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ElicitationTechniques
CreatedbyChristinaL.Tenerowicz,lastmodifiedonDec16,2008

Overview
Brainstorming
DocumentAnalysis
FocusGroup
InterfaceAnalysis
Interview
Observation
Prototyping
Requirements
Workshop
Reverse
Engineering
Survey/
Questionnaire

Overview
Elicitationinvolvestheactionsthataretakentounderstandtheusersanddiscover
theirneeds.Elicitationincludesthediscoveryandsomeinvention,aswellas
recordigthosebitsofrequirementsinformationthatcustomerrepresentativesand
subjectmatterexperts(users)offertotheanalyst.Elicitationdemandsiteration.
Theparticipantsinanelicitationdiscussionwon'tthinkofeverythingupfront,and
theirthinkingwillchangeastheprojectcontinues.Requirementsdevelopmentisan
exploratoryactivity.
KarlE.Wiegers(MoreAboutSoftwareRequirements)

Brainstorming
Purpose
Brainstormingisanexcellentwayofelicitingmanycreativeideasforanareaofinterest.Structuredbrainstorming
producesnumerouscreativeideasaboutanygiven"centralquestion"ortopic.

Description
In1939,ateamledbyadvertisingexecutiveAlexOsborncoinedtheterm"brainstorm."AccordingtoOsborn,
"Brainstormmeansusingthebraintostormacreativeproblemandtodoso"incommandofashion,eachstormer
audaciouslyattackingthesameobjective."
Brainstormingisatechniquethatpromotesdiversiontypeofthinking.Diversionreferstothoseteamactivitiesthat
produceabroadordiversesetofoptions.Brainstormshelpanswerspecificquestionssuchas(butnotlimitedto):
Whatoptionsareavailabletoresolvetheissueathand?
Whatfactorsareconstrainingthegroupfrommovingaheadwithanapproachoroption?
Whatcouldbecausingadelayinactivity'A'?
Whatcanthegroupdotosolveproblem'B'?
Brainstormingworksbyfocusingonatopicorproblem,andthencomingupwithmanyradicalsolutionstoit.This
techniqueisbestappliedinagroupasitdrawsontheexperienceandcreativityofallmembersofthegroup.Inthe
absenceofagroup,onecouldbrainstormonone'sowntosparknewideas.

Process
1.PrepareforBrainstorming
Developaclearandconcisedefinitionoftheareaofinterest.
Determineatimelimitforthegrouptogenerateideas,thelargerthegroup,themoretimerequired.
Decidewhowillbeincludedinthesessionandtheirroleparticipantorfacilitator.Aimforparticipants(ideally
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6to8)whorepresentarangeofbackgroundandexperiencewiththetopic.
Establishcriteriaforevaluatingandratingtheideas.
2.ConductBrainstormingsession
Sharenewideaswithoutanydiscussion,criticismorevaluation.
Visiblyrecordallideas.
Encourageparticipantstobecreative,shareexaggeratedideas,andbuildontheideasofothers.
Don'tlimitthenumberofideasasthegoalistoelicitasmanyideasaspossiblewithinthetimeperiod.
3.Wrapupthebrainstorming
Oncethetimelimitisreached,usingthepredeterminedevaluationcriteria,discussandevaluatetheideas.
Createacondensedlistofideas,combineideaswhereappropriate,andeliminateduplicates.
Ratetheideas.Therearemanytechniquesthatcanbeusedtoprioritizetheideas,e.g.multivoting.
Distributethefinallistofideastoappropriateparties.

IntendedAudience
Ideasgeneratedinabrainstormingsessionareconsumedbyanyorallofthefollowing:
Projectteam
Stakeholders

Strengths
Abletoelicitmanyideasinashorttimeperiod.
Nonjudgmentalenvironmentenablesoutsidetheboxthinking.

Weaknesses
Dependentonparticipants'creativity.

DocumentAnalysis
Purpose
Documentanalysisisameanstoelicitrequirementsofanexistingsystembystudyingavailabledocumentationand
identifyingrelevantinformation.Documentanalysisisusediftheobjectiveistogatherdetailsofthe"AsIs"
environmentsuchasexistingbusinessrules,entities,andattributesthatneedtobeincludedinanewsystemor
needtobeupdatedforthecurrentsystem.Thistechniquewouldalsoapplyinsituationswherethesubjectmatter
expertsfortheexistingsystemsarenolongerwiththeorganization,orarenotgoingtobeavailablethroughoutthe
durationoftherequirementselicitationprocess.

Description
Requirementselicitationtypicallyincludesanalysisofdocumentssuchasbusinessplans,marketstudies,contracts,
requestsforproposals,statementsofwork,memos,existingguidelines,procedures,trainingguides,competing
productsliterature,publishedcomparativeproductreviews,problemreports,customersuggestionlogs,andexisting
systemspecificationstolistafew.Identifyingandconsultingalllikelysourcesofrequirementswillresultinimproved
requirementscoverageassumingthedocumentationisuptodate.

Process
1.PrepareforDocumentAnalysis:
Evaluatewhichexistingsystemandbusinessdocumentationarerelevantandappropriatetobestudied.
2.Analyzethedocuments:
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Studythematerialandidentifyrelevantbusinessdetails.
Documentbusinessdetailsaswellasquestionsforfollowupwithsubjectmatterexperts.
3.PostDocumentAnalysiswrapup:
Reviewandconfirmtheselecteddetailswithsubjectmatterexperts.
Obtainanswerstofollowupquestions.

