then,
(8)
and
we get,
Where
Hence,
(9)
and
. Reference
where
(10)
Thus, all the sequence components can be determined from the above equations.
can
be decoupled into three
and
. Hence it
(10)
or
(11)
(12)
(13)
The SLG fault can be visualized by a series connection of positive, negative and zero sequence networks
with three times the fault impedance.
The positive sequence, negative sequence and Zero sequence fault currents are given by following
equations.
(Solid Fault)
On similar lines following equations can be derived for LL and LLG faults.
LL fault:
Bolted Fault:
2.
Review Questions
1.
2.
Derive the sequence transformation matrix using 'c' phase as reference phasor.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Derive the equation for fault current in (a) L-L fault with fault impedance Z f . (b) L-L-G fault.
If we do not want to lose information during a transformation 'f' from domain say A to B, then it is
8.
Show that the transformation matrix is invertible. Hence, define the inverse transformation from
Clarke's components to phase components.
Using Clarke's transformation show that
1) for a - g fault
2) b - c - g fault
3) b - c fault
4) 3 - phase fault
9.
Suppose that in an DSP implementation of relay, we have to choose between the sequence
transformation and Clarke's
transformation suggest your choice and justify it from computational requirement and ability to
correctly detect a fault.
Recap
Find out fault currents for S-L-G, L-L and L-L-G faults.
1.
The currents in a
where
1.
b phase
Ans:
c phase
2.
The zero, positive and negative sequence voltages of phase a' are given below. Find out the phase
voltages
and
,
Ans:
2.
Ans:
3.
j1.0
, negative sequence
on phase a' find out the fault current. (b) If the fault is through an impedance of j2
fault current?
Ans: The fault has occurred on a' phase. Taking a' phase as reference,
(a)
For a single line to ground fault,
Fault current
(b)
4.
In a
system, if the per unit values of positive, negative and zero sequence reactances are given by
,
respectively. Determine the fault current, if the fault is (a) L-L-G (b) L-L.
and
Ans:
(a)
Let V = 1pu
i.e.,
since
or
4.
Ans:
(b)
L-L fault
For line to line fault between b' and c'
Fault current
i.e.,
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence impedance of a feeder if its self impedance is j1.67
and mutual
impedance is j0.67 .
Self impedance
, mutual impedance
6.
Ans: With b' phase as reference phasor, the transformation matrix can be defined as follows.
Justifications:
Now, if
If
[
lags
lags
by
by
]
]
7.
[i.e.,
lags
by
[i.e.,
lags
by
Comment if the two sequence transformations obtained by taking a' phase and b' phase as reference
are identical or
not.
Ans: With a' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
(1)
or
With b' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
(2)
Now, rearranging the equation (2) to follow the same order as (1) we get,
or
Clearly,
and
8.
In problem No. 2 if the data represented sequence components with b' phase as reference phasor, instead
of a'
phase, compute
and
Ans: With b' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is given by,
We will get
Hence, we can conclude that changing of reference phasor causes renaming of phasors and hence a
different result.
9.
Analyze a bolted S-L-G fault on phase b' of an unloaded transmission line using sequence components
with b phase
as reference phasor.
Therefore,
i.e.,
Based on 3 phase model of balanced circuit
or
where
9.
The terminal voltages are given by,
Ans:
i.e.,
or
Thus, to analyze S-L-G fault on b - phase or a - c L-L fault or L-L-G fault we should take b phase as
reference phasor in sequence computation.
10.
Derive the relationship between zero, positive and negative sequence phasors defined with b' as
reference phasor and
corresponding sequence phasors defined with a' as reference phasor.
Ans: With a' as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
10.
For zero sequence phasor,
Ans:
Therefore,
Positive sequence phasor,
Since
or,
i.e., positive sequence current with b' as reference phasor lags by
with a' as reference phasor.
i.e., negative sequence current with b' as reference phasor leads the negative sequence current with a'
.
as reference phasor, by
Review Questions
1.
2.
Derive the relationship between the transformation matrices T a and T c with 'a' and 'c' as reference
phasors respectively.
Derive the relationship between positive, negative and zero sequence phasors with 'c' as reference phasor
with
corresponding sequence phasor with 'b' as reference phasor.
3.
4.
5.
and
The zero, positive and negative currents of phase a' are given by (5+j1)A, (7.5 j1.2)A and (6+j2)A
respectively. Find out.
,
6.
A
j0.6
and
, 20MVA, 11kV generator with positive, negative and zero sequence impedance j2
is
, j1.8
and
7.
and
8.
In a
and j4.5
Recap
To find out the unbalanced phasors from a given set of sequence components.
Relationship between sequence transformation matrices with 'b' and 'c' as reference phasors.
Quantities like voltage, current, power, impedance etc can be expressed in per unit. In the per unit
system, there are four base quantities: base apparent power in volt-amperes, base voltage, base current
and base impedance.
The following formulae apply to three phase system, where the base voltage is the line-to-line voltage in
volts or kilovolts and the base apparent power is the three phase apparent power in kilovolt-amperes or
megavolt-ampere (MVA).
Manufacturers usually provide equipment data with name plate rating as base.
2.
3.
Especially useful in networks with multiple voltage levels interconnected through transformers.
4.
5.
Standard base conversion (scaling with MVA Base) formulae are available.
Note: Many books in first course on power system analysis cover per unit in detail. Readers who wish to
go into more details can look into these references.
We now begin discussing on the sequence modeling of power apparatus.
A balanced three phase transmission line model is given by (fig 12.1). The voltage drop across the line in
phase coordinates is given by,
(1)
and
and
Thus, for a transposed transmission line, the positive and negative sequence impedances are equal. A
is to assume it to be three times
.
commonly used approximation for
and
carry a positive
and
be equal to
is given by,
It can be seen that mutual coupling between positive and negative sequence network of parallel
transmission lines is zero. But, mutual coupling in zero sequence network is not zero. Hence, three phase
faults and line to line faults will not be affected by mutual coupling. However, for all faults involving
ground, fault current will be affected by mutual coupling. This can affect the performance of relays.
12.2.3Modeling of Ground
With positive or negative sequence currents, the ground potential at the two distinct ends of say a
transmission line can be taken as zero. If there is a neutral conductor, no-current flows through it
because phasor summation of such balanced currents is zero. However, the story with zero sequence
currents is a bit different. The summation of zero sequence currents in the three phases does not add to
zero unless, the current itself is zero. Thus, there will be a drop in voltage across the two ground
terminals which depends upon resistance of ground or ground wire. For simplicity, of analysis, this
ground impedance (with a scaling factor of 3) is incorporated in the transmission line impedance of zero
sequence network.
windings of the transformer are provided with zero sequence excitation, then
Substitutiting it in above equation we get
and
.
will not be zero.
Rather a leakage flux would exist in the high reluctance path through air and transformer tank. Since,
transformer tank is not stacked, it leads to heating of the tank. Hence,
- core transformers should
not be preferred for use in systems where load is unbalanced e.g. a
for a shell type transformer (fig 12.4) there exists a low reluctance path through side limbs for zero
sequence flux. Hence, there is no over heating of transformer tank.
In studies typically involving transformer protection, e.g. estimation of inrush current computation and
overfluxing, saturation of transformer core cannot be neglected. However, such elaborate studies are not
carried out with short circuit analysis programs. Rather, time domain simulation Electro Magnetic
Transient Program (EMTP) is used.
ratio of transformers
Fig 12.6 summarizes the effect of winding connections on positive, negative and zero sequence circuit for
3
transformer. N1 indicates neutral bus for positive sequence, N2 indicates neutral bus for negative
sequence and N0 for zero sequence networks.
12.2
12.3
determines the current during the first cycle after fault occurs. In
, the synchronous reactance; this is the value that determines the current flow after a
12.3
and
where rated
LL voltage and 3 phase MVA rating is used. Zero Sequence modeling can be treated in similar lines as
synchronous machines because rotor plays no significant role.
For fault calculations an induction generator can be treated as an induction motor. Wound rotor
induction motors normally operating with their rotor rings short circuited will contribute fault current in
the same manner as a squirrel cage induction motor. Occasionally, large wound rotor motors operated
with some external resistance maintained in their rotor circuits may have sufficiently low short circuit
time constants. Hence, their fault contribution is not significant and may be neglected.
12.3.4Load Modeling
One approximate way of accounting prefault load flow condition in short circuit analysis associated with
transmission system is to model load as positive sequence shunt impedance.
sequence network. A three phase admittance matrix model for power system in phase coordinates can be
expressed as follows:
refers to the
current injection at a node i. The sequence transformation on nodal voltages can be expressed as follows:
Similar transformation is defined for current vector. Thus, in the sequence coordinates, the admittance
model is given by the following equation,
matrix
In other words, there is no coupling between the zero, positive and negative sequence components of a
balanced network because
matrices
and
rows and columns in such a way that all the zero sequence, positive sequence and negative sequence
quantities are grouped together, a three phase admittance matrix can be described by three decoupled
sequence matrices as follows,
In the above equation, each of the sequence admittance matrix represents the corresponding sequence
network.
Differences between Y BUS Modeling in Short Circuit Analysis and Load Flow Analysis
or 2, are the sequence components under consideration. Typically, for a balanced system representing a
prefault transmission network,
interest is
equation is given by
Since, from design considerations, the maximum fault MVA is of interest, the faults considered are
bolted faults. Short circuit MVA is also used to specify the strength of the utility interconnection, while
carrying out fault analysis for distribution system. For example, if short circuit MVA level is specified as
500MVA at the point of interconnection, then on a 100kVA system base, it implies a source impedance of
. A bus with high value of fault MVA is said to be a strong bus and conversely a bus
with low fault MVA, is said to be a weak bus.
Review Questions
1.
2.
How does mutual coupling between transmission lines affect the fault current?
3.
Why is the zero sequence impedance of a shell type transformer different than that of a core type
transformer?
4.
The zero sequence impedance of a synchronous machine is small compared to its positive sequence
impedance.
Why?
5.
fault MVA of an industrial power system at the point of connection with utility system is 50kVA .
On a 100kVA
base, determine the sequence impedances for utility system.
Recap
In this lecture we will solve tutorial problems on fault analysis in sequence domain
1.
Fig 13.1 shows the single line diagram of a 13.8kV system connected to a 480V bus through a
13.8kV/480V
transformer. Two motor loads of 400hp and 600hp are connected to the bus through three parallel three
, compute the fault currents. Repeat the
core copper cables. If a 3 phase bolted fault occurs at
calculations for fault at
Ans: Let us take base power as 1000kVA and base voltage as 480V.
Base impedance
ratio = 15
or
1. i.e.
Ans:
i.e.
in pu = 0.00011 + j0.00165
i.e.
in pu = 0.0121 + j0.0562
Cable
Modeling
,
Length of cable
Converting
and
in pu
= 0.129
in pu
i.e.
1. Ans:
in pu = 0.129 + j0.078
Cable
Modeling
Length of cable
Resistance of one conductor per km is given as 0.181
and reactance / km is given as 0.124
three conductors are in parallel, equivalent resistance and reactance for 300m cable is given by,
Converting into pu
. Since,
i.e.
in pu
pu
in pu
pu
in pu = 0.0786 + j0.0538
Motors
Note that 1hp = 746watts; if we assume a
motor power factor of 0.746, then
equivalent motor kVA will be unity. Hence,
we will assume that 1hp is equivalent to
1kVA.
Subtransient reactance = 25%
Ratio = 6
Per unit reactance of motor 1
pu
pu
For motor 2
pu
pu
in pu = 0.069 + j0.416
The equivalent circuit of the system used to calculate the Thevenin's equivalent at node A is shown in fig
13.2. The dotted lines indicate the ground potential.
1. Ans: Fault at
We now desire to compute Thevenin's
impedance at node A.
, the network as shown in fig
For fault at
13.2 can be reduced to network as shown
in fig 13.3. Hence, Thevenin's impedance,
is given by,
Fault
1. Ans: F
2
at
1. Ans:
i.e.,
Therefore, the total three phase fault current at F2
Fig 13.5 shows the single line diagram of a 3 bus system. The sequence data for transmission lines and
2.
generators
are given in table 1. If a bolted single line to ground fault occurs at F, calculate the fault current. If the
fault impedance is j0.1 pu; what will be the fault current?
Description
Sequence Data in pu
Zero
Positive
Negative
Generator - A
j0.03
j0.25
j0.15
Generator - B
j0.02
j0.20
j0.12
Transmission Line 1
j0.14
j0.08
j0.08
Transmission Line 2
j0.17
j0.13
j0.13
Transmission Line 3
j0.10
j0.06
j0.06
Transmission Line 4
j0.12
j0.06
j0.06
For calculating Z 0 , the circuit shown in fig 13.5 is reduced as shown in fig 13.6.
Similarly, positive sequence impedance Z 1 can be found out by reducing the circuit as shown in fig 13.7.
i.e. Z 1 , positive sequence impedance = j0.01 + j0.124
= j0.134 pu
2. Ans: Negative Sequence Impedance
If fault impedance
, then
Review Questions
1.
2.
For the system shown in example no. 2 , find out the fault current for
a)
b)
c)
3.
kept at 1.0 pu. Calculate the fault current for fault at F. Assume that zero sequence reactance of
generator is zero.
Recap
Types of HV fuses viz, expulsion, vacuum and non-expulsion fuses and their functionality.
Transformer impedance.
Motor contribution (Back emf and impedance of induction and synchronous motors).
current is within (less or equal to) its continuous rated value, then the steady state temperature is such
that the fuse does not melt. However, if the current has large enough magnitude, it will lead to the fuse
element to melt before the steady state temperature conditions are achieved. After melting, an arc may
be struck. The fault current will be finally interrupted when the arc is de-ionized. Thus, fuse operation
involves two phases viz. melting and current interruption.
An enormous variety of fuses are available today. In terms of quantity, fuses outnumber any other over
current protection devices. They provide economy in protection as well as flexibility in rating and time
current characteristic. They are used for overcurrent protection of transformers, capacitors and lateral
taps in distribution systems.
Fig 14.2 shows location of fuses in a distribution system. Each transformer and capacitor bank has fuse
protection to selectively disconnect the device in case of a fault in the device. Transformer fuses can also
provide overload protection. The sectionalizing fuses are used to divide the system into smaller sections
which can be then isolated from the rest of the system. For the fault F1 or F2 it is the responsibility of
fuse A to operate. Thus, only customers connected to this line are affected. In absence of fuse A, fuse B
would have to be operated but this would lead to a interruption in service to larger number of customers.
Role of reclosers will be discussed in later lectures.
Melting characteristics.
Interrupting characteristics refer to the following:
Voltage rating.
Interrupting rating.
14.4.1Thermal Characteristics
As the magnitude of the current increases, melting time
reduces. It should be obvious that larger magnitude
currents will lead to higher power dissipation (I 2 R) in
Fuse melting time characteristic is usually described in literature as very inverse. To understand this,
we need to address the physics of the problem. When overcurrents are smaller in magnitude, rate of
heat generated in the element is low and only slightly higher than rate of dissipation. As a consequence,
temperature of the element increases gradually. As the current increases, melting time reduces at a rate
which is more than expected increased rate of heat generation (I 2 R). This is because, heat which is
generated in reduced cross section and/or centre of element, cannot be removed as fast as it is
produced. This gives fuse a very inverse characteristics. At very short melting times, no heat is lost
from the smaller cross section of the element.
Fuse can be classified into two types (see the chart below)
1.
The expulsion type fuse is used where expulsion gases cause no problem such as in overhead circuits and
equipment. These fuses can be termed as current awaiting types; and the function of interrupting medium
is similar to that of an ac circuit breaker. The temperature of arc is of the order of 4000-5000K. At this
temperature special materials located in close proximity to fuse element rapidly create gases. Preferred
gas generating materials are fiber, melamine, boric acid and liquids such as oil or carbon tetrachloride.
These gases help to create a high pressure turbulent medium surrounding the arc, thus when the current
does reach to zero and the arc channel reduces to a minimum; the ablated gases rapidly mix with
remaining ionized gas and thereby deionize them as well as remove them from arc area'. In turn, this
leads to rapid build up of dielectric strength that can withstand the transient recovery voltage (TRV) and
steady state power system voltage.
TRV for expulsion fuse is shown in fig 14.5. Note that in an inductive circuit, current zero occurs at
lag to voltage i.e. when voltage is at maximum value. The action of interrupting medium causes TRV to be
seen in this region.
2.
3.
Conversely, a high fuse arc voltage, sustained over time will help in greater limitation of the fault current.
4.
1.
shows the
function of expulsion type and current
limiting fuses. Notice that in expulsion type
fuses, arc voltage is low, the peak first cycle
current is not limited and current is
interrupted after one or two loops at near
nominal current zero. In contrast, in current
limiting fuse, high arc voltage resulting in
substantial current limiting capacity with
advanced current zero. This condition is
achieved at time ti, when
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
5.
Explain how does a current limiting fuse, insert a high series resistance in the fault circuit? What benefits
does it
achieve?
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Available Fault Current: This is the maximum rms short circuit current that flows to a faulted node or
point. The
magnitude is limited by the ac impedance to that specific point. The impedance is the sum of the utility
source impedance and the in-plant circuit impedance.
Continuous Current Rating: As with all overcurrent devices, most fuses are limited to a continuous loading
of 80% of
their label rating. This is due to the mutual heating between switch, fuse and adjacent devices.
Current limiting Fuse: First generation fuses, e.g. expulsion type, only limit the duration (time) of the
fault. The modern
current-limiting fuse, however, not only limits the duration of the fault, but also limits the magnitude of
the fault.
Interrupting Rating: This is the maximum current that overcurrent device can safely interrupt at a
stated voltage,
frequency, and short circuit power factor. Interrupting ratings are expressed in rms symmetrical amperes.
