Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.19 (Abnormal Events) PDF

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1
Sub Module 7.19 Abnormal Events
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.19
ABNORMAL EVENTS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/04
7.19
For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category A/B1

Contents
ABNORMAL EVENTS --------------------------------------------------------------- 1
A)
ABNORMAL EVENTS ELECTRICAL ---------------------------------------- 2
LIGHTNING STRIKES ---------------------------------------------------------------- 2

HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF) PENETRATION ---------------- 9
B)
ABNORMAL EVENTS MECHANICAL -------------------------------------13
HEAVY LANDINGS -----------------------------------------------------------------13

FLIGHT THROUGH SEVERE TURBULENCE ------------------------------------15

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ABNORMAL EVENTS
All aircraft are designed to withstand the normal flight and
landing loads expected during a typical flight cycle. These loads
will include the normal manoeuvres the aircraft is expected to
make. The designer will build in a safety factor to compensate
for loads slightly larger than normal. Sometimes extreme
circumstances occur which cause stresses outside the normal
design limits.
If the design limits are exceeded, then damage may occur to the
aircraft. If it is known or suspected that the aircraft has been
subjected to excessive loads, then an inspection should be
made, to ascertain the nature of any damage that may have
occurred. The manufacturer will normally have anticipated the
nature of some of these occurrences and detailed special
checks for these Abnormal Occurrences.
Types of abnormal occurrences
Tail strike
Mercury spillage
Dragged engine or engine seizure
High-energy stop.
Types of damage
It is not intended to describe the types of damage applicable to
every type of occurrence. It is more important to understand
that, often, the damage may be remote from the source of the
occurrence.
In many cases the inspection would be made in two stages. If
no damage is found in the first stage then the second stage may
not be necessary. If damage is found, then the second stage
inspection is done.
This is likely to be a more detailed examination.
The aircraft maintenance manual will normally list the types of

abnormal occurrences needing special inspection. The list may
vary, depending on the aircraft. The following items are a
selection from a typical aircraft:
Lightning strikes
High-intensity radiated fields penetration
Heavy or overweight landing
Flight through severe turbulence
Burst tyre
Flap or slat over-speed
Flight through volcanic ash

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A) ABNORMAL EVENTS ELECTRICAL
LIGHTNING STRIKES
Both lightning strikes and high-intensity radiated fields (HIRF)
are discussed in Module 5. Consideration is given in this topic to
their effects and the inspections required in the event of their
occurrence.
Lightning, of course, is the discharge of electricity in the
atmosphere, usually between highly charged cloud formations,
or between a charged cloud and the ground. If an aircraft is
flying in the vicinity of the discharge or it is on the ground, the
lightning may strike the aircraft. This will result in very high
voltages and currents passing through the structure.
All separate parts of the aircraft are electrically bonded together,
to provide a low-resistance path to conduct the lightning away
from areas where damage may hazard the aircraft.
Effects of a Lightning Strike
Inspection
The maintenance schedule or maintenance manual should
specify the inspections applicable to the aircraft but, in general,
bonding straps and static discharge wicks should be inspected
for damage. Damaged bonding straps on control surfaces may
lead to tracking across control surface bearings, this in turn may
cause burning, break up or seizure due to welding of the
bearings.
This type of damage may result in resistance to movement of
the controls, which can be checked by doing a functional check
of the controls. Additional checks may include:
Examine engine cowlings and engines for evidence of

burning or pitting. As in control bearings, tracking of the
engine bearings may have occurred. Manufacturers may
recommend checking the oil filters and chip detectors for
signs of contamination. This check may need to be
repeated for a specified number of running hours after
the occurrence.
Examine fuselage skin, particularly rivets for burning or

pitting.
Lightning strikes are likely to have two main effects on the

aircraft:
Strike damage where the discharge enters the aircraft.

This will normally be on the extremities of the aircraft,
the wing tips, nose cone and tail cone and on the
leading edge of the wings and tail plane. The damage
will usually be in the form of small circular holes, usually
in clusters, and accompanied by burning or
discoloration.

7.19 - 2
Static discharge damage at the wing tips, trailing edges

and antenna. The damage will be in the form of local
pitting and burning. Bonding strips and static wicks may
also disintegrate, due to the high charges.