IntendedAudience
ProjectTeam
SubjectMatterExperts

Strengths
Notstartingfromablankpage.
Leveragingexistingmaterialstodiscoverand/orconfirmrequirements.
Ameanstocrosscheckrequirementsfromotherelicitationtechniquessuchasinterviews,jobshadowing,
surveysorfocusgroups.

Weaknesses
Limitedto"asis"perspective.
Existingdocumentationmaynotbeuptodateorvalid.
Canbeatimeconsumingandeventediousprocesstolocatetherelevantinformation.

FocusGroup
Purpose
Afocusgroupisameanstoelicitideasandattitudesaboutaspecificproduct,serviceoropportunityinaninteractive
groupenvironment.Theparticipantssharetheirimpressions,preferencesandneeds,guidedbyamoderator.

Description
Afocusgroupiscomposedofprequalifiedindividualswhosepurposeistodiscussandcommentonatopic.Thisis
anopportunityforindividualstosharetheirownperspectivesanddiscusstheminagroupsetting.Thiscouldlead
participantstoreevaluatetheirownperspectivesinthelightofothers'experiences.Atrainedmoderatormanagesthe
administrativeprework,facilitatesthesessionandproducesthereport.
Asthiselicitationtechniqueisconsideredaformofqualitativeresearch,thesessionresultsareanalyzedand
reportedasthemesandperspectives,ratherthannumericalfindings.Thereportmayalsoincludeselectedquotations
tosupportthethemes.
Atraditionalfocusgroupgathersinthesamephysicalroom.Anonlinefocusgroupallowsmemberstobelocated
remotelywhileparticipatingbyanetworkconnection.Eachapproachhasprosandconsintermsoflogisticsand
expenses.
Afocusgroupcanbeutilizedduringanylifecyclestate:exploratory,underdevelopment,readytolaunch,orin
production.Ifthegroup'stopicisaproductunderdevelopment,thegroup'sideasareanalyzedinrelationshiptothe
statedrequirements.Thismayresultinupdatingexistingrequirementsoruncoveringnewrequirements.Ifthetopicis
acompletedproductthatisreadytobelaunched,thegroup'sreportcouldinfluencehowtopositiontheproductinthe
market.Ifthetopicisaproductinproduction,thegroup'sreportmayprovidedirectionontherevisionstothenext
releaseofrequirements.Afocusgroupmayalsoserveasameanstoassesscustomersatisfactionwithaproductor
service.

Process
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1.PreparefortheFocusGroup
RecruitParticipants
Afocusgrouptypicallyhas612attendees.Itmaybenecessarytoinvitetwiceasmanyindividualsinordertoallow
fornoshows.Ifmanypeopleneedtoparticipate,itmaybenecessarytorunmorethanonefocusgroup.
Thetopicofthefocusgroupwillinfluencewhoshouldberecruited.Ifthetopicisanewproduct,itislikelythat
existingusers(expertsandnovices)shouldbeincluded.Thereareprosandconsthatshouldbeconsideredwhen
usinghomogeneousvs.heterogeneouscomposition.
Homogeneousindividualswithsimilarcharacteristics.Caution:Differingperspectiveswillnotbeshared.Possible
solution:conductseparatesessionsfordifferenthomogeneousgroups.
Heterogeneousindividualswithdiversebackgrounds,perspectives.Caution:Individualsmayselfcensorifnot
comfortablewithothers'backgroundresultinginlowerqualityofdatacollected.
Assignthemoderatorandrecorder
Themoderatorshouldbeexperiencedinfacilitatinggroups.Typicalskillsinclude:promotediscussionaskopen
questionsfacilitateinteractionsbetweengroupmembersengageallmemberskeepsessionfocusedremain
neutralbeadaptableandflexible.
Creatediscussionguide
Theguideincludesgoals/objectivesofthesessionandfivetosixopenquestions.
Reservesiteandservices
Selectthelocationforthesession.Arrangefortechnicalsupporttotranscribethesession
and,ifused,audio/videotapingequipment.
2.Runthefocusgroupsession
Themoderatorguidesthegroup'sdiscussion,followsapreplannedscriptofspecificissuesandensuresthe
objectivesaremet.However,thegroupdiscussionshouldappearfreeflowingandrelativelyunstructuredforthe
participants.Asessionistypically1to2hoursinlength.Arecordercapturesthegroup'scomments.
3.ProduceReport
Themoderatorobjectivelyanalyzesanddocumentstheparticipants'agreementsanddisagreementsandsynthesizes
themintothemes.

IntendedAudience
Dependingonthetopicofthefocusgroup,thereportmaybedirectedtothe:
Stakeholders
Businessanalyst
Marketing.

Strengths
Abilitytoelicitdatafromagroupofpeopleinasinglesessionsavestimeandcostsascomparedto
conductingindividualinterviewswiththesamenumberofpeople.
Effectiveforlearningpeople'sattitudes,experiencesanddesires.
Activediscussionandtheabilitytoaskothersquestionscreatesanenvironmentwhereparticipantscan
considertheirpersonalviewinrelationtootherperspectives.

Weaknesses
Inthegroupsetting,participantsmaybeconcernedaboutissuesoftrust,ormaybeunwillingtodiscuss
sensitiveorpersonaltopics.
Datacollected(whatpeoplesay)maynotbeconsistentwithhowpeopleactuallybehave.
Ifthegroupistoohomogenousthegroup'sresponsesmaynotrepresentthecompletesetofrequirements.
Askilledmoderatorisneededtomanagethegroupinteractionsanddiscussions.
Itmaybedifficulttoschedulethegroupforthesamedateandtime.
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Ifthegoalofthefocusgroupistoelicitideasonaneworchangingproduct,afocusgroupisnotaneffective
waytoevaluateusability.

