Introduction:

The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity
reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene
extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat
destruction. Conversely, biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways,
both positively and negatively.
James lovelock had once said:
No longer do we have to justify the existence of humid tropical forests on the feeble
grounds that they might carry plants with drugs that cure human disease. Gaia
theory forces us to see that they offer much more than this. Through their capacity
to evapotranspirate vast volumes of water vapor, they serve to keep the planet cool
by wearing a sunshade of white reflecting cloud. Their replacement by cropland
could precipitate a disaster that is global in scale.
During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German
Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be
extinct by 2050.[121] Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction.
[122]

Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory).[123] This

figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.[citation
needed]

Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in

human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background
extinction rates.[122] As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be
extinct in 20 years.[124]
In absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by
the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years
ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone,
and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America,
plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was
canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries
use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of
process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are
suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.

Loss of biodiversity:
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) notes in a video that many species are
threatened with extinction. In addition,

At threat of extinction are

o

1 out of 8 birds

1 out of 4 mammals

1 out of 4 conifers

1 out of 3 amphibians

6 out of 7 marine turtles

75% of genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost

75% of the worlds fisheries are fully or over exploited

Up to 70% of the worlds known species risk extinction if the global

temperatures rise by more than 3.5C

1/3rd of reef-building corals around the world are threatened with

extinction

Over 350 million people suffer from severe water scarcity

In different parts of the world, species face different levels and types of threats. But overall patterns
show a downward trend in most cases. As explained in the UNs 3rd Global Biodiversity Outlook,
the rate of biodiversity loss has not been reduced because the 5 principle pressures on biodiversity
are persistent, even intensifying:

1.

Habitat loss and degradation

2.

Climate change

3.

Excessive nutrient load and other forms of pollution

4.

Over-exploitation and unsustainable use

5.

Invasive alien species

Most governments report to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity that these pressures are
affecting biodiversity in their country (see p. 55 of the report).

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains the Red List to assess the
conservation status of species, subspecies, varieties, and even selected subpopulations on a global
scale.

Extinction risks out pace any conservation successes. Amphibians are the most at risk, while corals
have had a dramatic increase in risk of extinction in recent years.

The reasons vary from overuse of resource by humans, climate change, fragmented habitats, habitat
destruction, ocean acidification and more.

Research of long term trends in the fossil record suggests that natural speed limits constrain how
quickly biodiversity can rebound after waves of extinction. Hence, the rapid extinction rates mean
that it could take a long time for nature to recover.

Additionally, as reported by UC Berkeley, using DNA comparisons, scientists have discovered what
they have termed as an evolutionary concept called parallelism, a situation where two organisms
independently come up with the same adaptation to a particular environment. This has an
additional ramification when it comes to protecting biodiversity and endangered species. This is
because in the past what we may have considered to be one species could actually be many. But, as
pointed out by scientists, by putting them all in one group, it under-represents biodiversity, and
these different evolutionarily species would not be getting the protection otherwise needed.

Habitat destruction[edit]
Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical
forest destruction.[131] Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overconsumption, overpopulation, land
use change, deforestation,[132] pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global
warming or climate change.[citation needed]
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those
living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
[133]

Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture followingdeforestation)

effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some

countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity
loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community). [citation needed]
A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic
diversity are codependentthat diversity among species requires diversity within a species, and vice
versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community
becomes dominated by a single species."[134] At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found
in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by
the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by the biodiversity platform, and the
French Institut de recherche pour le dveloppement (MNHNP).[135]
Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline
in one accompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles.[136]
Genetic pollution[edit]
Main article: Genetic pollution
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction[143] through the process of genetic pollution, i.e.
uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to
homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical
and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species.[144] Hybridization and introgression are side-effects
of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that
come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare
species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward
appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation, and not
all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without
introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence. [145][146]

Over exploitation[edit]
Main article: Over exploitation
Over exploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land
in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the
illegal wildlife trade.
About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than
the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.[147]

The overkill hypothesis, a pattern of large animal extinctions connected with human
migration patterns, can be used explain why megafaunal extinctions can occur within a relatively
short time period.[148]

Hybridization, genetic pollution/erosion and food security [edit]

The Yecoro wheat (right) cultivar is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 (left)
show greater tolerance to high salinity

See also: Food Security and Genetic erosion

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of
conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed
countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield
strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing
hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed
causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic
diversity and biodiversity as a whole.[149]
(GM organisms) have genetic material altered by genetic engineering procedures such
as recombinant DNA technology. GM crops have become a common source for genetic pollution,
not only of wild varieties but also of domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization. [150][151]
[152][153][154]

