Materials for walls

CAST IN PLACE WALL

Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete walls are made with ready-mix concrete placed into
removable forms erected on site. Historically, this has been one of the most
common forms of building basement walls. The same techniques used below
grade can be repeated with above-grade walls to form the first floor and upper
levels of homes.
As technology developed, improvements in forming systems and insulation
materials increased the ease and appeal of using removable forms for singlefamily construction. These systems are strong. Their inherent thermal mass,
coupled with appropriate insulation, makes them quite energy efficient.
Traditional finishes can be applied to interior and exterior faces, so the buildings
look similar to frame construction, although the walls are usually thicker.
Advantages
Cast-in-place provides benefits to builders and building owners alike.
Owners appreciate:

strong walls

safety and disaster resistance

mold, rot, mildew, and insect resistance

sound-blocking ability

for insulated systems, energy efficiency and resultant cost savings

Contractors and builders like:

familiarity

expands business to include more than basements

cost effective building technology

Components, Including Insulation

Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete systems are relatively straightforward. Steps

required include the placement of temporary forms and placing fresh
concrete and steel reinforcement. Although it is possible to batch concrete
on site, ready mixed concrete is widely available and is usually delivered
by a ready mix supplier. And in 2011, the average distance to most project
sites from a ready mix plant was just about 14 miles.

Although uninsulated walls were common in the past, changing energy

code requirements are more or less eliminating walls without insulation in
most climates. This is the case with all types of systems, including
concrete, wood, and steel. Energy is simply too important in terms of its
cost and environmental impact. Concretes thermal mass helps moderate
temperature swings, but cannot provide the improved energy performance
mandated by codes unless the wall system contains insulation. In the past,
therefore, insulation may have been an optional component of a cast-inplace system, but it is increasingly included in contemporary construction.

The most common formwork materials for casting concrete in place are
steel, aluminum, and wood. Many wood systems are custom manufactured
and may be used only once or a few times. Steel and aluminum forming
systems, on the other hand, are designed for multiple reuses, saving on
costs. Metal panel forms are usually two to three feet wide and come in
various heights to match the wall. Most common are eight and nine foot
tall panels.

Installation, Connections, Finishes

Casting concrete in place involves a few distinct steps: placing formwork,

placing reinforcement, and pouring concrete. Builders usually place forms
at the corners first and then fill in between the corners. This helps with
proper alignment of forms and, therefore, walls. Reinforcement bars
(rebar for short) can be erected before either form face as a cage or
after one side of the formwork is installed. Once both form faces are tied
together and braced, concrete is placed in the forms via truck chute,
bucket, or pump. Forms should always be filled at an appropriate rate
based on formwork manufacturer recommendations to prevent problems.
Although blowouts are uncommon with metal and wood forms,
misalignment could potentially occur.

For single-family residential construction, wall thicknesses can range from

four to 24 inches. Uninsulated walls are typically six or eight inches thick.
Walls with insulation are generally thicker when they contain an internal
layer of insulation: either the inner or outer wall layer has to serve a

structural function. Cast-in-place walls are generally thicker than frame

walls (wood or steel).

Reinforcement in both directions maintains the wall strength. Vertically,

bars are usually placed at one to four feet on center, and tied to dowels in
the footing or basement slab for structural integrity. Horizontally, bars are
typically placed at about four foot spacings in residential applications.
Additional bars are placed at corners and around openings (doors,
windows) to help control cracking and provide strength.

Openings for doors and windows require bucks to surround the opening,
contain the fresh concrete during placement, and provide suitable material
for fastening window or door frames.

Floors and roofs can be concrete or wood and light-gauge steel. Ledgers
are anchored by bolts adhered into holes in the concrete. For heavy steel
floors, weld plates are installed inside the formwork so they become
embedded in the fresh concrete. This provides an attachment for steel
joists, trusses, or angle irons.

Insulation can be placed on inside or outside faces or in the center portion

of the wall. To place the insulation on the face, plastic fittings are inserted
into the foam board and become embedded in the concrete. These are
flanged to hold the foam and the flanges provide an attachment for
finishes and fixtures. Face insulation can also be applied after the
formwork is stripped. If foam is embedded in the formwork prior to
concrete placement, composite fittings are used to tie together the two
concrete faces (through the foam insulation layer). The inner wall is
usually the structural layer, so its thicker and contains the rebar, whereas
the outer concrete layer has the finish applied. Foam insulation is most
often expanded polystyrene (EPS). It can be extruded polystyrene (XPS),
which is stronger, but also more costly.

Sustainability and Energy

A major appeal of insulated cast-in-place walls is reduced energy to heat

and cool the building. Insulation, thermal mass, and low air infiltration
contribute to the energy saving. Typical R-value for EPS and XPS foams
are, respectively, four and five per inch. Thermal mass acts like a storage
battery to hold heat or cold, moderating temperature swings. Cast-in-place

walls have 10 to 30 percent better air tightness than comparable framed

wallsbecause the concrete envelope contains few joints. In addition to
saving energy and money associated with heating and cooling, concrete
walls also provide more consistent interior temperatures for occupants,
increasing their comfort. Cast-in-place systems are also suited to the use
of recycled materials. Concrete can be made using supplementary
cementing materials like fly ash or slag to replace a portion of the cement.
Aggregate can be recycled (crushed concrete) to reduce the need for
virgin aggregate. Most steel for reinforcement is recycled. Some
polystyrene is made with recycled material as well. Some of these
techniques contribute toward achieving points in certain green rating
systems such as LEED.

