A FIRE ENGINEERING APPROACH IN REDUCING THE DESIGN CAPACITY

OF SPRINKLER TANK IN HONG KONG

by
Ronald Wong

Abstract
Sprinkler system is one of the most effective fire service installations in preventing fire spread in
a confined space. All new buildings with commercial, industrial or institutional occupancies
are required to install automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Loss Prevention Council
(LPC) Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations with local modifications. The design
capacity of the sprinkler tank can be determined by the Precalculated Method or the Fully
Hydraulically Calculated Method. Most of the Authorized Persons (AP) would prefer to choose
the Precalculated Method as it is much simple and easy to follow. The minimum duration of
water available is 30, 60 & 90 minutes for Light Hazard, Ordinary Hazard and High Hazard
respectively. Under the current practice, the storage of water can be reduced by one-third if a
direct link from the sprinkler system is connected to the Fire Service Communication Centre.
A fire engineering analysis into the activation of sprinkler heads is conducted and the result
indicates that the operation time of a sprinkler system may last from a few minutes to a few
hours depending on the number of sprinkler heads to be activated. LPC and Singapore Civil
Defense Force (SCDF) have proposed that the size of the sprinkler tank can be reduced without
affecting the performance of the system by the speedy response from the fire department.
Practically, the size of the sprinkler tank can be reduced by almost a half provided that there is no
water supply restriction to the town mains of the affected area and the firefighters can respond to
the fire scene as indicated in the performance pledge and provide a sufficient flow to the
sprinkler inlets.

Table of Contents

Page
Abstract
Table of Contents
Introduction
History of Automatic Sprinkler System
Requirements for Automatic Sprinkler System in Hong Kong
Classification of Occupancies in LPC Rules
Water Supplies for Automatic Sprinkler System
Design Capacity for Sprinkler Tank
Fire Fighting Policy in Hong Kong
Theoretical Operation Time for Automatic Sprinkler System
Revised Design Capacities in LPC Technical Bulletin
Reducing the Size of Sprinkler Tank in Singapore
Conclusion
Recommendation
Appendix I
Reference

2
3
4
6
8
12
14
17
21
24
30
32
34
36
38
49

Introduction
Sprinkler system has universally been recognized as one of the most effective fire extinguishing
system in controlling the spread of a fire in a confined space. All new buildings in Hong Kong
with commercial, institutional or industrial occupancies must install automatic sprinkler system.
Loss Prevention Council (LPC) Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations with local
modifications are used as guideline for installation, acceptance and maintenance of sprinkler
system. In line with the guideline, the system must provide a tank for water storage. The
design capacity of this tank depends on several factors and assumptions.
According to the LPC Rules, the design capacity of the sprinkler tank can either be obtained
from Precalculated Method or Fully Hydraulically Calculated Method. In most of the building
projects, the Precalculated Method has preferably been selected by the Authorized Persons (AP)
as it is much simpler and straight forward. The classification of hazard groups, the height
difference of the highest sprinkler and the lowest sprinkler, water supplies from single ended
feed or both ended feed town mains and the provision of direct link to the Fire Service
Communication Centre (FSCC) are crucial factors in the determination of suitable design
capacity.
In recent years, Water Supplies Department (WSD) has provided an excellent service for
maintaining the supply of fresh water unrestricted at all times in Hong Kong. Moreover, a good
network of street hydrants has been installed in those newly developed regions. As a result,
firefighters and fire service installations have a reliable source of water supplies for enhancing
their performance in case of fires.
Under the current firefighting policy in Hong Kong, the fire cover standards are based on a Risk
Categorization System which assigns districts to different risk categories A, B, C, D or E
with A being the highest risk and E being the lowest. A performance pledge which provided an
indication in the response of the Hong Kong Fire Services Department (HKFSD) to fire incidents
had been set up a few years ago. All building fires in built-up areas should be responded in six
minutes and between nine to twenty-three minutes to those in areas of dispersed risks and
isolated developments. Therefore, plenty of fire stations were built all over the city to ensure
that the performance pledge is achievable.
It has been stated clearly in the LPC Rules that the flow from town mains to the sprinkler system
may be reduced by fire brigade operations. Provided that those high standards of services from
the WSD and HKFSD can be maintained in the future and there will not be any major change in
the fire cover standards, the design capacity of the sprinkler system may be reduced accordingly.

History of Automatic Sprinkler System

Water has widely been used as the most common fire extinguishing agent for firefighting and
fixed firefighting systems like automatic sprinkler system all over the world as it is readily
available and low cost. Due to its strong intermolecular forces (such as hydrogen bonding),
water has a high value of specific heat capacity (4186 J / kg K) and latent heat of vaporization
which amongst to its excellent extinguishing power. Although the activation of sprinklers in
the sprinkler system may not always be able to extinguish the fire, its cooling ability can protect
the life safety and structural elements of a sprinkler protected building by containing the fire
until it can be extinguished by other means.
Automatic sprinkler system has been invented for more than a hundred years. In 1723, the first
prototype of automatic fire extinguishing system on was recorded in English history (Puchovsky
1999). It consisted of a cask of water, a chamber of gunpowder, and a system of fuses. In
1852, the perforated pipe system represented the first form of a sprinkler system used in the
United States. In 1885, John Wormald of Mutual Fire Insurance Corporation of Manchester,
England developed the first set of rules for the installation of automatic sprinkler systems and it
was published in London by the Fire Officers Committee (FOC) in September 1888. In 1887,
similar rules were prepared in the United States by the Factory Improvement Committee of the
New England Insurance Exchange. Since then, the effectiveness of sprinkler systems has been
improved with an accelerated rate of technology. As a result, fire insurance companies in many
countries offered an annual premium reduction to building owners who installed automatic
sprinkler systems to their properties. It has also become a mandatory requirement to install
sprinkler system in buildings with high fire load in many countries.
United Kingdom and United States have been the leading countries in research and development
of automatic sprinkler system. British Standards Institution (BSI) and National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) have developed BS EN 5306: Part 2: 1990 and NFPA 13 as standards for
design, installation and maintenance of automatic sprinkler installations for Europe and America
respectively. Other countries like Japan, Germany and China have also developed their own
standards for automatic sprinkler system.