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If the landing gear was extended, some damage may

have occurred to the lower parts of the gear. Examine
for signs of discharge.
After the structural examination it will be necessary to do
functional checks of the radio, radar, instruments,
compasses, electrical circuits and flying controls. A
bonding resistance check should also be done.
Example of a Post Lightning Strike Procedure

This procedure is an extract from the Boeing 757 Maintenance
Manual. It is included to give an idea of a typical aircraft
inspection procedure. Not all of the details have been supplied,
but there is enough information to provide a general idea. The
student will not be examined in detail on this procedure, but
should be able to identify specific checks that highlight the
previous notes.
This procedure has these three tasks:

Most of the external parts of the aircraft are metal structure with
sufficient thickness to be resistant to a lightning strike. This
metal assembly is its basic protection. The thickness of the
metal surface is sufficient to protect the internal spaces from a
lightning strike.
The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of
electromagnetic energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft.
The metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic energy
from going into the electrical wiring; however, it does keep the
energy to a satisfactory level.
If lightning strikes the aircraft, then all of the aircraft must be
fully examined, to find the areas of the lightning strike entrance
and exit points.
When looking at the areas of entrance and exit, this structure
should be carefully examined to find all of the damage that has
occurred.
Examination of the External Surfaces for Lightning Strike

Examination of the internal Components for Lightning
Strike
Inspection and Operational Check of the Radio and
Navigation Systems.
Basic Protection
The aircraft has all the necessary and known lightning strike
protection measures.

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Strike Areas
Lightning strike entrance and exit points (refer to Fig. 1) are,
usually, found in Zone 1, but also can occur in Zones 2 and 3.
Lightning strikes can, however, occur to any part of the aircraft,
including the fuselage, wing skin trailing edge panels. Wingbody fairing, antennas, vertical stabiliser, horizontal stabiliser,
and along the wing trailing edge in Zone 2.
A
A&B
Zone 1. High Possibility of Strike

Zone 2. Average Possibility of Strike
Zone 3. Low Possibility of Strike
A = Aerials and Protrusions
B = Sharp Corners of Fuselage and Control Surfaces
Risk Areas for Lightning Strikes

Fig. 1

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Signs of Damage
In metal structures, strike damage usually shows as pits, burn
marks or small circular holes. These holes can be grouped in
one location or divided around a large area. Burned or
discoloured skin also shows lightning strike damage.
In composite (non-metallic) structures, solid laminate or
honeycomb damage shows as discoloured paint. It also shows
as burned, punctured, or de-laminated skin plies. Hidden
damage can also exist. This damage can extend around the
visible area. Signs of arcing and burning can also occur around
the attachments to the supporting structure.
Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may
become strongly magnetised when subjected to large currents.
Large currents, flowing from the lightning strike in the aircraft
structure, can cause this magnetisation.
External components most likely to be hit are the:
Nose Radome
Nacelles
Wing Tips
Horizontal Stabiliser Tips
Elevators
Vertical Fin Tips
Ends of the Leading Edge Flaps
Trailing Edge Flap Track Fairings
Landing Gear
Water Waste Drain Masts
Pitot Probes
External Components at Risk

A lightning strike usually attaches to the aircraft in Zone 1 and
goes out a different Zone 1 area. Frequently, a lightning strike
can enter the nose radome and go out of the aircraft at one of
the horizontal stabiliser trailing edges.

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Electrical Components at Risk

Lightning strikes can cause problems to the electrical power
systems and the external light wiring. The electrical system is
designed to be resistant to lightning strikes but a strike of
unusually high intensity can possibly damage such electrical
system components as the:
Fuel valves
Generators
Power Feeders
Electrical Distribution Systems
Static Discharge Wicks
NOTE: Should inaccuracies in the standby compass be

reported, after a lightning strike, then a check swing will be
necessary.
Frequently, a lightning strike is referred to as a static discharge.
This is incorrect and may create the impression that the metal
static discharge wicks, found on the external surfaces of the
aircraft prevent lightning strikes. These static discharge wicks
are for bleeding off static charge only; they have no lightning
protection function.
The static discharge wicks help to bleed the static charge off in
a way that prevents radio noise.
The static discharge wicks are frequently hit by lightning. Some
personnel think static dischargers are for lightning protection.
The dischargers have the capacity to carry only a few microAmps of current from the collected static energy. The
approximate 200,000 Amps from a lightning strike will cause
damage to the discharge wick or make it totally unserviceable.
Examination of External Surface
Examine the Zone 1 surface areas for signs of lightning strike
damage. Do the examinations that follow:
As the aircraft flies through the air, it can pick up a static charge
from the air (or from dust/water particles in the air). This static
charge can become large enough to bleed off the aircraft on its
own. If the charge does not bleed off the aircraft on its own, it
will usually result in noise on the VHF or HF radios.