Building Codes

For one and two family dwellings, the International Residential Code (IRC)
addresses foundations and below grade walls in Section R404 and above
grade walls in R611 for homes up to two stories plus a basement. For
larger buildings like multi-family and commercial structures, engineers
follow the International Building Code (IBC) for structural design.
Comparative Costs

Cast-in-place concrete requires the erection of temporary forms, so this is

labor intensive. But many types of forms can be reused, so there is not
necessarily a big cost for the formwork. Also, concrete is historically more
stable in price than either wood or steel.

BRICK WALL
Brick is the oldest manufactured building material. The earliest brick, made from
mud (sometimes with added straw), was invented almost 10,000 years ago.
Primary raw materials for modern clay bricks include surface clays, fire clays,
shales or combinations of these. Units are formed by extrusion, molding or drypressing and are fired in a kiln at high temperatures to produce units with a wide
range of colors, textures, sizes and physical properties. Clay and shale masonry
units are most frequently selected as a construction material for their aesthetics
and long-term performance.

While brick and structural clay tile are both visually appealing and durable, they
are also well-suited for many structural applications. This is primarily due to their
variety of sizes and very high compressive strength.
Concrete brick is a very effective way to make a strong first impression. When
people walk up or drive by a home with concrete brick, second glances are
common reactions.
Concrete brick has more benefits than its striking visual qualities. They deaden
exterior noise, providing a buffer from traffic noise, airplanes flying overhead and
other various disruptions. Fire protection is another benefit as is reduced
maintenance. Finally, concrete brick walls can improve the thermal mass
qualities of exterior walls, thus reducing energy bills.
Type of bond

Stretcher Bond

Flemish Bond

English Bond

Window Framing
Wood offers good thermal performance and natural beauty. Many manufacturers
offer products in a wide variety of species. Wood requires maintenance that other
materials may not, in that it might needs to be painted or stained periodically.
Most manufacturers of wood products offer a choice of aluminum and/or vinyl
cladding on the exterior to minimize such maintenance requirements.
Increasingly, wood window and door manufacturers are incorporating
"engineered" wood components, particularly in non-visible areas, to enhance
performance and achieve optimal wood utilization.

Vinyl is the most commonly used framing material, because it offers good
thermal performance and requires little maintenance. It can be used to produced
very cost-effective products, but vinyl windows can also be provided in a choice
of interior finishes, including woodgrains and colors. Most vinyl products

incorporate rigid vinyl with multi-chamber profiles for strength and insulation.
Frame and sash corners in these vinyl windows are generally welded, creating a
joint that is generally more resistant to air and water infiltration than corners that
are mechanically fastened with screws.

Glass (Low E Glass)

Low Emissivity glass has a thin metallic coating on the glass that reflects thermal
radiation or inhibits its emission reducing heat transfer through the glass. Low E
glass reflects the radiation rather than absorbing it, improving insulation. Low E
glass is available in a range of colours including, clear, neutral, blue, green and
grey.
Installing windows containing Low-e glass in energy-efficient double or triple
glazed units provides you with many benefits:

Improves the energy-efficiency of your home

Reduces the amount of energy you use
Saves you money on your heating bills
More effective than single glazing or standard double glazing
Provides you with the quality and reassurance you would expect from a
leading brand
Manufactured to the highest European quality standards
Available from window installers countrywide in a range of frame types

Door
Fiberglass-It has been around for many years, but fiberglass had recently seen
a tremendous increase in popularity in the exterior door market. Constructed
similarly to steel doors, the fiberglass composite skin in place of steel, these
types of doors are also designed to provide good energy efficiency and low
maintenance. They are now offered in a growing number of stainable/paintable
woodgrain and paintable smooth panel options. One advantage of fiberglass is
said to be higher resistance to dings an dents.

Solid core timber door.

Solid core timber can be found in many household doors, and is one of the most
common material for hinged doors. Its sturdiness, beauty and customisability all
make this material a popular choice for front and rear entrances, as well as for
interior doors. The wood may be painted, varnished or left bare, depending on
the purpose and style of the door. Solid core timber doors are relatively easy to
install too.
Advantages

Security These doors are difficult to kick down, though the type of core
that the door uses plays a large role in their strength.
Weatherproofing Solid core timber doors are able to be used
externally, though they must be weatherproofed to prevent the wood from
expanding.
Soundproofing This varies based on the core used, but wooden doors
will generally carry quite a lot of sound no matter what sort of core is used.
Cost Wood is relatively inexpensive in comparison to other materials due
to its popularity and abundance (it grows on trees, after all).
Weight Solid core timber doors dont weigh a great deal, though again
this depends a lot on the core filling.
Thermal insulation Wood is quite an effective insulator and will not
translate heat or cold easily. It is flammable though.

Roof
CLAY TILE

Clay tile is considered a lifetime roof; it will often outlive the decking its built on
(100 yrs or more). Overlapping or interlocking, clay tile is now created by baking
(firing) molded clay into tile in a high-temperature kiln. Benefits to this type of
roofing material include life-span, its low maintenance requirements and fireprotection. Clay tile is more expensive than some of the other roofing materials
available but its beuty and natural appearance often outweigh the cost for
owners looking for an attractive roofing material to enhance their property. Tile is
a very heavy material which may necessitate extra roof support and extra cost.

This material is also quite breakable and can chip and so walking on the tiles
should be left to professionals. Flat styles of clay tile are often used to create
French and English looks while curved styles are used for Mission or Spanish style
old world European looks as well as Southwestern looks. Clay tiles are one of the
most versatile and eye-catching roofing materials available on the market today.