Requirements for Automatic Sprinkler System in Hong Kong

HKFSDs requirements for automatic sprinkler system were printed on the Code of Practice for
Minimum Fire Service Installations and Equipment (COP). Before 1974, the provisions of
sprinkler system followed the FOC Rules (9th Edition). At that time, elevated tank, town main
and F. S. inlet were sources of water supplies for sprinkler system. Any two of them were
acceptable and found in many old buildings. In 1974, the revised COP adopted the FOC Rules
(29th Edition) as the specified standard for general compliance by the building industry in Hong
Kong. It stated that the town main alone was not acceptable as a source of water supplies
because of the water supply restriction. Thus, a supply tank which could last for at least 30
minutes of water supplies for the sprinkler system should be provided in addition to the town
main. Moreover, sprinkler systems were required for nearly all commercial and industrial
buildings. In 1985, the responsibilities of FOC for automatic sprinkler installation passed to the
Loss Prevention Council (LPC) on its formation. In 1990, the BSI embodied in full the
requirements of the FOC Rules and produced a new British Standard, BS 5306: Part 2: 1990.
Fire extinguishing installations and equipment in buildings. Specification for sprinkler systems.
The combination of the new standard and the LPC Technical Bulletins formed the new LPC
Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations and replaced the 29th Edition of the FOC Rules. In
1995, HKFSD adopt the new LPC Rules for local application with modifications specified in
Lists One to Four annexed to the FSD Circular Letter No. 4/94.
According to the current COP (June 1998), a Sprinkler System is defined as:
A system designed to discharge water under pressure from sprinkler heads
(detecting devices) at/or near the point of origin of the fire and to sound
an alarm.
Moreover, COP states the acceptance testing of the sprinkler system as follows:
The system should be tested in accordance with the Loss Prevention
Council Rules on Automatic Sprinkler Installations (with suitable
modifications pertinent to Hong Kong), or other standards and
requirements as may be prescribed by the Director of Fire Services on
account of the specific features of the system.
As specified in the current COP, all premises and areas of special risks are divided into 44
different categories of which 11 of these premises and areas of special risks mandatory require
the provision of sprinkler system. These premises are as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

Basements which exceed 230 m2 of usable floor area;

Bowling alleys;
Commercial buildings low rise;
Commercial buildings high rise;
Garages;
Hotel low rise;
Hotel high rise;
Industrial/godown buildings low rise;

(ix)
(x)
(xi)

Industrial/godown buildings high rise;

Institutional buildings low rise; and
Institutional buildings high rise.

Although a sprinkler system is designed to deal with solid-fuel fires, it can hold a
flammable-liquid fire in check and to extinguish an oil fire by deluge sprinklers or by water
spray. Thus, it also stated in the COP that other premises and areas may require automatic
fixed installations using water which may include Sprinklers, Drenchers, Deluge or Water Spray
System by the risk of the premises and areas and these premises include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)

Aircraft maintenance and repair facilities;

Audio/visual production facilities;
Boiler rooms;
Bulk fuel storage;
Chemical manufacturing/processing plants;
Cold storage areas (Group I) major (of and over 140m3 capacity);
Cold storage areas (Group II);
Container terminal yards and freight stations;
Dangerous goods stores;
Petro-chemical complexes;
Railway marshalling yards;
Substation/Switchgear buildings;
Telephone distribution equipment, computer installations and similar installations.

Nevertheless, many buildings are multi-occupancies in Hong Kong. These buildings are
classified as composite buildings and the fire services installations and equipment required for
each of the various usages of a composite building must confirm to the relevant categories of the
current COP. Thus, for a composite building where ground floor used as commercial and upper
floor as domestic, a sprinkler system is required for the protection of the commercial portion of
the building.

Classification of Occupancies in LPC Rules

In LPC Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installation (2000), occupancies or parts of thereof are
classified into three major hazard groups as follows:
(i)

Light Hazard (LH)

In non-industrial occupancies where the quantity and combustibility of the contents
are low, rooms and corridors not more than 126m2 in area and bounded by elements of
construction with a fire resistance of not less than 30 min.
z Minimum duration of water available: 30 minutes.
z No room may have more than six sprinklers.
z Rooms larger than 126m2 or with walls of lower fire resistance are classified as
ordinary hazard, group I.
z Examples of LH occupancies: Most areas of hospitals, hotels, institutions, libraries,
museums, nursing homes, office buildings, prisons, schools etc.

(ii)

Ordinary Hazard (OH)

z Ordinary Hazard (OH) is subdivided into:
Ordinary Hazard, group I (OH I);
Ordinary Hazard, group II (OH II);
Ordinary Hazard, group III (OH III); and
Ordinary Hazard, group III Special (OH IIIS).
z Minimum duration of water available: 60 minutes.In non-industrial occupancies,
rooms which exceed the limits for LH are classified as OH I.
z Commercial and industrial occupancies involving the handling, processing and
storage of mainly ordinary combustibles materials, which are unlikely to develop
intensely burning fires in the initial stages are classified as either: OH I; OH II; OH
III; or OH IIIS.
z OH I occupancies include: Restaurants and cafes, offices (not high rise) not meeting
the requirements for LH.
z OH II occupancies include: Chemical works, bakeries and biscuits factories etc.
z OH III occupancies include: Departmental stores and retail shops etc.
z OH IIIS occupancies include: Theatres, film and television studios etc.