It is common for a device rated 200 000 A to have an abbreviated marking such as 200 KA IR.
Voltage Rating: The rms alternating current voltage at which the fuse is designed to operate. Fuses of
the 600 V class
will always function safely on a lesser voltage. For example 600 V fuses are typically used on 480 and 208
V.
Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 14. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side
menu of the page
where, for a given PSM T is the desired relay operating time and Tm is the
corresponding operating time at TMS of 1.0. TMS is also referred to as TDS (Time Dial Setting).
Fig 15.4 illustrates an overcurrent protection scheme for radial distribution system of fig 15.2, with definite
time relays. Relay R 1 does not have any coordination responsibility and hence it can trip without any
intentional time delay. Relay R 2 has to coordinate with relay R 1 and hence its time of operation is delayed
by time equal to Coordination Time Interval (CTI). Relay R 3 has to back up R 2 . Hence its time of
operation is delayed by another CTI. Thus, we see that as we move along towards source, the relaying
action slows down. Typically, there is an upper limit on any fault clearing time in the system and it equals
approximately 1sec. This limit would be hit near the relay close to source.
Example: Consider a CTI of 0.3sec. Then what is the maximum length of a radial system of a feeder that
can be protected by overcurrent relay. Assume, that primary protection uses DT relays and primary
protection time should not be more than 1sec.
Answer: Let 'n' be the maximum number of feeder sections that can be protected by overcurrent relays
and let TOC max be the upper limit on the speed of primary protection. Then
. Thus
overcurrent relays should be used over a limited length in the 3 feeder sections.
to development of an inverse
characteristic for overcurrent relay.
This is probably the most widely used
characteristic. It is inverse in the
initial part and tends to approach a
definite minimum operating time
characteristic as the current becomes
very high.
Various inverse current operating
time characteristics of a relay are
shown in fig 15.7. They are normal
or standard inverse, very inverse and
extremely inverse characteristics.
As PSM approaches unity, it is clear from above equations that relay operating time increases to infinity.
With electromechanical relays, usually manufacturers do not guarantee accuracy of the relay operating
time in the PSM range 1 to 1.5. Hence, traditionally PSM of an overcurrent relay is set above 1.5.
However, in principle, such restrictions do not apply to numerical relays. Our next task would be to
understand the methodology of setting Is and TMS of overcurrent relays. Hence, we now discuss
guidelines for setting overcurrent relays. We begin with the classification of the faults.
US CO8 Inverse
(3)
(4)
For a fault on the feeder being backed up, the relay should provide sufficient time for the corresponding
primary relay to
act before it issues tripping command. This interval is called CTI (co-ordination time interval). Typically,
CTI is about 0.3 sec. It consists of
CB operating time+ Relay operating time+ Overtravel (time for electromechanical relay) + Factor of
safety.
Guidelines for earth fault protection would be discussed in a subsequent lecture.
(b)
The corresponding relays back up the leaf node relays. Store, the relays in row k + 1 of RSM.
(c)
(d)
Update k = k + 1.
For this particular example, there are 5 steps required in relay coordination. Identification of primary back
relay pairs begins at leaf nodes. There is no constraint involved in setting the relay at leaf node, as they
have no backup protection responsibility. Their sole role is to do primary protection, as quickly as possible.
Therefore, these relays can be set first (step 1 in fig 15.10). The reader should step through the
interactive example to obtain the feel of these steps. The relays to be coordinated at each step are
summarized in Table B.
Table B : Relative Sequence Matrix
Step
Set Relays
Step 1 R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5
Step 2 R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10
Step 4 R 14, R 15
Step 5 R
with R
and R
16
16
14
15
This table is also referred as Relative Sequence Matrix (RSM). The sequence for relay coordination is
recorded in the above table.
Identify the parents of leaf-nodes in step - 3. Compute their PSM and TMS for backup protection and
co-ordination.
Step 6 Delete the leaf nodes. Update the co-ordination tree and go back to step - 2.
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are the various Time Current Characteristics available for an overcurrent relay?
Recap
To explain intricacies of the problem, let us consider a radial system in the fig 16.1. Fault under
consideration is a 3 - phase fault. Relays used have Normal Inverse, IEC standard characteristics.
Coordination time interval CTI is 0.3sec. It is required that primary protection should fulfill its
responsibility within 1.0sec of the occurrence of fault.
The relays along with Circuit Breaker are labeled as R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 . The bus loads and fault currents are
tabulated in Table 1. It is obvious that pick up current settings for the relays should be above the feeder
load currents and not the bus load currents. In fact, one should consider the maximum possible loading
conditions, to decide conservatively pick-up current settings. A rule of thumb is to set the pick-up current
at 1.25 times maximum load current. Another 'rule of thumb' is to limit pick-up current to 2/3rd of the
minimum fault current. This decides the range available for setting relay pick-up.
Table 2 details the calculations associated with setting of overcurrent relays. It shows both the minimum
fault current and the maximum load current. Now ideally, one can set the pick up current of the
overcurrent relay anywhere within the maximum feeder load current (column 2) and minimum fault
current (column 3). However, as explained in the previous lecture, with electromechanical relays, we
should not allow PSM to be below 1.5. Since I p = If min/PSM, upper limit on PSM sets lower limit on I p ,
which is equal to
If min at PSM = 1.5. For example, pick up of relay R 1 can be set between 62.5 A
Maximum Load
bus A
50
250
500
bus B
50
650
1200
bus C
100
1100
2000
bus D
50
1600
3500
Now to decide the pick-up current of relay R 2 , it is not adequate to just look at the minimum fault current
of section CB. This is because, relay R 2 also has to back up the section BA in case relay R 1 or the its CB
or the associated circuitry fails. Hence, minimum fault current to be protected by relay R 2 is also 250 A.
Now one can choose pick up current of R 2 to be equal to R 1 . However, if we use same TMS setting for R 2
as R 1 then it leads to a serious conflict of interest between relays R 1 and R 2 with both of them competing
to clear the fault. If R 1 clears the fault F1 first, then there is absolutely no problem. But if R 2 clears the
fault first then, there is an unwanted loss of service to load at node B. This brings out another additional
requirement for relay R 2 viz. it should give preference to relay R 1 for faults on section BA. This can be
achieved in two ways:
1.
2.
Relay R 2 conservatively waits for a specified time for relay R 1 to act (time discrimination principle).
In the absence of the communication channel availability, alternative 2 is the only viable option.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Step 1
In this step, we will set relay R 1
Choose for relay R 1 TMS = 0.025. No intentional time delay is provided because R 1 does not have backup
responsibility.
Relay 1 (R1 )
As explained before, pickup current of R 1 = 160A.
For fault on section AB (Ifmax = 500 A):
PSM = Fault Current / Actual Pick up = 500/160 = 3.125
TMS = 0.025
Operating time using IEC SI TCC.
= 0.15sec
The corresponding point 'a' is marked on fig 16.2 (step 1). Now, the back-up protection for section AB is
given by relay 2. Setting of relay -2 is explained in the next step.
TMS
Now
PSM
with
= 0.07
for maximum fault current on section BC (1200A)
= Fault Current / Actual Pick up = 1200/167 = 7.185
TMS = 0.07 operating time of relay 2
We have emphasized earlier that CT and PT play a critical role in determining performance of relaying
system. We now evaluate their effect in performance of overcurrent relaying application.
16.3 Fault Type and CT burden
In the previous lectures on CT, we have discussed the effect of CT burden on the performance of CTs. But
in real life application, in three phase CT connection, the burden on individual CTs will vary with the type
of connection and the type of fault. This is summarized in Table 3.
Table 3 : Fault Type and Its Effects on CT burden
Type of fault
Connection
3 - Phase
Phase
or
Phase
to
Phase to Ground
Wye (connected at Z = R + R + Z
S
L
R
CT)
Z = R S+ 2RL + Z R
Z = R S+ 2RL + 2ZR
Z
RS
RL
ZR
16.4
3.
4.
Example
1.A
8
MVA,
138/13.8 KV
transformer is connected to an
infinite bus. If a bolted three
phase fault occurs at F, find out
the
fault
current.
The
impedance of the transformer
is 10% and location of the fault
is close to the bus as shown in
fig 16.4.
2.If the distribution feeder has
600/5 C 200 CT with a knee
point 100 Volt, calculate the
voltage developed across CT
and
comment
on
its
performance.
CT
secondary
resistance is 0.414 .
Assume that (1) CTs are star connected (2) Lead wire resistance is 0.411
and relay impedance is 0.259
.
If the existing 8 MVA transformer is replaced with a new 28 MVA transformer with 10% leakage
impedance, find out the
new fault current. Will this new fault current lead to CT saturation?
In case CT saturates, comment on the performance of
(a) Primary relay (b) back up relay (c) co-ordination between primary and back up relay pair.
Solution:
1.
= 3347A
16.4 Example
Solution:
2.
CT secondary current
To obtain conservative estimate of CT performance we will use this value. This amounts to assuming
bolted SLG fault current to be comparable to bolted 3 phase fault current. In comparison to three phase
fault, CT phases larger burden with S-L-G fault.
Since the secondary voltage, V S is less than knee point voltage the CT will not saturate.
3.
= 97.6
1.754 = 171.19 V
Since, the knee point is 100 V the CT will saturate at 171.19 V.
4.
a.
b.
c.
Because of CT saturation, the secondary current will be clipped. Thus, CT secondary current will reduce.
Hence, PSM will reduce and primary relay operation time will increase. This will slow down the operation of
primary overcurrent relay. But typically, the back up relays in a radial system will have higher ratio CTs
than the primary. Consequently, knee point voltage is also higher. This implies that the back up relay,
which does not saturate can act before the primary since, these CTs are generally less likely to saturate.
Hence, relay co-ordination may be lost.
This can be minimized by one of the following methods.
Additional co-ordination time can be included in the settings.
Set the instantaneous relay units below the current at which saturation begins.
Relays with less inverse time characteristics can be used upstream from the relay which has saturated
CTs. This
ensures a greater time margin at high currents when saturation is more likely.
Review Questions
1.
In a radial system if minimum fault current is less than or equal to maximum load current, can
overcurrent relay be used?
Why?
2.
3.
Calculate the burden on a delta connected CT for a three phase fault and S-L-G fault.
Recap
Automatic reclosing.
by
If we model the utility system with identical values for all the sequence impedances then,
. This
value is identical to the bolted three phase fault current. If however, Z S0 < Z S1 then the bolted single line
to ground fault current can be higher than the three phase fault current. As we move away from the
source, for a bolted fault, fault current reduces due to larger feeder impedance contribution to the
denominator. Since, for a feeder, zero sequence impedance can be much higher than the positive or
negative sequence impedance, it is apparent that fault current for bolted fault reduces significantly as we
go away from source. Thus, as we go away from the source, the bolted three phase fault current will be
higher than corresponding ground fault current as it does not depend upon zero sequence impedance of
the feeder. In addition, if the single line to ground fault has an impedance Z F, then the fault current can
fall even below the bolted a-g fault value,
phase faults. Hence, pickup with zero sequence current can be much below the load current
value, thereby providing sensitive earth fault protection. In what follows, we will discuss the
setting and coordination of earth fault relays.
In practice, distribution systems are inherently
unbalanced. Thus, load current would also have a
small percentage of zero sequence due to
unbalance. Hence, it is mandatory to keep the pick
up current above the maximum unbalance
expected under normal conditions.
A rule of thumb is to assume maximum unbalance
factor to be between 5 to 10%.
It should be also observed that earth fault relays
will not respond to the three phase or line to line
faults. One earth fault relay is adequate to provide
protection for all types of earth fault (a-g, b-g, c-g,
a-b-g etc). Three phase relays are required to
provide protection against phase faults (three
phase, a-b, b-c, c-a). Thus with four relays as
shown in fig 17.2 complete overcurrent protection
can be provided.
Consider a feeder as shown in fig 17.3 with earth fault relays R 1 and R 2 . Relay R 1 is used for providing
protection against earth fault at the secondary side of 2.5MVA, 11/3.3kV transformer, whereas, relay R 2
has to provide protection at bus B.
Two CTs are used for protection. 200:5 CT is connected to instantaneous relay and 500:5 is connected to
inverse current characteristic relay.
1)
2)
3)
Compute the setting of instantaneous and standard inverse units at relay at R 1 . Assume that
maximum system unbalance is 20% and
SLG fault current at bus A is 480 A and at bus B it is 650A.
Compute the time required by relay R 2 to clear SLG fault at bus B.
Use coordination time interval (CTI) of 0.3sec.
a) Setting of Relay R1
Since the relay is on secondary side of transformer, our calculations will be referred to secondary side.
From fig 17.3,
. Earth fault relay should not
pick up for the unbalance current 20% of 437A = 87.47A. Hence choose a pick up value of 100A.
Thus, instantaneous relay will pick up at 100 5 / 200 = 2.5A
Typical range available for setting is 1-4A. We choose the pick up at 3A.
If standard inverse relay is also set to pick up at the same current in primary, which is 100A, then with
500:5 CT, pick up current of relay R 1 referred to secondary is 1A.
Since R 1 has no back up responsibility, we choose its TMS to minimum, i.e. 0.1.
Now, for a L-G fault current of 480A at bus A,
PSM for R 1 = fault current / actual pick up = 480/100 = 4.8.
From standard inverse TCC,
Time of operation of earth fault relay R 1 ,
= 0.439sec.
b) Setting of Relay R2
R 2 should not trip for the unbalance current. i.e. 20% of full load current = 26A.
Let us, choose safely the pick up value to be 30A.
Pick up current of R 2 referred to secondary of 200:5 CT = 30 5 / 200 = 0.75A.
Fault current of 480A referred to 11kV side = 480 x 3.3/11 = 144A.
PSM for NI current = 144/30 = 4.8.
Desired time of operation of earth fault relay R 2 , TR2 = TR1 + CTI = 0.439 + 0.3 = 0.739sec
Substituting in equation,
Subsequently, energization is by manual intervention. The initial reclosure can be high speed (0.2 0.5sec) or delayed for 3 - 5 seconds. This allows for de-ionization time for fault arc. If the temporary fault
is cleared, then the service is restored. Otherwise, the relay again trips the feeder. Then one or two
additional time delayed reclosures are programmed on the reclosing relay. Typical schedule might be
instantaneous, followed by 30sec, or 35sec, followed by 15sec. If the circuit still continues to trip, the fault
is declared as permanent and the recloser is locked out. Reclosers use three phase and single phase oil or
vacuum circuit breakers for overhead distribution lines.
With underground network, faults tend to be more often permanent and reclosers are not recommended.
In case of large synchronous motors, distributed generators or induction motor loads, it is recommended
that sufficient time is allowed for underfrequency relays to trip these sources of back emf out-of-thecircuit.
The following example will explain the selection of reclosers in a simple distribution system.
Example
Consider
a
three
phase
distribution system with a single
phase tap as shown in fig 17.5.
Maximum load on this single
phase tap is 40A and that on
three phase line is 200A. Fault
currents at F1 ,F 2 , F3 and F4 are
also shown in the fig 17.5. Table
1 shows the available standard
rating of single phase and three
phase reclosers. Select the ratings
of reclosers at A and B.
Example
Answer
Recloser at B
Maximum load current on this single phase line = 40A.
Continuous current rating of this recloser must be 1.25 - 1.5 times the maximum load current to account
for anticipated load growth.
i.e. Continuous current rating of this recloser at B = 40 1.5 = 60A.
From the table 1, any recloser with continuous current rating of 100A and above is acceptable.
Maximum fault current at B = 1750A.
Interrupting current rating must be greater than 1750A. From the table 1, we see that recloser with 100A
continous current rating has 2000A symmetrical rms short circuit current rating. Hence, we can choose
this recloser.
Minimum tripping current = Continuous current rating 2 10% tolerance
= 100 2 10% of 100 = 220A
Since the minimum trip current 220A is less than the minimum fault current 250A at the line end, it can
protect the entire line.
Voltage rating of the line is 11kV. So we can select the maximum voltage rating of 15.5kV (from the
table).
Recloser at A
This recloser has to protect the three phase line. Hence a three phase recloser can be used here.
Maximum load current in this line = 200A.
Hence continuous rating of recloser at A = 200 1.25 = 250A.
From the table let us choose recloser with a continuous rating of 280A.
Maximum fault current at A = 3500A.
From the table , symmetrical interrupting capability of recloser A with 280A continous rating is 4000A
which is more than maximum fault current of 3500A. Hence, this recloser meets our requirements.
Minimum tripping current = Continuous current rating 2 10% tolerance
= 280 2 10% of 560 = 616A.
Since the minimum fault current at the end of this line is 280A, recloser at A cannot protect the entire
line. Hence, in order to increase sensitivity ground relay can be added here.
Example
Answer
Table 1 (Source : IEEE Tutorial Course 80EH0157 - 8 - PWR)
15.0
50
1250
15.5
100
2000
15.5
280
4000
15.5
560
8000
27.0
100
2500
27.0
280
4000
38.0
560
8000
15.0
50
1250
15.5
100
2000
15.5
280
4000
15.5
400
4000
15.5
560
8000
15.5
560
16000
Review Questions
1.
Give reasons:
(a)
The magnitude of earth fault current can vary over a wide range.
(b)
The fault current for bolted S-L-G fault reduces as we go away from source.
2.
3.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Earth fault can be detected by the presence of zero sequence component.
Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 17. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side
menu of the page
The operation of
18.1 Necessity
1.
In the overcurrent protection scheme considered in previous lectures, we had implicitly assumed that,
System is radial.
2.
