Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Consumer Groups:
Livestock use
Waterworks use
Fire demand
Size of city
Industrial development
Water quality
Water pressure
Cost of water
Deep wells
Tube wells
Artesian wells
Sewage
Sanitary/Domestic
Industrial
Storm
Sewer
Pipe of conduit which carrying sewage
Hardness
Hardness in water is principally caused by the solution in water of carbonate,
bicarbonate and sulfate or calcium and magnesium. Sometimes iron and
aluminum cause hardness to a lesser degree.
Methods used for water softening
Heating
Freezing
Lime process
Lime and soda ash process
Excess Lime treatment
Caustic soda process
Base exchange process
Zeolete process
Demineralization or exchange process.
Effects of Hardness
Enough consumption of soap
Clogs skin, discoloures porcelain, stains and shortens fabrics, toughens and
discolours vegetables
Gives difficulty in textile and paper manufacture, tannery and other
industrial processes.
Form scales in boilers, resulting in great heat transfer losses and danger of
boiler failure.
Very hard water is not palatable
Ty phoid fever
Paratyphoid fever
Bacillar y dysenter y
Amoebic dysenter y
Infantile diar rhea
Pinwor m
Roundwor m
Whipwor m
Hookwor m
Ta pewor m
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
Pumps classification:
By types of service
o Deep well pumps
o Low lift pumps
o High lift pumps
o Booster pumps
o Fire service pumps
o Stand by pumps
By power source
o AC powered pumps
o DC powered pumps
o Oil powered pumps
o Gas powered pumps
o Diesel powered pumps
o Solar water pumps
o Hand pumps
o Electromagnetic pumps
o Hydraulic ram pumps
o Steam pumps
Quality
Total Dissolved Solids
Turbidity
Colour
15
Temperature
Taste and Odour
50
Water should be completely free from taste and
odour
Arsenic
( As )
0.005
Chloride
( C i)
200
PH
Iron
78
( Fe )
0.25
N O3 )
Nitrate (
( Mn )
Manganese
( SO 4 )
Sulphate
( Ca )
Calcium
Zinc
50
( Zn )
0.05
200
75
5
( Mg )
Magnesium
( Cz )
Chromium
( Cd )
Cadmium
75
0.05
0.005
Copper
( Cu )
1.0
Barium
( Ba )
1.0
Cyanide
( Cn )
0.01
Fluoride
Silver
( Ag )
0.5
0.05
Total Hardness
100
Total Alkalinity
100
Future Population
Pf =P p (1+r )n
Where,
Pf =Future population
P p=Present population
r=rate of yarly population growt h
n=Number of years be considered
Surface
Varying composition
Low mineralization
High turbidity
Color
Microorganism present
Dissolved oxygen
Low hardness
Tastes and odors
Possible chemical toxicity
Loaded)
Pseudo-Static Pile Load Test (Axially Loaded Compression)
Dynamic Pile Load Test (Axially Loaded Compression)
Plate Load Test on Soil Ground
Plate Load Test on Soils for Road
Rigid Plate Load Test on Rocks
Large Plate Load Test with Repeat Anchor
Plate Load Test for Deep Piers
Test
Sieve analysis and hydrometer test
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Compressibility
Compaction Characteristics
Unit Weight
Shear Strength
1. Cohesive Soils
2. Non-cohesive soils
3. General
Plasticity index
Consolidation
Standard proctor, Modified proctor
Specific Gravity
Corresponding Tests:
1. Unconfined Compression test
2. Direct Shear test
3. Tri-axial test
Test
Compaction control
Penetration test
Core Cutting
Sand replacement
Permeability
Pumping test
Soil Sampling and resistance of the Standard Penetration test
soil to penetration of the sampler
Bearing Capacity
Pavement
Footing
Piles
Vertical Piles
Batter Piles
Load Test
Lateral Load Test
Methods of boring
Wash boring
Rotary drilling
Percussion drilling
Auger boring
Core Boring
Coefficient of compressibility
The ratio of void ratio difference to the effective pressure difference of two
different loadings during primary consolidation.