Genetic erosion coupled with genetic pollution may be destroying unique genotypes, thereby
creating a hidden crisis which could result in a severe threat to our food security. Diverse genetic
material could cease to exist which would impact our ability to further hybridize food crops and
livestock against more resistant diseases and climatic changes.[149]

Climate change[edit]

Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence supporting
the statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant
morphology[157] and is acidifying oceans,[158] and temperature affects species ranges,[159][160]
[161]

phenology,[162] and weather,[163] but the major impacts that have been predicted are still

just potential impacts. We have not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change
drastically alters the biology of many species.
In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continents estimated that 10 percent of species
would become extinct by 2050 because of global warming. "We need to limit climate change or we
wind up with a lot of species in trouble, possibly extinct," said Dr. Lee Hannah, a co-author of the
paper and chief climate change biologist at the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at
Conservation International.[164]

Human over population[edit]

Main article: Human over population
From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a
plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century.[165] Sir David King, former chief scientific
adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive
growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than
any other single factor."[166][167] At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine
boidiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate.[168]
According to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund, the global human population already exceeds
planet's bio capacity - it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of bio capacity to meet our current
demands. The report further points that if everyone on the planet had the Footprint of the average
resident of Qatar, we would need 4.8 Earths, and if we lived the lifestyle of a typical resident of the
USA, we would need 3.9 Earths.

Declining Ocean Biodiversity

It is not just fish in the oceans that may be struggling, but most biodiversity in the seas. This includes
mammals (e.g. whales, dolphins, polar bears), birds (e.g. penguins), and other creatures (e.g. krill).

Ocean degradation has been feared to be faster than previously thought.

The health of the ocean is spiraling downwards far more rapidly than we had thought. We are seeing
greater change, happening faster, and the effects are more imminent than previously anticipated.
The situation should be of the gravest concern to everyone since everyone will be affected by changes
in the ability of the ocean to support life on Earth.

Professor Alex Rogers of Somerville College, Oxford, and Scientific Director of IPSO, Latest
Review of Science Reveals Ocean in Critical State From Cumulative Impacts

, The International

Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO), October 3, 2013

The factors affecting the oceans health includes:

De-oxygenation

Acidification

Warming

These impacts will have cascading consequences for marine biology, including altered food web
dynamics and the expansion of pathogens, the IPSO also notes. These factors are also looked at in
further detail on this sites article on climate change and biodiversity as well as covered in more
depth by IPSOs report, State of the Ocean.

The Census of Marine Life is a global network of researchers and scientists. Theyve been involved in
a decade-long initiative to assess diversity, distribution and abundance of life in the oceans. A better
understanding of these complex systems is clearly important given our dependence on the marine
ecosystem in various ways.

Loss Of Forests Equates To A Loss Of Many Species

A 20-year study has shown that deforestation and introduction of non-native species has led
to about 12.5% of the worlds plant species to become critically rare. (In fact, as an
example, a study suggests that the Amazon damage is worse than previously thought, due to
previously undetected types of selective logging and deforestation.)

A report from the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development suggests that the
forests of the world have been exploited to the point of crisis and that major changes in
global forest management strategies would be needed to avoid the devastation.
What also makes this a problem is that many of the endangered species are only found in small areas
of land, often within the borders of a single country.
New species of animals and plants are still being discovered. In Papua New Guinea, 44 new species
of animals were discovered recently in the forests. Logging may affect these animals habitats,
though. The loss of rainforests around the world, where many species of life are found will mean that
potential knowledge, whether medicinal, sustenance sources, or evolutionary and scientific
information etc. could be lost.
Brazil, which is estimated to have around 55,000 species of flora, amounting to some 22% of the
worlds total and India for example, which has about 46,000 and some 81,000 animal species
(amounting to some 8% of the worlds biodiversity), are also under various pressures, from corporate
globalization, deforrestation, etc. So too are many other biodiverse regions, such as Indonesia, parts
of Africa, and other tropical regions.
The UNs 3rd Global Biodiversity Outlook report, mentioned earlier, also notes the
extent to which deforestation is occurring as well as measures to address associated
concerns.
The report notes (p.32) that forests

Are approximately 31% of the Earths land surface,

Contain more than half of all terrestrial animal and plant species (mostly in the
tropics), and

Account for more than two-thirds of net primary production on land the
conversion of solar energy into plant matter.

Deforestation, however, continues at an alarming rate, despite recent decreases in

several tropical countries.

Conversation of biodiversity:
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and natural
resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of biodiversity the survival of many
species and habitats which are threatened due to human activities can be ensured. Other reasons for
conserving biodiversity include securing valuable Natural Resources for future generations and
protecting the well being of eco-system functions.