This is quite true for traditional distribution systems but it does not hold true for sub-transmission or
transmission system with multiple sources. Fig 18.1 shows a system which is radial but it has two sources
connected to it. If relays for protection are installed only at one end of transmission line say towards
source A end, it is obvious that after opening of relay in red, the fault will continue to be fed from source
B. Hence, relays are also installed at other end of line to detect fault and disconnect transmission line
from the other end as well. Similar situation will exist even for a single source system if parallel paths
exist (fig 18.2). Hence, system which have multiple paths to source require relays at both ends. However,
installing relays at both ends does not provide a complete relaying solution. To understand the reason,
consider the action of red relay in fig 18.1 with respect to two likely faults F1 and F2 .
If the fault is at
F1 then it is
responsibility of
red
relays to
open. If fault is
at F2 , then it is
the green relays
which should trip
the
line.
However, it is
quite likely that
for fault F2 , the
However, it is not possible to provide such time discrimination between relays like R 2 and R 3 . Now
consider two possible fault locations with respect to relay R 3 as shown in fig 18.4. The relay R 2 should
operate if fault is at F1 because it is on primary feeder but not behind i.e. at F2 . With polarity of CT
connection as shown in fig 18.5, it is apparent that for fault F1 current I 1 seen by the relay lags V p by 90
degrees (fig 18.6). This is under the assumption of bolted fault and reactive nature of circuit impedance.
However, when the fault is in the position F2 , then relay current leads the bus voltage 'V p '.
Now, with traditional overcurrent relays, a directional overcurrent relay can be visualized as a cascade
connection of 'one directional unit' and one overcurrent unit. If the polarity of the current is appropriate,
then directional unit picks up. If the current magnitude is above pickup, then the overcurrent unit also
picks up and when both units pickup, the trip coil is energized and CB tripping is ensured. In a numerical
relay, this can be programmed by a simple 'AND' logic.
Any fault involving ground is called a ground fault. Traditionally, three phase relays and one ground relay
have been used to protect a feeder or a transmission line. However, in a numerical relay, all these
functions can be integrated into a single relay which acquires 3-phase voltages and 3-phase currents.
Design of Directional Units for Phase Fault
Let us first consider, a three phase fault. In this case, choice of the reference phasor can be the phase
voltage itself. For a purely reactive circuit, the fault current in the correct direction lags the reference
. With respect to reference phase 'V a ', we can draw operating line (also called as zero
phasor by
torque line due to legacy of electromechanical realys) which separates the plane into two regions marked
as 'operate' and 'Do not operate'. If the fault is in the operating region, then I a lags V a and we issue trip
decision. In case, fault is behind the relay, the fault current leads V a and hence lies in the "do not
operate" region.
18.3 Phase Fault Protection
Fig 18.7 shows vector diagram and relationship between different phasors. The threshold or maximum
torque line is a line perpendicular to the zero torque line. Again this terminology is because of the legacy
of electromechanical relay. The threshold or maximum torque line can be placed at an angle with respect
to V a also. This does add complexity to electromechanical relay design. But same placement is a simple
programming job in a numerical relay. For example, the common practice is to place the maximum
torque line at an angle of 60 degrees lag or 45 degrees with respect to ' V a ' (fig 18.8).
Similarly,
V b - V f = Z s I b + Z mI a = - (Zs - Z m) I a = - Z 1 I a
V a - V b = 2(Z s - Z m) I a
Since, (Zs - Z m) = Z 1 = Z 2 of a feeder
If for simplicity we assume Z to be purely reactive, then from fig 18.9 we get that I f ab will be at an angle
of 60 degrees lagging to V an . Thus,
unit with V bc as reference phasor will pickup on both 3-phase
fault and L-L fault. For a L-L fault involving phases 'a' and 'c' , V ac lags V an by
. Assuming purely
reactive circuit, the phase current Ia will lag V bc by
. As seen in the figure, I ac will be again in the
operate region and the directional unit will pickup. Thus, this unit (
lead with V bc as reference
phasor) will pickup for all phase faults involving phase 'a'. In contrast, for L-L fault involving phases 'b'
and 'c', I bc will lag V bc by
. Hence, it will lie outside the tripping region of the directional unit.
Therefore, directional unit will not pick up.
To summarize, the key feature in obtaining directional discrimination is the placement of zero torque line
which separates the R-X plane into two regions viz. operate and do not operate. It is apparent that in
numerical relays, this placement is quite flexible and can be specified with respect to any one reference
voltage phasor. This placement can be made programmable.
18.4 Earth Fault Protection
Typically, earthfaults are SLG and LLG faults. Earthfaults are distinguished by presence of zero sequence
currents 'I 0 '. Since, except for unbalance, normal system operation is devoid of I 0 component, much more
sensitive pickup is possible for earthfault by using component I 0 = (I a + I b + I c ) / 3 and declaring a fault
if "I 0 " exceeds a threshold.
However, in a system with multiple sources or parallel paths, we will require earthfault relays to be
directional. The reference phasor is sometimes called as "polarizing quantity". Also both voltage and
current polarizing signals are used with ground fault relaying.
18.4.2Current Polarization
An alternative to voltage polarization is current polarization. It does not require an additional VT. We
briefly introduce its principle. When the system is balanced, 3I0 = I a + I b +I c = 0. During ground fault
say at phase 'a', at F1 3I0 flows from ground to neutral of a wye-delta power or distribution transformer
bank. If we assume for simplicity that I b = I c = 0, then 3I0 and I a are in phase. This indicates that
directional unit for ground relay should pick-up as 'I a ' is in phase with '3I0 '.Thus we place maximum
torque line at zero degrees with respect to I 0 phasor. The corresponding trip, no trip relay are marked in
fig 18.13. If however fault is behind the relay, then the I a will fall in do not operate region and hence
relay will not pickup as
and
Review Questions
1.
A single source system with parallel paths requires directional relays. Why?
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is a polarizing quantity? Differentiate between voltage polarization and current polarization.
6.
Show that a
directional unit with V ab as reference phasor will pick up on a - c and b - c phase faults.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Directional feature can be incorporated in an overcurrent relay and it improves its selectivity.
directional unit with V bc as reference phasor will pick up on a - b and a - c phase faults.
Directional earth fault relays using voltage and current as polarizing quantity.
19.1 Introduction
Coordination
of
directional
overcurrent relays involves
setting of relays one by one
so that at each stage the relay
coordinates with its primary
relay. But in a loop as shown
in fig 19.1, the last relay to be
set is the very first, in which
initial setting were assumed.
This
makes
the
relay
coordination activity in a mesh
system iterative. This should
be contrasted with a radial
system
where
the
relay
coordination is completed in
one pass. The iterative nature
of
relay
setting
and
coordination converges when
on revisiting the same relay, if
we do not have to change the
relay settings and TMS.
As shown in fig 19.1, a typical
transmission line is protected
by directional relays at both
ends. Hence we have to
consider two loops, i.e. one
loop formed in clockwise
direction and the another in
anticlockwise direction.
In this case clockwise loop is given by R 5
R6
R7
R8
R 5 and anti clockwise loop is given by
R2
R3
R4
R 1 where arrow
' should be read as backs up'.
R1
Now, let us consider the anticlockwise loop for setting. We can start setting from any one of the four
relays, i.e. R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R 4 . Let us start from R 2 , i.e. setting in relay R 2 is assumed appropriately.
Typically this implies that some value of TMS within the limits is taken. Limit points should be avoided at
initial stage. PSM can be calculated using the guidelines outlined in the previous lectures. R 1 will be set to
coordinate with R 2 , since R 1 has to back up R 2 . Now R 4 has to coordinate with R 1 , R 3 with R 4 and R 2
with R 3 . Thus we can see that the setting of R 2 has changed from what it was initially to coordinate with
R 3 . After first iteration, we update the setting of R 2 to the corresponding new setting, to coordinate with
R 3 , thus closing the loop. If the setting of the R 2 has changed significantly, then we repeat the above
process by fine tuning the settings of all the relays in the loop again.
As every iteration improvises the relay settings (TMS), we expect the settings to converge in a few
iterations. We have to repeat the same process with the clockwise loop also. Then all the relays will be set
and relay coordination activity is complete.
19.2 Example
The following example will illustrate this process in detail. In the fig 19.1, the remote bus fault currents
seen by each primary and back up relay pairs are tabulated below (Table 1).
Table 1 : Fault Current seen by Primary - Back up Relay Pairs
Anti clockwise loop
Remote Bus Fault
at
Current seen by
primary relay
Clockwise loop
Current seen by
back up relay
Current seen by
primary relay
F1
R 2 (639A)
R 1 (152A)
R 6 (1365A)
R 5 (272A)
F2
R 1 (1652A)
R 4 (391A)
R 7 (868A)
R 6 (240A)
F3
R 4 (1097A)
R 3 (140A)
R 8 (1764A)
R 7 (287A)
F4
R 3 (937A)
R 2 (142A)
R 5 (553A)
R 8 (197A)
For the relays in table 1, if the pick up values are as tabulated in table 2, find out the TMS.
Table 2 : Pick up Values of Relays
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
Pick up
60
setting (A)
80
60
160
80
160
128
100
Relay
= 0.165sec
For fault at F1 , R 1 will back up R 2 .
Hence time of operation R 1 =
+ CTI (where CTI is the coordination time interval and CTI = 0.3sec.)
i.e.
= 0.0623
0.427sec
i.e.,
Then,
= 0.055
+ CTI = 0.496sec
For a fault at F3
i.e.,
= 0.0605
Now for fault at F4 , where R 3 acts as primary,
(where I = 937A, Is = 60A)
= 0.15sec
19.2 Example (contd..)
Answer
Iteration 1 (contd..)
For fault F4 , R 2 has to back up R 3
i.e., Time of operation of R 2 =
+ CTI = 0.45sec
(where I = 142A, Is = 80A)
= 0.037
We had assumed a value of 0.05 for
update the TMS of R 2 to 0.037.
Iteration 2
+ CTI
i.e., 0.422
= 0.0565
= 0.4154
i.e. 0.4154
= 0.0535
Now, for fault at F3 , where R 4 acts as primary,
= 0.191sec
Since, relay R 3 backs up R 4 , time of operation of relay R 3 =
i.e. 0.491 =
= 0.0599
For fault at F4 , where R 3 acts as primary,
Time of operation
R 2 backs up R 3 ; Therefore,
Time of operation of R 2 =
= 0.1484sec
= 0.4484sec
i.e. 0.4484
= 0.0369
Now, let us update the TMS of R 2 to this new value, i.e., 0.0369 and repeat iteration.
For fault at F1 ,
= 0.1217sec
For relay R 1 , which has to back up R 2
Time of operation = 0.3 + 0.1217 = 0.4217sec
i.e. 0.4217
= 0.0565
Then for fault at F2 ,
= 0.1154sec
= 0.0535
For fault at F3 , where R 4 acts as primary, we have
= 0.191sec
= 0.0599
For fault at F4 ,
= 0.1484sec
Now R 2 backs up R 3
i.e. time of operation of R 2 = 0.3 + 0.1484 = 0.4484
= 0.0369 which is same as the result of iteration 2.
Therefore no more iteration is required. Hence, setting and coordination of all the four anticlockwise relays
are complete.
Coordination of all primary and back up relay pairs R 2 - R 1 , R 1 - R 4 , R 4 - R 3 and R 3 - R 2 for faults at F1 ,
F2 , F3 and F4 respectively are visualized in fig 19.2.
19.2 Example (contd..)
Answer
Iteration 3
For fault at F1 ,
= 0.1217sec
For relay R 1 , which has to back up R 2
Time of operation = 0.3 + 0.1217 = 0.4217sec
i.e. 0.4217
= 0.0565
Then for fault at F2 ,
= 0.1154sec
= 0.0535
For fault at F3 , where R 4 acts as primary, we have
= 0.191sec
= 0.0599
For fault at F4 ,
= 0.1484sec
Now R 2 backs up R 3
19.2Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 1
Now let us start setting all the clockwise relays. Let us start from relay R 5 for fault at F4 .
Assume a TMS of 0.05 for relay R 5 . Then, time of operation of relay R 5 ,
i.e. Time of operation of back up relay R 8 =
= 0.1775 + 0.3
= 0.4775sec
Now, 0.4775 =
= 0.04656
+ CTI
= 0.0477
R 7 acts as primary relay for fault at F2 .
= 0.1711sec
19.2
Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 1 (contd..)
R 6 backs up R 7 ,
i.e. Time of operation for R 6
= 0.1711 + 0.3 = 0.4711
i.e. 0.4711
= 0.0274
For fault at F1 , R 6 acts as primary,
= 0.0875sec
i.e.,
R 5 backs up R 6
i.e. Time of operation of R 5 = 0.0875 + 0.3 = 0.3875
i.e., 0.3875
= 0.0686
i.e. after 1st iteration TMS of R 5 has been changed from 0.05 to 0.0686. Let us update TMS of R 5 to
0.0686 and begin iteration 2.
19.2
Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 2
= 0.0686
For fault F4 ,
= 0.2436
= 0.5436sec
i.e. 0.5436 =
= 0.053
For fault F3 , where R 8 acts as primary,
= 0.1256sec
Relay R 7 backs up R 8
Time of operation of R7 = 0.1256 + 0.3 = 0.4256sec
i.e. 0.4256
= 0.0495
19.2
Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 2 (contd..)
For fault at F2 , R 7 acts as primary,
= 0.1776sec
i.e.
R 6 backs up R 7 ,
i.e. Time of operation for R 6 = 0.1776 + 0.3 = 0.4776sec
i.e. 0.4776
= 0.0278
For fault at F1 , R 6 acts as primary,
= 0.0888sec
i.e.
R 5 backs up R 6 ,
i.e. Time of operation of R 5 = 0.0888 + 0.3
= 0.3888sec
i.e. 0.3888
= 0.0688
Now let us set TMS of R 5 to 0.0688 and repeat iteration.
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 3
= 0.0688
For fault at F4
= 0.2443
R 8 backs up R 5 ,
i.e. Time of operation of R 8 =
= 0.5443sec
0.5443 =
i.e.
= 0.0531
Then
Relay R 7 backs up R 8
i.e. Time of operation of R 7 = 0.3 + 0.1258 = 0.4258sec
0.4258
= 0.0495
19.2Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Iteration 3 (contd..)
For fault at F2 , R 7 acts as primary,
= 0.1776sec
i.e.
= 0.0278
For fault at F1 , R 6 acts as primary,
= 0.0888sec
Since R 5 backs up R 6 for fault at F1 , time of operation of R 5 = 0.3 + 0.0888sec = 0.3888sec
i.e., 0.3888
= 0.0688.
Since, the result of iterations 2 and 3 are the same, the iteration is complete. Thus, all the clockwise relays
are set. The settings are tabulated in table 3. Coordination of all clockwise relay pairs R 6 - R 5 , R 7 - R 6 , R 8
- R 7 and R 5 - R 8 for faults at F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are visualized in fig 19.3.
19.2Example (contd..)
Answer
Setting and Coordination of Clockwise Relays
Table 3 TMS Setting for Relay
Relay
1 st Iteration
2 nd Iteration
3 rd Iteration
R1
0.623
0.0565
0.0565
R2
0.05
0.0369
0.0369
R3
0.0605
0.0599
0.0599
R4
0.055
0.0535
0.0535
R5
0.05
0.0686
0.0688
R6
0.0274
0.0278
0.0278
R7
0.0477
0.0495
0.0495
R8
0.04656
0.053
0.0531
Review Questions
1.
2.
In the given example if the standard inverse relays are replaced with very inverse relays. Find out
whether relay
3.
Recap
In a meshed system both clockwise and anticlockwise loops have to be considered separately.
Identify all possible clockwise and anticlockwise loops for the given systems.
20.1 Introduction
In the previous lecture, we discussed the coordination problem associated with single loop system. But the
complexity of coordination problem increases in multiple loop system which share some relays. Hence we
have to find one common acceptable setting for relays which share multiple loops so that their
coordination in individual loops is achievable. The number of such relays should be kept to minimum, so
that we make minimum assumptions on relay setting in coordination of loops. Such relays are called
Minimum Break Point Relays. For example, it can be verified that R 6 , R 14 and R 9 are such relays in the fig
20.1. By opening these relays, we are able to break any clockwise or anti clockwise relay loops and it
should be checked that no other relay set exists which achieves the above criteria with lesser number of
relays. If you open R 1 , R 13, R 4 and R 10 all loops are broken. But we now require four relays. Therefore,
the first choice is more acceptable than the second because we have to assume lesser number of TMS to
start the coordination process. There can be multiple choices to minimum break point relays. For example
an alternative choice is R 12, R 7 and R 3 .
Computation of minimum break point set of relays is a involved problem which requires combinatorial
optimization techniques.
Now let us analyze the system in more detail. There are 3 simple loops in the fig 20.1. So the three
clockwise coordination problems are given by,
R 14
R 12
R 13
1.
R8
2.
R9
R 10
R 11
R7
3.
R8
R9
R 10
R 11
R 12
R 13
R1
R2
R7
R6
5.
R 14
R3
R4
R5
6.
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
Now these loops are not exclusive and they share relays. For example, loop 1 and loop 3 share R 8 , R 12
and R 13. Therefore, it implies that individual loops cannot be coordinated independently. So the crux of
the problem is to find acceptable setting at relays which are shared by multiple loops. Now, take the
example of R 6 , R 14 and R 9 . These relays feature in all loops and by opening them we can open all
clockwise and anti clockwise loops. Similar statement can be made for R 3 , R 7 and R 12. This set also
appears in all loops.
Another such set is R 1 , R 13, R 4 and R 10. Now it is better to begin by assuming setting in R 6 , R 14 and R 9
or R 12, R 7 and R 3 , because they involves lesser number of relays than R 1 , R 13, R 4 and R 10. Thus
amount of assumptions are reduced which should reduce the number of iterations in relay coordination.
Such a set of minimum number of relays which when opened break all loops in the system are called
Minimum Break Point Relay set. There are multiple choices, but each of such sets has same (minimum)
number of relays.