(iii)

High Hazard (HH)

z
z
z

Commercial and industrial occupancies having abnormal fire loads are classified as
high hazard.
Minimum duration of water available: 90 minutes.
HH is subdivided into:
process high hazards;
high-piled storage hazards;
potable spirit storage hazards; and
oil and flammable liquid hazards.

Water Supplies for Automatic Sprinkler Installation in Hong Kong

According to the Water Supplies Department (2004), more than 70 percent of flesh water in
Hong Kong is supplied from Dongjiang (the East River). The long-term water supply
agreement with Guangdong authorities signed in 1989 has secured sufficient water supplies to
meet Hong Kong's needs well into the 21st century. It can provide with a maximum designed
capacity of 1,100 million cubic metres per year. In 2002, the annual supply has been raised to
760 million cubic metres. Apart from this, water collected in a vast network of catchments and
impounding reservoirs locally from rainfall makes up the rest of the water supply to Hong Kong.
Therefore, water supply restriction as back in 1970s is no longer required provided that the
current arrangements can be maintained in the future.
In Hong Kong, a dual connection from the Government unrestricted supply ring main is provided
for sprinkler system situated in the recognized waterworks unrestricted industrial supply zone.
Twin connections (one from an unrestricted supply main and one from a distribution main) are
provided for any sprinkler system situated outside the recognized unrestricted industrial supply
zone, where practicable. In case if it is not practical to connect the sprinkler system to an
unrestricted supply main, the provision of fire service tank to serve as secondary source for the
fire service installation is required by the FSD. Either a single or dual ended connection can be
given to serve the fire service tank of secondary source. Where direct connections to sprinkler
system are to be from the Government mains, an additional butterfly valve is installed at a point
on the supply pipe before the fire service inlet and as close as possible to the control valves of
the connections (Water Supplies Department, 2005). Also, it is important to note that no part of
any sprinkler system supplied from the Government mains is used for supplying any other
services including other fire service installations.
As stated in the LPC Rules, it is essential to ensure the continuity and reliability of water
supplies. Nevertheless, the flow from town mains to the sprinkler system may be reduced by
fire brigade operations. Currently, twelve types of water supplies methods are considered
acceptable. However, not all of them are acceptable in Hong Kong. Single supply is
considered by the FSD as unreliable water source. Only a superior water supply or duplicate
water supplies with a sprinkler water storage tank can meet the requirement. Hence, the most
common types of water supplies in Hong Kong are superior supply using gravity tank and
superior supply using suction pumps.
Superior supply using gravity tank can easily be found in government housing estate blocks
where the ground floor and the lower floor are used as commercial and/or institutional purposes
and the upper floors as domestic. The sprinkler tank is located on the roof of the building.
Superior supply using suction pumps can be found in most of the buildings where wholly or
partially being used as commercial, industrial, or institutional purposes. The sprinkler tank can
be located at any level of the building.

Figure 1 Superior supply using gravity tank

Elevated
Tank

Sprinkler Inlet

Figure 2 Superior supply using suction pumps

Suction
Tank

Sprinkler Inlet

Design Capacity for Sprinkler System

In LPC rules, two methods namely (i) Precalculated Method and (ii) Fully Hydraulically
Calculated Method are used for pipework sizing of the sprinkler system and determining the
design capacity of the sprinkler tank. Since most of the APs prefer to choose the Precalculated
Method in Hong Kong because it is much simpler to derive than the Fully Hydraulically
Calculated Method, the latter is not going to be discussed in this chapter.
For the Precalculated Method, several factors must be determined in order to determine the
design capacity of the sprinkler tank and they are as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Hazard Group(LH, OH or HH);

Difference between the height of the highest sprinkler and the lowest sprinkler (within 15,
30 or 45 m);
Single ended feed or both ended feed;
For single ended feed which is not dependent on inflow, whether direct link to Fire
Service Communication Centre is provided.

As suggested in the FSD Circular Letter No.4/96 Part II paragraph 2.2.2,

a single ended feed from town main supplying suction tank will be
accepted provided the tank has a capacity not less than two-thirds of
the full holding capacity required for the particular hazard class and
the sprinkler alarm is directly connected to the Fire Services
Communication Centre.
This local reduction in sprinkler tank size implies that the time for the minimum duration of
water availability would be decreased by 1/3 of the original minimum duration of water
availability.

Hazard Group

LH
OH
HH

Original
Minimum Minimum duration of
duration
of
water water
availability
availability (minutes)
(minutes)
(For single ended feed
and not dependent on
inflow with direct link
connected to FSCC)
30
20
60
40
90
60

Table 1 Minimum Duration of Water Availability for LH, OH & HH

10

For the Precalculated Method, Table 21, Table 22 and Table 25 of the LPC Rules are used to
determine the design density of a sprinkler system. Hereunder is a combination of the three
tables together with the local size reduction arrangement.