7.19 - 6
Examine the external surfaces carefully to find the

entrance and exit points of lightning strike.
Make sure to look in the areas where one surface
stops and another surface starts.
Examine the internal and external surfaces of the
nose radome for burns, punctures, and pinholes in
the composite honeycomb sandwich structure.
Examine the metallic structure for holes or pits,
burned or discoloured skin and rivets.
Examine the external surfaces of the composite
components for discoloured paint, burned,
punctured, or de-laminated skin plies.
Use instrumental NDI (NDT) methods or tap tests to
find composite structure damage which is not visible.
Rev. 00
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Note: Damage, such as de-lamination can extend to the areas

around the damage area which is not visible. De-lamination can
be detected by instrumental NDI methods or by a tap test. For a
tap test, use a solid metal disc and tap the area adjacent to the
damaged area lightly. If there is de-lamination, it will produce a
sound that is different to the sound of a solid bonded area.
Functional Tests
Functional tests will need to be done as follows:
Examine the flight control surfaces for signs of strike

damage. If the control surfaces show signs of
damage, examine the surface hinges, bearings and
bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
If the ailerons show signs of a lightning strike,
examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding
jumpers for signs of damage.
If the speed brakes show signs of a lightning strike,
examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding
jumpers for signs of damage.
If the trailing edge flaps show signs of a lightning
strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and
bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
If the leading edge flaps/slats show signs of a
lightning strike, examine the surface hinges,
bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
Examine the nose radome for pin-holes, punctures
and chipped paint. Also ensure bonding straps are
correctly attached. Examine the lightning diverter
strips and repair or replace them if damaged. If there
is radome damage, examine the WXR antenna and
wave-guide for damage.

7.19 - 7
Ensure the navigation lamps, rotary lights and landing

lights operate.
If the previously mentioned control examinations show
signs of damage: Do an operational test of the rudder if
there are signs of lightning strike damage to the rudder
or vertical stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the elevator if there are signs
of lightning strike damage to the elevator or horizontal
stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the ailerons if there are signs of
lightning strike damage to the ailerons.
Do an operational test of the speed brakes if there are
signs of lightning strike damage to the speed brake
system.
Do an operational test of the trailing edge flaps if there
are signs of lightning strike damage to the trailing edge
flaps.
Do an operational test of the leading edge flap/slats if
there are signs of lightning strike damage to the trailing
edge flap/slats.
If there are signs of strike damage to the landing gear
doors, disengage the main gear door locks and manually
move the doors to ensure they move smoothly. Visually
examine the door linkage, hinges, bearings and bonding
jumpers for strike damage. Ensure the proximity switch
indication unit gives the correct indication.

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Category A/B1
Examination of Internal Components

If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, do a full
examination of the system.
Do a check of the stand-by compass system if the flight

crew reported a very large compass deviation.
Make sure the fuel quantity system is accurate. This can
be achieved by a BITE test.
Examine the air data sensors for signs of strike damage.
Do an operational test of the pitot system if there are
signs of damage to the probes. Do a test of the static
system if there are signs of damage near the static
ports.
Do an operational check of any of the following systems
that did not operate following the strike, or if the flight
crew reported a problem, or if there was any damage
found near the system antenna:
If one or more of the previous systems have problems with their

operational checks, examine and do a test of the coaxial cables
and connectors.
Return the Aircraft to Service
After all areas have been inspected and lightning damage has
been repaired, components replaced as necessary and tests
completed if necessary, the aircraft may be returned to service.
HF communications system
VHF communications system
ILS navigation system
Marker beacon system
Radio altimeter system
Weather radar system
VOR system
ATC system
DME system
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) system