Geo-textiles
A synthetic fabric used to stabilize soils, retain soils, prevent the mixing of
dissimilar soils, provide a filtering function, pavement support, sub grade
reinforcement, drainage, erosion control and silt containment. See Geo-synthetics
for additional information and publications.
N-Value
Also, standard penetration resistance. The number of blows required to drive a
split-spoon sampler during a standard penetration test a distance of 12 inches
(0.305 m) after the initial penetration of 6 inches (0.15 m).
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
A field test that measures resistance of the soil to the penetration of a standard
split-spoon sampler that is driven 12 inches (0.3 m) with a 140-pound (63.5 kg)
hammer dropped from a height of 30 inches (0.76 m). The N-value is derived from
this test.
Physical properties
Density, porosity, voids content, moisture content, specific gravity,
permeability and structure (micro or macro).
Mechanical properties
Strength, a measure of maximum load per unit area, stiffness measure of
deformation capacity. Hardness.
Chemical properties
Composition, potential reaction
Thermal properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity
Electrical
Electrical conductivity
Magnetic
Magnetic permeability
Acoustical
Sound transmission
Optical
Colour, light transition, light reflection
For each the above properties, there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of
provoking different responses.
Terminology of Properties
Brittleness: The tendency of a material to break with little or no elongation before
it undergoes plastic deformation. Materials that fail in tension at relatively low
value of strain are classified as brittle materials.
Ductility: The ability of certain materials to be plastically deformed without
fracture. It is the physical property of being capable of sustaining large plastic
deformations without fracture.
Elasticity: The ability to deform and return to the unreformed shape. This follows
hooks law.
Hardness: The resistance to deformation and forced penetration. In materials
science, hardness is the characteristics of a solid material expressing its resistance
P
A
Normal Stress: The stress acting perpendicular to the cut surface is called normal
stress.
Strain: The change in length or deformation is referred as Strain. The resulting
state of stress and strain is called uniaxial stress and strain.
Mathematically, the ratio of change in shape to the original shape is termed strain.
Strain,
Where,
= Strain
= Deformation
L = Length
Exercise: A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected to an axial
tensile force of 100 KN. The measured elongation is d = 1.5 mm. Calculate the
tensile stress and strain in the bar.
Solution
Stress,
Strain,
P
=
A
100
252 =203.72 N/mm2 = 204 MPa
4
1.50
=0.0004286
3.5 1000
=4.310-4
Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in length to the original length is termed
longitudinal strain.
Shearing strain: Shearing strain is defined as the angle of shear measured in
radians.
Shear force: Shearing is defined as a force that works perpendicular to the
extension of an object. Shearing force is other than tensile or compressive force
which acts parallel to a plane and produce sliding or skewing type of deformation.
Shear Stress: The intensity of internal distributed force that is parallel to the
surface of an imaginary cut surface is called the shear stress on the surface.
Shearing stress is a stress where the stress is parallel to a force of the material to
prevent sliding.
It is denoted by ,
=
S h ear force
Area under s h ear
Hooks Law: Within the elastic limit of a solid material, the deformation (strain)
produced by a force (stress) of any kind is proportional to the force. If the elastic
limit is not exceeded, the material returns to its original shape and size after the
force is removed, other it remains deformed or stretched. The force at which the
material exceeds its elastic limit is called 'limit of proportionality. Discovered in
1676 by the UK scientist and inventor Robert Hooke (1635-1703).
In generalized form, Hooke's law in says that strain is directly proportional to
stress.
=E.
E is a constant known as the modulus of elasticity or Young Modulus.
Young Modulus: Young's Modulus also known as the Elasticity Modulus of a
material is the ratio of the stress versus the strain within the Elastic region of the
Stress-Strain diagram.
Elasticity Modulus = Stress / Strain
This is usually found from the slope of the stress vs. strain curve.
Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus: It is the shearing modulus of elasticity,
which according to hooks law is the constant of proportionality between shearing
stress and shearing strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by Es or G.
Es or G =
S h earing Stress
S h earing Strain
E
2( 1+ )
Where,
E = Youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio
Poissons Ratio: It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. It is denoted
= x
by ,
y
Displacement: The total movement of a point with respect to a fixed reference
coordinates is called displacement.