Capacity of Water Tank for Sprinkler System (LPC Rules)

Hazard
Group

Light
Hazard

II
OH
III

IIIS
High
Hazard

Height of
highest
sprinkler
above
lowest
sprinkler
not
exceeding
(m)

15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30

Single end supply

(not dependant on
inflow)
Design
capacity
(m3)
LPC Table
21 & 22

9
10
11
55
70
80
105
125
140
135
160
185
160
185

Both end supply

(dependent on inflow)
Design capacity (m3)

Direct
link
provided
(m3)

LPC Table 25

2/3*Design
Capacity
FSD CL
4/96 Part II
2.2.2

6
6.7
7.3
37
47
54
70
84
94
90
107
124
107
124

2.5 or, as given in table 21 or 24

less 0.03f, whichever is the greater
25 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
50 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
75 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
100 or, as given in table 22 or 24
less 0.06f, whichever is the greater

Not Accepted
FSD CL 4/96 Part II Para 2.2.1(b)

See LPC Table 23, 24 & 25

Table 2 Capacity of Water Tank for Sprinkler System

Provided that the inflow of the both ended feed town main is sufficient, the design capacity of
the sprinkler tank may be reduced as illustrated in the example below.

11

Example:
For OH III where height of highest and the lowest sprinkler does not exceed 15 m,
Required design capacity with single end supply = 135 m3
Allowed minimum design capacity with both ended supply = 75 m3
Difference = 135 75 m3 = 60 m3
Required inflow rate to compensate for a smaller tank
= 60 / 0.06
= 1000 l / min for 60 minutes operation
Thus, the AP must confirm with the WSD at the initial stage that an inflow rate of 1000 l /min
could be obtained. If the inflow rate is not up to 1000 l / min, a larger sprinkler tank will
required.

12

Fire Fighting Policy in Hong Kong

In a fire engineers point of view, a fire can behave in a much different manner in the
pre-flashover stage and the post-flashover stage. Therefore, it is crucial that a fire can be
extinguished or under control within the first few minutes of flaming combustion prior to the
occurrence of flashover. Under such circumstances, the speedy response from the HKFSD is
always essential. A mechanism has been set up by the Government to monitor the response
from the department and this is the performance pledge.
Within most areas, a six minutes standard attendance time is applicable for the building fires in
Hong Kong. The six minutes can be broken down as follows:
z
z

The first minute would be required for the alarm of fire to be received by FSCC and
transmitted the information to the appropriate fire station.
The following four-minute target attendance time based on the traveling time of an
appliance from a fire station to the entrance of the building in which a fire has been reported
to be used as a criterion for the siting of fire stations in built-up Urban Areas and certain
part of New Territories.
The final minute would be required for the connection of fire hoses to street hydrant and
other preliminary/imminent work after the fire appliances reached the street level of the
building on fire.

In general, the fire cover standards are developed on the basis of a graded fire risk system. All
the districts in Hong Kong are graded by fire risk into five categories (A, B, C, D & E), with the
existing six minutes standard attendance time kept for the two highest risk categories, but with
the standard response time for the three lower categories reduced to 9, 15 and 23 minutes
respectively. If the risk category of a district is upgraded, it will be necessary for the HKFSD to
reassess whether fire appliances to be dispatched from the nearest existing fire station can
respond to all the area of the district within the appropriate graded response time. It may be the
case that a new fire station is required in a newly developed area, e.g. Tai Chik Sha.
The graded response time and traveling time element for each category are summarized as
follows:
Risk Category

A
B
C
D
E

Graded response
time in mins.
Congested central built-up areas
6
Less congested inner built-up areas
6
Areas of dispersed risk in outer
9
suburban and rural areas
Areas of highly dispersed but
15
accessible by road
Outlying and remote areas not
23
accessible by road

Traveling time
element in mins.
4
4
7
13
21

Table 3 Classification of Risk Category and Graded Response Time in Hong Kong

13

When this policy is compared with the standards of fire cover in other cities, it is clear that
HKFSD have maintained a reputable achievement within the performance pledge.
City
Hong Kong
London

New York
Singapore
Macau

Response Time for Fire Incident

6 minutes (94.2% in 2003)1
1st appliance : 5 minutes (92.6% in 2003)2
2nd appliance : 5 minutes
3rd appliance : 8 minutes
Average 4 minutes 21 seconds in 20043
8 minutes (85% in 2003)4
6 minutes (95% in 2003)5

Table 4 Response Time for Fire Incident in Other Cities

1 Hong Kong Fire Services Review 2002-2003, Hong Kong Fire Services Department
2 Progress against Best Value Performance Plan (April 2003 March 2004), London Fire & Emergency Planning Authority
3 Citywide Performance Indicator (01/01/04 12/31/04), New York City Fire Department
4 Singapore Civil Defense Force Annual Report 2004, Singapore Civil Defense Force
5 Performance Pledge, Macau Fire Service (http://www.fsm.gov.mo/cb/promise_cb.htm)

14

Theoretical Operation Time for Sprinkler System

Since most of the occupancies who required to install automatic sprinkler system in Hong Kong
fall into the Ordinary Hazard only, Light Hazard and High Hazard will not be discussed in this
chapter.
In LPC Rules, the design density is defined as the minimum density of discharge, in mm/min of
water, for which a sprinkler installation is designed. The assumed maximum area of operation
(AMAO) is defined as the maximum area over which it is assumed, for design purposes, that
sprinklers will operate in a fire.
The discharge (fd) of a specified group of sprinklers, in L/min is determined by multiplying the
minimum design density and the AMAO.
Example:
For OH I,
Discharge, fd =
=
=