InterfaceAnalysis
Purpose
Aninterfaceisaconnectionbetweentwocomponents.Mostsystemsrequireoneormoreinterfaceswithexternal
parties,systemsordevices.Interfaceanalysisisinitiatedbyprojectmanagersandanalyststoreachagreementwith
thestakeholdersonwhatinterfacesareneeded.Subsequentanalysisuncoversthedetailedrequirementsforeach
interface.

Description
Interfacestypesinclude:
Userinterfacesincludeshumanuserdirectlyengagedwiththesystemaswellasreportsprovidedtotheuser
Interfacestoandfromexternalsystems
Interfacestoandfromexternalhardwaredevices
Theusers,externalsystemsandsystemsthatownthedevicesareconsideredstakeholders.
Interfaceanalysishelpstoclarifytheboundariesofthesystem.Itdistinguisheswhichsystemprovidesspecific
functionalityalongwiththeinputandoutputdataneeds.Byclearlyandcarefullyseparatingtherequirementsforeach
system,whilejointlydefiningthesharedinterfacerequirements,abasisforsuccessfulinteroperabilityisestablished.
Itisimportanttolookattherequirementsacrossallinterfaces.Forexample,datausedforoneinterfacemayalsobe
usedforotheractivitiesandinterfaces.Buildingacomprehensiveglossaryanddatadictionarywherealldatais
capturedconsistentlyandnonredundantlyiscritical.Thedatacanthenbereferenced,eventraced,toallinterfaces
whereitisused.

Process
1.PrepareforInterfaceAnalysis:
Identifythenecessaryinterfaces.AneffectivemeanstovisualizetheinterfacesistodrawaContextDiagram.See
Chapter2fordetailsonthetechnique"Context/BusinessDomainDiagram",alsoChapter3fordetailson
"Stakeholders".
2.ConductInterfaceAnalysis:
Foreachinterface:
Determineitstype:userinterface,systemtosysteminterface,externalhardwaredeviceinterface
Elicitspecificdetailsabouttheinterface,dependingonitstype.
Foraninterfacewheretheuserdirectlyengagesthesystem,seeChapter4,PrototypingandChapter5
fordetailsonthetechnique"UsageModels".
Foraninterfacewhereastakeholderreceivesareport,seeChapter5(referenceisyettobe
determined)
ForasystemtosysteminterfaceoraninterfacewithanexternalhardwaredeviceseeChapter5for
detailsonthetask"DefineSupplementarySpecifications,InterfaceRequirements".

IntendedAudience
BusinessAnalystsandUIDesignersworkingondetailedUserInterfacerequirements.
DesignersandDataModelersdesigningsystemtosystemrequirements.

Strengths
Theelicitationoftheinterfaces'functionalrequirementsearlyinthesystemlifecycleprovidesvaluabledetails
forprojectmanagement:
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Impactondeliverydate.Knowingwhatinterfacesareneeded,theircomplexityandtestingneeds
enablesmoreaccurateprojectplanningandpotentialsavingsintimeandcost.
Collaborationwithothersystemsorprojects.Iftheinterfacetoanexistingsystem,productordevice
andtheinterfacealreadyexists,itmaynotbeeasilychanged.Iftheinterfaceisnew,thenthe
ownership,developmentandtestingoftheinterfaceneedstobeaddressedandcoordinatedinboth
projects'plan.Ineithercase,elicitingtheinterfacerequirementswillrequirenegotiationandcooperation
betweentheowningsystems.

Weaknesses
Doesnotprovideanunderstandingofthebusinessprocesssincethistechniqueonlyexposestheinputs,
outputsandkeydataelementsrelatedtotheinterfaces.

Interview
Purpose
Aninterviewisasystematicapproachtoelicitinformationfromapersonorgroupofpeopleinaninformalorformal
settingbytalkingtotheperson
theinterviewee,askingrelevantquestionsanddocumentingtheresponses.(Thissectionconsidersthebusiness
analystintheroleofinterviewer.)

Description
Inaninterview,abusinessanalystformallyorinformallydirectshis/herquestionsto:astakeholder/asubject
matterexpert/apotentialusertoobtainanswersthatfinallytaketheshapeofrequirements.Oneononeinterviews
aretypicallymostcommon.Inagroupinterview(morethanoneintervieweeinattendance)theinterviewermustbe
carefultosolicitresponsesfromallattendees.
Forthepurposeofelicitingbusinessrequirements,interviewsareoftwobasictypes:
Structuredinterview,wherethebusinessanalysthasapredefinedsetofquestionsandislookingfor
answers.
Unstructuredinterview,where,withoutanypredefinedquestions,thebusinessanalystandtheinterviewee
discussinanopenendedwaywhatthebusinessexpectsfromthetargetsystem.
Successfulinterviewingdependsonseveralfactorssuchas,butnotnecessarilylimitedto:
Levelofunderstandingofthebusinessanalystinthatbusinessdomain.
Experienceofthebusinessanalystinconductinginterviews.
Skillofthebusinessanalystindocumentingthediscussions.
Readinessofintervieweetoprovidetherelevantinformation.
Degreeofclarityininterviewee'smindaboutwhatthebusinesswants/expectsfromthetargetsystem.
Rapportoftheinterviewerwiththeinterviewee.