Bending Stress
o When a member is loaded with some external loading, moment & shear
force are set up at each strain. The bending moment at a section tends to
deflect the member & internal stresses tend to resist its bending. This
internal resistance is known as bending stresses.
MY
f=
I
Where,
.
f =Extreme fiber stresses at considered section .
I =Moment of inertiaat t h at section .
Fine Aggregate: The aggregate particles passing through sieve #4 (ASTM) and
retained in #200 sieve is called fine aggregate. The standard sieve sizes are #4, #8,
# 16, #30, #50, #100 and #200. The opening sizes of sieves are 4.75 mm, 2.36
mm, 1.18 mm, 600 m, 300 m, 150 m and 75 m respectively. The FM value of
fine aggregates varies up to 3.0. For usual construction work the value of FM of
fine aggregates i.e. fine & coarse sand varies within 1.2 2.5.
Chemical analysis of good brick clay should give the following chemical
composition.
Compounds
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
Magnesia
Lime
Organic
Percentage
55%
30%
8%
5%
1%
1%
matters
Total
100%
iii. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone
nodules, etc.
iv. They should not absorb more than about 115 of their own weight of water
when immersed in water for 24 hours 05 to 20% of dry weight).
v. The average compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 2500 psi
(as per 'LGED Road Structure Manual-B').
vi. The percentage of soluble salts (Sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium.. Sodium
and Potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in burnt bricks. Because the
presence of excess soluble salts causes efflorescence.
vii.They should be neither over-burnt nor under-burnt.
viii. The weight should be generally 2.7Kg (6 lb.) per brick and the unit weight
should be generally 2000 Kg/in' (125 lbs. /cft).
ix. They should have low thermal conductivity as it is desirable that the buildings
made of them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
x. They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
xi. Bricks should not change in volume when wet.
xii. They should give clear ringing or metallic sound when struck by another
brick or hammer.
Limits
58-65%
20-25%
4-11%
0-4%
0-1.75%
0-3%
Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds.
The composition of a typical Portland cement is listed by weight percentage in
Table.
Weight
Abbreviatio
Percentage
50 %
C3S
Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2
Di calcium silicate
25 %
C2S
Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2
10 %
C3A
C4AF
Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or
Cement Compound
Tetra calcium
10 %
aluminoferrite
Gypsum or Calcium
Sulphate
Chemical Formula
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
CaSO4.2H2O
5%
Initial setting time indicates the beginning of the setting process when the cement
paste starts losing its plasticity.
Final setting time is the time elapsed (passed by) between the moment water is
added to cement and the time when the paste completely lost its plasticity and can
resist certain definite pressure.
These times of set are tested according to standardized procedures and have no
special relationship to concrete setting behavior.
ASTM C 150 Specified Set Times by Test Method
Test Method
Vicat
Chemical Properties
Chemical analysis
Compound composition
Chemical limits
Physical Properties
Fineness
Soundness
Consistency
Setting time
False set and flash set
Set Type
Time Specification
Initial
45 minutes
Final
375 minutes
Compressive strength
Heat of hydration
Loss on ignition
Density
Bulk density
Sulfate expansion
1740 psi
2760 psi
4060 psi
(12.0 MPa)
(19.0 MPa)
(28.0 MPa)
w/c ratio
characteristics of cement
characteristics of aggregates
time of mixing
degree of compaction
age of concrete
air entertainment
conditions of testing
Slumps
Type of Construction
RCC Foundation walls & Footings
Plain Footings, caissons & substructure walls
Slabs, beams & reinforced walls
Building columns
Pavements
Heavy mass constructions
mm
25 75
25 75
25 100
25 100
25 75
25 - 50
Inch
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
4
4
3
2
Admixture
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reduce segregation;
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Increase
11. Increase
permeability of concrete;
15. Increase
16. Improve
17. Inhibit
18. Produce
1. Classification based on size:Sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size:
a) Very fine sand (1/16 - 1/8 mm)
b) Fine sand (1/8 mm - 1/4 mm)
c) Medium sand (1/4 mm - 1/2 mm)
d) Coarse sand (1/2 mm - I mm), and
e) Very coarse sand (I mm. - 2 mm).