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Category A/B1

HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF) PENETRATION

Module 5 discusses electromagnetic phenomena, in particular
the problem of electromagnetic interference. HIRF may be
generated by airborne transmitters such as high-powered radar
or radio to commercial aircraft. Increased use of digital
equipment has increased the problem.
HIRF can interfere with the operation of the aircrafts electrical

and electronic systems by coupling electromagnetic energy to
the system wiring and components. This can cause problems
relating to the control systems, both of the aircraft and its
power- plants, the navigation equipment and instrumentation.
HIRF can be generated from an internal (within the aircraft and

its systems) or external source (i.e. HIRF may be transmitted by
military aircraft in close proximity). All of the systems which
might cause, or be affected by, HIRF, must be suitably
protected.
Design philosophies in the area of aircraft bonding for protection

against HIRF can employ methods that may not have been
encountered previously by maintenance personnel. Because of
this, the HIRF protection in the aircraft can be unintentionally
compromised during normal maintenance, repair and
modification. It is critical that procedures, contained in the
AMM/CMM, reflect reliable procedures, to detect any incorrect
installations, which could degrade the HIRF protection features.
Electronic developments have yielded greater miniaturisation

and complexity in integrated circuits (IC) and other electronic
circuitry and assemblies, increasing the probability of
electromagnetic interference.
Rapid advances in technology and the increased use of
composite materials and higher radio frequency (RF) energy
levels, from radar, radio, and television transmitters, have
substantially increased the concern for electromagnetic
vulnerability of flight critical systems, relative to their exposure
to HIRF.
Environmental factors such as corrosion, mechanical vibrations,
thermal cycling, damage and subsequent repair and
modifications can potentially degrade electromagnetic
protection. Continued airworthiness of these aircraft requires
assurance that the electromagnetic protection is maintained to a
high level by a defined maintenance programme.
7.19 - 9

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Category A/B1
There are three primary areas to be considered for aircraft

operating in HIRF environments:
Aircraft Structure (Airframe Skin and Frame).

Electrical Wiring Installation Protection (Solid or Braided
Shielding Connectors).
Equipment Protection (LRU case, Electronics Input
Output Protection).
Visual inspection is the first and generally most important step

in HIRF maintenance. If errors have been made that do degrade
the protection (paint over spray and incorrect assembly of
connectors for example), then they should be found during
inspections.
Whilst the visual inspection may suffice for observation of the
deterioration of the protective features, any time that this
method is found to be insufficient or inefficient, then specific
testing may be required. These techniques should make use of
easy-to-apply, quick-look devices that can be readily integrated
into the normal maintenance operations.
Specific Testing HIRF
The milliohmmeter is often used to measure the path resistance
of earthing straps or other bonding. This technique is limited to
the indication of only single path resistance values.

7.19 - 10
The Low-frequency Loop Impedance testing method

complements dc bonding testing and it can be used together
with visual inspection. It can give good confidence in the
integrity of the shielding. This loop impedance testing can be
used to check that adequate bonding exists between
braiding/conduits and the aircraft structure, especially where
there are multiple earth paths, when the dc resistance system
will not indicate which earth has failed.
The frequency of any maintenance tasks selected for the HIRF
protection features should be determined by considering the
following criteria:
Relevant operating experience gained.

Exposure of the installation to any adverse environment.
Susceptibility of the installation to damage.
Criticality of each protective feature. (within the overall
protection scheme)
The reliability of protective devices fitted to equipment.
Table 1 gives some indication as to the maintenance tasks that

may be applied to certain types of electromagnetic protection
features. Raceway conduits are separate conduits containing
individual cables to the various aircraft systems while RF
gaskets have conducting properties.

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Category A/B1

7.19 - 11


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Protection against HIRF Interference

The manufacturer will normally protect the aircraft against HIRF.
Bonding, shielding and separation of critical components usually
achieve this. It is difficult to know when the aircraft has been
subjected to HIRF; consequently protection is best achieved by
regular checks of:
Bonding of the aircraft

Correct crimping
Screens correctly terminated and earthed
All bonding terminals correctly torque loaded.