Minimum design density

5 mm/min X 72 m2
6.0 X 10-3 m3/s

Hazard Group

OH I
OH II
OH III
OH IIIS

Minimum design
density
(mm min-1)
5
5
5
5

AMAO

AMAO
(m2)
72
144
216
360

Discharge rate, fd
(m3 s-1)
6.0 X 10-3
12 X 10-3
18 X 10-3
30 X 10-3

Table 5 Discharge Rate for Ordinary Hazard Group I, II, III & IIIS
For the supply of water, it is assumed that there are only two sources, i.e. the sprinkler storage
tank and the refill from the town main.
The refilling rate has been specified in the COP paragraph 5.27 as:
If the tank is situated at upper level of building and a transfer pump is
required to relay water to the tank, the pump capacity shall be able to
refill the tank to its full capacity within 6 hours.
Example:
For OH I,
Refilling rate, fr

= Design capacity / 6 hours

= 55 m3 / 6 X 3600 s
= 2.55 X 10-3 m3 s-1

15

Hazard Group

Height
of
highest
sprinkler above
lowest sprinkler
not
exceeding
(m)
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30

OH I

OH II

OH III

OH IIIS

Design capacity,
Vc (m3)
(Single end
supply, not
dependant on
inflow)
55
70
80
105
125
140
135
160
185
160
185

Refilling rate, fr
(m3 s-1)

2.55 X 10-3
3.24 X 10-3
3.70 X 10-3
4.86 X 10-3
5.79 X 10-3
6.48 X 10-3
6.25 X 10-3
7.41 X 10-3
8.56 X 10-3
7.41 X 10-3
8.56 X 10-3

Table 6 Refilling Rate for Ordinary Hazard Group I, II, III & IIIS
The supply of water will be based on:
(i)
The design capacity, Vc,
(ii)
The refilling rate, fr; and
(iii) The time available to refill the storage tank, Tr.
The demand of water will be based on:
(iv)
The number of sprinkler to be activated, N (N = 1, 2, 3, );
(v)
The discharging rate, fd; and
(vi)
The time required to discharge the storage tank, Td.
Since the supply quantity of water equals the demand quantity of water, the equation can be
written as:
Vc + fr Tr = N fd Td
But Tr = Td = T,
T = Vc / (N fd fr)

Equation 1

Equation 2

Example:
For OH I (Highest sprinkler Lowest sprinkler not exceeding 15 m),
If N = 1, then
T = 55 / (1 X 6.0 X 10-3 - 2.55 X 10-3)
= 15942 s
= 265.7 min
i.e. If only one sprinkler head activated in this specific system, the sprinkler system can run for
265.7 minutes.

16

Assumed maximum number of sprinkler to be activated in a sprinkler system in a fire, Nm

= AMAO / Maximum area coverage per sprinkler
Example:
For OH I,
Nm = 72 m2 / 12 m2
Nm = 6
Hazard Group

AMAO

OH I
OH II
OH III
OH IIIS

72
144
216
360

Max. area
coverage per
sprinkler (Table
70, LPC Rules)
12
12
12
12

Assumed
maximum number
of sprinkler heads
to be activated, Nm
6
12
18
30

Table 7 Assumed Maximum Number of Sprinkler Heads to be Activated in Ordinary Hazard

Group I, II, III & IIIS
The theoretical operation time of sprinkler system for Ordinary Hazard Group I, II, III & IIIS is
calculated and attached at Appendix I.
The result illustrated that a sprinkler system of any OH group may use up the water stored in the
sprinkler tank from a few minutes to a few hours when the sprinkler heads activated. When the
value of N increases, it takes much less time to consume the water in the sprinkler tank. Thus,
the number of sprinkler heads to be activated in a fire is critical to the size of the sprinkler tank.
Under normal circumstances, most of the fire can be under control by the activation of a few
sprinkler heads. In case if the rate of fire spread is quicker than the rate of cooling by the water
from the initially activated sprinkler heads, more sprinkler heads will be activated. This process
will continue until all the water in the sprinkler tank has been used up. In other words, if the
firefighting can respond to the fire promptly and replenish the sprinkler tank with adequate flow,
the sprinkler system will be able to continue its function to control/extinguish the fire.
Chow (2000) calculates the thermal activation time, ta to a set of sprinklers to be activated by a
fire of heat release rate, Q. The results of the calculations are as follows:

17

Sprinkler
head
position
away
from the
fire axis
(m)
0
3
4.24
6

Minimum
heat
release
rate
Qmin/kW

64
354
501
708

Activation Time ta/s

RTI = 42 (ms)1/2

RTI = 350 (ms)1/2

Ultra-fast
t2-fire

Fast
t2-fire

Medium
t2-fire

Slow
t2-fire

Ultra-fast
t2-fire

Fast
t2-fire

Medium
t2-fire

Slow
t2-fire

38
88
102
120

66
160
186
219

119
304
353
417

224
590
686
812

73
150
177
221

116
241
282
334

187
404
469
553

310
704
816
963

Table 8 Activation Time

(Extracted from W. K. CHOW On the Sprinkler Tank Size and Fast Response Sprinkler Head)
Since LPC Rules have specified that Ordinary Hazard are occupancies involving the handling,
processing and storage of mainly ordinary combustibles materials, which are unlikely to develop
intensely burning fires in the initial stages, it is reasonable to predict it as a fast t2-fire. As
illustrated in the above table that it may take almost two minutes for the second nearest sprinkler
to activate (160 s) after the activation of the first sprinkler head (66 s) for a fast response type
sprinkler. More sprinkler heads may be activated if the fire is still out of control but they will
only be activated one after another. This research has proven that the actual time required for a
sprinkler system to use up its sprinkler tank is even longer than the result calculated from
Equation 2.