Process
1.Preparefortheinterview
Definetheinterview'sfocusorgoal.
Identifypotentialinterviewees.ThestakeholdersidentifiedintheRequirementsPlanningKAmaybethe
primaryintervieweesand/orwilldesignateappropriatepersonswhoshouldbeinterviewed.Thesponsor
considersthefollowingquestionswhenidentifyingwhoshouldbeinterviewed:
Whoholdsthemostauthenticandthemostcurrentinformationonthesubjectofinterest?
Whatishis/herstakeintheproject?
Whatistherelativeimportanceofinformationheldbyonepersonvisvisthatheldbyanotherperson?
Thisinformationishelpfulwhenanalyzingconflictingcommentsacrossinterviews.
Designtheinterview.Thebusinessanalystmayneedtocustomdesigntheinterviewforeachidentified
interviewee.Theinterviewee'sabilitytoparticipateandthedesiredoutcomeofaninterviewgovernthedesign
ofaninterview.Inaddition,thesefactorsarealsoconsidered:
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Theformatfortheinterview,structuredvs.unstructured
Ifastructuredinterview,thetypeofquestions:
Closedendedquestions:Questionsthatareusedtoelicitasingleresponsesuchas:yes,no,3
Example:Howmanyhoursdoesittakefortheclaimprocesstobecompleted?
Openendedquestions:Questionsthatareusedtoelicitadialogorseriesofstepsandcannotbe
answeredinayesornofashionbutneedexplaining.Example:Whatdoesaclaimprocessordo
onreceiptofaclaimform?
Organizationofthequestions:usealogicalorderoranorderofpriority/significance.Examplesoforder
wouldbe:generalquestionstospecificquestionsstarttofinishdetailtosummary,etc.Theactual
organizationisbasedontheinterviewee'sknowledge,thesubjectoftheinterview,etc.Thegoalisto
followalogicalorderratherthanjumparoundwhenaskingquestions.
Locationofparticipants.Aninterviewcanbeconductedinpersonorviatelephone,orbymeansofother
multimediatoolssuchasvideoconferencingovertheInternetorintranet.
Theinterviewtimeandsiteareconvenienttotheinterviewee.
Determineifascribeisneededandifso,includethatpersonintheschedulingprocess.Determineifa
taperecorderisneeded.Ifso,discussthepurposeandusagewiththeinterviewee.
Contactpotentialinterviewees
Thebusinessanalystcontactstheselectedintervieweesandexplainstothemwhytheirassistanceis
needed.Thisinitialcontactisestablishedinperson,bymailorbytelephone.Thepurposeistoexplainthe
objectiveoftheinterviewtothepotentialinterviewee.
2.Conducttheinterview:
Openingtheinterview
thebusinessanalystastheinterviewergivesanintroduction,statesthepurposeoftheinterview,addresses
anyconcernsraisedbytheinterviewee,andexplainsthatnoteswillbetakenandsharedwiththeinterviewee
aftertheinterview.
_Duringtheinterview:_
Theinterviewermaintainsfocusontheestablishedgoalsandpredefinedquestions.
Allconcernsraisedbytheintervieweeareaddressedduringtheinterviewordocumentedforfollowup
aftertheintervieworinasubsequentinterview.
Theinterviewerpracticesactivelisteningtoconfirmwhathe/sheunderstoodfromtheinformation
offeredatvarioustimesduringtheinterview.
Closingtheinterviewthebusinessanalystaskstheintervieweeforareaswhichmayhavebeenoverlooked
inthesession.Lastly,thebusinessanalystsummarizesthesession,remindstheintervieweeoftheupcoming
reviewprocessandthankstheintervieweeforhis/hertime.
3.Postinterviewfollowupandreview:
Aftertheinterviewiscomplete,thebusinessanalystorganizestheinformationelicitedandsendsthenotestothe
intervieweeforreview.Documentingthediscussionforreviewallowstheintervieweetoseealloftheinformationin
context.Thisreviewmaypointoutitemsthatareincorrectormissingbecausetheinterviewer(orscribe)missed
documentingthem,orbecausetheinterviewer(orscribe)documentedthemincorrectly,orbecausetheinterviewee
misseddiscussingthem.Thisreviewisnotintendedtoaddresswhetherornottherequirementsarevalidnorwhether
theywillultimatelybeapproved

IntendedAudience
TheBusinessAnalystforuseinanalyzinganddocumentingtherequirements.

Strengths
Encouragesparticipationandestablishesrapportwiththestakeholder.
Simple,directtechniquethatcanbeusedinvaryingsituations.
Allowstheinterviewerandparticipanttohavefulldiscussionsandexplanationsofthequestionsandanswers.
Enablesobservationsofnonverbalbehavior.
Theinterviewercanaskfollowupandprobingquestionstoconfirmownunderstanding.
Maintainfocusthroughtheuseofclearobjectivesfortheinterviewthatareagreeduponbyallparticipantsand
canbemetinthetimeallotted.

Weaknesses
Interviewsarenotanidealmeansofreachingconsensusacrossagroupofstakeholders.
Requiresconsiderablecommitmentandinvolvementoftheparticipants.
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Trainingisrequiredtoconductgoodinterviews.Unstructuredinterviews,especially,requirespecialskills.
Facilitation/virtualfacilitationandactivelisteningareafewofthem.
Depthoffollowonquestionsmaybedependentonthebusinessanalyst'sknowledgeofbusinessdomain.
Transcriptionandanalysisofinterviewdatacanbecomplexandexpensive.
Resultingdocumentationissubjecttointerviewer'sinterpretation.