So the relay coordination process is as follows.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Find the set of relays which back up the primary relays in above step.
6.
7.
All relays exhausted. If yes, RSM is complete else set current back up relays as primary relay and go to 5.
8.
From the graph and RSM work out set of sequential primary back up pairs (SSP) for coordination.
9.
From the short circuit analysis, find primary back up current pairs.
20.2 Example
Consider a transmission network system as shown in fig 20.2. Identify all possible clockwise and
anticlockwise loops and also minimum breakpoint relays.
In the above figure, there are 12 loops, i.e., 6 in the clockwise direction and 6 in the anticlockwise
direction.
The clockwise loops are given by
1.
R1
R9
R4
2.
R2
R3
R 10
3.
R1
R2
R3
4.
R 13
R 21
R 16
5.
R 14
R 15
R 22
6.
R 13
R 14
R 15
R4
R 16
R5
R 10
R8
2.
R6
R7
R9
3.
R5
R6
R7
4.
R 17
R 22
R 20
5.
R 18
R 19
R 21
6.
R 17
R 18
R 19
R8
R 20
Hint: One set of minimum break point relays are given by,
R 8 , R 9 , R 2 , R 20, R 21, R 14.
Course Projects
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
R 10
R 11
R 12
R 13
R 14
Pick up
Current
120
192
80
120
160
80
160
240
80
160
128
128
120
160
Clockwise Loop
Current seen
Primary Relay
by Current seen
Back up Relay
by Current seen
Back up Relay
F1
R 13 (861A)
R 12 (0)
R 6 (977A)
R 7 (576A)
F2
R 8 (3422A)
R 13 (56A)
R 7 (1764A)
R 2 (1477A)
F5
R 14 (1483A)
R 8 (1119A)
R 2 (4589A)
R 1 (307A)
F6
R 12 (767A)
R 14 (469A)
R 1 (601A)
R 6 (0)
F2
R 7 (1764A)
R 11 (287A)
R 5 (1074A)
R 4 (0)
F3
R 9 (553A)
R 7 (157A)
R 4 (946A)
R 3 (114A)
F4
R 10 (1365A)
R 9 (0)
R 3 (639A)
R 14 (152A)
F5
R 11 (868A)
R 10 (240A)
R 14 (1483A)
R 5 (364A)
F3
R 9 (553A)
R 8 (396)
--
--
by
F6
R 12 (767A)
R 11 (298A)
F1
--
--
R 6 (977A)
R 5 (401A)
F4
--
--
R 3 (639A)
R 2 (487A)
--
--
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Break point relays and minimum break point relays.
Clockwise and anticlockwise loops coordination problems for the given systems.
Fault modeling of balanced transmission line for 3 phase faults, L-L fault.
21.1 Introduction
Overcurrent protection scheme is essentially a simple protection scheme. Consequently, its accuracy is not
very high. It is comparatively cheap as non-directional protection does not require VT. However, it is not
suitable for protection of meshed transmission systems where selectivity and sensitivity requirements are
more stringent. Overcurrent protection is also not a feasible option, if fault current and load currents are
comparable. We now discuss about distance protection scheme which provides both 'higher' sensitivity
and selectivity.
Distance protection provides the following features:
More accurate as more information is used for taking decision.
Directional, i.e. it responds to the phase angle of current with respect to voltage phasor.
Back-up protection.
Primarily used in transmission line protection. Also it can be applied to generator backup, loss of field and
transformer
backup protection.
(1)
Let T =
(2)
Then,
(3)
Similarly,
(4)
Now let a
bolted fault occur at percentage (%) distance, x of the line (fig 21.2)
For a solid
fault, V n = 0. Thus,
fault by
using equation (6). In the absence of fault currents I a , I b and I c are smaller in magnitude.
Consequently, apparent impedance seen by the relay is much higher. Hence, a simple logic to locate
fault is provided by equation (6).
It can be easily seen that for a
(7)
aI a , V c = a V a ]
Notice that, if equation (7) is used for locating fault, then the relay input voltage is the line voltage and
not the phase voltage. Similarly, current input is the difference of line currents and not actual line
currents. Thus, equation (7) provides an alternate way of locating
fault. Note that per unit
distance to fault is given by ratio of apparent impedance seen by the relay to the positive sequence
impedance of the line.
Again, system is considered unloaded for simplicity. Then the governing equations in 3-phase
coordinates given by
(8)
where
Further
(12)
From equation (7) and (12) we conclude that a relay input configured as per equation (7) can measure
both 3-phase fault and L-L fault.
Therefore, traditionally the distance relays are configured as per equation (7) to detect and locate both
L-L and 3-phase faults. Therefore, distance to fault is given by
where, l is length of line and Z app is the impedance seen by the relay.
This is the fundamental principle of distance relaying.
(13)
Thus, ratio
equals
and not
relay input voltages and currents have to be configured in such a way that for any type of bolted fault
(Zf = 0), the apparent impedance seen by relay is given by
. Therefore, it follows that we should
modify equation (13) suitably.
(14)
Now,
Hence,
(16)
(17)
Since
, let
A L-L-G fault can also be detected by the S-L-G relay equations. There are 10 types of shunt faults
against which a system has to be protected. They are:
3-phase fault
1
L-L faults
3
3.
S-L-G faults
L-L-G faults
4.
The relaying units configured by equation (7) and (18,19,20) do this job satisfactorily.
Review Questions
1.
3.
4.
Why does the distance ground fault relay require a different configuration?
2.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
The advantages of distance protection.
Distance relays can be used for protecting the system from all kinds of fault.
Zone 1 setting and the reason for keeping zone 1 setting at 80% of primary line length.
Load encroachment.
Zone 1 of Protection
Distance relays can be classified into phase relay and ground relays. Phase relays are used to protect the
transmission line against phase faults (three phase, L-L) and ground relays are used to protect against
ground faults (S-L-G, L-L-G). In this lecture, we will learn the ways to set distance relay. Just like an
overcurrent relay, a distance relay also has to perform the dual task of primary and back up protection.
For example, in fig 22.1, the distance relay R 1 has to provide primary protection to line AB and back up
protection to lines BC, BD and BE.
The
primary
protection
should be fast and hence
preferably it should be
done
without
any
intentional
time
delay,
while back up protection
should operate if and only
if corresponding primary
relay fails. In fig 22.1, R 1
backs operation of relays
R 3 , R 5 and R 7 . Typically,
distance
relays
are
provided
with
multiple
zones of protection to meet
the stringent selectivity
and
sensitivity
requirements.
At
least
three zones of protection
are provided for distance
relays.
Zone 1 is designated by Z 1 and zones 2 and 3 by Z 2 and Z 3 respectively. Zone 1 is meant for protection
of the primary line. Typically, it is set to cover 80% of the line length. Zone 1 provides fastest protection
because there is no intentional time delay associated with it. Operating time of Z 1 can be of the order of 1
cycle. Zone 1 does not cover the entire length of the primary line because it is difficult to distinguish
all of which are close to bus B. In other words, if a fault is close to
between faults at
bus, one cannot ascertain if it is on the primary line, bus or on back up line. This is because of the
following reasons:
1.
CTs and PTs have limited accuracy. During fault, a CT may undergo partial or complete saturation. The
resulting errors
in measurement of apparent impedance seen by relay, makes it difficult to determine fault location at the
boundary of lines very accurately.
2.
Derivations for equations of distance relays made some assumptions like neglecting capacitance of line,
unloaded
system transposed lines and bolted faults. In practice none of these assumptions are valid. Fault on a line
will also destroy effect of transposing. Such factors affect accuracy of distance relaying. Further,
algorithms for numerical relays may use a specific transmission line model. For example, a transmission
line may be modeledas a series R L circuit and the contribution of distributed shunt capacitance may be
neglected. Due to model limitation and because of transients accompanied with the fault, working of
numerical algorithm is prone to errors.
3.
With only local measurements, and a small time window, it is difficult to determine fault impedance
accurately. For
example, if the fault has an impedance (
),
4.
There are infeed and outfeed effects associated with working of distance relays. Recall that a distance
relaying
scheme uses only local voltage and current measurements for a bus and transmission line. Hence, it
cannot model infeed or outfeed properly.
Zone 2 and Zone 3 for Protection
Usually zone 2 is set to 120% of primary line impedance Z 1 . This provides sufficient margin to account
for non-zero fault impedance and other errors in relaying. Also one should note that Z 2 also provides
back up protection to a part of the adjacent line. Therefore, one would desire that Z 2 should be extended
to cover as large a portion of adjacent line as possible.
Typically, Z 2 is set to reach 50% of the shortest back up line provided that
where
Z P and Z B are the positive sequence impedance of primary and the shortest back up line respectively. If
the shortest back up line is too short then, it is likely that Z P + 1.5ZB will be less than 1.2ZP . In such a
case, Z 2 is set to 1.2ZP . Since, back up protection has to be provided for entire length of remote line, a
third zone of protection, Z 3 is used.
Zone 2 and Zone 3 for Protection (contd..)
It is set to cover the farthest (longest) remote lines (BD in fig 22.3(a) for relay R 1 acting as a back up
relay). Since its operation should not interfere with Z 2 operation of relays
, it is set up to
operate with a time delay of 2 CTI where CTI is the coordination time interval. The settings of relay R 1 on
an R-X plane is visualized in fig 22.3(b). The timing diagrams are shown in fig 22.3(c).
Example
1. Consider a protection system shown in fig 22.5. Identify the primary relays for back up relay R 1 .
Relay R 1 not only backup's line BC but also parallel line AB. Therefore, for relay R 1 acting as back up, the
Ans:
primary relays
are R 5 and R 4 .
Now assuming that pu impedance of all transmission lines in above fig 22.5 is
pu
/km, determine
2.
the setting of
zone 1, zone 2 and zone 3 relays of R 1 .
Ans:
[because BA is the shortest back up line]
[because BC is the longest back up line]
This approach for setting of distance relays presented is known as kilometric distance approach because
the set values of impedances are proportional to lengths. In doing so, we have neglected effect of load
currents and as well as the effect of change in operating condition in the system. More accurate settings
can be computed by evaluating fault impedance seen by the relay for a fault by using short circuit
analysis programs.
(1)
Thus, we see that the distance relay at R 1 does not measure impedance
. If there is an
equivalent generator source at bus E, then it feeds the fault current. Thus
and
are
approximately in phase. This is known as infeed effect. From equation (1), it is clear that infeed causes
an equivalent increase in apparent impedance seen by the relay R 1 .
From the relay's perspective, the fault is pushed beyond its actual location. Thus, a fault in zone-2 may
be pushed into zone-3, thereby compromising selectivity of zone-2. However, infeed effect does not
compromise selectivity of zone-1. In other words, relay R 1 perceives fault to farther away from than its
actual location.
However, if there is an equivalent load at bus E, then I AB and I EB are in phase opposition. This causes an
apparent reduction in the impedance seen by the relay R 1 . In other words, the relay R 1 perceives fault to
be at a point closer than its actual location. If this perceived point falls well in the section AB, the relay R 1
will operate instantaneously for a fault on the back up line, thereby compromising selectivity. Hence,
instantaneous primary protection zone (Z1 ) of distance relay is always set below 100% line impedance.
Typically, zone 1 is set to cover 0.8 to 0.9 times the primary line length. In other words, we expect errors
in measurements of fault impedance to be within 10-20% accuracy. The remaining portion of the primary
line is provided with a time delayed protection known as Z 2 . The zone 2 protection is delayed at least by
the coordination time interval, CTI to give first opportunity to relays
it falls into its primary protection zone. Note that, relay R 3 in fig 22.6 is immune to infeed or outfeed
effect for fault F.
=
(2)
Quadrant of Z R in the R - X plane correspond to the quadrant of apparent power (S ij ) in (Pij - Q ij ) plane.
2.
The apparent impedance seen by the relay is proportional to square of the magnitude of bus voltage. If
the bus voltage
drops say to 0.9 pu from 1 pu, then Z R reduces to 81% of its value with nominal voltage. Further, if the
bus voltage drops to say 0.8 pu, then the apparent impedance seen by the relay will drop to 64% of its
value at 1 pu.
3.
The apparent impedance seen by the relay is inversely proportional to the apparent power flowing on the
line. If the
apparent power doubles up, the impedance seen by relay will reduce by 50%.
During peak load conditions, it is quite likely that combined effect of (2) and (3) may reduce the apparent
impedance seen by the relay to sufficiently small value so as to fall in Z 2 or Z 3 characteristic. This is quite
likely in case of a relay backing up a very long line. In such a case, Z 3 impedance setting can be quite
large. If the impedance seen by relay due to large loads falls within the zone, then it will pick up and trip
the circuit after its time dial setting requirement are met. Under such circumstances, the relay is said to
trip on load encroachment . Tripping on load encroachment compromises security and it can even
initiate cascade tripping which in turn can lead to black outs.
Thus, safeguards have to be provided to
prevent tripping on load encroachment. A
distinguishing feature of load from faults is
that typically, loads have large power
with large
factor and this leads to
ratio. In contrast, faults are more or
less reactive in nature and the
ratio
is quite high.
Thus, to prevent tripping on load
encroachment, the relay characteristic are
modified by excluding an area in R X
plane, which corresponds to high power
factor. A typical modified characteristic to
account for load encroachment is shown in
fig 22.8.
The conditions of low value of Z R discussed
in (1) and (2) can also arise due to
voltage
instability or transients associated with electromechanical oscillations of rotors of synchronous machines
after a major disturbance like the faults. This can also induce nuisance tripping. Such tripping is known as
tripping on power swings and it will be studied in the later lectures.
Review Questions
1.
Why is zone 1 protection of distance relays always set below 100% line length?
2.
What is meant by infeed effect? How will it affect the performance of a distance relay?
3.
4.
5.
6.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Setting of distance relays for zone 1 protection.
Overlapping problem.
Introduction
1.
We have seen that distance relays provide fast protection upto 80% of the primary line length. However,
primary protection for remaining 20% is deliberately slowed down by coordination time interval. Pilot
protection is used for lines to provide the high speed simultaneous detection of phase and ground faults
for 100% of the primary line. Since distance relays are directional relays, the corresponding schemes are
known as directional comparison schemes. Following directional comparison schemes are in use.
Directional comparison blocking.
2.
3.
4.
b) Permissive.
The basic idea behind all these schemes is to obtain the response of the distance relay element at other
end to speed- up decision making. This requires additional communication signals. If relay R 1 could obtain
the response of relay R 2 regarding the location of fault, then uncertainity in locating faults close to
boundary is no more significant and it can quickly clear the fault anywhere on the primary line (internal
fault).
We now briefly describe each of these schemes.
Use directional fault detectors to detect faults in the direction of primary line.
Use blocking signal from the remote end in case the fault is not on the primary
line.
Consider the requirement of protecting line AB. If the fault is at F1 (anywhere on the line AB), fast
protective action is required from relays R 1 and R 2 . To achieve this action, relays R 1 and R 2 are enabled
with two units each called fault detectors (FD 1 and FD 2 ) and carrier starts S 1 and S 2 . Typically, the fault
detectors correspond to Z 2 of distance relays at respective locations as shown in fig 23.1. They overreach
the primary line. The carrier start relays look for fault in opposite sense to respective FD. They are called
carrier starts because the channel signals between A and B are initiated by them.
Imagine a scheme where FD issues a trip signal after identifying a fault unless it is quickly blocked by an
external agent (carrier starters). For example, if the fault is in F1 , both FD 1 and FD 2 will pick up. Since
neither carrier starts S 1 nor S 2 will pick up, fault F1 will be cleared quickly. In contrast, suppose that fault
is at F2 . Then FD 1 will pick up and so will S 2 . The S 2 will initiate channel and send blocking signal to FD 1 .
The FD 1 will be blocked from tripping action until its timer runs out. In this interval, either the primary
relay R 3 will clear the fault or else it is cleared by R 1 as a back up measure.
In other words, in this scheme, the relays are set for fast clearing action. They do not care whether the
fault is in primary line or the back up line. Blocking from the other end is used to prevent fast tripping for
faults on backup line.
1.
2.
Basic Principle
After detecting a fault in the right direction, put the relays in block mode' for CTI.
Use unblock signals from the remote if the fault is on the primary line.
In this scheme as shown in fig 23.2, Z 2 of R 1 and R 2 remain in block mode' for a specified time after
seeing the fault. Of course, if there is no fault in the system anywhere, neither fault detectors will pick
up. In case, relay R 2 observes a fault in the direction of bus A, it sends an unblock signal to relay R 1 (and
vice- versa). If the fault is in the primary line AB (F 1 ), both R 1 and R 2 detect the fault, and also receive
unblock signal from the opposite end. The unblocking signal helps in immediate action of both relays R 1
and R 2 leads to fast tripping of line. In case, the fault is at F2 , then the relay R 2 will not send unblock
signal to R 1 . While relay R 1 sees the fault, its FD also initiates a down counter set to CTI. If the FD
detects fault even after counter has run down, then a trip signal is issued by R 1 for back up fault clearing
action in the adjacent line.
The advantage of directional comparison unblocking pilot system is that it eliminates need of carrier
starts S 1 and S 2 . Typically, it is implemented using frequency shift keying (FSK) channels.
To summarize, the relays or more appropriately their fault detectors detect fault in the appropriate
direction. Unblock signal from the remote end is used to quickly clear the faults on the primary line.
1.
2.
This scheme is shown in fig 23.3. In this scheme, for internal fault both FD 1 and FD 2 operate to shift
respective transmitters to trip mode. A logical AND-ing of trip of both FD 1 and FD 2 provides the trip
output at both ends of the line. In case of external fault either FD 1 or FD 2 will not pick up and hence
relays R 1 and R 2 will not operate.