7.19 - 12

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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
B) ABNORMAL EVENTS MECHANICAL

HEAVY LANDINGS
A heavy or overweight landing can cause damage to the aircraft
both visible and hidden. All damage found should be entered in
the aircrafts Technical Log.
An aircraft landing gear is designed to withstand landing at a
particular aircraft weight and rate of descent. If either of these
parameters was exceeded during a landing, then it is probable
that some damage has been caused to the landing gear, its
supporting structure or elsewhere on the airframe. Overstressing may occur if the aircraft is not parallel to the runway
when it lands or if the nose- or tail-wheel strikes the runway
before the main wheels.
Different aircraft have their own heavy landing procedures. For

example, some aircraft, which show no primary damage, need
no further inspection, whilst others require that all inspections
are made after every reported heavy landing. This is because
some aircraft can have hidden damage in remote locations
whilst the outside of the aircraft appears to be undamaged.
Example of Post Heavy Landing Inspection
The following items give an example of a typical post heavy
landing inspection:
Landing Gear
Some aircraft are provided with heavy landing indicators, which

give a visual indication that specified g forces have been
exceeded. Long aircraft may have a tail scrape indicator fitted,
as a scrape is more likely. In all instances of suspect heavy
landings, the flight crew should be questioned for details of the
aircrafts weight, fuel distribution, landing conditions and
whether any unusual noises were heard during the incident.
Primary damage that may be expected following a heavy

landing would normally be concentrated around the landing
gear, its supporting structure in the wings or fuselage, the wing
and tailplane attachments and the engine mountings.
Secondary damage may be found on the fuselage upper and
lower skins and on the wing skin and structure.
7.19 - 13
Examine tyres for creep, damage, and cuts.

Examine wheels and brakes for cracks and other
damage.
Examine axles, struts and stays for distortion.
Check landing gear legs for leaks, scoring and abnormal
extension.
Examine gear attachments for signs of cracks, damage
or movement. Some aircraft require the removal of
critical bolts and pins for NDT checks.
Examine structure in vicinity of gear attachment points.
Examine doors and fairings for damage.
Carry out retraction and nose wheel steering tests

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Mainplanes
Examine the upper and lower skins for wrinkles and

pulled rivets, particularly if the engines are mounted on
the wings.
Check for fuel leaks.
Check the root attachments and fairings for cracks.
Function the flying controls for freedom of movement.
Examine wing spars.
Fuselage
Check skin for damage and wrinkles.

Examine pressure bulkheads for damage.
Check all supporting structures of heavy components
like galleys, batteries, water tanks and APUs.
Ensure no inertia switches have tripped.
Check instruments and their panels are functional.
Ensure pipes and ducts for security.
Check all doors and panels fit correctly.
Tail Unit
Check flying controls for freedom of movement.

Examine all hinges for distortion or cracks especially
near balance weights.
Examine attachments, fairings and mountings of screw
jacks.
There are numerous other checks that need to be done,

depending on the damage found (or not found), during the
inspections. This can include engine runs and functional checks
of all the aircraft systems.
Signs of some damage and distortion could be a reason to do
full rigging and symmetry checks of the airframe.
Engines
Check controls for freedom of movement.

Examine all mountings and pylons for damage and
distortion.
Check turbine engines for freedom of rotation.
Examine all cowlings for wrinkling and distortion.
Check all fluid lines, filters and chip detectors.
On propeller installations, check for shock-loading,
propeller attachments and counterweight installations.

7.19 - 14

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Category A/B1

FLIGHT THROUGH SEVERE TURBULENCE

If an aircraft has been flown through conditions of severe
turbulence, the severity of the turbulence may be difficult to
assess and report. For aircraft that utilise accelerometers, flight
data recorders or fatigue meters, the records obtained can give
an overall picture of the loads felt by the aircraft.
As with a heavy landing report, further inspection, involving

dismantling of some major structural components, may be
necessary if external damage is found during the initial
inspection following flight through turbulence.
They cannot, however, give a full picture and so must only be

used for guidance.
Turbulence can be too fleeting to record on some forms of load
instrumentation.
As a general guide only, loadings greater than 0.5g and +
2.5g on transport aircraft could indicate some damage to the
airframe and engines. Aircraft, which have no recording devices
installed, must have reports of flight through severe turbulence
thoroughly investigated.
Severe turbulence may cause excessive vertical or lateral
forces similar to those felt during a heavy landing. The forces
felt may be increased by the inertia of heavy components such
as engines, fuel and water tanks and cargo.
Damage can be expected at similar points to those mentioned
previously concerning heavy landings. It is also possible for
damage to occur in those areas of the wings, fuselage, tail unit
and flying controls where the greatest bending moment takes
place. Pulled rivets, skin wrinkles or other similar structural
faults may provide signs of damage.
7.19 - 15

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Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.19 (Abnormal Events) PDF

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