Observation
Purpose
Observationisameanstoelicitrequirementsbyconductinganassessmentofthesubjectmatterexpert'swork
environment.Thistechniqueisappropriatewhendocumentingdetailsaboutthecurrentprocessesoriftheproject
intendstoenhanceorchangeacurrentprocess.

Description
Observationreliesonstudyingpeopleperformingtheirjobs,andissometimescalled"jobshadowing"or"following
peoplearound."Forinstance,somepeoplehavetheirworkroutinedowntosuchahabitthattheyhavedifficulty
explainingwhattheydoorwhy.Thebusinessanalystmayneedtowatchthemperformtheirworkinorderto
understandtheflowofwork.Incertainprojects,itisimportanttounderstandthecurrentprocessestobetterassess
theprocessmodificationsthatmayneedtobemade.
Therearetwobasicapproachesfortheobservationtechnique:
Passive/invisible.Inthisapproach,thebusinessanalystobservesthesubjectmatterexpertworking
throughthebusinessroutinebutdoesnotaskquestions.Thebusinessanalystwritesnotesaboutwhathe/she
sees,butotherwisestaysoutoftheway,asifhe/shewasinvisible.Thebusinessanalystwaitsuntilthe
entireprocesshasbeencompletedbeforeaskinganyquestions.Thebusinessanalystshouldobservethe
businessprocessmultipletimestoensurehe/sheunderstandshowtheprocessworkstodayandwhyitworks
thewayitdoes.
Active/visible.Inthisapproach,whilethebusinessanalystobservesthecurrentprocessandtakesnotes
he/shemaydialogwiththeworker.Whenthebusinessanalysthasquestionsastowhysomethingisbeing
doneasitis,he/sheasksthequestionsrightaway,evenifitbreakstheroutineofthepersonbeingobserved.
Inthisapproach,thebusinessanalystmightevenparticipateintheworktogainanimmediateappreciationfor
howthecurrentprocessworks.
Variationsoftheobservationtechnique:
Insomecases,thebusinessanalystmightparticipateintheactualworktogetahandsonfeelforhowthe
businessprocessworkstoday.Ofnecessitythiswouldbelimitedtoactivitythatisappropriateforanon
experttoperformandwhoseresultswouldnotnegativelyimpactthebusiness.
Thebusinessanalystbecomesatemporaryapprentice.
Thebusinessanalystwatchesademonstrationofhowaspecificprocessand/ortaskareperformed.

Process
1.Prepareforobservation
Determinewhatsamplingofusers(e.g.expertsandnovices,justexperts)toobserveandwhichactivities.
Preparequestionstoaskduringoraftertheshadowing.
2.Observe
Observerintroduceshimselftothepersonbeingobservedand:
Reassurestheuserthattheirworkisnotbeingquestionedbutrathertheobservationoftheworkand
resultingdocumentationwillserveasinputtorequirementsanalysis.Informstheuserthattheobserver
ispresentonlytostudytheirprocessesandwillrefrainfromdiscussingfuturesolutionstoany
problems.
Explainstotheuserthattheymaystoptheobservationprocessatanytimeiftheyfeelitisinterfering
withtheirwork.
Suggeststotheuserthattheymay"thinkaloud"whiletheyareworkingasawaytosharetheir
intentions,challenges,andconcerns.
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Conductobservation.
Takedetailednotes.
Ifusingtheactiveobservationapproach,askprobingquestionsaboutwhycertainprocessesandtasks
arebeingdone.
3.PostObservationwrapup
Obtainanswerstooriginalquestions,ornewquestionsthatsurfacedduringtheobservations.
Feedbackasummaryofnotestotheshadowedworker,assoonaspossible,forreviewandanyclarification.
Whenobservingmanyusers,compilenotesatregularintervalstoidentifycommonaltiesanddifferences
betweenusers.Reviewfindingswiththeentireshadowedgrouptoensurethatthefinaldetailsrepresentthe
entiregroup,notselectedindividuals.

IntendedAudience
BusinessAnalystsforanalysisofworkflow,processmodeling,businessprocessreengineering.
DesignersandHumanFactorsexpertsdesigningthedetailedinterfacerequirements.

Strengths
Providesarealisticandpracticalinsightintothebusinessknowledgebygettingahandsonfeelforhowthe
businessprocessworkstoday.
Elicitsdetailsofinformalcommunicationandwayspeopleactuallyworkaroundthesystemthatmaynotbe
documentedanywhere.

Weaknesses
Onlypossibleforexistingprocesses.
Couldbetimeconsuming.
Maybedisruptivetothepersonbeingshadowed.
Unusualexceptionsandcriticalsituationsthathappeninfrequentlymaynotoccurduringtheobservation.
Maynotwellworkifthecurrentprocessinvolvedalotofintellectualworkorotherworkthatisnoteasily
observable.

Prototyping
Purpose
Prototyping,whenusedasanelicitationtechnique,aimstouncoverandvisualizeinterfacerequirementsbeforethe
applicationisdesignedordeveloped.ForadditionaldetailsonprototypingseeChapter5RequirementsAnalysisand
DocumentationSection5.14UsageModels.