18

Revised Design Capacities in LPC Technical Bulletin

In LPC Technical Bulletin TB24: 1997: 1, the requirements for water storage capacities for OH
and HH sprinkler systems were revised and superseded the relevant requirements of BS Clause
16. As stated in this bulletin, the volume of the stored water supplies was reduced but without
changing the effectiveness of the sprinkler system. The measures to reduce water storage
capacities were conditional on there being adequate safeguards which would ensure the
satisfactory performance of the system.
Conditions which may be specified to reduce water capacity requirements for sprinkler
installations are as follows:
Condition
abbreviation
A

H5
M

Condition
On operation of the sprinkler installation, an alarm shall be
automatically transmitted to an LPCB approved central station for
fire alarm signaling.
The maximum height of the roof or ceiling sprinklers above the
floor does not exceed 5 m.
The sprinkler installation is regularly maintained in accordance with
TB6 and is the subject of a maintenance contract with an LPCB
certificated or registered company in accordance with LPS 1048.
Quick response sprinklers are used in all rooms, interconnecting
rooms or corridors with floor areas exceeding the AMAO for the
installation. Where intermediate level sprinklers are used in
storage racks, these shall be quick response with quick response
sprinklers at the ceiling or roof.

Table 9 Conditions to Reduce Water Capacity Requirements for Sprinkler Installations

(Extracted from LPC Technical Bulletin TB24: 1997: 1)
The revised design capacities, where tank is not dependent on inflow, for Ordinary Hazard
precalculated installations are as follows:

19

Column 1
Group

II

III
(restricted
storage)
III
(storage)
III S

Column 2
Height
of
highest
sprinkler above
lowest
sprinkler
not
exceeding
M
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30

Column 3
Column 4
Design Capacity (V)
Wet
pipe Other wet pipe
installations
and Type 2
satisfying
pre-action
conditions A, installations
H5, M, and R
m3
m3
30
55
35
70
40
80
55
105
60
125
70
140
70
135
80
160
95
185
Use capacity 135
given
in 160
column 4
185
Use capacity 160
given
in 185
column 4

Column 5
All
other
installations

m3
55
70
80
105
125
140
135
160
185
Not
recommended
160
185

Table 10 Revised Design Capacity of Sprinkler Tank for OH

(Extracted from LPC Technical Bulletin TB24: 1997: 1)
Once the conditions as stated in Table 9 have been fulfilled, the size of the sprinkler tank can be
reduced drastically. This reduction in the size of sprinkler tank is even greater than the one
suggested by the HKFSD when the sprinkler system is directly linked to FSCC.

20

Reducing the Size of Sprinkler Tank in Singapore

In 2004, the Singapore Civil Defense Force (SCDF) announced a new guideline for a reduction
of the size of the sprinkler tank in order to facilitate the installation of sprinkler systems in
existing buildings that are not already protected by sprinkler system and that are in the
classification of OH I, II & III and new buildings with similar hazards. With the timely
response by the SCDF, the proposed design capacity should be adequate for the sprinkler system
to control the fire spread till the arrival and the intervention by firefighters.
However, there are a few restrictions to the new guideline and they are as follows:
z It should only be applicable to buildings of habitable height not exceeding 60 m.
z It does not apply to any building housing storage risks and chemical processes.
The inflow is considered reliable if the water inflow rate at the inlet to the sprinkler tank is not
less than 1.0 m3 / min and the inlet point is located at reduced level 125 m or below. The inflow
is considered unreliable if the water inflow rate at the inlet to the sprinkler tank is less than 1.0
m3 / min or the inlet point is located at reduced level greater than 125 m. PUB approved float
valve that is designed to open fully when there is a drop in water level to immediately replenish
the tank. Also, the minimum design capacity of the sprinkler tank should be capable of
providing 30 minutes adequate water supply for the sprinkler pump operation.
For sprinkler system with a constant reliable inflow from the PUB mains to replenish the
sprinkler tank, the effective tank storage capacities for the various hazard categories shall be as
follows :Hazard Group

OH 1
OH 2
OH 3

AMAO (m2)

System demand
( l / min)

72
144
216

540
1000
1350

Proposed minimum
effective capacity of
storage tank
12.5
25.0
37.5

Table 11 Effective Tank Capacity for Reliable Inflow

For sprinkler system with an unreliable inflow from the PUB mains to replenish the sprinkler
tank, the effective tank storage capacities for the various hazard categories shall be as follows :Hazard Group

OH 1
OH 2
OH 3

AMAO (m2)

System demand
( l / min)

72
144
216

540
1000
1350

Proposed minimum
effective capacity of
storage tank
16.2
30.0
40.5

Table 12 Effective Tank Capacity for Unreliable Inflow

21

Comparing with the revised design capacities in LPC Technical Bulletin, the Singapores new
guideline proposes a further reduction in the size of storage tank for the sprinkler system.