In case there is no fault, neither FD 1 nor FD 2 operate. In case of external fault either FD 1 or FD 2 will pick
up depending upon whether fault is on right side of node B or left side of node A. This over reaching
initiates a timer. If external fault persists beyond CTI, then a back up trip decision is initiated by Z 2 of
the respective relays.
Phase directional distance relay zone1 unit meets this requirement. Two types of such implementation
exist. They are known as a) non permissive b) permissive. With external faults, neither FD 1 nor FD 2 picks
up. For internal faults in the overlap area of FD 1 and FD 2 both FD 1 and FD 2 pick up. To clear internal
faults quickly which are not in the overlap region, OR-ing of the trip decision of FD 1 and FD 2 is used at
both ends. This system is not very much in use.
Review Question
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.
Briefly explain how, the directional comparison schemes provide uniformly fast protection for faults on the
primary line
while providing time discrimination for the backup action.
Recap
In this lecture, we will introduce the concept of power swings. It will be shown that the post fault power
swings may encroach the relay characteristics. This can lead to nuisance tripping of distance relays which
can sacrifice the system security.
reactive.
The voltage E S leads E R by an angle
so that power flows from A to B during steady state. The relay
under consideration is located at bus A end. The power angle curve is shown in fig 24.1(b) . The system
is operating at initial steady operating point A with P mo as output power and
as initial rotor angle.
is given by:
(1)
, corresponding to angle
jumps back to the sinusoidal curve. As per equal area criteria, the rotor will swing up to maximum rotor
, such that,
angle
Accelerating Area (A1 ) = Decelerating Area (A 2 )
Rotor angle
(2)
(3)
(4)
is specified as
follows:
at time t = t1 , with
(5)
Thus, accelerating area A 1 is given by,
(6)
(7)
Similarly, decelerating area, A 2 , can be calculated as follows.
(8)
Since,
(10)
is function of P mo as well as
depends on P mo and
from equation
i.e.
(11)
Now that we have reviewed, the rotor angle dynamics, we proceed to discuss the relay's perception of
the dynamical system.
Where,
(13)
(14)
Let us define
. Assuming for simplicity, both the voltages as equal to 1pu, i.e. k = 1. Then,
(15)
component
lies
on
and
, then the power swing locus on the R X is an arc of the circle. (See fig 24.4(b)).
are
,
rotor
If
interval than its TDS, then the relay will trip on Z 2 . Typically, TDS of Z 2 is less than TDS of Z 3 .
If
, swing will enter in the zones Z 1 , Z 2 and Z 3 and operate zone 1 protection without any
intentional delay.
So far, we have discussed power swings for a 2-machine system. Evaluation of power swings on a
multimachine system requires usage of transient stability program. By using transient stability program,
during post fault the relay end node voltage and line currents can be monitored and then the swing
trajectory can be traced on a impedance plane.
Review Questions
1.
Define a power swing and elaborate its consequences on distance relaying performance.
2.
Derive the expressions for apparent impedance seen by a relay in a two area system as function of angle
of separation
. Show that the locus is a straight line if |E A| = |E B| and a circle if |E A|
3.
Recap
|E B|.
Determine whether the power swing in R-X plane cuts through any transmission line.
line
i-j
was
disconnected.
Thus,
. Since, we
are only interested in characterizing behavior at
busses i and j, we can ignore the remaining rows
in (2).
Thus,
(3)
(4)
where
symmetry assumption,
The equivalent circuit of fig 25.1 can be reduced as shown in fig 25.2. Now from the equivalent circuit of
fig 25.2 we get that,
(5)
;
Thus the equivalent circuit is as
shown in fig 25.3.
where
Thus,
(6)
is less than
then
electrical center is formed on line L. If it is greater than Z L , then electrical center lies outside the
transmission line L.
Example 1
For the system shown in fig
25.3, determine the two port
equivalent and find out whether
the power swing locus passes
through
(a) transmission line c'
(b) transmission line b'
Solution:
(a)
In order to analyze whether the power swing will pass through the transmission line c', we need to
develop a two
machine equivalent across the line. For that, the transmission line c' is disconnected from the network
and Z bus matrix is formed.
Let us form the nodal admittance matrix or Y bus for the given system with transmission line c'
disconnected.
Example 1 (contd..)
Solution:
Since we are considering the transmission line c' which is connected between buses 2 and 3, we can
ignore the first row and column of the Z bus matrix and the reduced model will be,
Therefore,
i.e.
Example 1 (contd..)
Solution:
Hence the network will be as shown in fig 25.4, with transmission line c' connected across it.
The total impedance between the two sources is given by,
,
trajectory
intersects the
Example 1 (contd..)
Solution:
(b)
Now consider the transmission line b'. For forming the two machine equivalent, transmission line b' is
disconnected
from the system and Z bus is formed by inverting Y bus.
Since we are considering only the buses 1 and 2 across which line b' is connected, we can ignore the third
row and third column of the Z bus matrix. Thus, the reduced system model is given by,
and
Since,
Example 1 (contd..)
Solution:
line b' across the network as shown in fig 25.6 and then the total impedance across the sources will be,
,
trajectory
intersects
the
Review Questions
1.
For the system shown in fig 25.3, determine whether swing locus passes through transmission line 'f'.
2.
For the system shown in fig 25.8, find out whether power swing passes through any of the transmission
lines?
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Developed a two source equivalent of the power system.
Analysed the system to determine whether swing locus passes through any transmission line.
Found that swing locus passes through one of the transmission line.
Introduction
We have so far seen that power swings can be classified as either stable or unstable. Basically, a relay
which is expected to issue trip decision on a fault should not pick up on a swing (either stable or
unstable). When a power swing is a consequence of stable disturbance, unwanted line tripping can
aggravate disturbance and lead to instability. On the other hand, when the power swing is a consequence
of disturbance, classified as unstable, then interconnected operation of the system is simply not possible.
This implies that the system has to be split into multiple islands each of which can have independent
existence i.e. each island can maintain synchronism of generators. Now to achieve stable operation in
each island, generator load balance has to be ascertained. If an island has excess generation, it should
be shelved and similarly if an island has excess load then load shedding is required. Load shedding is
usually initiated by underfrequency relays, as excess load tends to pull the frequency down. However, to
minimize the loss of service to consumers, the boundary of islands has to be selected carefully. To
illustrate this point, consider a simple two area system as shown in fig 26.1.
Now consequent to a disturbance, let the system be unstable and let the location of electrical center be
on line AB. Recall that at the electrical center, voltage zero point is created when the two generators are
out of step. Alternatively, electrical center appears when the power swing intersects the transmission line
characteristics. This implies that relays located at the two ends of the transmission line, perceive the out
of step condition as a bolted three phase fault on the transmission line. Consequently, relays R 1 and R 2
will issue a trip decision, thereby islanding the system. Now, the generator at A (PG = 0.666pu) islands
with a load of 0.333pu and generator at B (PG= 0.333pu) islands with a load of 0.666pu. The resulting
loss of load is 0.333pu in island B and loss of generation in island A is 0.333pu.
However, if we had islanded the system by tripping line BC then an ideal solution of zero load or
generation shedding would have been achieved. This suggests that during unstable swings, we should
block the relays from operation. Consequently, more selective tripping can be initiated to achieve the
desirable islands. We now, arrive at a thumb rule that under out of step condition, distance relays should
be blocked from operation on swings.
Introduction (contd..)
Let us now re-look, the case of a stable power swing. The resulting movement of apparent impedance
seen by relay on the R-X plane may encroach Z 2 or Z 3 of a relay. If the swing stays inside the zone for
long enough time, then the relay will issue a trip command. This is also not desirable. Hence, even under
stable swings, the distance relays have to be blocked from tripping.
To conclude this discussion, it is not desirable for distance relay to trip on power swing whether the swing
is stable or not. This implies that distance relay should be equipped with swing detection and blocking
mechanism. This aspect is elaborated in this lecture.
Power Swing Detection
The basic idea in detecting a power swing is that change in apparent impedance seen by relay
due
Introduction (contd..)
Out-of-Step Blocking Relays (contd..)
If the transit time,
from point A to B is
larger than a preset
interval of the order
of few cycles, the out
of step blocking unit
will operate auxiliary
relays
to
block
tripping
of
phase
relays.
In case, only blocking
of
reclosing
is
required, the blocking
unit
will
restrain
automatic
reclosing
equipment. An out of
step blocking scheme
with an impedance
starting relay having
similar principle as
described above is
shown in fig 26.3.
Introduction (contd..)
Out-of-Step Tripping Relay (contd..)
As shown in fig 26.4
the
basic
scheme
consists
of
two
modified
reactance
type
units
whose
characteristics are set
parallel to the system
impedance
characteristic SR with
one on each side of
line SR.
Consider an unstable
swing PQ as shown in
fig 26.2. It will cross
the first unit at point
X when it will pick up,
and
emerge
from
relay characteristic at
.
The
two
crossing, indicate that
swing has crossed the
impedance
characteristic
and
hence is a loss of
synchronism
condition, leading to
an out of step trip
decision. The scheme
will equally well pick
up if swing movement
.
was from Q to
The scheme would
also pick up even if
the unstable swing is
behind the relay.
For example, a swing from
to
. If the swing is far away from the line characteristic, then currents
involved are quite less. It is then associated with very low power reversals which do not characterize
unstable swings. To prevent tripping on such condition, the out of step relay is supervised by an
overcurrent relay unit. If the current signal is below a preset value, it inhibits the tripping signal of out of
step relay.
Introduction (contd..)
Guide lines for Setting Out-of-Step Tripping Relay
The primary question in setting the out of step relay discussed in previous section is to freeze the location
. In general, this
of the line segments L1 and L2 . i.e. decide the perpendicular distance MX and
for at least a preset interval
setting should be such that the swing locus will remain between
usually 0.005sec. This time is the operating time of the auxiliary relays which evaluates the sequence of
events and determines a loss of synchronism condition. Usually, this represents what is achieved in actual
system and hence does not pose any series rejection. Also, the characteristics L1 and L2 should not be set
so far apart to pick up on load conditions.
In other words, the angle subtended by X on R and S should be larger than
loading condition will always have angle below
carrying out transient stability simulations.
and as maximum
Consider the system shown in fig 26.5a. In the case of out of step condition, optimum location to break
the system into multiple islands is at bus-B.
If during out of step condition, the
electrical center also appears in the line
segment
BC,
then
the required
separation
is
achieved
naturally.
However, as we know the location of
electrical center is not fixed and it
depends upon system conditions like
E S, E R, number of lines in service,
Thevenin's impedances Z S1 and Z S2
etc.
Now, if due to system conditions, the
electrical center location shifts to
section CD, then uncontrolled system
separation will take place at cut - 2,
where generation load balance is not
obtained.
Hence, it is desirable to block distance
relay operation on power swings and
install an out of step tripping relay at
Bus-C. The respective power swings
are shown in fig 26.5b. Now, for this
scenario, the loss of synchronism
requires a transfer trip signal to be
generated to breakers at bus B. In
general, the point of best separation is
not fixed and it depends upon loading
and generating conditions.
Thus, supervising control with system operator intervention may be required to decide the islanding
location. Now WAM (Wide Area Measurement) technology has opened up new options for system
protection.
Introduction (contd..)
Setting of Out-of-Step Blocking Relays
The guidelines to set an
out of step blocking
relay
is
that
with
maximum slip between
systems, it will take an
impedance
trajectory
more than 4 cycles to
traverse the distance
from
out
of
step
characteristic to mho
tripping curve. The 4
cycle
time
is
the
required pick up time of
auxiliary relay which
establishes
blocking
function. As in case if
Introduction (contd..)
Setting of Out-of-Step Blocking Relays (contd..)
When additional blinders as shown in fig
26.6 are used, the 4 cycle travel time
from OSB elements has to be monitored
with respect to the blinder elements. To
restrict the reach of relays, instead of
blinders and mho relays, lens type
characteristics as shown in fig 26.7 are
also used. Many of these functions like
tripping, blocking and fault detection can
be easily integrated into a single
numerical relay with a lot more flexibility
to shape characteristics of numerical
relays and upcoming WAM technology
which use synchronized PMU provide
many new options in out of step
relaying. However, these developments
are beyond the scope of this course.
of generators, it is also likely that electrical center may lie within the generator. When
such a situation is detected it is advisable to avoid the knee jerk reaction of tripping the generator. A
more beneficial strategy would be to use transfer trip signal to achieve generator function with load
generator balancing.
Monitoring the Circuit Breaker Tripping
point of
To avoid stress on the circuit breaker, it is advisable to delay CB trip until after the
separation is crossed over and the voltages are coming in phase. Tripping circuit breaker close to out of
step condition with separating phasors induces very large transient voltages on circuit breaker which is
not very advisable.
Review Questions
1.
2.
Why is it necessary for equipping distance relays with swing detection and blocking mechanism?
3.
Recap
Guidelines for setting out of step tripping relays and out of step blocking relays.
Relay hardware.
The 3- voltage and current signals are analog in nature. Since, a computer works with digital data,
analog signals have to be sampled and discretized. Additionally, signal scaling and isolation to protect
the low voltage computer system and scale the voltage and current signals to proportionate voltage
signal (e.g., within 5V ) is necessary. This functionality is provided by the analog input subsystem.
Typically, it consists of sample and hold circuit, Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and multiplexer
interfaced to the processor. The digital input data consists of Circuit Breaker (CB) status (open or close).
The digital output is relay's operate / do not operate decision.
Once, the data is acquired within RAM, it is filtered by a digital filter and processed by the relay logic.
The algorithms for extracting phasors and relay logic will be discussed in subsequent lectures.
27.2
Thus, multiplexer is a collection of analog switches. Each channel can be selected by supplying
appropriate binary code to the multiplexer e.g. for 8-channel multiplexer, 3 bit address space is
required. A chip disable line permits parallel expansion if external logic is used to select desired
multiplexer. A multiplexer has two inputs (terminals) for a single channel. It provides better noise
immunity. Accuracy of the analog multiplexer depends on load impedance at the output terminal.
Typical recommended value is 10 7 to 10 8 . As Sample (S) and Hold (H) circuit has impedance in the
range 10 8 - 10 12
27.2
, no problem is encountered.
Thus, multiplexer is a collection of analog switches. Each channel can be selected by supplying
appropriate binary code to the multiplexer e.g. for 8-channel multiplexer, 3 bit address space is
required. A chip disable line permits parallel expansion if external logic is used to select desired
multiplexer. A multiplexer has two inputs (terminals) for a single channel. It provides better noise
immunity. Accuracy of the analog multiplexer depends on load impedance at the output terminal.
Typical recommended value is 10 7 to 10 8 . As S and H circuit has impedance in the range 10 8 10 12
, no problem is encountered.
Fig 27.8 shows a simultaneous sampling scheme. In this scheme, all S&H amplifiers are set to hold state
simultaneously. This preserves the relative phase information between multiple analog signals.Then, the
multiplexer selects the channel sequentially. Typically, digital relays use successive ADC which have a
conversion time of 15-30 s. The sampling rate must satisfy Nyquist criteria. This issue will be discussed
in the later lectures.
Finally, an antialiasing filter is used after signal conditioning hardware. Anti aliasing filter is a low pass
filter (LPF) used to cut off the high frequency content (including noise) in the input signal. The cutoff
frequency of LPF and the sampling rate have to be properly matched. This issue is addressed in later
lectures.
Recap
In this lecture, following important reasons for advocating numerical relays were identified:
Cost: The processing power measured in Floating Point Operations Per Seconds (FLOPS) has been
steadily increasing. This is because of the technological advances in VLSI. Today, general purpose as well
as high speed Digital Signal Processors (DSP) are available at reasonable cost. As such, cost of numerical
relays is competitive with traditional electromechanical and solid state relays.
Self Checking and Reliability: A numerical relay just like a PC can check the health of its components
periodically. In
case of a failure, it can raise an alarm. No amount of periodic maintenance can provide this facility, which
goes a long way in improving the reliability of digital relay.
System Integration and Digital Environment: There is a trend towards automation in power systems.
Transmission
systems were automated first to improve the reliability of the overall transmission system by use of
SCADA and setting up of energy control centers. Today digital electronics has permitted automation at
substation level. Substation automation and distribution system automation have brought the digital
technology of computation and communication at the lower voltage levels. Numerical relays fit
appropriately in such an environment.
Functional Flexibility and Adaptive Relaying: Numerical relays are programmable. A multi-purpose
hardware can be
programmed with many relaying schemes. The complexity of the relaying logic is limited by the
imagination of the relay engineer and the processing capability of the processor. With the emergence of
the DSP based numerical relays, it is possible to incorporate a number of features in a relay. Further, such
relays can be equipped with communication facilities thereby, opening the possibility of adaptive relaying.
Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 27. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side
menu of the page
Sampling theorem.
2.
3.
In the previous lecture, we have discussed the step - 1 in detail. In this lecture we discuss the next step.
At this point, a worthwhile observation is that direct analog signal processing is conceptually much
simpler. However, advantages of digital processing far outweigh analog processing. Some of the
advantages of digital processing are as follows:
Operation of digital circuits do not depend on precise values of digital signals. As a result, a digital circuit
is less
sensitive to tolerances of component values.
A digital circuit has little sensitivity to temperature, aging and other external parameters.
In terms of economics of volume, a digital circuit can be reproduced easily in volume quantities. With
VLSI circuits, it is
possible to integrate highly sophisticated and complex digital signal processing systems on a single chip.
In DSP, accuracy of computation can be increased by increasing word length. With the availability of
floating point
arithmetic in digital signal processors, dynamic ranges of signal and coefficients can be increased.
A signal processor can process many signals, reducing processing cost per signal.
Digital implementation allows the realization of certain characteristics not possible with analog
implementation; such
as polygon in R-X plane for distance relaying.