Bulking of Sand
This is increase in the volume of a given weight of sand due to the Presence of
moisture. For up to about 5 to 8 Percent Of moisture by weight of sand there is a
steady increase in volume to about 20 to 30%. The bulking of sand for small
moisture content is due to the formation of thin film of water around the sand
grains and interlocking the air in between the sand grains and the film of water.
Sand
75 4.75
75 2
>2
> 4.75
4.75 0.075
2 0.05
2 0.06
4.75 0.075
Silt
Clay
Inches
4.75
0.1870
3.35
0.1319
2.36
0.0929
10
2.00
0.0787
16
1.18
0.0465
20
850 m
0.0335
30
600 m
0.0236
40
425 m
0.0167
50
300 m
0.0118
60
250 m
0.0098
100
150 m
0.0059
140
106 m
0.0042
200
75 m
0.003
D60
D10
Coefficient of Curvature
C c=
Where
D60
D 30
D 230
D 60 . D 10
and
D 10
100%
90%
80%
70%
D60
% Finer by Mass
60%
50%
40%
D30
30%
20%
D10
10%
0
10
0.1
1
Grain Size, D (mm)
Consolidation
It is a dynamic Process
Volume reduction by removing of air
It is a static Process
Volume reduction by removing of
phenomenon
Soil is Unsaturated
Specified Compaction
techniques
gradation
is
defined
as
sample
that
has
aggregate
of
approximately the same size. The curve on the gradation graph is very steep,
and occupies a small range of the aggregate.
Gap gradation
A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate in the medium
size range. This results in only coarse and fine aggregate. The curve is
horizontal in the medium size range on the gradation graph.
Open gradation
An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little fine aggregate
particles. This results in many air voids, because there are no fine particles
to fill them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is horizontal
in the small size range.
Rich gradation
A rich gradation refers to a sample of aggregate with a high proportion of
particles of small sizes.
100
90
Well Graded
Open Graded
Uniform Graded
80
70
Percent Passing
60
50
40
Gap Graded
30
20
Dense Graded
10
0.6
0.2
0.10
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
Depth of foundation
Size of foundation
Shape of foundation
Inclination of the load
Inclination of the foundation bed
Inclination of the ground
Ground water table
Angularity Number
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Specific Gravity
Loss on Heating
Penetration
Softening Point of Bituminous
Materials
Solubility of Bituminous Materials
Flash and Fire Points
Ductility
CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
Borrow pit
10 m
Road Margin
Berm
10 m
Slope (2:1)
3m
Road
Way
10 m
Slope (2:1)
3m
Berm
10 m
Borrow pit
10 m
1m
1m
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Properties of aggregate
Rigid pavement
Empirical design
About 20 years of age
More maintenance
Less costly
High-strength concrete
Adopt stage constriction
Penetration of water
Need street light
Environmentally not friendly
Overall life cycle is more
3 ft
2.
40 kip
3 ft
3 ft
3. Find vertical stress and total stress. Depth 8m, unit weight of saturated soil
18kn/m3, unit weight of water 9.81 KN/m3.
4. Size of beam 1020. Bending moment 80 kip-ft. find maximum stress.
5. What is pH. Find OH concentration for ph value 10
6. Draw D10, D20 and D50 graph for a soil sample.
7. Find FM of sand.
8. ADT = 20000. Find design hourly volume where K=0.1, D=.
9. Find discharge. Velocity of fluid 20 m/sec, dia of pipe 18 cm.
10. Design a sediment tank for 3 hours concentration period 3 hours discharge
125 liters/hour. Ratio of H: B: L = 1:1:3.
11. Estimate
12. Flow modulus of a city is given. For 25% area is 2.84, for 50% area is 3.12,
for 15% area is 15% 1.32 and for 10% area is 1.82. Find the combined flow
modulus of the city.
13. Find the FAB and FBC.
60
30
60 Kip
1.