Description
Initialprototypingproduces"mockups"ofthescreensorreportlayoutsforanapplication.Businessusersoftenfind
prototypingtobeacomfortable,concretemeanstoidentify,describeandverifytheirinterfaceneeds.
Prototypingcanbecategorizedintwoways:
Thefunctionalscopeoftheprototype:
Horizontalprototype:Modelsashallow,andpossiblywide,viewofthesystem'sfunctionality.Typicallydoes
nothaveanybusinesslogicrunningbehindthevisualization.
Verticalprototype:Modelsadeep,andusuallynarrow,sliceoftheentiresystem'sfunctionality.
Theuseoftheprototypethroughoutthesystemdevelopmentlifecycle:
'Throwaway'Prototype:Thisexploratoryapproachseekstoquicklyuncoverandclarifyinterfacerequirements
usingsimpletools,sometimesjustpaperandpencil.Asthenamesuggests,'Throwaway',suchaprototype
isusuallydiscardedwhenthefinalsystemhasbeendeveloped.Thefocusisonfunctionalitythatisnoteasily
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elicitedbyothertechniques,hasconflictingviewpoints,orisdifficulttounderstand.
EvolutionaryPrototype:Thisrigorousapproachextendstheinitialinterfacerequirementsintoafullyfunctioning
systemandrequiresaspecializedprototypingtoolorlanguage.Thisprototypeproduces"running"software.It
emergesastheactualsystemdownstreaminthelifecycle.

Process
1.Prepareforprototyping
Determinetheprototypingapproach:throwawayvs.evolutionaryverticalvs.horizontal.
Identifythefunctionalitytobemodeled.
2.Prototype
Buildtheprototype.
3.Evaluatetheprototype
Verifytheprototyperepresentstheuser'sneeds.

IntendedAudience
DesignersandHumanFactorsexpertsdesigningthedetailedinterfacerequirements.

Strengths
Supportsuserswhoaremorecomfortableandeffectiveatarticulatingtheirneedsbyusingpictures,as
prototypingletsthem"see"thefuturesystem'sinterface.
Aprototypeallowsforearlyuserinteractionandfeedback.
Athrowawayprototypeisaninexpensivemeanstoquicklyuncoverandconfirmuserinterfacerequirements.
Averticalprototypecandemonstrationwhatisfeasiblewithexistingtechnology,andwheretheremaybe
technicalgaps.
Anevolutionaryprototypeprovidesavehiclefordesignersanddeveloperstolearnabouttheusers'interface
needsandtoevolvesystemrequirements.

Weaknesses
Dependingonthecomplexityofthetargetsystem,usingprototypingtoelicitrequirementscantake
considerabletimeiftheprocessgetsboggeddownbythe"hows"ratherthan"whats".
Assumptionsabouttheunderlyingtechnologymayneedtobemadeinordertopresentastartingprototype.
Aprototypemayleaduserstosetunrealisticexpectationsofthedeliveredsystem'sperformance,reliability
andusabilitycharacteristics.

RequirementsWorkshop
Purpose
ARequirementsWorkshopisastructuredwaytocapturerequirements.Aworkshopmaybeusedtoscope,
discover,define,prioritizeandreachclosureonrequirementsforthetargetsystem.
Wellrunworkshopsareconsideredoneofthemosteffectivewaystodeliverhighqualityrequirementsquickly.They
promotetrust,mutualunderstanding,andstrongcommunicationsamongtheprojectstakeholdersandprojectteam
andproducedeliverablesthatstructureandguidefutureanalysis.

Description
Arequirementsworkshop,(alsogenericallyreferredtoasJAD,JointApplicationDesign),isnotatraditionalmeeting.
Instead,itisahighlyproductivefocusedeventattendedbycarefullyselectedkeystakeholdersandsubjectmatter
expertsforashort,intensiveperiod(typicallyoneorfewdays).
Theworkshopisfacilitatedbyateammemberorideally,byanexperienced,neutralfacilitator.AScribe(alsoknown
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asaRecorder)documentsthebusinessrequirementselicitedaswellasanyoutstandingissues.Abusinessanalyst
maybetheFacilitatorortheScribeintheseworkshops.Insituationswherethebusinessanalystisasubjectmatter
expertonthetopic,thebusinessanalystmayserveasparticipantintheworkshop.
Aworkshopmaybeusedtogenerateideasfornewfeaturesorproducts,toreachconsensusonatopic,ortoreview
requirements.Otheroutcomesareoftendetailedrequirementscapturedinmodels,suchasthebusinessdomain
model(Chapter5.3),dataandbehaviormodels(Chapter5.12),process/flowmodels(Chapter5.13)andorusage
models(Chapter5.14).

Process
1.PreparefortheRequirementsWorkshop
Clarifythestakeholder'sneeds,andthepurposeoftheworkshop.
Identifycriticalstakeholderswhoshouldparticipateintheworkshop.
Definetheworkshop'sagenda.
Determinewhatmeanswillbeusedtodocumenttheoutputoftheworkshop.
Schedulethesession(s).
Arrangeroomlogisticsandequipment.
Sendmaterialsinadvancetopreparetheattendeesandincreaseproductivityatthemeeting.
Conductpreworkshopinterviewswithattendees.
2.Conduct/RuntheRequirementsWorkshop
Elicit,analyzeanddocumentrequirements.
Obtainconsensusonconflictingviews.
Maintainfocusbyfrequentlyvalidatingthesession'sactivitieswiththeworkshop'sstatedobjectives.
TheFacilitatorhastheresponsibilityto:
Establishaprofessionalandobjectivetoneforthemeeting.
Enforcediscipline,structureandgroundrulesforthemeeting.
Introducethegoalsandagendaforthemeeting.
Managethemeetingandkeeptheteamontrack.
Facilitateaprocessofdecisionmakingandbuildconsensus,butavoidparticipatinginthecontentofthe
discussion.
Ensurethatallstakeholdersparticipateandhavetheirinputheard.
Asktherightquestionsanalyzetheinformationbeingprovidedatthesessionbythestakeholders,andfollow
upwithprobingquestions,ifnecessary.
TheScribe'sroleistodocumentthebusinessrequirementsintheformatdeterminedpriortotheworkshop.
3.PostRequirementsWorkshopwrapupdonebyFacilitator
Followuponanyopenactionitemsthatwererecordedattheworkshop.
Completethedocumentationanddistributeittotheworkshopattendeesandthesponsor.