22

Conclusion
All new buildings which include commercial, institutional or industrial occupancies are required
to install automatic sprinkler system. LPC Rules with local modifications are the standards to
be followed for installation, acceptance and maintenance of such system. The design capacity
of sprinkler system can be determined by the Precalculated Method or the Fully Hydraulically
Calculated Method. LPC Rules state that there should be a minimum of 30, 60 & 90 minutes of
water supplies for LH, OH & HH respectively. HKFSD reduced the requirement of water
supplies by 1/3 provided that a direct link from the sprinkler system is connected to the FSCC.
As the HKFSD has committed a performance pledge to the public by achieving the graded
response times for fires in buildings in six minutes for the built-up areas and nine to twenty-three
minutes for areas of dispersed risks and isolated development, firefighters are capable of
attacking the fire and supplying an inflow to the sprinkler inlet within a few minutes after the
arrival to the incident. From a risk analysis viewpoint, it is clear that if the fire cover standards
remain unchanged and the high standard of performance pledge can be maintained by the
HKFSD, the size of the sprinkler tank can have a further reduction.
LPC Technical Bulletin TB24: 1997 has stated clearly that the design density of the sprinkler
tank could be reduced by almost half of the original size. However, several conditions have to
be fulfilled before the reduction. A more flexible approach has been adopted by the SCDF.
The size of the sprinkler system could be reduced even further subject to an adequate inflow.
In view of the current situation in Hong Kong, a more pragmatic approach should be adopted by
allowing a reasonable reduction of the design capacity of the sprinkler tank. A list of
recommendations from this research is prepared in the next chapter.

23

Recommendations
A revised table of design capacity of the sprinkler tank is prepared as follows:

Design Capacity of Water Tank for Sprinkler System

Hazard
Group

Light
Hazard

II
OH
III

IIIS
High
Hazard

Height of
highest
sprinkler
above
lowest
sprinkler
not
exceeding
(m)
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30
45
15
30

Single end supply

(not dependant on
inflow)
Design
capacity
(m3)

Direct
link
provided
(m3)

Both end supply

(dependent on inflow)
Design capacity (m3)
LPC Table 25

LPC Table
21 & 22

9
10
11
55
70
80
105
125
140
135
160
185
160
185

6*
6.7*
7.3*
30^
35^
40^
55^
60^
70^
70^
80^
95^
107*
124*

Not Accepted
FSD CL 4/96 Part II Para 2.2.1(b)

2.5 or, as given in table 21 or 24

less 0.03f, whichever is the greater
25 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
50 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
75 or, as given in table 22 or 24 less
0.06f, whichever is the greater
100 or, as given in table 22 or 24
less 0.06f, whichever is the greater
See LPC Table 23, 24 & 25

* 2/3 X Design Capacity FSD CL 4/96 Part II 2.2.2

^ Under special conditions : DL, H5, M, FR & RC.

Table 13 Revised Design Capacity of Water Tank for Sprinkler System

24

Condition
abbreviation
DL
H5
M

FR

RC

Condition
On operation of the sprinkler installation, a direct link should be
connected to FSCC.
The maximum height of the roof or ceiling sprinklers above the
floor does not exceed 5 m.
The sprinkler installation is maintained in efficient working order at
all times and shall be inspected by a registered fire service
installation contractor at least once every 12 months.
Fast response sprinklers are used in all rooms, interconnecting
rooms or corridors with floor areas exceeding the AMAO for the
installation. Where intermediate level sprinklers are used in
storage racks, these shall be quick response with quick response
sprinklers at the ceiling or roof.
The location where the sprinkler system to be installed should be
under Risk Category A, B or C of the Graded Fire Risk System.

HKFSD should constantly review the fire cover standards and the achievement of the
performance pledge so as to keep up with the proposed water tank reduction strategy in sprinkler
system. Nevertheless, a review to the existing standards for automatic sprinkler system should
be conducted in a regular basis.

25

Appendix I
Theoretical Operation Time of Sprinkler System for OH Group I, II, III & IIIS
For OH I,
Height
15
15
15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
30
30
45
45
45
45
45
45

Vc

N
55
55
55
55
55
55
70
70
70
70
70
70
80
80
80
80
80
80

1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6

fd
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006

fr
0.00255
0.00255
0.00255
0.00255
0.00255
0.00255
0.00324
0.00324
0.00324
0.00324
0.00324
0.00324
0.0037
0.0037
0.0037
0.0037
0.0037
0.0037

T (s)
15942.03
5820.106
3559.871
2564.103
2003.643
1644.245
25362.32
7990.868
4742.547
3371.869
2615.845
2136.752
34782.61
9638.554
5594.406
3940.887
3041.825
2476.78

T (min)
265.7005
97.00176
59.33118
42.73504
33.39405
27.40409
422.7053
133.1811
79.04246
56.19782
43.59741
35.61254
579.7101
160.6426
93.24009
65.68144
50.69708
41.27967

26

No. of sprinkler head activated vs Time for OH I

700

600

Time (min)

500

400

OH I (15 m)
OH I (30 m)
OH I (45 m)

300

200

100

0
1

No. of sprinkler head activated

27

For OH II,
Height
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45

Vc

N
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

fd
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012

fr
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00486
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00579
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648
0.00648

T (s)
14705.88
5485.893
3371.869
2433.936
1904.244
1563.896
1326.763
1152.074
1018.034
911.9333
825.8613
754.6356
20128.82
6864.36
4137.703
2961.384
2305.848
1887.932
1598.261
1385.656
1222.972
1094.475
990.4128
904.4208
25362.32
7990.868
4742.547
3371.869
2615.845
2136.752
1805.986
1563.896
1379.039
1233.263
1115.36
1018.034

T (min)
245.098
91.43156
56.19782
40.5656
31.7374
26.06494
22.11271
19.20123
16.96723
15.19889
13.76435
12.57726
335.4804
114.406
68.96171
49.35639
38.43079
31.46554
26.63768
23.09426
20.38287
18.24125
16.50688
15.07368
422.7053
133.1811
79.04246
56.19782
43.59741
35.61254
30.09976
26.06494
22.98398
20.55438
18.58934
16.96723

28

No. of sprinkler head activated vs Time for OH II

450
400
350

Time (min)