Digital signals can be stored indefinitely without loss of accuracy.
There are also some disadvantages with DSP. One of them is that DSP contains active devices. Active
devices are less reliable than passive components. Passive components consume less power than active
devices. However, advantages of digital relays (i.e. relaying using digital signal processing) are far more
significant than the disadvantages. In what follows, we discuss digital signal processing for relaying.
28.2 Sampling
Consider a continuous time domain sinusoid signal as, x(t) = sin(2 0 t) .The sine wave has frequency
0 e.g. 50 Hz. Let the waveform x(t) be sampled at a rate of s samples/sec, i.e. with time period ts = 1/
s sec. Let the sampling process start at time
Because of periodicity of sine wave, it is not possible to distinguish two samples with a phase difference
equal to 2m , where
is an integer. Therefore,
(6)
(7)
If we choose
to be an integer multiple of
above equation transforms into the following:
i.e.
28.2 Sampling
Consider a continuous time domain sinusoid signal as, x(t) = sin(2 0 t) .The sine wave has frequency
0 e.g. 50 Hz. Let the waveform x(t) be sampled at a rate of s samples/sec, i.e. with time period ts = 1/
values;
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Because of periodicity of sine wave, it is not possible to distinguish two samples with a phase difference
equal to 2m , where
is an integer. Therefore,
(6)
(7)
If we choose
to be an integer multiple of
above equation transforms into the following:
i.e.
Fig 28.4 shows a signal with frequency content between B Hz . Such signals are said to be band limited
signals. Note that because
and
magnitude
component of a real life signals have typically an even symmetry around dc signal. By the observation
made in the previous slide that a signal of 0 Hz can be aliased to ( 0 s ) Hz { = 1, 2,--- } , it
follows that post sampling in frequency domain, we will see repeating lobes (replicas) of original signal,
each lobe being displaced by s Hz. In other words, after sampling we cannot distinguish the signal lobe
from other replicated lobes.
An interesting analog can be drawn by considering a room having many mirrors each reflecting image
from one to another. It is seen that if a person is standing in such a room, another observer cannot
distinguish him from his image. The difficulty can be resolved if the observer has an idea of location or
coordinates of the real person. In the same manner, we can identify the original lobe from replicated
lobes if we have an idea of the frequency content of original signal. In fig 28.5, notice that lobes are
distinctly separated because s > 2B Hz . On the other hand, if s = 2B Hz , then as seen in fig 28.6,
lobes will just touch each other. If however, s < 2B Hz, then lobes will overlap (fig 28.7) and this will
lead to distortion of replicated frequency spectrum. Thus, it is necessary that s the sampling frequency
should atleast equal to 2B Hz.
Sampling at a rate
2.
Sampling at a rate
3.
Sampling at a rate
1.
When sampling frequency, s< 2B, then there is an overlapping effect around frequency s/2, known as
the folding frequency. As a consequence of superposition, the frequency domain information is
distorted. Thus, we should choose s > 2B. This important result is a part of sampling theorem stated
below in two equivalent ways.
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency component higher than
Hz, is completely
described
by specifying the values of the signal at instants of time separated by
2.
seconds.
A band limited signal of finite energy which has no frequency component higher than
completely
per sec.
recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at a rate of
The sampling rate of 2B samples per sec is known as Nyquist rate.
Hz may be
In practice, even a band limited signal will contain noise. Noise reflects as high frequency component in
Hz, we cannot
the overall spectrum, (fig 28.8). Thus, even if we sample the signal at a rate say
reconstruct the correct frequency domain information. Noise is aliased to lower frequency. It distorts the
frequency domain information by superposing an alias of noise on the original signal. To avoid this, in
practice it is necessary to pass the continuous signal first through an analog low pass filter. Such a filter
is known as anti-aliasing filter. Fig 28.9 illustrates this concept.
28.2 Sampling
Review Questions
1.
2.
A 40 kHz signal is sampled at 49 kHz. What is the minimum frequency to which this signal will be aliased.
3.
Recap
Sampling theorem.
where,
and
and
as unknowns, we get
(3)
(4)
and
(5)
, m an integer, then
, which
implies the singularity of coefficient matrix. In such an event, it is not possible to proceed with
, we get
. Corresponding samples are shown in fig
estimation. For example, with
29.2.
This corresponds to a sampling rate of two samples per cycle. If power system frequency is
implies that sampling rate should be higher than
, so that
, this
sample is given by
Now, treating
and
as unknowns, we get
(3)
(4)
and
(5)
, m an integer, then
, which
implies the singularity of coefficient matrix. In such an event, it is not possible to proceed with
, we get
. Corresponding samples are shown in fig
estimation. For example, with
29.2.
This corresponds to a sampling rate of two samples per cycle. If power system frequency is
implies that sampling rate should be higher than
, so that
, this
. In fact, this is in
agreement with the well known sampling theorem (seen in previous lecture).
and
and
(7)
. We also say that sampling window has 2 samples per window (see fig 29.4).
replaced by sample
In any relaying application, computations have to be completed before the arrival of next sample. Note
that, when uniform sampling is used with time space of
sec.
, a constant.
sec.
0
5.00
5
8.66
10
-5.00
15
-8.66
20
5.00
25
8.66
30
-5.00
35
-8.66
40
5.00
45
8.66
Fig 29.4 also introduces the concept of data window for estimation. This window contains the 'active' set
of samples which are currently being processed for phasor estimation. In the present case, we say that
we are using a 2-sample window. Each consecutive window, differs from the previous window by adding
a new sample and by removing the oldest active sample.
is called variance.
is called variance.
Mean
10.0069
10.0162
10.0282
10.0426
10.0596
10.0791
10.1011
10.1256
10.1527
10.1824
10.2146
10.2495
Standard deviation
0.1596
0.3194
0.4793
0.6392
0.7991
0.9587
1.1182
1.2772
1.4358
1.5938
1.7510
1.9073
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
10.2871
10.3275
10.3707
10.4169
10.4662
10.5188
10.5750
10.6346
10.6975
10.7638
10.8336
10.9065
10.9825
11.0613
11.1430
11.2277
11.3152
11.4055
2.0624
2.2162
2.3683
2.5186
2.6666
2.8116
2.9531
3.0919
3.2284
3.3625
3.4940
3.6240
3.7529
3.8809
4.0080
4.1241
4.2590
4.3830
As magnitude of zero mean noise increases, the standard deviation associated with magnitude increase.
2.
Mean of
3.
is nearly 10.
This brings out an important fact that with bare minimum number of measurements, the noise affects the
accuracy. Therefore, in real-life, we have to device a procedure to filter noise and then estimate
and
. To filter out noise, we need to consider redundant measurement. Redundancy in measurement is
defined as ratio of actual number of measurement used for estimation to minimum number of
measurement required for estimation. This issue is elaborated in the subsequent lecture.
Review Questions
1.
2.
Recap
The significance of noise in estimation was brought out through 2-sample estimation method.
Where
(1)
Since, the real life signal has also noise in it, hence a more appropriate system model is given by
(2)
and
is no-longer as
as
i.e.
min
Minimization of length of residual vector or square of length are equivalent in the sense, the minimum is
reached at same value of
. However, working with squares eliminates the problem of square roots in
calculating derivatives. Hence, a least square problem is defined as
(6)
The scalar
is introduced only for the sake of convenience. Again it does not affect the optimal
i.e. min
i.e. min
Thus,
as
i.e.
min
Minimization of length of residual vector or square of length are equivalent in the sense, the minimum is
reached at same value of
. However, working with squares eliminates the problem of square roots in
calculating derivatives. Hence, a least square problem is defined as
(6)
The scalar
is introduced only for the sake of convenience. Again it does not affect the optimal
min
i.e. min
i.e. min
Thus,
with
and
Hence,
and
The number of unknowns (n) is less than number of knowns (m) i.e. redundancy
b is a
vector, A is a
matrix. We know from the basics of the optimization theory that at the
minimum or maximum, the gradient of the objective function is zero. The gradient of the objective
function
is a
vector given by
Setting this gradient to zero amounts to solving the following linear system of equations.
(7)
The solution of the above system of equations gives the optimal
definiteness property of
that
(8)
Example : 1
We now repeat the previous example with a 3-sample window. The analogous results to example 1 are
shown in table 1. It can be seen that as a consequence of using a larger data window, the accuracy of
voltage estimation improves significantly.
Table 1 : 3 - Sample Estimation
Randn multiplier(E)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Mean
10.0061
10.0130
10.0207
10.0293
10.0387
10.0490
10.0601
10.0719
10.0846
10.0982
10.1125
10.1277
10.1436
10.1604
10.1780
10.1964
10.2156
10.2356
10.2564
10.2781
10.3005
10.3238
10.3479
10.3727
10.3985
10.4250
10.4524
10.4807
10.5099
10.5400
Standard deviation
0.0927
0.1855
0.2783
0.3712
0.4641
0.5570
0.6499
0.7428
0.8358
0.9287
1.0216
1.1144
1.2072
1.3000
1.3927
1.4853
1.5778
1.6702
1.7625
1.8547
1.9468
2.0386
2.1303
2.2218
2.3130
2.4040
2.4947
2.5849
2.6747
2.7638
standard deviation reduces to 0.0927. Similarly with E = 3, standard deviation with 2-sample approaches
4.3830, which reduces to 2.7638 with 3-sample window. This shows that redundancy helps in filtering out
noise. However estimation spans a large data window.
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
Now consider
where A is a full-column, rank matrix. Show that
for all
is positive definite.
Show that at the minimum of a function f(x), the matrix of second derivatives
is at least
positive semi
definite. Also, show that if H is positive definite, then we have a strict local minimum.
4.
5.
A symmetric real
for all
Hence, show
is positive semi definite.
that if A is not at all full-column rank matrix, then
Show that a real symmetric
matrix is positive definite, if and only if all its Eigen values are real and
greater than
zero. Hence, comment on the positive definiteness of following matrices.
a) I n (
- identity matrix).
b)
c)
d)
Recap
Now,
Since
(1)
(see exercise
, it is not surprising to find out that above numerical integration is also zero.
Since
and
and
Thus, with one cycle data window, coefficient matrix in (15) becomes diagonal. Hence the equation
simplifies to
(2)
where
(3)
and
(4)
(5)
Infact, these equations are identical to rectangular form of DFT to be discussed in later lectures.
Table 1 : Performance of Full Cycle Fourier Algorithm (K = 10)
Randn multiplier(E)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Mean
10.0058
10.0118
10.0180
10.0243
10.0308
10.0374
10.0442
10.0512
10.0583
10.0656
10.0731
10.0807
10.0885
10.0964
10.1045
10.1128
10.1212
10.1298
10.1386
10.1475
10.1566
10.1658
10.1752
10.1848
10.1945
10.2044
10.2144
10.2246
10.2350
10.2455
Standard deviation
0.0441
0.0882
0.1323
0.1764
0.2205
0.2646
0.3087
0.3528
0.3969
0.4409
0.4850
0.5290
0.5730
0.6170
0.6610
0.7050
0.7489
0.7928
0.8367
0.8806
0.9244
0.9682
1.0120
1.0558
1.0995
1.1432
1.1869
1.2305
1.2740
1.3176
Table 1 illustrates the results of the estimation when full cycle data window is used. It can be seen that
standard deviation associated with measurement reduces even further to 1.3176 for E = 3. This should
was 2.7638. This brings out an
be contrasted with 3-sample data window where corresponding
important aspect of relaying discussed earlier that accuracy of estimation is improved by increasing the
length of data window. (see Exercise - 2)
Example : 1
The algorithm that we have discussed is known as Full Cycle Fourier Algorithm. In this example, we
evaluate the capability of full cycle Fourier algorithm to filter out harmonics. Input signal corresponds to
a 50 Hz square wave shown below. The harmonic spectrum of such wave form is given by
This signal is sampled at a rate of 10 samples per cycle and full cycle Fourier method is applied to
estimate the fundamental. In addition noise is introduced using random number generator. The true
value of fundamental component is
= 12.7324.
Example : 1 (contd..)
Table 2 : Harmonic + noise filtering capability of full cycle algorithm
Randn
multiplier(E)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
Mean
Standard deviation
12.9512
12.9583
12.9655
12.9728
12.9802
12.9878
12.9955
13.0033
13.0112
13.0193
13.0275
130358
13.0442
130527
13.0614
13.0702
13.0791
13.0881
13.0972
13.1065
13.1159
13.1254
13.1350
13.1448
13.1546
13.1646
13.1747
13.1849
13.1953
0.0444
0.0888
0.1332
0.1776
0.2220
0.2664
0.3108
0.3552
0.3996
0.4440
0.4884
0.5328
0.5772
0.6216
0.6660
0.7104
0.7548
0.7992
0.8435
0.8879
0.9323
0.9766
1.0209
1.0653
1.1096
1.1539
1.1982
1.2425
1.2867
3.0
13.2057
1.3310
Table 2 summarizes the response of full cycle algorithm in the presence of harmonics. It is seen that the
full cycle algorithm also filters harmonics effectively. Note that mean and average are calculated over
100 consecutive estimation.
Example : 2
To improve speed, we can even restrict the data window to half a cycle. When this is done, we get half
cycle Fourier algorithm. With K number of samples per half cycle, the relevant equations are given by
(see exercise - 4)
(6)
(7)
Notice that our convention is that the latest sample corresponds to the window number. Therefore, first K
- window are incomplete because K - samples are not available with them. To complete the incomplete
windows, adequate number of zeros are padded in the beginning. Correct estimates are obtained only
.
after
Table 3 : Performance of Half Cycle Fourier Algorithm
Randn
multiplier(E)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Mean
Standard deviation
10.0058
10.0119
10.0183
10.0251
10.0322
10.0396
10.0474
10.0555
10.0639
10.0727
10.0817
10.0912
10.1009
10.1110
10.1214
10.1321
10.1431
10.1545
10.1662
10.1783
10.1906
10.2033
10.2163
10.2297
10.2434
10.2574
10.2717
10.2864
10.3014
10.3168
0.0614
0.1228
0.1842
0.2456
0.3070
0.3684
0.4298
0.4911
0.5525
0.6138
0.6751
0.7364
0.7977
0.8589
0.9201
0.9813
1.0424
1.1034
1.1645
1.2254
1.2863
1.3472
1.4080
1.4687
1.5294
1.5899
1.6504
1.7108
1.7711
1.8314
Table 3 summarizes the performance of half cycle algorithm for the standard sinusoidal signal used in all
our examples. In presence of harmonics, it can be shown that the accuracy of the algorithm is not as
good as full cycle algorithm. (see example - 5)
Example : 2
To improve speed, we can even restrict the data window to half a cycle. When this is done, we get half
cycle Fourier algorithm. With K even number of samples per half cycle, the relevant equations are given
by (see exercise - 4)
(6)
(7)
Notice that our convention is that the latest sample corresponds to the window number. Therefore, first K
- window are incomplete because K - samples are not available with them. To complete the incomplete
windows, adequate number of zeros are padded in the beginning. Correct estimates are obtained only
.
after
Table 3 : Performance of Half Cycle Fourier Algorithm
Randn
multiplier(E)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Mean
Standard deviation
10.0058
10.0119
10.0183
10.0251
10.0322
10.0396
10.0474
10.0555
10.0639
10.0727
10.0817
10.0912
10.1009
10.1110
10.1214
10.1321
10.1431
10.1545
10.1662
10.1783
10.1906
10.2033
10.2163
10.2297
10.2434
10.2574
10.2717
10.2864
10.3014
10.3168
0.0614
0.1228
0.1842
0.2456
0.3070
0.3684
0.4298
0.4911
0.5525
0.6138
0.6751
0.7364
0.7977
0.8589
0.9201
0.9813
1.0424
1.1034
1.1645
1.2254
1.2863
1.3472
1.4080
1.4687
1.5294
1.5899
1.6504
1.7108
1.7711
1.8314
Table 3 summarizes the performance of half cycle algorithm for the standard sinusoidal signal used in all
our examples. In presence of harmonics, it can be shown that the accuracy of the algorithm is not as
good as full cycle algorithm. (see example - 5)
Now,
Since
(1)
(see exercise
1).
, it is not surprising to find out that above numerical integration is also zero.
Since
and
and
Thus, with one cycle data window, coefficient matrix in (15) becomes diagonal. Hence the equation
simplifies to
(2)
where
(3)
We conclude this lecture by summarizing the effect of length of data window on delay in post fault
estimation of voltage and current signals.
Thus, the delay introduced in measuring post-fault signal is equal to the length of data window. Thus, 1
cycle data window introduces a delay of 1 cycle in estimation. It is likely that CT may be driven into
saturation by DC offset current. While
one can strike a compromise between the problem of CT saturation and improving accuracy of estimation.
The next example considers the effect of delaying DC offset current of the fundamental on estimation.
Example : 3
Consider a current signal which does not have noise but it has DC offset. This represents fault current on
an unloaded system.
Fig 31.4 show the estimated magnitude of I m, measured for 5-fundamental cycles using 2-point, 3-point
cycle and full cycle Fourier algorithms. It can be seen that, significant errors are seen in all
estimation methods. Also, accuracy of full cycle fourier algorithm is seen to be the most accurate
algorithm. The reason is quite obvious. Even if we view DC offset current as noise, it is apparent that it
does not have a zero mean. Thus, least square based estimation algorithms are expected to fail under
such situations.
One way out of this imbroglio is that we should use some other filtering method for dc offset current. This
is usually achieved in hardware by what is known as mimic impedance. (refer Q. 7)
ratio of
where
One way out of this imbroglio is that we should use some other filtering method for dc offset current. This
is usually achieved in hardware by what is known as mimic impedance. (refer Q. 7)
ratio of
Time constant
is the
Infact this is the sinusoidal steady response for the mimic impedance circuit.