IntendedAudience
Projectteam

Strengths
Aworkshopcanbeameanstoelicitdetailedrequirementsinarelativelyshortperiodoftime.
Aworkshopprovidesameansforstakeholderstocollaborate,makedecisionsandgainamutual
understandingoftherequirements.
Workshopcostsareoftenlowerthanthecostofperformingmultipleinterviews.Arequirementsworkshop
enablestheparticipantstoworktogethertoreachconsensuswhichistypicallyacheaperandfasterapproach
thandoingserialinterviewsasinterviewsmayyieldconflictingrequirementsandtheeffortneededtoresolve
thoseconflictsacrossallintervieweescanbeverycostly.
Feedbackisimmediate,e.g.facilitator'sinterpretationofrequirementsisfedbackimmediatelytothe
stakeholdersandconfirmed.

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Weaknesses
Duetostakeholdersavailabilityitmaybedifficulttoscheduletheworkshop.
Thesuccessoftheworkshopishighlydependentontheexpertiseofthefacilitatorandknowledgeofthe
participants.
Requirementsworkshopsthatinvolvetoomanyparticipantscanslowdowntheworkshopprocessthus
negativelyimpactingtheschedule.Conversely,collectinginputfromtoofewparticipantscanleadto
overlookingrequirementsthatareimportanttousers,ortospecifyingrequirementsthatdon'trepresentthe
needsofmajorityoftheusers.

ReverseEngineering
Purpose
Insituationswherethesoftwareforanexistingsystemhaslittleoroutdateddocumentationanditisnecessaryto
understandwhatthesystemactuallydoes,reverseengineeringisanelicitationtechniquethatcanextract
implementedrequirementsfromthesoftwarecode.

Description
Forwardengineeringisthetraditionalprocessofmovingfromhighlevelabstractionstophysicalimplementation.
Reverseengineeringisaprocessofanalyzingasubjectsystem/producttoidentifyunderlyingbusinessprocesses,
dataandrules.Basedontheidentificationwork,representationsofthesystem/productmaybecreatedatahigher
levelofabstraction.
Therearetwogeneralcategoriesofreverseengineering:
BlackBoxReverseEngineering:Thesystem/productisstudiedwithoutexaminingitsinternalstructure.
WhiteBoxReverseEngineering:Theinnerworkingsofthesystem/productarestudied.
Theresultsofreverseengineeringcanprovide:
Anunderstandingofhowaproductworksmorecomprehensivelythanbymerelyobservingit.
Ameanstoinvestigateerrorsandlimitationsinexistingprogramsandahelpincorrectingthem.
Detailstohelpmakeproductsandsystemscompatible.
Detailstohelpevaluateaproductandunderstanditslimitations.
Determiningwhethersomeoneelsehasliterallycopiedelementsofone'sowntechnology.
Documentationofaproductwhosemanufacturerisunresponsivetocustomerservicerequests.
Detailstohelptransformobsoleteproducts.

Process
1.Prepareforreverseengineering:
Determinethescopeofthefunctionalitythatneedstobereverseengineered.
Evaluatethecostbenefit.Asreverseengineeringcanbetimeconsumingandexpensive,considerwhetherthe
financialinvestmentiswarrantedbyevaluatingthepotentialbenefitsgainedfromimproveddocumentation
and/orderivedabstractionintermsofmaintenanceoftheexistingsystemordevelopmentofanew
system/product.
2.Performreverseengineering:
Disassembleordecompiletheoriginalsystem.
Documenttheresultsinamannerthatcanbereviewedandverifiedbyabusinesssubjectmatterexpert.
Thesecanserveasbaselinedetailstoelicitrequirementsforextendingtheexistingsystem

IntendedAudience
Projectteam

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Strengths
Protectsinvestmentinexistingsystem/productbyenablingtheanalyststo'buildup'existing
functionality/businessimplementation.
Providesdetailed,current,informationthatcanbeusedtoupdatedocumentationofanexisting
system/product.

Weaknesses
Expensiveandtimeconsuming.
Oftenrestrictedbycopyrightlawswhenasystem/productofanothermanufacturerisinvolved.
Existingtoolsthatsupportreverseengineeringhavelimitedcapabilitiesandrequiretrainingtouse.
Requiresspecializedskills:
Abilitytoabstractfrom'specific'to'general'.
Abilitytodrawinferences,especially,whendocumentingbusinessrules.
Abilitytocorelatethefunctionsofcomponent(s)ofasystemwiththecurrentand/orintendedbusiness
processes.

Survey/Questionnaire
Purpose
Asurveyisameansofelicitinginformationfrommanypeople,anonymously,inarelativelyshorttime.Asurveycan
collectinformationaboutcustomers,products,workpracticesandattitudes.Asurveyisoftenreferredtoasa
questionnaire.