300
250

OH II (15 m)
OH II (30 m)
OH II (45 m)

200
150

100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No. of sprinkler head activated

29

For OH III,
Height
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

Vc

N
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

fd
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018

fr
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00625
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741

T (s)
11489.36
4537.815
2827.225
2053.232
1611.94
1326.781
1127.349
980.0363
866.7737
776.9784
704.0417
643.6234
592.7552
549.3388
511.8483
479.1482
450.3753
424.8623
15108.59
5596.362
3434.213
2477.164
1937.281
1590.615
1349.186
1171.389
1034.996
927.0526
839.4984
767.055
706.1212
654.1559
609.3149
570.227
535.8518
505.3855

T (min)
191.4894
75.63025
47.12042
34.22053
26.86567
22.11302
18.78914
16.33394
14.44623
12.94964
11.73403
10.72706
9.879254
9.155646
8.530806
7.985803
7.506255
7.081039
251.8099
93.27271
57.23689
41.28606
32.28801
26.51026
22.48644
19.52315
17.24993
15.45088
13.99164
12.78425
11.76869
10.9026
10.15525
9.503784
8.930864
8.423092

30

Height
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45

Vc

N
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

fd
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018

fr
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856

T (s)
19597.46
6741.983
4071.303
2916.141
2271.611
1860.418
1575.272
1365.918
1205.683
1079.095
976.5625
891.8241
820.6175
759.9408
707.6193
662.0384
621.9742
586.4824

T (min)
326.6243
112.3664
67.85505
48.60235
37.86018
31.00697
26.25454
22.76531
20.09472
17.98491
16.27604
14.86374
13.67696
12.66568
11.79366
11.03397
10.36624
9.774706

31

No.of sprinkler head activated vs Time for OH III

350

300

Time (min)

250

200

OH III (15 m)
OH III (30 m)
OH III (45 m)

150

100

50

0
1

11 13 15 17

No. of sprinkler head activated

32

For OH IIIS,
Height
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15

Vc

N
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160
160

fd
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

fr
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741
0.00741

T (s)
7082.78
3042.403
1937.281
1421.085
1122.098
927.0526
789.7724
687.9058
609.3149
546.8403
495.9856
453.7848
418.2023
387.7942
361.5084
338.5599
318.3509
300.4187
284.3989
270.0012
256.991
245.1769
234.4013
224.533
215.4621
207.0956
199.3546
192.1714
185.4879
179.2536

T (min)
118.0463
50.70672
32.28801
23.68476
18.70164
15.45088
13.16287
11.4651
10.15525
9.114005
8.266427
7.563081
6.970038
6.463236
6.02514
5.642664
5.305849
5.006978
4.739982
4.50002
4.283183
4.086282
3.906689
3.742217
3.591035
3.451594
3.322576
3.202857
3.091465
2.987561

33

Height
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

Vc

N
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185

fd
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

fr
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856
0.00856

T (s)
8628.731
3596.423
2271.611
1660.086
1307.975
1079.095
918.3876
799.3432
707.6193
634.779
575.5351
526.4056
485.0042
449.6403
419.083
392.4147
368.9375
348.1108
329.5098
312.7959
297.6957
283.9862
271.4839
260.036
249.5145
239.8113
230.8345
222.5055
214.7567
207.5294

T (min)
143.8122
59.94038
37.86018
27.6681
21.79959
17.98491
15.30646
13.32239
11.79366
10.57965
9.592252
8.773427
8.083403
7.494005
6.984717
6.540245
6.148958
5.801847
5.491831
5.213265
4.961595
4.733104
4.524732
4.333933
4.158574
3.996854
3.847242
3.708426
3.579278
3.458823

34

No. of sprinkler head activated vs Time for OH IIIS

160

140

120

Time (min)

100
OH IIIS (15 m)
OH IIIS (30 m)

80

60

40

20

0
1

7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28

No. of sprinkler head activated

35

Reference
Chow, W. K. On the Sprinkler Tank Size and Fast Response Sprinkler Heads, International
Journal on Engineering Performance-Based Fire Codes, Vol. 2 No. 4 pp.124 126 (2000).
Fire Protection Association. LPC Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations, London, UK,
(2000).
Hong Kong Fire Services Department. FSD Circular Letter No.4/94 (1994).
Hong Kong Fire Services Department. FSD Circular Letter No.4/96 (1994).
Hong Kong Fire Services Department. Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations
and Equipment and Inspection, Testing and Maintenance of Installations and Equipment (1998).
Hong Kong Fire Services Department. Hong Kong Fire Services Review 2002 2003 (2004).
Planning Department. Final Report on Implementation of Data Alignment Measures for the
Alignment of Planning, Lands and Public Works Data (2004). (Retrieved via Internet Explorer)
http://www.hplb.gov.hk/eng/publication/dam.htm
Puchovsky M. T. Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook, National Fire Protection Association,
Inc (1999).
Singapore Civil Defense Force. H1 Guidelines on Reduced Water Storage for Automatic Fire
Sprinkler Systems in Buildings (2004). (Retrieved via Internet Explorer)
http://www.scdf.gov.sg/html/info/pdf/Appendix%20H.pdf
Water Supplies Department. Hong Kong Waterworks Standard Requirements for Plumbing
Installation in Building (2004). (Retrieved via Internet Explorer)
http://www.wsd.gov.hk/en/html/plumb/index.htm
Water Supplies Department. Water Supplies Department Annual Report 2003 - 2004 (2005).
(Retrieved via Internet Explorer)
http://www.wsd.gov.hk/en/html/pdf/rpt0304/contents.html

36