The current is scaled by magnitude
. Thus by an inverse
operation, we get back the sinusoidal current waveform devoid of dc offset component. Filtering algorithm
discussed earlier will then give satisfactory results. Mimic impedances are routinely used in distance
relays used for transmission line relaying where the problem of decaying dc offset is most serious. Mimic
impedance can also be implemented in software.
Full cycle fourier algorithm gives the best performance in filtering harmonics and noise.
2.
3.
Three sample algorithm is quite fast but the accuracy of estimation is poor.
Any of the above estimation algorithms can be viewed as a digital filter whose job is to extract
fundamental in presence of harmonics and noise. The presentation so far was biased towards elimination
of noise. Filtering of harmonic can be discussed more neatly by evaluating the frequency response of the
estimation algorithms.
primarily interested in extracting the fundamental component. The output of the estimation algorithm is
, the output
viewed by the relay logic as the fundamental component of the signal. Thus, if
should follow input. On the other hand, if
The frequency response can be evaluated by analytical tools. However, to simplify presentation, we
restrict the treatment to experimental (by simulation) evaluation of the frequency response. The
frequency response for 3-sample, half cycle and full cycle algorithms are shown in fig 31.7.
1.
&
Half cycle algorithm rejects odd harmonics efficiently but not the even harmonics. This can be explained
by
the fact that
&
4.
Acharacteristic frequencies are wrongly interpreted by all algorithms as fundamental. Infact, the full cycle
Fourier algorithm is identical to DFT. Therefore, it is not surprising to find out that this behavior can be
explained by what is known as DFT leakage'. We will consider this issue in more detail in later lectures.
primarily interested in extracting the fundamental component. The output of the estimation algorithm is
, the output
viewed by the relay logic as the fundamental component of the signal. Thus, if
should follow input. On the other hand, if
The frequency response can be evaluated by analytical tools. However, to simplify presentation, we
restrict the treatment to experimental (by simulation) evaluation of the frequency response. The
frequency response for 3-sample, half cycle and full cycle algorithms are shown in fig 31.7.
1.
2.
Half cycle algorithm rejects odd harmonics efficiently but not the even harmonics
3.
4.
Review Questions
Exercise 1:
Consider evaluation
harmonic signal over 2-cycles which is known to be zero. Consider sampling this signal at rate of K samples per cycle corresponding to fundamental frequency. The sampels are at start t = 0,....
1). Now append K+1 sample at the end clearly,
and
sample, allows us to cover one full cycle length of fundamental on x - axis. Now show that
(2K-
is
geometrically.
Exercise 2:
Assuming a sampling rate of 32 samples per cycle, generate samples for a 50 Hz sinusoidal signal with
at different levels of noise. Now choose noise parameter choose E = 0.5. Now consider standard
deviation of estimation obtained after 100 estimations. Plot the (curves of 6 vs K; the no. of cycles in
data window) where K is varied from 1 - 4. Hence, show that increasing the length of data window
reduces error. Interpret this result in terms of speed vs accuracy conflict in relaying.
Exercise 3:
Repeat exercise 2 for E = 0.1, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Review Questions (contd..)
Exercise 4: (contd..)
Consider LS estimate of phasor using half cycle data window i.e. K-samples per half cycle at nominal
frequency. Show that the estimate equations are given as below:
and
Exercise 5:
Evaluate fundamental component of the square wave in Example - 1 using half cycle fourier algorithm.
What conclusions do you draw.
Exercise 6:
Suppose that square in Example - 1 also had a superposed dc component of 5v. Repeat Q. 5. Hence,
refine your conclusions.
Exercise 7:
One way to account for decaying dc offset current during estimation of fundamental is to account for it in
.
the signal model. Hence, consider the signal model to be
' is known, develop a LS method to estimate V m,
accuracy of this method with full cycle and half cycle algorithm.
Assuming that time constant '
Exercise 8:
Extend full cycle algorithm to measure 3rd and 5th harmonic in a signal. Assume suitable sampling
frequency.
Recap
Hence, we will extend fourier like method to functioning of other orthogonal functions like walsh, Harr etc.
require that
1.
2.
3.
a)
Where
harmonic where
- is an integer.
b)
In (a), the coefficients
and
forms (a) and (b) are equivalent. (b) can be obtained from (a) by following substitutions.
Thus,
and
Let
[Dirchelets conditions]. Then, it can be expressed in either of the following equivalent forms.
a)
Where
harmonic where
- is an integer.
b)
In (a), the coefficients
and
forms (a) and (b) are equivalent. (b) can be obtained from (a) by following substitutions.
Thus,
and
and
rad/s.
and
rad/s.
The interval
, while
should be sine/cosine
function (or) exponential function of the Fourier series. Our job is to find the coefficient
so as to
minimize the mean square error. Thus, the optimization problem is given by,
Consider
approximated by
functions
as follows:
(1)
integer} and
. To
(2)
to be either
or
then the expression for the MSE simplifies drastically. It can be verified that with
.
and
= 0;
In fact, this is analogous to the statement that we will have zero average power exchange over a timeif the voltages and currents belong to different frequencies of the harmonic spectrum.
interval
Similarly, with
and
= 0;
(3)
Fourier series (both in trigonometric and complex exponential form) are orthogonal. Many more set of
orthogonal functions like Walsh, Harr etc and corresponding approximate series can be found in the
literature of signal processing. They also have applications in power quality. However, for our use, Fourier
series suffices.
From the discussion so far, we conclude that in case of Fourier series over a time period
term in (2) vanishes. Hence,
, the second
(4)
Further, for
to be
, or
For
, we get coefficient
similarly
by
substituting
, it can be
These coefficients of LS approximation are nothing but the coefficients of Fourier series. This leads us to a
very important conceptual result viz. coefficients in Fourier series minimize the MSE. This establishes the
linkage between Fourier series and Least square methods. Similar series can be developed for other set
of orthogonal functions. [See Q:2]
Review Questions
1.
Show that
2.
and
Review Questions
1.
Show that
2.
2.
and
4.
State the conditions under which periodic signal can be represented by Fourier Series.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Trignometric Fourier series is nothing but LS approximate of a periodic signal over orthogonal basis of
polynominals.
Hence, we can extend Fourier like method to functioning of other orthogonal functions like walsh, Harr
etc.
33.1 Motivation
Consider a finite duration signal
where
is an integer
of duration
such that
If we now evaluate the above integral by trapezoidal rule of integration after padding two zeros (red dots
in fig 33.1) at the extremity on either side [where the signal is zero], we obtain the following expressions.
(1)
The corresponding inverse which is used to reconstruct the signal is given by:
(2)
33.1 Motivation
Consider a finite duration signal
where
is an integer
of duration
such that
If we now evaluate the above integral by trapezoidal rule of integration after padding two zeros (red dots
in fig 33.1) at the extremity on either side [where the signal is zero], we obtain the following expressions.
(1)
The corresponding inverse which is used to reconstruct the signal is given by:
(2)
angle information in the frequency domain (2-units of information), it is reasonable to expect that we
should be in a position to predict atmost
transforms
Now, let
and
(3)
Note that our choice of frequency is such that the exponential term in (1) is independent of
. The
which may (or) may not have a corresponding analog parent' signal. This suggests to us the following
discrete version of Fourier transform for a finite discrete sequence
(4)
Our next job should be to come up with an inverse transformation. If inverse transformation exists, then
there is no loss of information from discrete (time) domain to frequency domain and vice-versa.
Existence of inverse will establish, transform nature of (4). If (2) defines IFT in continuous domain, in the
discrete domain, by analogy of (1) and (4) we can hypothesize following inverse transform.
(5)
(6)
Let us work this expression out in a long hand fashion; for compactness we use notation
is set to zero, for the second row it is set to one and for the
Note that this jugglery shows that we can interchange the summation order. One order indicates row
wise and another column wise summation
i.e.
(7)
Proof: For
Now,
where
AS
is integer, then
where m = 0, ........., N - 1
Now,
where
AS
is integer, then
where m = 0, ........., N - 1
IDFT
i.e.
Choice of
Review Questions
1.
Recap
1) Linearity,
2) Periodicity,
3) DFT symmetry,
4) DFT phase-shifting etc.
34.1 Linearity:
Let
and
given by
and
is given by
Proof:
34.2 Periodicity :
We have evaluated DFT at
Where
. There after,
is an integer.
Proof:
(1)
Both
and
seems counter
intuitive; because, from N bits of information in one domain (time), we are deriving 2N bits of information
in frequency domain. This suggests that there is some redundancy in computation of
. As per DFT symmetry property, following relationship holds.
, where symbol
Proof:
=
Since
If the samples
contain atmost
bits of information. On
the otherhand,
is a complex number
, it
[Anti-
an integer, an offset
an integer, an offset
(2)
Now to compute
to
(from (2))
Review Questions
1.
3.
By using inverse DFT, show that discrete samples can be recovered with knowledge of
Calculate the N pt. DFT of rectangular function given by,
properties
for this signal.
Recap
1) Linearity,
2) Symmetry,
3) DFT symmetry,
, given by
(1)
This signal is conveniently represented by a phasor
(2)
Assume that
is sampled
. Then,
(3)
. Thus, choice
m = 1 corresponds to extracting the fundamental frequency component. The Discrete Fourier Transform
contains the fundamental frequency component given by
of
(4)
(5)
where,
(6)
Substituting x k from (3) in (6) and (7) it can be shown that for a sinusoidal input signal given by (1)
(8)
window is given by
Thus, we see that with moving window, the phasor estimate rotates at a speed of
rotation in phasor during computation can be directly derived from DFT phase shifting property.
Where
(10)
(11)
Substituting
for m = 1;
for m = 1;
Hence,
Thus, we conclude that artificial rotation induced in phasor computation by using DFT equations can be
eliminated by appropriately modifying the offset in the summation index of DFT equation.
and
=N+
Where
(10)
(11)
Substituting
for m = 1;
for m = 1;
Hence,
Thus, we conclude that artificial rotation induced in phasor computation by using DFT equations can be
eliminated by appropriately modifying the offset in the summation index of DFT equation.
and
can be visualized from the following pair wise multiplication and add sequence
Now, to compute
. Computation of
from
is
Since,
(12)
Similarly, for sine component, we have
(13)
and
(14)
(15)
Advantage of half cycle algorithm is that the moving window latches on to the post fault signal in
of
a cycle. Thus, compared to full cycle version, it is twice as fast. A keen observer would have noticed that
DFT based on moving window phasor estimation equations are identical to the full cycle and cycle fourier
algorithms derived in lecture-31. Thus, the frequency response of fourier algorithms developed in lecture
31 applies to the DFT version. In particular, it is not surprising to see that harmonic rejection property of
half cycle algorithm is inferior to its full cycle avatar. This is consistent with the speed vs accuracy'
conflict, we have discussed earlier.
we get the following recursive update forms for fundamental phasor computation.
and
(14)
(15)
Advantage of half cycle algorithm is that the moving window latches on to the post fault signal in
of
a cycle. Thus, compared to full cycle version, it is twice as fast. A keen observer would have noticed that
DFT based on moving window phasor estimation equations are identical to the full cycle and cycle fourier
algorithms derived in lecture-x. Thus, the frequency response of fourier algorithms developed in lecture x
applies to the DFT version. In particular, it is not surprising to see that harmonic rejection property of
half cycle algorithm is inferior to its full cycle avatar. This is consistent with the speed vs accuracy'
conflict, we have discussed earlier.
we get the following recursive update forms for fundamental phasor computation.
and
(14)
(15)
Advantage of half cycle algorithm is that the moving window latches on to the post fault signal in
of
a cycle. Thus, compared to full cycle version, it is twice as fast. A keen observer would have noticed that
DFT based on moving window phasor estimation equations are identical to the full cycle and cycle fourier
algorithms derived in lecture-x. Thus, the frequency response of fourier algorithms developed in lecture
31 applies to the DFT version. In particular, it is not surprising to see that harmonic rejection property of
half cycle algorithm is inferior to its full cycle avatar. This is consistent with the speed vs accuracy'
conflict, we have discussed earlier.
we get the following recursive update forms for fundamental phasor computation.
Review Questions
1.
(a) Generate samples on this waveform using sampling frequency of 12 samples per cycle.
(b) Apply full cycle and half cycle algorithms to estimate phasor from generalized DFT approach.
(c) Repeat (b) using recursive forms.
2.
Repeat (2) and comment on the accuracy of full cycle and half cycle estimation methods.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Computation of phasor from DFT.
(1)
Let
, the
1.
(2)
Proof: using Geometric progression series formula
because
We get
2.
From
and
(3)
, we get
(4)
Hence
3.
etc.
and
and
Now using the
, we have
(5)
etc.
(6)
can be written as follows.
(7)
Where
The
indexes the
and
column of the
and
column of matrix
, then, it is easy
to verify that
i.e. each column is first transposed to a row and every element is then replaced by its complex
conjugate.
For a real number, the complex conjugate is identical to the original number. Hence on real-valued
vectors, Hermitian and transpose operators are one and the same. However, for complex valued vectors
the two differ.
It is now easy to verify that
and
Thus,
(8)
(9)
The invertibility of
In relaying, typically we are not interested in deriving all possible frequency components. Our interest is
primarily in extracting the fundamental and sometimes 2 nd and 5 th harmonic (differential protection).
Since, matrix-vector product involves
multiplications, and similar number of additions, we say that
extracting all possible frequency components by (1) would involve
(read as order
) effort.
This effort is considered to be significantly high for real-time computing. However, with some ingenuity,
computations. This
fast approach to computing all possible frequency transforms in discrete domain is called Fast Fourier
brute force implementation of (1) requires 64 complex
Transform (FFT). For example, with
multiplications which can be reduced to 12 multiplications with FFT.
As we would not have much use for FFT in this course, we will not pursue this topic any further. Rather,
we now establish an equivalence between two very well known transforms viz. multiple DFT (or) FFT and
sequence component transformation. [for the remaining text through out we will refer equation (1) as
FFT].
. Note that
There are n- such phasors in the 0-sequence system each of equal magnitude and angle.
1-sequence component
(10)
is equal in magnitude to
i.e.
(12)
Fig 36.1 (a, b and c) visualize the system for a 3phase system. Expressing these equations in
matrix format we obtain the following equations.
(13)
or
(14)
Where
Thus, from (8) and (14) we conclude that FFT and sequence transformation (defined from sequence
domain to the phase domain) involve the same transformation matrix P. Hence, the two transforms are
mathematically equivalent. In particular for N = 3. With a- phase as reference phasor, we see the
following equivalence relationships.
This mathematical equivalence brings out an important concept viz. transformations and decompositions
done via orthogonal matrices can have multiple interpretations. However, there is one important
difference between the two transformations. The samples
usually real numbers while corresponding phasors in sequence analysis are complex numbers. Thus,
while there is a redundancy in information in FFT domain which leads to DFT symmetry property, there is
no such redundancy in sequence domain. Hence, in sequence domain we do not come across such a
property.
The mathematical equivalence of two should put the reader at ease with both these transformations,
irrespective of which one he came across first.
Recap
Illustrated differences between the properties of the 2 - transforms , because first transform (FFT) is used
to
convert n-dimensional real vector (Rn ) to n-dimensional complex vector (Cn ) while the N-phase sequence
transformation maps a vector to a C n vector.
We will introduce the concept of DFT leakage, and use it to estimate magnitude and phase angle errors
due to change
in system frequency.
However, during disturbance and even in steady state to a certain extent, the frequency varies. Thus, we
expect the phasor estimation under constant frequency assumption to be erroneous. Under such
situations, how good is our estimate of the phasor? We now plan to answer this question. As a by product
of the analysis, we will also develop a frequency estimation technique which can be used in under
frequency and rate of change of frequency relays. To simplify presentation, the analysis is developed
.
gradually. First, we determine the DFT of complex exponential signal at frequency
) is given by
, sampling speed by
. In the
(2)
Thus,
, is given by
(3)
(4)
Then
(5)
(6)
, N =
12.
Fig 37.1(b) shows the envelope of response for 3 different frequencies 49, 50, 51 Hz. The sampling rate
is fixed at 12 samples per cycle at nominal frequency of 50 Hz. Thus, at 49 Hz, P = 49/50 and for 51Hz
waveform P = 51/50. It is seen from the figure that magnitude response is more or less identical when
Hz.
frequency deviation is within
Finally, fig 37.1(c) shows a set of response when frequency deviation from nominal is large enough i.e.
when
= 40, 50 and 60 Hz. Now it can be seen easily that, if we sample the envelope in fig 37.1(c)
), then the P = 0.8, and gain at 50 Hz is a
(not the time domain signal) of 40 Hz signal at 50 Hz (
finite non-zero value different from unity. This effect is known as DFT leakage. It can be said that the
energy in frequency bin
has leaked into frequency bin
.
Remark 1: As
varies from
Hz waveform.
slides to the left when 'P' reduces below 1 and it slides to the right when
our waveform to be a 50 Hz signal, we always sample the envelope at
. However, if we assume
.
In DSP literature, DFT leakage is considered to be undesirable. It means that we wrongly interpret a 40
or a 60Hz signal as a 50 Hz signal. However, by a little more analysis, we will show that deviation small
enough from nominal frequency can be easily estimated from corresponding phase characteristic of DFT.
This not only allows us to build underfrequency and rate of change of frequency relays but it simplifies
hardware as sampling rate need not follow the system frequency. Consequently, no-zero crossing
detectors are required. From the relaying perspective, it turns out to be a boon in disguise.