In-situ and ex-situ conservation

Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:
In-situ: Conservation of habitats, species and ecosystems where they naturally occur. This is in-situ
conservation and the natural processes and interaction are conserved as well as the elements of
biodiversity.
Ex-situ: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their natural habitats is
referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks are all example of ex-situ
conservation.
In-situ conservation is not always possible as habitats may have been degraded and there may be
competition for land which means species need to be removed from the area to save them.

Which areas to conserve?

Hotspots of biodiversity
A popular approach for selecting priority areas has been to select hotspots of diversity. Since it is not
possible to conserve all biodiversity due to lack of resources and the need to use land for human
activities, areas are prioritised to those which are most in need of conservation. Hotspot a term used
to define regions of high conservation priority combining high richness, high endemism and high
threat.
Threatened Species
Over the last 200 years many species have become extinct and the extinction rate is on the increase
due to the influence of human activity. The status of species has been assessed on a global scale by
the World Conservation Union. Taxa that are facing a high risk of global extinction are catalogued and
highlighted in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Threatened Habitats
Habitat destruction comes in many forms from clear felling of forests to simple changes in farming
practices that change the overall surrounding habitat. If a habitat is degraded or disappears a species
may also become threatened. The UK is in danger of losing diverse habitats ranging from lowland
calcareous grassland to mudflats and wet woodland.

Flagship and keystone species

Conservation efforts are often focused on a single species. This is usually for two reasons.
1) Some species are key to the functioning of a habitat and their loss would lead to greater than
average change in other species populations or ecosystem processes. These are known as keystone
species.
2) Humans will find the idea of conserving one species more appealing than conserving others. For
example it would be easier to persuade people that it is necessary to conserve tigers that it is to
persuade people to conserve the Zayante band-winged grasshopper. Using a flagship species such as a
tiger will attract more resources for conservation which can be used to conserve areas of habitat.

Complementarity
Complementarity is a method used to select areas for conservation. These methods are used to find
areas that in sum total have the highest representation of diversity. For example using
complementarity methods, areas could be selected that would contain the most species between them
but not necessarily be the most species rich areas individually and take into account pressures of
development.
Distinguishing higher from lower priority areas for urgent conservation is the purpose of such areaselection methods. However, an acceptance of priorities must recognise that this idea also implies that
some areas will be given lower priority. This is not to say that they have no conservation values rather
that in relation to agreed goals the actions are not as urgent.

Laws for conversation of biodiversity:

Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, give "sovereign national rights
over biological resources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve
biodiversity", "develop resources for sustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use.
Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a share of the
benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the resource to
capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such principles are not
respected.[citation needed]
Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing
Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies informed consent between the source
country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what, and to settle on
a fair agreement on benefit sharing.

National level laws[edit]

Biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicial decisions:

The relationship between law and ecosystems is very ancient and has consequences for
biodiversity. It is related to private and public property rights. It can define protection for
threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, fishing and hunting
rights).[citation needed]

Law regarding species is more recent. It defines species that must be protected because
they may be threatened by extinction. The U.S. Endangered Species Act is an example of an
attempt to address the "law and species" issue.

Laws regarding gene pools are only about a century old.[citation needed] Domestication and plant
breeding methods are not new, but advances in genetic engineering have led to tighter laws
covering distribution of genetically modified organisms, gene patents and process patents.
[193]

Governments struggle to decide whether to focus on for example, genes, genomes, or

organisms and species.[citation needed]

Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however.
Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the
remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause unacceptable administrative waste and increase
litigation without promoting preservation goals.[194]
India passed the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for the conservation of biological diversity in India.
The Act also provides mechanisms for equitable sharing of benefits from the use of traditional
biological resources and knowledge.

Integrating conservation and development

Conservation can not be conducted in isolation from humans and for conservation to be successful and
sustainable there needs to be local community involvement. In the UK most biodiversity is found in
countryside which is farmed. It is therefore necessary to integrate conservation into farming practices.
In other areas of the world livelihood and development priorities of local communities must be taken
into account if the conservation measures are to be sustainable.
Community-Based Natural Resource Management is a process through which grass roots institutions
are involved in the decision making and have rights to manage and control their environment. CBNRM
Net (Community-Based Natural Resource Management Network) is a website that provides
useful networking tools so that people can exchange experiences, manage relevant knowledge, and
support learning across countries and cultures and in this way achieve better results. IIED have set up
a Biodiversity and Livelihoods Group which aims through sustainable management of biodiversity
to improve the livelihoods of the poor. BLG researches, analyses and implements new projects and
strategies around the world.

A good example this type of integration is being shown by an Earthwatch project in Africa. The project
helped create a wildlife reserve that was initiated by the Wechiau and Tokali local communities. The
Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary now generates income for the local communities via eco-tourism
which helps conserve and protect hippos and other sanctuary wildlife at the same time.