Description
Asurveyadministersasetofwrittenquestionstothestakeholdersandsubjectmatterexperts.Theirresponsesare
analyzedanddistributedtotheappropriateparties.
Questionsinasurveyareoftwotypes:
Closed:Therespondentisaskedtoselectfromavailableresponses.Usefulwhentheissuesareknowbut
therangeofuserresponsestothemisnot.Theresponsestoclosedquestionsareeasiertoanalyzethan
thosegainedfromopenendedquestions.
Openended:Therespondentisfreetoanswerthequestionsastheywish.Usefulwhentherangeofusers
responsesisprettywellunderstood,butthestrengthofeachresponsecategoryneedstobedetermined.The
responsestoopenendedquestionsmayprovidemoredetailandawiderrangeofresponsesthanthosegained
fromclosedendedquestionsbutopenendedquestionsaremoredifficulttoquantifyandsummarize.

Process
1.Prepare
Asurveyrequiresdetailedpreparationtoensuretheneededinformationisobtainedwhileminimizingtheresponders'
timetocompleteit.
Definethepurposeofthesurveyandthetargetsurveygroup:Identifytheobjectivesandthelikelyusergroup
tobesurveyed.Confirmwiththesponsor.
Choosetheappropriatesurveytype:Initialstepsofasurveyarethesameasforinterviewdesign(seeSection
4.7.2Interview),keepinginmindthatsemistructuredinterviewsaresimilarto'openended'surveysand
structuredinterviewsaresimilarto'closedended'surveys.
Selectthesamplegroup:Considerboththesurveytype('openended'or'closeended')andthenumberof
peopleintheidentifiedusergrouptodetermineiftheentiregroupshouldbesurveyed.Forexample:Whenthe
samplegroupissmall,itmaybepracticaltosurveyallmembersofthegroup.Whenthesamplegroupislarge
andthedesiredsurveytypeis'openended',itmaybenecessarytoidentifyasubsetofusers.Forsuch
situationsuseofastatisticalsamplingmethodwillhelpensurethatsurveyresultsarenotbiased.
Selectthedistributionandcollectionmethods:Foreachsamplegroupdeterminetheappropriate
communicationmodesurfacemailemailwebbased,telephone.
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Projectthedesiredlevelofresponse:Determinewhatresponseratewouldbeacceptable.Iftheactual
responserateislowerthentheuseofthesurveyresultsmaybelimited.Offeringanincentivecanraisethe
responserateto80%andabovebutthecostoftheincentivemustbejustifiedandbudgeted.
Determineifthesurveyshouldbesupportedwithindividualinterviews:Asasurveydoesnotprovidethedepth
ofdatathatcanbeobtainedfromindividualinterviewsconsider:
Presurveyinterviewsmayprovideideasforsurveyquestions.
Postsurveyinterviewscantargetspecificsurveyresponsesorthemestoelicitagreaterlevelofdetail.
Writethesurveyquestions:
Communicatethepurpose:Explaintheobjectivesofthesurvey.Ifthestakeholderscanseethereasonfor
completingthesurvey,theyaremorelikelytodoso.
Becognizantofthegroup'scharacteristics:Understandthebackgroundofthetargetgroupincludingtheir
environmentandspecificterminology.Usethisinformationwhenwritingthequestions.Ifthereissignificant
diversityinthegroup'sbackgrounditmaybeusefultodividealargegroupintosmallerandhomogenous
groupsduringthepreparationstageandthenproducevariationsofthesurveythatfiteachgroup'sbackground.
Focusontherequirement:Allquestionsshouldbedirectedtowardsthestatedobjectivesandtheobjectives
shouldbesupportedbyacomprehensivesetofquestions.
Keepthesurveyshort.Lessthan10itemsispreferablelimitintermsofthecontent.
Makethesurveyeasyandfasttocomplete,ideallynomorethanfiveor10minutes.
Makesurethatthequestionwordingisclearandconcise.
Avoiddoublequestionsinasinglequestion.
Avoidquestionsinvolvingnegatives.
Avoidcomplexbranchingstructures.
Avoidaskingquestionsthatmakerespondentsfeeluncomfortable.
Tryingtoelicitinformationthatisrestrictedbyregulationsislikelytoputrespondentsonthedefensive.
Testthesurvey.Performausabilitytestonthesurvey.Usetheresultstofinetunethesurvey.
2.Distributethesurvey
3.Communicatesurveyresults
Collatetheresponses.Fortheresponsesto'openended'questions,evaluatethedetailsandidentifyany
emergingthemes.
Analyzeandsummarizetheresults.
Reportfindingstothesponsor.

IntendedAudience
Thesurveyquestionnairemaybedirectedatanyorallofthefollowing:
Marketing
Projectteam
Subjectmatterexperts
Primaryandsecondarystakeholders
Current/potentialusersofasystem.

Strengths
Whenusing'closedended'questions,effectiveinobtainingquantitativedataforuseinstatisticalanalysis.
Whenusingopenendedquestions,thesurveyresultsmayyieldinsightsandopinionsnoteasilyobtainable
throughotherelicitationtechniques.
Doesnottypicallyrequiresignificanttimefromtheresponders.
Effectiveandefficientwhenstakeholdersarenotlocatedatoneplace.
Mayresultinlargenumberofresponses.
Quickandrelativelyinexpensivetoadminister.

Weaknesses
Useofopenendedquestionsrequiresmoreanalysisbythebusinessanalyst.
Toachieveunbiasedresults,specializedskillsinstatisticalsamplingmethodsareneededwhenthedecision
hasbeenmadetosurveyasamplesubset.
Somequestionsmaybeleftunansweredoransweredincorrectlyduetotheirambiguousnature.
Mayrequirefollowupquestionsormoresurveyiterationsdependingontheanswersprovided.
Notwellsuitedforcollectinginformationonactualbehaviors.
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