As seen in fig 37.1(b), the DFT magnitude leakage for
= -
0.0065. Thus, we conclude that effect of magnitude leakage on estimation of phasor magnitude can be
neglected. However, the phase angle of DFT tells another story. Note that
For
and
Thus,
Thus an error of is
exponential, we get
(7)
Thus,
(8)
With P
1,
and
Estimation of Frequency
Now our aim, is to develop a method of estimating power system frequency using the recursive DFT
approach to phasor estimation. We plan to show that in the moving window approach the phase angle
estimated by recursive DFT approach rotates at a speed proportional to the deviation from the nominal
frequency. In turn, this deviation can be assessed by measuring the rate of change of phase angle.
In the previous section, we have derived the DFT leakage for complex exponential and real cosine signals.
We will now generalize the DFT computation of complex exponential so that it can handle moving window
concept.
Generalized DFT of Complex Exponential
Following the methodology used while generalizing DFT, we can write generalized DFT for
window
(window number corresponds to the sample number of first sample in the window) as:
(10)
where
Substituting,
in (9), we get
where
Summation
we obtain
If m = P, then it is clear that DFT
. Hence, we
can expect obtain stationary DFT in (10) when m = P = 1 i.e. when signal corresponds to fundamental
frequency.
With the knowledge of the generalized DFT of the complex exponential, now we can derive the
generalized DFT expression for real cosine signal.
(13)
Following the similar reasoning as outlined in the previous section of the DFT of real cosine signal, we can
(14)
, then
start rotating along with the window. From, (14) we can derive that
, we deduce that
(15)
is the sampling time interval. Summarizing, if we set sampling frequency for a sinusoidal signal
where
frequency invariant of the actual frequency of sinusoid, then the phasor estimated by moving window
approach rotates at a speed proportional to
. This rotation will be in anti-clockwise direction if
>
0 i.e.
>
< 0 i.e.
<
If we monitor, this phase rotation, then from the proportionality relationship of (15), we can estimate the
frequency '. If
denotes phase-angle, then from (15), we can obtain the rate of change of
as
follows:
(16)
Discussion
There are many advantages associated with the above algorithm. The method is not based on zero
crossing time and it is immune to noise and harmonics. Instead of using single phase quartiles, one can
estimate the positive sequence component and derive frequency from it. Such an approach will use all the
three phase voltages and hence will have better noise rejection properties. At harmonics of nominal
and hence, the above approach will reject frequencies m
completely.
frequency
Measurement of Frequency
To measure
If we assume that frequency computation will be further averaged over four measurements to smoothen
is given by
out noise, then time to compute deviation
Recap
at nominal frequency, then, DFT leakage is zero. This means that there are no magnitude and phase angle
errors in estimation. However, when the system frequency deviates from the nominal (of the order
say), then errors introduced in estimating the amplitude of the signal is negligible. However, now phase
angle errors are not negligible.
It was shown that if the frequency deviates from the nominal value, with constant sampling frequency,
the phasor starts rotating at a speed proportional to it. This can be used for frequency estimation.
Implementation of differential bus protection using high impedance bus differential relay.
Introduction
Faults in a power system can be either apparatus faults or bus faults. Apparatus fault refer to faults in
feeders, transformers, generators or motors. On the other hand bus is an external interconnection point
for terminals of different apparatus. A bus fault is usually rare, but if and when it happens its
consequences can be quite severe. It can lead loss of multiple feeders or transmission lines and hence
has a potential to create a large enough disturbance to induce transient instability. Even if it does not
lead to transient instability, loss of load from an important substation can be quite high. Because of these
reasons, bus rearrangement can have sufficient redundancy so that in case of a bus fault, an alternative
bus automatically takes over the functions of the main bus'. Thus, the end user sees no disruption in
service except during the fault interval. This can however involve significant costs, viz the cost of new
bus bar and additional circuit breakers to configure a parallel arrangement. Hence, different bus
configurations are used in practice each one representing a different trade off between cost, flexibility
and redundancy. In this lecture, we will discuss following bus arrangements:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Differential protection discussed in lecture 3 is used for bus protection. If the algebraic sum of all
apparatus currents is zero, then there is no fault on the bus. However, during bus fault, the apparatus
current sums to the bus fault current.
As shown in the fig 38.3, each feeder is connected to two buses which in normal operation mode are
paralleled. Bus differential protection is provided for each bus. This scheme would be used typically at high
voltages like 400kV. Distance protection of such voltage level has to be directional as fault in the primary
line of Z2 of one of the relays cannot be left unattended for time required for Z2 operation. Hence,
directional comparison scheme is required for which CCVT is used for communication. Hence, one CCVT
per feeder would be used along with this scheme. In case of a bus fault (say on bus-1), the breakers
connected to it will have to be opened. Subsequently, the system function then automatically switches to
alternative bus (e.g. Bus 2) with no loss of service to load.
In case, if a feeder has to be isolated, both the breakers connected to it will have to be opened. For line
(feeder) protection, to measure feeder current the CT contribution from both bus 1 and 2 have to be
summed. i.e. corresponding CTs are paralleled. In case of a stuck breaker, local backup for breaker failure
is to operate all the corresponding bus breakers. This bus arrangement provides maximum flexibility but it
is also costly as two breakers per feeder are required.
Fig 38.4 shows a typical ring bus arrangement with four feeders.
Again to isolate a feeder, say on a feeder fault, two adjacent breakers have to be operated. Similarly,
feeder current is calculated by summing or paralleling the appropriate CTs. Each feeder requires its own
VT. The arrangement requires one circuit breaker per feeder and hence it is less costly. This arrangement
is popular because of low cost and high flexibility. As the bus section between the two breakers becomes
a part of the line, separate bus protection is not applicable or required. i.e, the feeder protection also
provides the functionality of bus bar protection.
Differential relay for bus bar protection can be implemented in one of the following three ways:
1.
2.
3.
(1)
How was this problem handled in the past, i.e. in the era prior to numerical
relays?
Review Questions
1.
2.
What are the advantages of single breaker double bus arrangement over single bus single breaker
arrangement?
3.
How does double bus double breaker bus arrangement provides maximum flexibility?
4.
5.
6.
Recap
In this lecture, we have learnt advantages and disadvantages of different bus arrangements
like
Single bus single breaker arrangement.
Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 38. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side
menu of the page
Introduction
Differential protection of transformer was introduced in lecture 2. Traditionally, it involves establishing
circulating current through a pair of matched CTs installed on the primary and secondary winding of the
transformer. If there is no internal fault in the transformer, zero current flows through the differential
overcurrent element. However, in case of an internal fault, the CT secondary currents are not matched
is not zero. This causes the overcurrent element to pick up and
and hence the differential current
operate the circuit breakers to isolate the transformer.
Selection of CT Turns Ratio
and
as
Current in CT - 2 primary =
Current in CT - 2 secondary =
If there is no fault, then with proper connections account for the CT polarity, we should obtain circulatory
current through CT secondary.
Hence,
Selection of CT Turns Ratio (contd..)
i.e,
or
(1)
If the transformer (to be protected ) is working on tap T as shown in fig 39.2, then the above equality
has to be modified as follows:
(2)
Example
Let the primary of the transformer winding has 1000 turns while secondary has 500 turns. If the primary
CT ratio is 100:5, find the CT ratio required in the secondary side to establish circulatory current scheme.
Ans:
=1000,
and
=20
Example (contd..)
Remark 3: When dealing with three phase transformers, the transformer connections like Y-Y or
also play a role in determining CT secondary interconnections to establish circulating current scheme.
This is because of the phase shifts typically of the order of
that result in the line currents when we
move from primary to secondary side of the power transformer. Fig 39.3 shows the typical connections
for star-delta transformer bank for establishing the circulatory currents. The study of the circuit brings
transformers: If the power
out the following important rule for interconnection of CT secondary for
transformer winding are connected in Y configuration, use
configuration for corresponding CT
secondary interconnections" (and vice-versa).
Remark 4: With numerical relays such interconnection complexity can be easily handled in software.
After, specifying the turns ratio and the phase shift from primary to secondary, it should be possible to
work out the expected secondary differential current by simple calculation.
Role of Percentage Differential Protection
So far, our discussion has focused on an ideal transformer. However, practical transformers and CTs pose
additional challenge to protection.
(1)
The primary of transformer will carry no load current even when the secondary is open circuited. This will
lead to
differential current on which the protection scheme should not operate.
(2)
It is not possible to exactly match the CT ratio as per equation (1). This would also lead to differential
currents under
healthy conditions.
(3)
If the transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then differential currents will arise as equation (2) is
not satisfied
even under healthy conditions. However, tap position can be read in numerical protection scheme and
accounted by equation (2). This would make the numerical protection scheme adaptive.
The differential protection will pick up if magnitude of differential current is more than a fixed percentage
of the restraining current.
Complications of Magnetizing Inrush
We now plan to show that even percentage
differential protection scheme will misclassify the
inrush current as fault current. This is because
during inrush, secondary current is negligible (zero
if secondary is open circuited), while primary
current can be as high as 10 - 20 times the full
load current. Thus some kind of restraint function
is required to inhibit the pick up on inrush.
Traditionally, this restraint is based upon second
harmonic content in primary which discriminates a
fault from the inrush condition.
Alternatives in numerical relaying also include voltage restraint used in integrated substation protection
scheme and flux restraint scheme. Before, discussing these schemes further, we will review the origin of
magnetizing inrush phenomenon.
Consider the circuit in fig 39.5. The switch is closed at t = 0. By Faraday's law, we have
, with
and
(3)
This wave form is quite different from what we obtain by steady state analysis as shown in fig 39.7.
During steady state analysis, we can replace
by
i.e,
and
(4)
, where
is the knee
point flux density of core. Thus, during energization, the core is driven deep into saturation. The resulting
H and hence magnetizing current can be very high (up to 20 times full load current). This current is
. But in general,
known as inrush current of transformer. So far, we have assumed
depends upon the remnant flux in the core and H can be anywhere between
during energization will vary from
to
and
. Hence,
magnetization current peak and the magnetizing current and flux would finally approach the one
produced by steady state phasor equation.
To summarize the discussion so far,
1.
2.
(1)
Harmonic Restraint
Analysis of the current waveform indicates that inrush current is rich in second harmonic and current
during overfluxing has a large fifth harmonic component. Thus, if we compute the second and fifth
, then, we can provide following logic for restraining operation of
harmonic current in
differential protection. Restrain operation of differential protection if
for restrain (No load magnetization current)
1.
or
2.
(Where
3.
(Where
or
[For restraining overexcitation]
4.
(Where
Typically,
and
are the percentage harmonic restraint and would depend upon type of transformer
and steel. For numerical relays, the design of anti aliasing filters also affects the choice of above
parameters. During any transient (including the fault condition), harmonics develop much more rapidly
than the fundamental and hence, typically numerical relays are restrained for about a cycle indirectly by
used in practice are 10, 20 or 30%.
these transients. Typical setting for
(2)
used to restrain the operation of differential protection scheme on inrush or overexcitation. Traditionally,
this has been referred in literature as tripping suppressor as it suppresses tripping function. If the
voltage signal is high, the relay is restrained if
or
(5)
(6)
or
(7)
(8)
(3)
. When
Fig 39.9 shows the flux current plane associated with no fault and internal fault regions. It is difficult to
evaluate the actual flux in the core, because the initial condition is unknown. It depends also upon the
remanant flux. Fortunately, to distinguish no fault (or external fault) from the internal fault, we are
Operation on the unsaturated region of magnetizing curve produces large value of slope
fault or overexcitation (saturated) regions have smaller
. Since, the
else if
and
, then
else if
and
, then
, increment counter.
crosses a
known threshold, trip decision will be issued. On the other hand, during inrush or over excitation the
will alternate between low slope and high slope region depending upon whether the core is in saturation
or not. Thus, the counter
will indicate a small tooth kind of behavior with
being below the
threshold value. Hence, operation of the different protection scheme would be restrained in this region.
Remark 5: We have illustrated the basic principle so far using a single phase transformer for simplicity.
However, in practice, we use both three phase two winding and three phase three winding (primary,
secondary and tertiary) transformers. The basic principle of differential protection is the same but we now
have to scale up to multiple phases. For a three phase (two winding) transformer, there would be 3 trip
currents (one per phase) and three restraining currents (one per phase). For three phase three winding
transformers, two restraining per phase are required.
Review Questions
1.
2.
What are the advantage of numerical relaying over other relaying schemes in differential protection?
3.
4.
5.
The primary winding of a transformer has 2000 turns and CT ratio is 600:5. The secondary has 10000
turns and is
to 3
working on a tap of 60%. Find out CT ratio required for secondary side to establish circulating current
scheme.
6.
Explain how reliability is obtained by polling scheme in the 'sample by sample' comparison approach for
differential
protection.
Recap
Introduction
Generator protection and control are interdependent problems. A generator has to be protected not only
from electrical faults (stator and rotor faults) and mechanical problems (e.g. Related to turbine, boilers
etc), but it also has to be protected from adverse system interaction arising like generator going of out of
step with the rest of system, loss of field winding etc. Under certain situations like internal faults, the
generator has to be quickly isolated (shut down), while problems like loss of field problem requires an
alarm' to alert the operator. Following is a descriptive list of internal faults and abnormal operating
conditions.
1.
Internal Faults
a.
Phase and /or ground faults in the stator and associated protection zone
b.
2.
a.
Overload.
b.
Overvoltage.
c.
Loss of field.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Subsynchronous oscillation.
h.
With a numerical relay, the circulatory as shown in fig 40.1 (a and b) is not be hard wired. Instead,
equivalent computations can be done in microprocessor. For differential protection, it is important to
choose CTs from same manufacturer with identical turns ratio to minimize CT mismatch. To improve
security, percentage differential protection is preferred. The accuracy of the differential protection for
generators is expected to be better than that of differential protection for transformers, as issues like
overfluxing, magnetizing inrush, no load current and different voltage rating of primary and secondary are
non existent.
2.
3.
Hybrid grounding.
The advantage of low impedance grounding is improved sensitivity of the protection. However, if the fault
is not cleared quickly, the damage to equipment can be much higher. It is possible to engineer ground
(zero sequence) differential protection using a directional ground overcurrent relaying as shown in fig
current with neutral current. If the
40.2. The basic idea is to compare the sum of terminal
two are identical, there is no internal ground fault. Conversely, a differential in the two quantities
indicates an internal ground fault on the generator.
Consequences
Prima-facie, consequence of reduced excitation may not appear to be dramatic, but it can lead to endregion over-heating in turbo-alternators. Hence, this abnormality has to be detected and an alarm has to
be raised for the operator. The ultimate measure would be to shut down the generator. Fig 40.3 shows
the reactive power capability curve of a generator. It can be seen that in the lagging power factoroperating region, limits are determined either by rotor field heating limit or by stator armature heating
limit.
Protection system for synchronous-generators should detect reduced or loss of excitation condition, raise
an alarm and if the abnormality persists, trip the generator. This can be achieved by use of distance
relays that are installed at generator terminals. Directionally, they look into the generator. For this
purpose, we need to interpret capability curve on the R-X plane. If the complex power generated is given
then the apparent impedance seen by the distance relay installed on the generator terminals
by
is given by
(1)
For simplicity, we have referred impedance has been referred to the primary side. Fig 40.5 shows the
capability curve transferred to R-X plane using eqn. (1).
To protect the generator two distance relays and directional units are used. To protect generator against
complete loss of field, inner circle is used. The relay operates when the impedance vector moves into this
circle. Operating time of about 0.2 to 0.3 seconds are used with a complete shut down of the generator.
, with the upper part of the circle 50-75% of
below
The diameter of this circle is of the order of
the origin.
The larger circle is used to detect reduced or partial loss of excitation system. Directional blinder may be
used to limit pickup on normal operating condition.
transformer. The
side, traps the zero sequence current from flowing through the phase winding. However, positive and
negative sequence currents will find their way into stator winding. Positive sequence currents cannot
discriminate between balanced and unbalanced operating conditions. On, the other hand, negative
sequence currents clearly indicate the abnormality. Hence, it can be used as an effective discriminant for
unbalanced system operation. Negative sequence currents create an mmf wave in opposite direction to
the direction of rotation of rotor. Hence, it sweep across the rotor induces second harmonic currents in
rotor, which can cause severe over heating and ultimately, the melting of the wedges in the air gap.
ANSI standards have established that the limits can be expressed as
where
is the negative
sequence current flowing. The machine designer establishes constant k. It can be in the range of 5 50.
An inverse-time overcurrent relay excited by negative sequence current can be used for this protection.
Why?
Terminal voltage of a generator is controlled by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR). If the load current
(I) on the generator reduces, the AVR would automatically reduce the field current so as to reduce open
circuit emf E to maintain constant terminal voltage V. However, loss of a VT fuse, incorrect operation or
setting of AVR etc can lead to over voltage which is detrimental to the generator. Steady state over
voltage will lead to saturation of iron, both for generator and the unit transformer connected to it. This
will lead to large magnetizing currents, unacceptable flux patterns, over-heating, which can damage the
power apparatus. Hence, generators have to be protected against overvoltage.
V/f Protection
During start-up or shut down, the speed of the generator will deviate significantly from the nominal
over voltages with respect to nominal voltage. Rather overfluxing occurs when V/f ratio exceeds its
nominal value. Hence, over voltage protection is implemented after normalizing the terminal voltage by
the frequency of the generator.
Out-of-Step Protection
With modern generators having large Xd and EHV transmission having low reactance, it is likely that the
electrical center, a consequence of out-of step condition would be within the generator step-up
transformer unit. To detect this condition, distance relay looking into the generator (or into the
transformer-generator unit) should be installed. Even a distance relay used for loss-of-field protection will
pick-up on such power swing. If the swing moves out of the relay characteristic, before the timer runs
down, then, no trip action will be initiated. However, if the swing persists for sufficient time, the loss-ofexcitation distance relay will operate on power swing.
Recap
In this lecture we have learnt about the following:
Internal Fault like LLG, phase and ground faults.